Mathematical Tools For Economics I - 23april2015 PDF

School of Distance Education
MATHEMATICAL TOOLS FOR

ECONOMICS - I
I SEMESTER
COMPLEMENTARYCOURSE
BA ECONOMICS
(CUCBCSS - 2014 Admission)
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
Calicut university P.O, Malappuram Kerala, India

673 635.
970
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
STUDY MATERIAL
Complementary Course for BA Economics

I Semester
MATHEMATICAL TOOLS FOR ECONOMICS - I
Prepared by:
Module I & IV Dr. Chacko Jose P.

Associate Professor of Economics,
Sacred Heart College, Chalakudy
Thrissur, Kerala
Module II & III: Mr. Shihabudheen M.T

Assistant Professor
Postgraduate Department of Economics
Farook College, Calicut, Kerala
Edited and Compiled by: Dr. P. P. Yusuf Ali

Associate Professor
Postgraduate Department of Economics
Farook College, Calicut, Kerala
[Chairman, Board of Studies in Economics (UG)]
Layout: Computer Section, SDE
©
Reserved
Mathematical Tools for Economics 1 Page 2

CONTENTS PAGES
MODULE – I Basic Mathematical Concepts: –

Arithmetic and Algebra 5
MODULE II Basic Mathematical Concepts: -

Linear Equations 54
MODULE III Basic Mathematical Concepts :-

Quadratic Equations 89
MODULE IV Graphs and Economic Applications 122

MODULE – I
Basic Mathematical Concepts :– Arithmetic and Algebra

1.1 Arithmetic
Arithmetic or arithmetics (from the Greek word arithmosmeaning "number") is the oldestand
most elementary branch of mathematics. It consists in the study of numbers, especially the
properties of the traditional operations between them — addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division. Arithmetic is an elementary part of number theory, and number theory is
considered to be one of the top-level divisions of modern mathematics, along with algebra,
geometry, and analysis.
Thus, arithmetic is a branch of mathematics that deals with properties of the counting (and
also whole) numbers and fractions and the basic operations applied to these numbers.
Difference with mathematics…
“Arithmetic is to mathematics as spelling is to writing.”
The dictionary definitions of these two bodies of learning are:
arithmetic
(1) the branch of mathematics that deals with addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division,
(2) the use of numbers in calculations
mathematics
(1) the study of the relationships among numbers, shapes, and quantities,
(2) it uses signs, symbols, and proofs and includes arithmetic, algebra, calculus, geometry,
and trigonometry.
Thus the most obvious difference is that arithmetic is all about numbers and mathematics is
all about theory.
Rules of Arithmetic
Rule 1: Addition and Subtraction
When two numbers are added together, the result is called a sum. When one number is
subtracted from another, the result is called a difference.
Exercises
(a) 6 + 4 = 10
(b) 6 + (−4) = 2
(c) 6 – 4 = 2
(d) 6 – (− 4) = 10
(e) 10 + (− 3) – (−6) = 13
(f) 15 − (−4) + (− 6) = 13
(g) (−3) + 5 – (− 3) + (−5) = 0
(h) (−16) – 8 – (− 12) + (− 4) = −16
(i) (−30) – (− 18) – (16) = −28
(j) (− 8) + 8 – (4) + (− 4) = 0
(k) 73 + (− 54) – 35 + 18 + 15 = 17
(l) 73 + (– 54) + 35 +(– 18) + (− 15) = 21
(m) (−73) + 54 + 35 + (−18) + 15 = 13
(n) 73 +(– 54) +(−35) +(– 18) + 15 = − 19
Mathematical Tools for Economics 1 Page 5

(o) 33 + 0 + (−15) + 3 = 21
Rule 2: Multiplication and Division
Multiplication
If a number is multiplied by positive sign (eg. +1), the sign remains unchanged. If a number
is multiplied by negative sign (eg. −1), the sign is reversed. That is, if it was previously
positive, it becomes negative. If it was previously negative, it becomes positive.
(+8) × (+1) = +8: multiplication by +ve does not change sign
(− 8) × (+1) = −8: multiplication by +ve does not change sign
(+8) × (−1) = −8: multiplication by –veresults in change of sign
(− 8) × (−1) = +8: multiplication of two –ve results in change of sign, it becomes +ve.
Note that multiplication of any number by 0, results in 0. Thus
(+ 8) × 0 = 0, (− 8) × 0 = 0
Division
Division reverses multiplication. So the same sign rules as multiplication applies here.
(+10) ÷ (+2) = +5
(−10) ÷ (−2) = +5
(−10)÷ (+2) = − 5
(+10) ÷ (−2) = −5
Note that division of a number by itself gives 1. Thus 10÷10=1
Division of a number by 0 is undefined.
Order of Operations
When there is more than one operation (multiplication, division, exponents, brackets,
subtraction, addition)involved in a mathematical problem, it must be solved by using the
correct order of operations.In Mathematics, the order in which mathematical problems are
solved is extremely important.
A number of acronyms are used to help students to retain the order. The most popular are
BODMAS (Bracket, of, Division, Multiplication, Addition, Subtraction) and BEDMAS
(Bracket, Exponents, Division, Multiplication, Addition, Subtraction).
Example 1
20 - [3 × (2 + 4)] Do the inside bracket (parenthesis) first.
= 20 − [3 × 6] Do the remaining bracket.
= 20 − 18 Do the subtraction.
=2
Example 2
(6 - 3)2 − 2 × 4 Do the bracket (parenthesis)
Mathematical Tools for Economics I Page 6

= (3)2 − 2 × 4 Calculate the exponent.

= 9 − 2 × 4 Now multiply
= 9 − 8 Now subtract
=1
Example 3
= 22 – 3 × (10 – 6) Calculate inside the bracket (parenthesis).
= 22 – 3 × 4 Calculate the exponent.
= 4 −3 × 4 Do the multiplication.
= 4 − 12 Do the subtraction.
=−8
Example 4
12 ÷ 4 + 32Exponent first
= 12 ÷ 4 + 9Divide
= 3 + 9Add
= 12
1.2 Algebra
Algebra and arithmetic are two related areas of mathematical study, though there are some
differences. Arithmetic focuses mainly on the use of numbers in calculations, while algebra is
a generalization of arithmetic where letters are used in place of numbers to better understand
equation principles. Algebra explores several areas by study according to the rules of
arithmetic. Simple algebra, also known as classical algebra, involves letters that represent
numbers, which are then combined according to the laws of arithmetic.
Thus Arithmetic is a branch of mathematics usually concerned with the four operations
(adding, subtracting, multiplication and division) of positive numbers.
eg:- 2 + 2 = 4, 3 – 2 = 1, 5 x 5 = 25, 49/7=7.
Thus Algebra is the branch of mathematics that uses letters, symbols, and/or characters to
represent numbers and express mathematical relationships. Those symbols are called
variables.
eg:- 5m + 6m = 11m.
One can do arithmetic without doing algebra, but one cannot do algebra without doing
arithmetic.
Rules for addition and subtraction is much the same for algebra as arithmetic.

Rules of Algebra
Rule 1: Addition and Subtraction
(a) a+b=a+b
(b) a – (– b) = a + b
(c) a + (–b) = a – b
(d) a – (+b) = a – b
Example
(1) a+ a + a + a + b + b + b + c + c = 4a + 3b + 2c
(2) 4a + (–6b) – a – (–2) = 3a – 6b + 2
(3) 10u + v + (–2v) –3u + (–5u) = 2u – v
(4) – 7 + 3q + (– 4p) –( – 5p) + 8q = 11q + p – 7
(5) a + 2b – 3b + 6 – 5a – b = −4a − 2b + 6
(6) –9p – 4p + 8p – p= –6p
(7) 14x – 5y – x + 6y – 5x + 2y = –6x
(8) 5a + 2b – 3c + a – 2b – 2c + 2a + b – 5c = 8a + b– 10c
(9) 5xy – 2xy + 3 yx – 5 xy = xy
Rule 2: Multiplication and Division
(a) a × b = ab
(b) –a × –b = ab
(c) a × –b = –ab
(d) –a × b = ab
(e) a ÷ b =
(f) –a ÷ –b =
(g) a ÷ –b =
(h) –a ÷ b =
Examples
1.
2. 3 × −6 = −18
3. −8 ÷ −2 = 4.
4. −8 × −2 = 16
5. 8 ÷ −2 = −4
6. −8 × 2 = −16
7. −8 ÷ 2 = −4
8.

9.
10.
FACTORING IN ALGEBRA
A composite number is a number that can be written as the product of two positive integers
other than 1 and the number itself. For example: 14 is a composite number because it can be
written as 7 times 2. In this case, 7 and 2 are called factors of 14.
Numbers have factors:
And expressions (like x2+4x+3) also have factors:
Factoring (called "Factorising" in the UK) is the process of finding the factors. It is like
"splitting" an expression into a multiplication of simpler expressions.
Factoring is also the opposite of Expanding:
Example:
Factor 2y + 6
Both 2y and 6 have a common factor of 2:
 2y is 2 × y

 6 is 2 × 3
So you can factor the whole expression into:
2y + 6 = 2(y+3)
So 2y + 6 has been “factored into” 2 and y + 3
Here is a list of common “Identities” It is worth remembering these, as they can make
factoring easier.
a2 - b2 = (a+b)(a-b)
a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a+b)(a+b)
a2 - 2ab + b2 = (a-b)(a-b)
a3 + b3 = (a+b)(a2-ab+b2)
a3 - b3 = (a-b)(a2+ab+b2)
a3+3a2b+3ab2+b3 = (a+b)3
a3-3a2b+3ab2-b3 = (a-b)3
A prime number is a number greater than 1 which has only two positive factors: 1 and itself.
For example, 11 is a prime number because its only positive factors are 1 and 11.
EXPONENTS
Exponents are shorthand for repeated multiplication of the same thing by itself. For instance,
the shorthand for multiplying three copies of the number 5 is shown on the right-hand side of
the “equals” sign in (5)(5)(5) = 53. The “exponent”, being 3 in this example, stands for
however many times the value is being multiplied. The thing that's being multiplied, being 5
in this example, is called the “base”.

This process of using exponents is called "raising to a power", where the exponent is the
“power”. The expression “53” is pronounced as “five, raised to the third power” or “five to
the third”. There are two specially-named powers: “to the second power” is generally
pronounced as “squared”, and “to the third power” is generally pronounced as “cubed”. So
“53” is commonly pronounced as “five cubed”.
Thus, the exponent of a number says how many times to use the number in a multiplication.
In 82 the ‘2’says to use 8 twice in a multiplication,
so 82 = 8 × 8 = 64
In words: 82 could be called ‘8 to the power 2’or ‘8 to the second power’, or simply ‘8
squared’.
So in general:
an tells you to multiply a by itself,

so there are n of those a's:
Some more examples:
Example: 53 = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125
 In words: 53 could be called "5 to the third power", "5 to the power 3" or simply "5 cubed"
Example: 24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16
 In words: 24 could be called "2 to the fourth power" or "2 to the power 4" or simply "2 to
the 4th"
Exponents make it easier to write and use many multiplications
Example: 96 is easier to write and read than 9 × 9 × 9 × 9 × 9 × 9
A negative exponent means how many times to divide one by the number.
Example:
(a) 8 − 1 = 1 ÷ 8 = 0.125
(b) 5 − 3 = 1 ÷ 5 ÷ 5 ÷ 5 = 0.008
In General
Rules of Exponents
Here are the Rules of Exponents
Rule name Rule Example
am · a n = a m+n 23 · 24 = 23+4 = 128

Product rules
a n · b n = (a · b) n 32 · 42 = (3·4)2 = 144
am / an = a m-n
25 / 23 = 25-3 = 4
Quotient rules
a n / b n = (a / b) n 43 / 23 = (4/2)3 = 8
(bn)m = bn·m (23)2 = 23·2 = 64

m m 2 2
bn = b(n ) 23 = 2(3 )= 512
Power rules
m
√(bn) = b n/m 2
√(26) = 26/2 = 8
b1/n = n√b 81/3 = 3√8 = 2

Negative exponents b-n = 1 / bn 2-3 = 1/23 = 0.125
b0 = 1 50 = 1
Zero rules
0n = 0 , for n>0 05 = 0

b1 = b 51 = 5
One rules
1n = 1 15 = 1
Examples
1. xa(xb) = xa+b
2.
3. (xa)b = xab
4. (xy)a = xaya
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

20.
2 2
21. 23 = 2(3 ) = 2(3·3) = 29 = 2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2 = 512
22. 23 · 24 = 23+4 = 27 = 2·2·2·2·2·2·2 = 128

23. 32 · 42 = (3·4)2 = 122 = 12·12 = 144
24. 25 / 23 = 25-3 = 22 = 2·2 = 4
25. 43 / 23 = (4/2)3 = 23 = 2·2·2 = 8
26. (23)2 = 23·2 = 26 = 2·2·2·2·2·2 = 64
2
27. √(26) = 26/2 = 23 = 2·2·2 = 8
28. 2-3 = 1/23 = 1/(2·2·2) = 1/8 = 0.125
Polynomials
Polynomial comes from poly- (meaning "many") and -nomial (in this case meaning "term, so
it says "many terms".
A polynomial can have:

constants (like 3, -20, or ½)
variables (like x and y)
exponents (like the 2 in y2), but only 0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc are allowed
that can be combined using addition, subtraction, multiplication and division ...
... except ...
... not division by a variable (so something like 2/x is right out).
So a polynomial can have constants, variables and exponents, but never division by a
variable.
These are polynomials:
 3x
 x-2
 -6y2 - (7/9)x

 3xyz + 3xy2z - 0.1xz - 200y + 0.5
 512v5+ 99w5
 5
(Yes, even "5" is a polynomial, one term is allowed, and it can even be just a constant!)
And these are not polynomials
 3xy-2 is not, because the exponent is "-2" (exponents can only be 0,1,2,...)
 2/(x+2) is not, because dividing by a variable is not allowed
 1/x is not either
 √x is not, because the exponent is "½"
There are special names for polynomials with 1, 2 or 3 terms:
Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
To add polynomials we simply add any like terms together. Like Termsare terms whose
variables (and their exponents such as the 2 in x2) are the same.In other words, terms that are
"like" each other. Note that the coefficients (the numbers you multiply by, such as "5" in 5x)
can be different.
Example of like terms:
7x x -2x πx
are all like terms because the variables are all x
Similarly
(1/3)xy2 -2xy2 6xy2 xy2/2
are all like terms because the variables are all xy2.
Example of addition

(1) 2x2 + 6x + 5 + 3x2– 2x – 1
You may re arrange with like terms written together

= 2x2 + 3x2 + 6x + –2x + 5 – 1
= 5x2 – 4x – 4
(2) (2x2 + 6y + 3xy) + (3x2 - 5xy - x)+ (6xy + 5)
= 5x2 + 6y + 4xy - x + 5
(3) (3x2 - 6x + xy) +(2x3 - 5x2 -3y) + (7x + 8y)

= 2x3 - 2x2 + x + xy + 5y
(4) (2x2 - 4y + 7xy - 6y²) − (-3x2 + 5y - 4xy + y²)

= 2x2 − 4y + 7xy − 6y² + 3x2 − 5y + 4xy − y²
= 5x2 - 9y + 11xy - 7y2
(5) (3x2 - 5x + 8y + 7xy + 2y2) − (4x2 + 2x - 3y + 7xy - 3y2)
= 3x2 - 5x + 8y + 7xy + 2y2 − 4x2 − 2x+3y − 7xy + 3y2
= 3x2 − 4x2 - 5x − 2x + 8y + 3y + 7xy − 7xy + 2y2 + 3y2
= − x2 − 7x + 11y + 5y2
(6) If P = 5x4 - 2x2 + 4x - 3 and Q = 5x4 + 3x3 - 4x + 3, what is P – Q
= 5x4 – 2x2 + 4x – 3 – (5x4 + 3x3 – 4x + 3)
= 5x4 – 2x2 + 4x – 3 – 5x4 – 3x3 + 4x – 3
= 5x4 - 5x4 - 3x3 - 2x2 + 4x + 4x – 3 – 3
= –3x3– 2x2 + 8x – 6
(7) If P = 4x4 - 3x3 + x2 - 5x + 11 and Q = -3x4 + 6x3 - 8x2 + 4x - 3
what is 2P + Q?
2P = 8x4 - 6x3 + 2x2 - 10x + 22
2P + Q
= 8x4 - 6x3 + 2x2 - 10x + 22 + (-3x4 + 6x3 - 8x2 + 4x - 3)
= 8x4 - 3x4 - 6x3 + 6x3 + 2x2 - 8x2 - 10x + 4x + 22 - 3
= 5x4 - 6x2 - 6x + 19
(8) If P = 4x4 - 3x3 + x2 - 5x + 11 and Q = -3x4 + 6x3 - 8x2 + 4x - 3, what is P - 2Q
2Q = -6x4 + 12x3 - 16x2 + 8x – 6

So P - 2Q will be
= 4x4 - 3x3 + x2 - 5x + 11 - (-6x4 + 12x3 - 16x2 + 8x - 6)
= 4x4 - 3x3 + x2 - 5x + 11 + 6x4 - 12x3 + 16x2 - 8x + 6 (change signs correctly!)
= 4x4 + 6x4 - 3x3 - 12x3 + x2 + 16x2 - 5x - 8x + 11 + 6
= 10x4 - 15x3 + 17x2 - 13x + 17
(9) (-4x3 + x2y - xy2) + (3x3 - xy2 + 5x2y) + (7xy2 + 3y3)
= -x3 + 5xy2 + 6x2y + 3y3
= -x3 + 3y3 + 6x2y + 5xy2
(10) If P = 3x2 + xy - 5y2, Q = 2x2 - xy + 3y2 and R = -6x2 + 4xy - 7y2,
find P + Q - R
P + Q – R = (3x2 + xy - 5y2) + (2x2 - xy + 3y2) - (-6x2 + 4xy - 7y2)
= 3x2 + xy - 5y2 + 2x2 - xy + 3y2 + 6x2 - 4xy + 7y2
= 3x2 + 2x2 + 6x2 + xy - xy - 4xy - 5y2 + 3y2 + 7y2
= 11x2 - 4xy + 5y2
(11) P = 3x2 + xy - 5y2,
Q = 2x2 - xy + 3y2 and
R = -6x2 + 4xy - 7y2
Find P - (Q + R) ?
Q+R
= (2x2 - xy + 3y2) + (-6x2 + 4xy - 7y2)
= 2x2 - xy + 3y2 - 6x2 + 4xy - 7y2
= -4x2 + 3xy - 4y2
So P - (Q + R)
= 3x2 + xy - 5y2 - (-4x2 + 3xy - 4y2)
= 3x2 + xy - 5y2 + 4x2 - 3xy + 4y2
= 7x2 - 2xy - y2
Multiplying Polynomials by Monomials
The Distributive Property can be used to multiply polynomials by monomials.
Below are two examples of polynomials being multiplied by monomials:
Example 1

Example 2
Multiplying Polynomials
Example 1: Simplify (x + 3) (x + 2)
Remember to multiply each term in the first bracket with each term in the second bracket.
(See the sketch shown with the next example)
(x + 3)(x + 2)
= (x + 3)(x) + (x + 3)(2)
= x(x) + 3(x) + x(2) + 3(2)
= x2 + 3x + 2x + 6
= x2 + 5x + 6
Example 2
(3g – 3) (2g2 + 4g – 4)
Question 1: Simplify (x + 2y)(3x − 4y + 5)

= 3x2 − 4xy + 5x + 6xy − 8y2 + 10y
= 3x2 + 2xy + 5x − 8y2 + 10y
Question 2: Simplify (x + 3) (x + 2)
= x2 + 2x + 3x + 6
= x2 + 5x + 6
Question 3: Simplify (x – 4) (x – 3)
= x2 – 3x – 4x + 12
= x2 – 7x +12
Question 4: Simplify (x – 3y) (x + y)
= x2 + xy – 3xy – 3y2
= x2 – 2xy – 3y2
Question 5: Simplify(3x + 2) (4x - 5)
= 3x (4x –5) + 2(4x – 5)
= 12x² – 15x + 8x - 10
= 12x² – 7x – 10
Question 6: Simplify(x – 4) (3x – y + 3)
= x (3x – y + 3) - 4(3x – y + 3)
= 3x² – xy + 3x – 12x + 4y –12
= 3x² – xy – 9x + 4y – 12
Question 7: Simplify(3x –4y) and (–2x + 5y – 6)
= 3x(–2x + 5y – 6) – 4y(–2x + 5y – 6)
= –6x2 + 15xy –18x + 8xy – 20y2 + 24y
= –6x2 + 23xy – 18x – 20y2 + 24y
Question 8: Simplify (2y – 1) (2y + 1) (4y2 + 1)
Step1 Find the product of the first two terms:
(2y – 1)(2y + 1)
= 2y(2y + 1) –1(2y + 1)
= 4y2 + 2y – 2y – 1
= 4y2 – 1
Step 2: Find the product of this with the third term:
(4y2 – 1)(4y2 + 1)
= 4y2 (4y2 + 1) – 1(4y2 + 1)
= 16y4 + 4y2 – 4y2 – 1
= 16y4 – 1
Question 9: Simplify (3x –2) (2x + 3) (2x – 3)
The product (3x – 2)(2x + 3)(2x – 3) can be bracketed in two different ways:
[(3x – 2)(2x + 3)](2x – 3) or

(3x – 2)[(2x + 3)(2x – 3)]

The answers will be equal because multiplication is associative, but the second is easier since
we can use the difference of two squares: (2x + 3)(2x – 3) = (2x)2 –32 = 4x2 –9
So:
(3x – 2)(2x + 3)(2x – 3)
= (3x –2)[(2x + 3)(2x –3)]
= (3x – 2)(4x2 –9)
= 12x3 – 27x – 8x2 + 18
= 12x3 – 8x2–27x + 18
Question 10: Simplify (3a – 4b + 1) (2a + 5b – 3)
Multiply each term in one polynomial by each term in the other polynomial:
(3a – 4b + 1)(2a + 5b – 3)
= 3a(2a + 5b - 3) – 4b(2a + 5b – 3) + 1(2a + 5b – 3)
= 6a2 + 15ab – 9a – 8ab –20b2 + 12b + 2a + 5b – 3
= 6a2 – 20b2 + 7ab – 7a + 17b –3
FRACTIONS
A fraction is a part of a whole. For instance the fraction is representing your mark in
Maths exam. It says of the 100, you got 95. The bottom number in a fraction (the
denominator) says how many parts the whole is divided into. The top number in a fraction
(the numerator) says how many parts we have.
Thus a Fraction has two numbers:
The top number is the Numerator, it is the number of parts you have.
The bottom number is the Denominator, it is the number of parts the whole is divided into.
With the help of a pizza (or a pie diagram) we can easily explain the concept. Slice a pizza,
and you will have fractions:

1 1 3
/2 /4 /8
(One-Half) (One-Quarter) (Three-Eighths)
The top number tells how many slices you have

The bottom number tells how many slices the pizza was cut into.
Here are some other important fraction terms.

1. Proper fraction: A Proper Fraction has a top numberless than its bottom number, that is,
numerator is less than the denominator.
3/8
(Three-Eighths)
Examples
3/8 1/4 14/15 4/5
2. Improper fraction: numerator is greater than or equal to denominator.
4
(seven-fourths or seven-quarters)

Examples
3 7 16 15 99
2 3 15 15 5
3. Mixed Fractions: (Also called "Mixed Numbers") :A Mixed Fraction is a whole number
and a proper fraction combined.
3
1
4
(one and three-quarters)
We can give names to every part of a mixed fraction:
So we can summarise the three types of fractions like this:

Proper Fractions: The numerator is less than the denominator
Examples: 1/3, 3/4, 2/7
Improper Fractions: The numerator is greater than (or equal to) the denominator
Examples: 4/3, 11/4, 7/7
Mixed Fractions: A whole number and proper fraction together
Examples: 1 1/3, 2 1/4, 16 2/5

Equivalent Fractions
Some fractions may look different, but are really the same, for example:
4 2 1
/8 = /4 = /2
(Four-Eighths) Two-Quarters) (One-Half)
= =
Adding Fractions
You can add fractions easily if the bottom number (the denominator) is the same:
1 1 2 1
/4 + /4 = /4 = /2
(One- (One- (Two-
(One-Half)
Quarter) Quarter) Quarters)
+ = =
Another example:
Adding Fractions with Different Denominators
If we want to add , the denominators are different. We must somehow make the
denominators the same.

In this case it is easy, because we know that 1/4 is the same as 2/8 :
So we can write
But it can be harder to make the denominators the same, so you may need to use one of these
methods (a) Least Common Denominator (b) Common Denominator
(a) Least Common Denominator

Least Common Denominatoris the Least Common Multiple of the denominators. Least
Common Multiple is the smallest positive number that is a multiple of two or more numbers.
Let's start with an Example.
Least Common Multiple of 3 and 5.
First, list the Multiples of each number.
As you can see in the figure multiples of 3 are 3 (because 3×1=3), 6 (because 3×2=6), 9
(because 3×3=9), 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27 and so on.
Similarly, the multiples of 5are 5 (because 5×1=5), 10 (because 5×2=10), 15(because
5×3=15),20, 25, 30, 35 and so on.
Nowfrom the multiples of the two numbers find the first value that is the same for both the
numbers. Here it is 15.
(there may be other multiples which are the same. Here we consider only the lowest value
which are the same for both. For example, consider the numbers 4 and 5.The multiples of 4
are: 4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32,36,40,44,...The multiples of 5 are:
5,10,15,20,25,30,35,40,45,50,...Here we see that there are two common multiples, 20 and 40.
The "Least Common Multiple" is simply the smallest of the common multiples, so here it is
20)
15 is a common multiple of 3 and 5, and is the smallest (least) common multiple. So we can
say that the Least Common Multiple of 3 and 5 is 15.
So, coming back to our problem, we were discussing about adding fractions with different
denominators and of the two methods for that we were dealing with the method called Least
Common Denominator.
So to add by the "Least Common Multiple" method, first list all the multiples of the
two denominators, 3 and 6.

List the multiples of 3:→ 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, ...
List the multiples 6: →6, 12, 18, 24, ...
Now find the common multiple with the lowest value. Here it is 6.
So 6 is the Least Common Denominator.

So now should think of ways to make the denominator the equal to 6 for both the fractions.
For 1/6 there is no problem, as its denominator is already equal to 6. For 1/3, we have to
convert the denominator to 6. We can do this if we multiply top and bottom of 1/3 by 2. So
we get 2/6.
So let us rewrite the problem as
We may do a simplification and write as .
Question 1
Compute 1/6 + 7/15
The Denominators are 6 and 15:
multiples of 6:→ 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, ...

multiples 15:→ 15, 30, 45, 60, ...
So the Least Common Multiple of 6 and 15 is 30.
Now let's try to make the denominators the same, that is equal to 30.
If we multiply 1/6 by 5 and 7/15 by 2, we can do this.
1/6 × 5 = 5/30
7/15 × 2 = 14/30
Now we can do the addition by adding the top numbers:
5/30 + 14/30 = 19/30
Question 2: Compute
List the multiples of the denominators 8 and 12
multiples of 8:→ 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, ...

multiples 12:→ 12, 24, 36, 48, ...
The Least Common Multiple is 24
Let us try to make the denominators the same.When we multiply 8 × 3 you get 24, and when you
multiply 12 × 2 you also get 24. So, let's use that:

Question 3: What is the least common denominator for the fractions
(a) 12 (b) 27 (c) 45 (d) 135

Correct answer is option (c), 45.
The least common denominator is equal to the least common multiple of the denominators: 5,
9 and 3
The multiples of 5 are: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, ...
The multiples of 9 are: 9, 18, 27, 36, 45, 54, ...
The multiples of 3 are: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 42, 45, 48, ...
The least common multiple of 5, 9 and 3, therefore, is 45and the least common denominator
of 3/5, 4/9 and 2/3 is also 45.
(a) 72 (b) 144 (c) 288 (d) 1728

Correct answer is option (b), 144.
The least common denominator is equal to the least common multiple of the denominators:
16, 12 and 9
The multiples of 12 are: 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96, 108, 120, 132, 144, 156, ...
The multiples of 9 are: 9, 18, 27, 36, 45, 54, 63, 72, 81, 90, 99, 108, 117, 126, 135, 144, 153
...
The least common multiple of 16, 12 and 9, therefore, is 144,and the least common
denominator of is also 144.
(a) 24 (b) 36 (c) 48 (d) 72

Correct answer is option (b), 36.
9 and 12
The multiples of 3 are: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, ...

The multiples of 9 are: 9, 18, 27, 36, 45,...

The multiples of 12 are: 12, 24, 36, 48, ...
The least common multiple of 3, 9 and 12, therefore, is 36,

So, the least common denominator of 2/3,5/9 and 7/12is also 36.
(a) 72 (b) 84 (c) 96 (d) 120

Correct answer is option (a), 76.
12 and 18
The multiples of 12 are: 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, ...
The multiples of 18 are: 18, 36, 54, 72, 90,...
The least common multiple of 8, 12 and 18, therefore, is 72,

So, the least common denominator of 7/8, 11/12 and 13/18 is also 72.
Question 7: What is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Correct answer is option (d),
To add or subtract two fractions, you need to find the least common denominator.
The least common denominator is equal to the least common multiple of the
denominators: 3 and 9
The multiples of 9 are 9, 18, ...
The least common multiple of 3 and 9, therefore, is 9,
and the least common denominator of is also9.
Since we already have 9 as denominator in , we need not convertthis.

To convert the denominator of to 9, let us multiply
So we can write
Question 8: What is
(a) (b) (c) 3 (d)
Correct answer is option (a),
To add or subtract two fractions, you need to find the least common denominator.
The least common denominator is equal to the least common multiple of the denominators:
12 and 9
The multiples of 9 are: 9, 18, 27, 36, 45, ...
The least common multiple of 12 and 9, therefore, is 36.
So the least common denominator of is also 36.

Change the two fractions to equivalent fractions with denominator 36:
And we get
Question 9: What is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Correct answer is option (b),
The denominator (the bottom numbers) are different, so we need to make them the same
before we can add or subtract.
Let us find the least common denominator, which is equal to the least common multiple of
the denominators: 6 and 4
The multiples of 6 are: 6, 12, 18, ...


NOW we can change the fractions so they have denominator 12 (remember to multiply the
top and bottom):
So
Question 10: What is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Correct answer is option (a),
To add or subtract two fractions, you need a common denominator.

The least common multiple of 15 and 10 is 30,
and the least common denominator of is also 30
So
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Correct answer is option (c),
The denominators are different, so we need to find the least common denominator.
The least common denominator is equal to the least common multiple of the denominators: 8

and 6
and the least common denominator of is also 24
So
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Correct answer is option (d),
The denominators (bottom numbers) should be the same, so we need to find the least
common denominator.
The least common denominator is equal to the least common multiple of the denominators: 6
and 9
and the least common denominator of is also 18.
So
(b) Common Denominator

Common Denominatormethod to solve the problems is as follows.
To add , we need to make the denominators the same. For this multiply 1/3 with the
denominator of 1/6, that is 6. Remember to multiply both numerator and denominator. So we
get 6/18. Do the same for 1/6, that is multiply 1/6 by 3. So we get 3/18. Now we can write

Now we can easily add since the denominators are the same.
To present in general terms let us write the problem using alphabets.
1. Multiply each fraction by the denominator of the other.
Re arranging the denominator for better understanding we get
2. As two fractions now have the same denominator, we can add them
So the formula is
Question 1: Find
The general form is

So a = 2, b = 3, c = 4 and d = 5.)
Substituting in the formula we get
We may also solve the problem directly without using the formula as
Question 2: What is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Correct answer is (b),

If we use the formula to solve,

Substitute
a = 1, b = 3, c = 2 and d = 5
Question 3: What is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
The correct answer is option (b), that is,
This is how we workout.
The general form is
So a = 1, b = 3, c = 2 and d = 5)
Question 4: What is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
The correct answer is option (a), that is,
The general form is
So a = 2, b = 7, c = 3 and d = 5)
Question 5: What is
(a) (b) (c) (d)

The correct answer is option (c), that is,
The general form is
So a = 6, b = 6, c = 2 and d = 5)
Question 6: What is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
The correct answer is option (d), that is,
The general form is
So a = 3, b = 8, c = 2 and d = 9)
Multiplying Fractions
There are 3 simple steps to multiply fractions
1. Multiply the top numbers (the numerators).
2. Multiply the bottom numbers (the denominators).
3. Simplify the fraction if needed.
Example:
Simplify the fraction:

Question 1: Multiply
Simplify the fraction:
Question 2: Multiply
Here we are multiplying fractions and whole numbers. Make the whole number a fraction, by
putting it over 1. So 5 may be written as . Note that 5 and are the same.
So we can write the problem as
Question 2
Here also we are multiplying fractions and whole numbers. Instead of making the whole
number a fraction as we did in the previous problem, we can just think of the whole number
as being a "top" number and do the multiplication directly.
We may simplify as
Multiplication and Division of Mixed Fractions

A Mixed Fraction is a whole number and a proper fraction combined.That is why it is called a
"mixed" fraction (or mixed number)

Example of mixed fraction: . Here the whole number 1 is combined with a proper fraction.
Example
Find
First, convert the mixed fraction to an improper fraction
Now multiply this by 3:
You may convert the final answer back to mixed fraction just because the question was given as a
mixed fraction.
Question 1: Compute
Convert to Improper Fractions

Multiply the Fractions
You may convert the result back to Mixed Fractions.
You may convert the result back to Mixed Fractions as 3
Question 2: Compute
Convert to Improper Fractions

Multiply the Fractions
You may convert the result back to Mixed Fractions.
You may convert the result back to Mixed Fractions
Question 3: Compute
Convert to Improper Fractions, retaining the negative as such.
Multiply the Fractions (negative multiplied by negative gives positive)

We may simplify further
Question 4: What is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
The correct answer is (d),
First change to an improper fraction.
Rewriting we get
Convert to a mixed fraction.
4 divides into 33, 8 times with remainder 1

Therefore
Question 5: What is
(a) (b) (c) 4 (d)

The correct answer is (c), 4.
This is how we worked out.
First change both mixed fractions to improper fractions:
Multiply the fractions and simplify

Question 6: What is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
The correct answer is (b),

272 and 72 have a common factor 8, so divide top and bottom by 8:
Question 7: What is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
The correct answer is (d),


297 and 30 have a common factor 3, so divide top and bottom by 3
Question 8: What is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
The correct answer is (c),

First change both mixed fractions to improper fractions, keeping negative as such:
Then multiply the Improper Fractions (Note: negative times negative gives positive)
Question 9: What is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
The correct answer is (b),

First change mixed fractions to improper fractions, keeping negative as such:
Now change mixed fractions to improper fractions
Then multiply the Improper Fractions and simplify (Note: negative times positive gives
negative)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
The correct answer is (a),

First change the mixed fraction to an improper fraction:
Turn the second fraction upside down and multiply:
Convert to mixed fraction: 5 divides into 33, 6 times with remainder 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
The correct answer is (d)


We can re write as.
Convert to mixed fraction: 4 divides into 5, once with remainder 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
The correct answer is (c),

We can re write as.

28 and 21 have a common factor 7, so divide top and bottom by 7
Convert to mixed fraction: 3 divides into 4 once, with remainder 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
The correct answer is (a),

We can re write as.
Ratios
A ratio compares values.

A ratio says how much of one thing there is compared to another thing.
The above diagram may be described as 3:1, which implies, there are 3 filled squares to 1
empty square.

Ratios can be shown in different ways:
Using the ":" to separate the values: 3:1
Instead of the ":" we can use the word "to": 3 to 1
Or write it like a fraction:

Question 1
A class of 32 students has 12 girls. What is the ratio of girls to boys.
(a) 3:5 (b) 5:3 (c) 3:8 (d) 8:3
The correct answer is (a), 3:5.
This is how we work out.
The number of boys in the class = 32 - 12 = 20
So the ratio of girls to boys is 12:20
Simplify by dividing by 4:
12 : 20 = 12/4 : 20/4 = 3 : 5
So the ratio of girls to boys is 3:5
Question 2
Raju can run a mile in 5 minutes and 50 seconds. Ramu can run a mile in 6 minutes and 40
seconds. What is the ratio of Raju's time to Ramu's time?
(a) 5.5:6.4 (b) 55:64 (c) 7:8 (d) 8:7
The correct answer is (c), 7:8.
You must first change both times into seconds:
Raju's time = 5 minutes 50 seconds = 350 seconds
Ramu's time = 6 minutes 40 seconds = 400 seconds
So the ratio of Raju's time to Ramu's time = 350 : 400
Which can be simplified to 350/50 : 400/50 = 7 : 8
Question 3
The distance between two towns on a map is 5 cm. If the real distance between the two towns
is 25 km, what is the scale of the map
(a) 1 : 5,000,000 (b) 1 : 500,000 (c) 1 : 50,000 (d) 1 : 5,000
The correct answer is (b), 1 : 500,000.
You can only compare the two distances if they are measured in the same unit. So the first
step is to convert the real distance to centimetres:
First convert to m: 25 km = 25 × 1,000 m = 25,000 m
Then to cm: 25,000 m = 25,000 × 100 cm = 2,500,000 cm
So the scale of the map is 5 cm : 2,500,000 cm
Which is 1 : 500,000
Question 4
A real horse is 1.8 m high. A statue of the horse is 3 m high. What is the ratio of the height of
the horse to the height of the statue
(a) 3:5 (b) 2:3 (c) 5:3 (d) 6:1
The correct answer is (a), 3 : 5
Ratio = 1.8 m : 3 m = 18 : 30 = 3 : 5
Question 5
The tallest building in the world, the BurjKhalifa in Dubai, is 828 metres tall. A model of the
building is made using the ratio 1 : 5,000. How high is the model in centimetres
(a) 1,656 cm (b) 165.6 cm (c) 16.56 cm (d) 1.656 cm
The correct answer is (c), 16.56 cm.
Height of the model = 828 m ÷ 5,000
= 82,800 cm ÷ 5,000
= 16.56 cm
Question 6
A recipe for pastry has flour, butter and water mixed in the ratio 24 : 8 : 3. If Raji follows the
recipe and uses 3 cups of flour, how many cups of butter should she use
(a) (b) ) (c)) (d) )
The correct answer is (d), 1 cup.
Start with 24 : 8 : 3
Raji uses 3 cups of flour, not 24, and 24/3=8 so let's divide all values by 8:
So 1 cup of butter should be used.

Question 7
A recipe for pastry has flour, butter and water mixed in the ratio 24 : 8 : 3. If Raji follows the
recipe and uses 3 cups of flour, how many cups of butter should she use
(a) (b) ) (c) ) (d) )
The correct answer is (d), 1 cup.
Comparing Ratios
To compare ratios, write them as fractions. The ratios are equal if they are equal when written
as fractions.
Example 1:
Are the ratios 3 to 4 and 6:8 equal?
The ratios are equal if 3/4 = 6/8.
These are equal if their cross products are equal; that is, if 3 × 8 = 4 × 6. Since both of these
products equal 24, the answer is yes, the ratios are equal.
Remember to be careful! Order matters!
A ratio of 1:7 is not the same as a ratio of 7:1.
Question1:
Are the ratios 7:1 and 4:81 equal? No!
7/1 > 1, but 4/81 < 1, so the ratios can't be equal.
Question 2:
Are 7:14 and 36:72 equal?
Notice that 7/14 and 36/72 are both equal to 1/2, so the two ratios are equal.
Proportion
A proportion is an equation with a ratio on each side. It is a statement that two ratios are
equal.
3/4 = 6/8 is an example of a proportion.
When one of the four numbers in a proportion is unknown, cross products may be used to
find the unknown number. This is called solving the proportion. Question marks or letters are
frequently used in place of the unknown number.
Example:
Solve for n: 1/2 = n/4.
Using cross products we see that 2 × n = 1 × 4 =4, so 2 × n = 4. Dividing both sides by 2, n =
4 ÷ 2 so that n = 2.
Decimals, Fractions and Percentages
Decimals, Fractions and Percentages are just different ways of showing the same value:
A Half can be written...

As a fraction: 1
/2
As a decimal: 0.5
As a percentage: 50%
A Quarter can be written...

As a fraction: 1
/4
As a decimal: 0.25
As a percentage: 25%
Example Values
Here is a table of commonly used values shown in Percent, Decimal and Fraction form:
Percent Decimal Fraction

1
1% 0.01 /100
1
5% 0.05 /20
1
10% 0.1 /10
1
12½% 0.125 /8
1
20% 0.2 /5
1
25% 0.25 /4

331/3% 0.333... 1
/3
1
50% 0.5 /2
3
75% 0.75 /4
4
80% 0.8 /5
9
90% 0.9 /10
99
99% 0.99 /100
100% 1
5
125% 1.25 /4
3
150% 1.5 /2
200% 2
Conversions
(a) From Percent to Decimal
To convert from percent to decimal: divide by 100, and remove the “%” sign.
(b) From Decimal to Percent
To convert from decimal to percent: multiply by 100, and add a “%” sign.
(c) From Fraction to Decimal
The easiest way to convert a fraction to a decimal is to divide the top number by the bottom
number (divide the numerator by the denominator in mathematical language).
Adding Mixed Fractions

We may be asked to add mixed fractions:
These are the steps
1. convert them to Improper Fractions
2. then add them
3. thenyou may convert back to Mixed Fractions.
Example
Compute
Convert to Improper Fractions:

To add this, one way is to make the denominators common. One way is to retain 11/4 as such
and then multiply 7/2 by 2 (don not forget to multiply both numerator and denominator). We
get
Now add
Convert back to Mixed Fractions:
Question 1: Compute
Convert to improper fractions:
To add this, one way is to make the denominators common. One way is to retain 29/8 as such
and then multiply 7/4 by 2 (don not forget to multiply both numerator and denominator). We
get
Now add
Subtracting Mixed Fractions

For Subtracting Mixed Fractions, Just follow the same method as addition, but subtract
instead of add:
Example
Compute

Now we have to make the denominators equal. One way is to make both denominators equal
to 12. For this we have to multiply 63/4 by 3 and 53/6 by 2.
Now we can write the problem as
Convert back to Mixed Fractions:
Question1: Subtract from
Remember that this means
Now we have to make the denominators equal. One way is to multiply 23/5 by 2
So
Therefore we can write the problem as
Convert 27/10 to a mixed fraction.

10 divides into 27, 2 times with remainder 7.
So we get

Question 2: Subtract from
Now we have to make the denominators equal. One way is to multiply 7/2 by 3.
Now the denominators are the same, we just subtract the numerators.
Another method (least common denominator method) is as follows.
Next find the least common denominator i.e. the least common multiple of 6 and 2
The multiples of 6 are 6, 12, ...
The multiples of 2 are 2, 4, 6, 8, ...
The least common multiple of 6 and 2, therefore, is 6
Convert
Now the denominators are the same, we just subtract the numerators. Remember to put the
answer over the same denominator:
Question 3: Subtract from

Next find the least common denominator i.e. the least common multiple of 6 and 4
The multiples of 6 are 6, 12, 18, ...
The multiples of 4 are 4, 8, 12, 16, ...
The least common multiple of 6 and 4, therefore, is 12
Convert both fractions to equivalent fractions with denominator 12:
Question 4
What is
(a) (b) (c) 2 (d)
The correct answer is (c), 2.

First change all the mixed fractions to improper fractions:
Next find the least common denominator i.e. the least common multiple of 2, 6 and 3

The multiples of 2 are: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, ...

So the least common multiple of 2, 6 and 3 is 6
Convert all fractions to equivalent fractions with denominator 6:
Now the denominators are the same, we just add and subtract the numerators.
Remember to put the answer over the same denominator:
Question 5
What is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
The correct answer is (c), .

Now we need the denominators to be the same:

Find the least common denominator i.e. the least common multiple of 4, 12 and 6
The multiples of 12 are: 12, 24, ...

The least common multiple of 4, 12 and 6, therefore, is 12

Question 6
What is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
The correct answer is (a), .

Next find the least common denominator i.e. the least common multiple of 10, 5 and 2
The multiples of 10 are: 10, 20, ...
The multiples of 2 are: 2, 4, 6, 8 10, 12, ...
The least common multiple of 10, 5 and 2, therefore, is 10

Now the denominators are the same, we just subtract and add the numerators. Remember to
put the answer over the same denominator:
Convert to a mixed fraction:
5 divides into 14, 2 times with remainder 4:

So
Comparing Fractions
Sometimes we need to compare two fractions to discover which is larger or smaller. There
are two easy ways to compare fractions: using decimals, or using the same denominator.
(a) The Decimal Method of Comparing Fractions
Just convert each fraction to decimals, and then compare the decimals.
Example: which is bigger:
Convert each fraction to a decimal.

We can use a calculator (3÷8 and 5÷12), or the method on Converting Fractions to Decimals.
Anyway, these are the answers:
So is bigger.
(b) When the Denominators aresame

When two fractions have the same denominator they are easy to compare, just compare the
numerators and decide.
Example:
Which is larger:
Since the denominators are the same, compare numerator. So we can easily say : is greater
than , simply because 5 is greater than 4.

(c) When denominators are different
But when the denominators are not the same we need to make them the same (using
Equivalent Fractions).
Example:
Which is larger:
Since the denominators are different, let us make them same. If we multiply 8 by 3 and 12 by
2 both denominators will be equal to 24. Remember that both numerator and denominator has
to be multiplied.
Now both fractions have the same denominator, so we can simply compare the numerators
and decide.
So is greater than
Question 1
Which one of the following fractions is the largest?
(a) (b) (c) (d)
To compare the fractions, we need to write each of them as an equivalent fraction with a
common denominator i.e. we must find the least common multiple of 36, 9, 6 and 4.
Since 9, 6 and 4 are all factors of 36, the least common multiple is 36
So change them all to equivalent fractions with denominator 36:
Now they all have the same denominator, we just need to find the one with the largest
numerator, which is 30.
Therefore is the largest fraction.

MODULE II
Basic Mathematical Concepts:- Linear Equations
This chapter deals with the concept of simple linear equations, simultaneous linear
equations, and the uses of these equations in economics (demand and supply analysis).
Equation
An equation is a statement of equality between two expressions. In other words, an
equation sets two expressions, which involves one or more than one variable, equal to each
other.
For example, (a) 2x=10, (b) 3x+2y=20, (c) x2 -5x+6=0.
An equation consists of one or more unknown variables. In the above example first and
second equation (a and c) contain only one unknown variable ( x) and the second equation
contains two unknowns(x and y)
Solutions of the Equation
An equation is true for some particular value or values of the unknown. The value of the
unknown for which equation is true is called solutions of the equation. It is also known as
root of the equation
10
For example, (a) 2x=10, so x   5 , Thus this equation is true for the value x=5
2
Linear and Non-linear Equations
The highest degree of the variables in an equation determines the nature of the equation. If
the equation is first degree, then it is known as linear equation otherwise it is known as non-
linear.
For example: 5x  y  20 is a linear equation. It is a linear equation because there is no term
involving x 2 , y 2 , x  y , or any higher powers of x and y.
x 2  7 x  12  0 is a non-linear equation. It is non-linear because the highest degree of the
equation is two.
Variables and Parameters
A variable is a symbol or letter used to denote a quantity whose value changes over a
period of time. In other words, a variable is a quantity which can assume any one of the
values from a range of possible values.
Example: income of the consumer is a variable, since it assumes different values at

different time
Dependent and Independent Variable
If x and y are two variables such that y  f (x) ,for any value of the x there is a
corresponding y value, then x is independent variable and y is dependent variable. The value
of y depends on the value of x.
Example: Consider the consumption function c  f ( y) . Here consumption c depends

on income. For each value of income there corresponds a value of consumption. Thus c is
dependent variable and y is independent variable.

Parameters are similar to variables –that is, letters that stand for numbers– but have a
different meaning. We use parameters to describe a set of similar things. Parameters can take
on different values, with each value of the parameter specifying a member of this set of
similar objects.
1
For example:  xdx  x 3  c where c is called the constant of integration. In this
3
case, each value of c specifies a single antiderivative. We call c the parameter of the set of all
the antiderivatives of x 2 . Each value of the parameter c specifies a single antiderivative.
Solution of Simple Linear Equations
A simple linear equation is an equation which consists of only one unknown and its
exponent is one.
Steps for Solving a Linear Equation in One Variable
1. Simplify both sides of the equation.

2. Use the addition or subtraction properties of equality to collect the variable terms on one
side of the equation and the constant terms on the other.
3. Use the multiplication or division properties of equality to make the coefficient of the
variable term equal to 1.
Note: In order to isolate the variable, perform operations on both sides of the equation.
1- Use of Inverse Operation

a) Use subtraction to undo addition.
If a  b
ac bc
Example (1): Solve x  5  15
Solution:
x  5  15
Subtract 5 5 = 5
x  10
OR
x  5  15 x  15  5  10
Example (2) y  6  2y
Solution:
y  6  2y
Subtract y y  y
6 y
OR
y  6  2y 6  2y  y y6
b) Use Addition to Undo Subtraction

If a  b
then a  c  b  c
For example, solve x  4  6

Solution:
x46
Add 4 =4
x  10
OR
x4 6 x 64 x  10
c) Use Division to Undo Multiplications
If a  b
a b
then 
c c
Example 3x  18
Solution:
3x  18
3x 18

3 3
Answer: x6
OR
18
x  6
3
d) Use Multiplication to Undo Division
If a  b
then ac  bc
x
Example: 6
4
Solution:
 x
4.   4.6
4
Answer x  24
OR
x  4.6  24
2. Equation having Fractional Coefficient
The coefficient of x also be a rational number. This section discusses how to solve the
equation having only one fraction and equation having different fractions.

a) Equation having Only One Fraction

To clear fractions, multiply both sides of the equation by the denominator of
the fractions or by the reciprocal of the fraction
1
Example (1) x5
7
Solution
1
7. x  5.7
7
Answer: x  35
2
Example (2) x  15
6
Solution:
6 2  6 90
. x   15.  , x   45
2 6  2 2
Answer: x  45
b) Equation Containing Fractions Having Different Denominator
To clear fractions, multiply both sides of the equation by the LCD of all the
fractions. The Lowest Common Denominator (L.C.D) of two or more fractions is the smallest
number divisible by their denominators without reminder
x x
For example: solve   14
3 4
Solution: Here L.C.D is 12
 x x
12      12  14
3 4
4 x  3x  168 , 7 x  168
Answer: x  24
3. Equations Containing Parentheses
Follow the following steps to solve the equation which contains parenthesis
a) Remove the parenthesis
b) Solve the resulting equation
For example: solve 10  3( x  6)  16
Solution: 10  3x  18  16
3x  8  16
3x  16  8
24
x 8
3
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Simultaneous equations are set of two or more equations, each containing two or
more variables whose values can simultaneously satisfy both or all equations in the set.
The number of variables will be equal to or less than the number of equations in the set.
The simultaneous equation can be solved by the following methods.
a.) Elimination method
b.) Substitution method
c.) Cross multiplication method
(A) Elimination method
i. Multiply the equations with suitable non-zero constants, so that the coefficients of one
variable in both equations become equal.
ii. Subtract one equation from another, to eliminate the variable with equal coefficients.
Solve for the remaining variable.
iii. Substitute the obtained value of the variable in one of the equations and solve for the
second variable.
Simultaneous Equation in Two Unknowns (First Degree)

Solve 2 x  2 y  40
3x  4 y  65
Solution:
2 x  2 y  40 ............................. (1)
3x  4 y  65 ............................ (2)
Multiply the equation (1) by 2, we will get
4 x  4 y  80 ............................. (3)
Subtract equation (2) from equation (3)
4 x  4 y  80
- 3x  4 y  65
x  15
Substitute x=15 either in equation (1) or equation (2)
We substitute in equation (1), we will get
2(15)  2 y  40
2 y  40  30
10
y 5
2
Checking answers by substituting the obtained value into the original equation.
2(15)  2(5)  40
30  10  40 Both sides are equal (L.H.S=R.H.S)
So the answers x=15 and y=5
B. SUBSTITUTION METHOD
The substitution method is very useful when one of the equations can easily be solved for
one variable. Here we reduce one equation in to the form of y  f (x) or x  f ( y) . That is
expressing the equation either in terms of x or in terms of y. Then substitute this reduced
equation in the non-reduced equation and find the values of both unknowns.

X Y 1
Steps involved in Substitution Method
i. Choose one equation and isolate one variable; this equation will be considered the
first equation.
ii. Substitute the transformed equation into the second equation and solve for the
variable in the equation.
iii. Using the value obtained in step ii, substitute it into the first equation and solve for the
second variable.
iv. Check the obtained values for both variables into both equations.
Solve 4 x  2 y  6
5x  y  6
Solution:
4 x  2 y  6 ............................. (1)
5x  y  6 ............................. (2)
Express equation (2) in terms of x, we will get
y  6  5 x ............................. (3)
Substitute equation (3) in equation (2), we will get
4 x  2(6  5x)  6
4 x  12  10 x  6
 6 x  6  12
6
x 1
6
Substitute x=1 in equation (1)
4(1)  2 y  6
2y  6  4
2
y  1
2
4(1)  2(1)  6
4  2  6 Both sides are equal (L.H.S=R.H.S)
So the answers are x=1 and y=1
C. CROSS MULTIPLICATION
This method is very useful for solving the linear equation in two variables.Let us
consider the general form of two linear equations a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 , and a2 x  b2 y  c2  0 .
To solve this pair of equations for x and y using cross-multiplication, we will arrange the
variables, coefficients, and the constants as follows.

coefficient of y constant terms constant terms coefficient of x coefficient of x coefficient of y

b1 c1 c1 a1 a1 b1
b2 c2 c2 a2 a2 b2
That is
b1c2  b2 c1
x
a1b2  a2b1
c1a2  c2 a1
y
a1b2  a2b1
Example: Solve 2 x  2 y  40
3x  4 y  65
Solution
On transposition, we get 2 x  2 y  40  0
3x  4 y  65  0
X Y 1
2 -40 -40 2 2 2
4 -65 -65 3 3 4
(2×-65) - (4×-40) = (-130) – (-160) = 30

(-40×3) – (-65×2) = (-120) - (-130) = 10
(2×4) – (3×2) = (8) – (6) = 2
30 10
S0 x   15 , and y  5
2 2
The same answer that we got in the first problem
Simultaneous Equation in Three Unknowns (First Degree)
Steps
1. Take any two equation form the given equations and eliminate any one of the
unknowns.
2. Take the remaining equation and eliminate the same unknown
3. Follow the rules of simultaneous equation in two unknowns
Solve 9 x  3 y  4 z  35
x yz 4
2 x  5 y  4 z  48
Solution:
9 x  3 y  4 z  35..................(1)
x  y  z  4...............(2)
2 x  5 y  4 z  48................(3)
Take equation (1) and (2)

Multiply equation (2) by 4,we will get
4 x  4 y  4 z  16...............(4)
Subtract it from equation (1), we will get
5x  y  19...............(5)
Take equation (2) and (3)
Multiply equation (2) by 4,we will get
4 x  4 y  4 z  16...............(4)
Subtract equation (3) from (4), we will get
2 x  9 y  64...............(6)
Take equation (5) and multiply it by 9
45x  45 y  171............(7)
Add equation (6) from equation (7)
45x  45 y  171............(7)
2 x  9 y  64...............(6)
235
47 x  235 x 5
47
Substitute x=5 in equation (5), 5 x  y  19
5(5)  y  19
 y  19  25  6
So y=6
Substitute x=5 and y=6 in equation (1) 9 x  3 y  4 z  35
9(5)  3(6)  4 z  35
45  18  4 z  35
 4 z  35  63  28
 28
z 7
4
Answer: x=5, y=6, and z=7
DEMAND AND SUPPLY FOR A GOOD

Now we can apply simple linear equation and simultaneous linear equations in the
analysis of demand and supply. Here we use both demand function and supply function.
Demand function depicts the negative relationship between quantity demanded and price.
The linear demand function can be written as q  a  bp .where q denotes quantity
demanded and p denotes price.
1
For example: q  80  2 p . This equation can be written as p  40  q . This called
2
inverse demand function.
Supply function depicts the positive relationship between quantity demanded and price.
The linear supply function can be written as q  a  bp .where q denotes quantity supplied
and p denotes price.
1
For example: q  40  2 p . This equation can be written as p  20  q . This called
2
inverse supply function.
The equilibrium quantity and equilibrium price is determined by the interaction of
both demand supply curve. At equilibrium point the demand will be equal to supply. The
price that equates demand and supply is called equilibrium price. If current price exceeds
the equilibrium price, there will be an excess supply. This situation will compel the
producer to reduce the price of the product so that they can sell unsold goods. The reduction
in the price will continue until it reaches equilibrium point (qd =qs ) . On the other hand, if
current price is below the equilibrium price there is an excess demand for the product. This
shortage leads buyers to bid the price up. The increase in the price will continue until it
reaches the equilibrium point (qd =qs ).
Now we are able to find the equilibrium price and quantity by using the system of
two linear equations; demand function and supply function. Consider the following
equations.
1
p  20  q
2
1
p  40  q
2
This set of equation is system of two linear equation in the variable p and q. We have to
find the values of both p and q that satisfy both equations simultaneously.
Example: Find the equilibrium price of the following demand and supply function
q s  20  3 p
q d  160  2 p
Solution:
At equilibrium demand is equal to supply
q s  20  3 p  q d  160  2 p

Collect all p values on left side and the constants on right side
3 p  2 p  160  20
5 p  140
140
p  28
5
d s
Now substitute p=28 in either q or q
q s  20  3 p
q s  20  3(28)
q s  104
Check the answer with the qd equation, q d  160  2 p

q d  160  2(28)
q d  160  56  104
Thus, qd =qs . Here equilibrium price is Rupees 28 and the equilibrium quantity is 104.
QUESTIONS
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Unknown values in an equation are called
(a) Constants (b) parameters (c) Variables (d) all the above
2. Given or known values in an equations are called
(a) Constants (b) Parameters (c) Coefficients (d) all of the above
3. A variable which is free to take any value we choose to assign to it is called
(a) Dependent variable (b) independent variable
(c) Continuous variable (d) Discrete variable
4. The variable that stands alone on the left-hand side of the equation such as y = 5x + 2 is
known as
(a) Dependent variable (b) independent variable
(c) Endogenous variable (d) explained variable
5. Given y=2x-6=2, then x= ………….
(a) 8 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) -4
2
6. Given x  4, then x=…………….
3

10
(a) 2.5 (b) 3 (c) (d) 6
3
7. If 4 x  2  3x  12 , then x is
(a) 10 (b) 2 (c) 12 (d) 8
8. Given the demand and supply functions qD = -8p + 2000 and qS =12p – 200 respectively,
the equilibrium price is
(a) p = 100 (b) p = 110 (c) p = 120 (d) p = 140
9. The equation  7 z  1  5  3z will be satisfied for z equal to
(a) 3 (b) 1 (c) -1 (d) 2
x 3
10. Pick up the correct value of x for 
30 15
(a) 7 (b) 6 (c) 5 (d) 4
11. 8 is the solution of the equation
x  4 x 5 x  4 x  10
(a)   12 (b) 
4 3 2 9
x6 x5 x  4 x  10
(c)  (d)  8
2 3 2 9
x  24 x
12.  4  , then x=
5 4
(a) 8 (b) 10 (c) 16 (d) -8
13. The fourth part of a number exceeds the sixth part by four. The number is
(a) 46 (b) 64 (c) 58 (d) 48
14. The solution of the simultaneous equations 3x  4 y  7,4 x  7  3 is
(a) (2,2) (b) (1,1) (c) (1,2) (d) (-1,2)
x y
15. The values of x and y satisfying the equations   2, x  2 y  8 are given by the pair
2 3
(a) (4,-3) (b) (4,6) (c) (2,3) (d) (-2,-6)
x  y 11
16. The pair satisfying the equations x  6 y  32 ,  is given by
x y 9
(a) (18, 3) (b) (20,2) (c) (22,4) (d) None of these
17. The pair satisfying the equations x  4 y  0 , x  3 y  28 is
(a) (3, 4) (b) (4,3) (c) (4, 16) (d) (16,4)

x x
18.   10 , Here the value of x is
2 3
(a) 10 (b) -10 (c) -12 (d) 12
19. The value of x in the equation 4 x  3  2 x  5
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) -2 (d) 8
20. The values of x satisfying the equations 3x  2  x  6 is given by
(a) 4 (b) 8 (c) 2 (d) -2
21. The curve of a linear equation is................
(a) parabola (b) a liner (c) hyper-parabola (d) none of the above
22. Two intersecting lines of simultaneous equation give.............
(a) An unique solution (b) infinite solution
(c) no solution (d) none of the above
23. Consider the equations, 6 x  3 y  9 , 2 x  y  9  0 represents two lines which
are,
(a) Intersecting at exactly two points (b) Intersecting at exactly one point
(c) parallel (d) none of the above
24. The pair satisfying the equations x  4 y  14  0 , 5x  y  13  0 is
(a) (-3, 2) (b) (2,-3) (c) (1, 2) (d) (2,4)
25. Thrice a number decreased by 22

(a) x-22 (b) 3 + x (c) 3x-22 (d) 3(x-22)
26. 2(5x  2)  8x
(a) 2 (b) -2 (c) 1 (d) 3
27. The equation x=12 can be written in the two variable case as
(a) 1.x+0.y=12 (b) 0.x+1.y=12 (c) 1.x+1.y=12 (d) All of the above
28. A linear equation in two variables is of the form ax + by + c = 0, where
(a) a=0, b=0 (b) a ≠0, b≠0 (c) both a and b (d) none of the above
29. The linear equation 3x-4y=18 has
(a) Infinitely many solution (b) unique solution
(c) Two solution (d) no solution

x
30.  7  11 , x =.............
3
(a) 9 (b) -9 (c) 12 (d) -12
Answers
1. (c) Variables 2. (d) all of the above
3. (b) independent variable 4. (a) Dependent variable
5. (b) 4 6. (d) 6
7. (a) 10 8. (b) p = 110
9. (c) -1 10. (b) 6
x  4 x  10
11. (d)  8 12. (c) 16
2 9
13. (d) 48 14. (b) (1,1)
15. (c) (2,3) 16. (b) (20,2)
17. (d) (16,4) 18. (d) 12
19. (a) 1 20. ( c) 2
21. (b) a line 22. (a) An unique solution
23. (c) parallel 24. (b) (2,-3)
25. (c) 3x-22 26. (a) 2
27. (c) 1.x+1.y=12 28. (b) a ≠0, b≠o
29. (a) Infinitely many solution 30. (d) -12
Very Short Answer Type Questions
1. What do you mean by a linear equation

2. Distinguish between variable and constant
3. Distinguish between dependent variable and independent variable
4. Solve (3x-1) + 2 = 12x + 6
x x
5. Solve   10
2 3
4 x  1 10 x  25
6. Solve 
7 25
x x
7. Solve   x  11
3 2
8. 7( x  2)  8( x  3)  22  x  10

9. The denominator of a fraction exceeds the numerator by 6 and if 4 be added to both the
4
fraction becomes .find the fraction
5
10. If the numerator of a fraction is increased by 3 and the denominator by 2 it becomes 2.
Again if the numerator is decreased by 5 and the denominator by 3 it becomes 2
Find x and y.
11. A number consist of two digits. The digit in the ten’s place is twice the digit in the unit’s
Place. If 27 be subtracted from the number the digits are reversed. Find the number.
12. For a certain commodity the demand function is given as q d  100(10  p) and the
Supply function is given as q s  75( p  3) .Find the equilibrium quantity and price.
13. Anil’s age is six times fiend’s age. Four years hence, the age of Anil will be four times his
friend’s age. Find the present age of Anil and his friend.
14. Sha has only Rupees one and Rupees 2 coins with him. In total he has 50 coins and total
amount with him is Rupees 75. Then find the numbers of Rs 1 and Rs 2 coins he has
15. Solve the following linear equations
a) 6(12 x  8)  44
b) 2( x  5)  3( x  8)
Answers
1. An equation is a statement in which one expression equals to another expression. An
equation of the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are real numbers such that a ≠ b and b
≠ 0, is called a linear equation in two variables.. (The “two variables are the x and y.).The
numbers a and b are called the coefficients of the equation ax + by + c = 0.The number c is
called the constant of the equation ax + by +c = 0
2. A variable is a symbol or letter used to denote a quantity whose value changes over a
period of time. In other words, a variable is a quantity which can assume any one of the
values from a range of possible values.
Example: income of the consumer is a variable, since it assumes different values at
different time
3. If x and y are two variables such that y  f (x) ,for any value of the x there is a
corresponding y value, then x is independent variable and y is dependent variable. The value
of y depends on the value of x.
Example: Consider the consumption function c  f ( y) . Here consumption c depends
on income. For each value of income there corresponds a value of consumption. Thus c is
dependent variable and y is independent variable.
4 5(3x-1) + 2 = 12x + 6
15x – 5 + 2 = 12x + 6
15x – 3 = 12x + 6
15x-12x=6+3
3x=9

9
X= 3
3
Answer x=3
x x
5.   10
2 3
L.C.M=6
 x  x
6     6     6  10
2 3
3x  2 x  60
5x  60
60
x  12
5
Answer x=12
4 x  1 10 x  25
6. 
7 25
Cross multiply equation 1 and equation 2
25(4 x  1)  7(10 x  25)
100 x  25  70 x  175
100 x  70 x  175  25
30 x  150
150
x 5 Answer x=5
30
x x
7.   x  11
3 2
L.C.M=6
 x  x
6     6     6  x  6  11
3 2
2 x  3x  6 x  66
11x  66
66
11
8. 7( x  2)  8( x  3)  22  x  10
7 x  14  8x  24  22  x  10
15x  x  10  14  24  22
14 x  70
70
14

x
9. Let x be the numerator and the fraction be x 
x6
x4 4

By the question x64 5
 5x  20  4 x  24  16
5x  4 x  40  20
20
x  20 , So the required fraction is
20  6
x
10. Let y be the required fraction
By the question
x3 x5
 2, 3
y2 y 3
Thus, ( x  3)  2 y  4
 x  2 y  4  3  1.............(1)
( x  5)  3 y  9
 x  3 y  9  5  4.........(2)
Subtract (2) from (1)  y  5
From (1) x  2 y  1  x  2(5)  1
So x= 11
11
Thus the required fraction is
5
11. Let x be the digit in the unit’s place. So the digit in the ten’s place is 2x. It is in the ten’s
place, so it becomes 10.(2x)
Thus the number becomes 10(2 x)  x
By the question 20 x  x  27  10 x  2 x ,
21x  27  12 x
9 x  27
27
x 3
9
So the required number is 10(2  3)  3  63
12. At equilibrium demand= supply. Thus we have
100(10  p)  75( p  3)
1000  100 p  75 p  225
 175 p  1225
 1225
p 7
 175
Substitute p=7 in 75( p  3)  75(7  3)
75  4  300
Thus equilibrium quantity is 300 kg (if it measures in kg)
Equilibrium price is 7

13. Let x  age of Anil

y=age of Anil’s friend
We are given that

x  6y............(1)
And x  4  4( y  4)..........(2)
Substitute equation (1) in (2), we get

6 y  4  4( y  4)
 6 y  4  4 y  16
6 y  4 y  16  4
2 y  12
12
y 6
2
Put y=6 in equation (1)
x  6(6)  36
The present age of Anil is 36 and the present age of his friend is 6
14. Let x= number of 1 Rupee coin

y= number of 2 Rupee coin
Then x  y  50...........(1)
x  2 y  75.........(2)
Subtract equation (1) from equation (2). Then, we have
y  25
Substitute y=25 in equation (1).
x  25  50
x  50  25  25
Thus, Sha has 25 One Rupee coins and 25 Two Rupee coins
15. a) 6(12 x  14)  44 x

72 x  84  44 x
72 x  44 x  84
28x  84
84
x 3 Answer: x=3
28
b) 2( x  5)  3( x  8)
 2 x  10  3x  24
 2 x  3x  24  10
 x  34
 x  34 Answer: x=34
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Solve 2 x  3 y  10  0
5x  3 y  1  0
2. Solve x  2 y  8
x  y  1
3. Solve 12 x  13 y  1
8x  7 y  15
4. Solve y  3( x  1)
14 x  y  1
5. Solve 3x  7 y  27
5x  2 y  16
3a  4b
Solve  a  10
6. 5
a  b b 1

2 3
7. The sum of two digits is 30. The larger exceeds twice the smallest by 12.Find the
numbers
8. A father is twice old as his son 20 years ago the father was 4 times as old as his son.
Find their ages.
9. Ten years ago the age of a father was four times of his son. Ten years hence the age of
the father will be twice that of his son. Find present ages of the father and the son.
10. 3 dozen books and 6 dozen pens cost comes to be Rupees 36 and 4 dozen books and 5
dozens cost is 43.5. Find the price of books and pens per dozen
1 1 1
11. Solve  
x y 2
1 1 1
 
x y 6
12. 6 kg of wheat and 8 kg of rice cost is Rs 144 and 4 kg of wheat and 10 kg of rice cost
is Rs 152. Find the price of wheat and rice
13. The demand for a commodity is given by Q d  40  8 p and the supply is given by
Q s  20 p  18
A-Find the equilibrium price and quantity
Answers
1. 2 x  3 y  10  0
5x  3 y  1  0
Rearrange equations, we will get
2 x  3 y  10.................................(1)
5x  3 y  1...................................(2)
Add equation (1) and (2), then we have
7 x  11
 11
x
7
 11
Put x  in equation (1), 2 x  3 y  10
7
  11 
2   3 y  10
 7 
 22
 3 y  10
7
22
3 y  10 
7
 70  22
=
7
 48 1
y 
7 3
 48  16
 y
21 7
 11  16
Answer: x  and y 
7 7
2. x  2 y  8 ………………..(1)
x  y  1 ……………….(2)
From equation (2) x  1  y ……………….(3)
Substitute equation (3) in equation (1)
1 y  2 y  8
3y  9
9
y 3
3
Put y=3 in equation (2), x  y  1
x  3  1
x  1  3  2
Answer x=2 and y=3
3. 12 x  13 y  1………………..(1)

8x  7 y  15 ………………..(2)
Multiply equation (1)by 8and equation (2)by 12
96 x  104 y  8 ……………….. (3)
96 x  84 y  180 ……………….. (4)
 188 y  188
 188
y 1
 188
Put y=1 in equation (1) 12 x  13 y  1

12 x  13(1)  1
12 x  13  1
12 x  1  13
12 x  12
12
x 1
12
Answer: x=1 and y=1
4. y  3( x  1) ………………… (1)
4 x  y  1………………….. (2)
4 x  3x  3  1
4 x  3x  4
x4
Substitute x=4 in (1)
y  3(4  1)
y  15
Answer: x=4 and y=15
5. 3x  7 y  27
5x  2 y  16
On transposition, we get 3x  7 y  27  0
5x  2 y  16  0
X Y 1
7 -27 -27 3 3 7
2 -16 -16 5 5 2

b1c2  b2 c1 c1a2  c2 a1
x y
a1b2  a2b1 a1b2  a2b1
(7×-16) - (2×-27) = (-112) – (-54) = -58

(-27×5) – (-16×3) = (-135) - (-48) = 87
(3×2) – (5×7) = (6) – (35) = -29
 58  87
x 2 y 3
 29  29
Answer x=2 and 3
3a  4b
6.  a  10
5
a  b b 1

2 3 cross multiply each other by the denominators
3(a  b)  2(b  1)
3a  3b  2b  2
3a  5b  2 ................................. (1)
3a  4b
 a  10
5 Again cross multiply each other by the
denominators
3a  4b  5(a  10)
3a  4b  5a  50
 2a  4b  50 ................................ (2)
3a  5b  2 ............................ (1)
 2a  4b  50 ................................ (2)
(1) × 2  6a  10b  4 ...................... (3)

(2) × 3   6a  12b  150 ..................... (4)
(3)+ (4)   22b  154
 154
b 7
 22
Substitute b=7 in equation (1) 3a  5(7)  2
3a  35  2
3a  33
33
a  11
3

3(11)  5(7)  2
33  35  2 Both sides are equal (L.H.S=R.H.S)
So the answers a=11 and b=7
7. Let x be the larger digit and y be smaller digit. We are given that the sum of two digits is
30. So,
x  y  30 …………………….(1)
The larger exceeds the smaller by 12
x  2 y  12 ……………………(2)
Substitute (2) in (1).We will get,
2 y  12  y  30
3 y  30  12
18
y 6
3
Substitute y=6 in equation (1) x  y  30
x  6  30
x  30  6  24
So first digit is 6 and the second digit is 24
8. Let x  age of son

y=age of son
We are given that

y  2x.........................(1)
y  20  4( x  20).........................(2)
4 x  80
 20  80  4 x  y
60  4 x  y
4 x  y  60 …………………..(3)
Substitute (1) in (3)
4 x  2 x  60
2 x  60
60
x  30
2
y  2x
2  30  60
Age of son x  30
Age of father y  60

9. Let x  age of son

y=age of son
We are given that

y  10  4( x  10)
 y  10  4 x  40
y  4 x  30..............(1)
And y  10  2( x  10)
 y  10  2 x  20.
y  2 x  10..................(2)
Subtract equation (2) from (1)   2 x  40
 40
x  20
2
Substitute x=20 in equation (2), y  2 x  10.

 y  2(20)  10.
y  10  40  50
The present age of son is 20 and the present age of father is 30
10. Let x  books

y= pens
We are given that

3x  6 y  36...........(1)
4 x  5 y  43.5.......(2)
(1)  4  12 x  24 y  144...........(3)
(2)  3  12 x  15 y  130.50........(4)
(3)  (4)  9 y  13.50

13.50
y  1.50
9
Put y  1.50 in (1)
3x  6 y  36
3x  6(1.5)  36
3x  9  36
3x  36  9
27
x 9
3
Answer:
The price of books/dozen=Rupees 9

The price of pens/dozen=Rupees 1.5

1 1 1
11.   ...............(1)
x y 2
1 1 1
  ..............(2)
x y 6
1 1
Put  a , and b
x y
1
 (1)  a  b  ..............(3)
2
1
 (2)  a  b  ..............(4)
6
4 2
(1)  (2)  2a 

6 3
2 1 2 1
a   
3 2 6 3
1
a
Put 3 in (3)
1 1
 b 
3 2
1 1 1
b  
2 3 6
1 1 1
a  x  
x a 1
3
3
 1  3
1
1 1 1
b y  
y b 1
6
6
 1  6
1
Answer x = 3, and y = 6
12. 6 kg of wheat and 8 kg of rice cost is Rs 144 and 4 kg of wheat and 10 kg of rice
cost is Rs 152. Find the price of wheat and rice
We denote the price of wheat by x and the price of rice by y. Thus, we get
simultaneous equation as,
6 x  8 y  144...........(1)

4 x  10 y  152...........(2)
(1)  4  24 x  32 y  576...........(3)
(2)  6  24 x  60 y  912...........(4)
Subtract equation (3) from equation (4). Then, we have
28 y  336
336
y   12
28
Substitute y=12 in equation (1)
6 x  8 y  144
6 x  8(12)  144
6 x  96  144
6 x  144  96
6 x  48
48
Answer: x  8
6
The price of wheat per kg=8

The price of rice per kg=12
13. Q  54  8 p
d
Q s  10 p  18
A equilibrium quantity demanded is equal quantity supplied. Thus, we have,
54  8 p  10 p  18
 8 p  10 p  18  54
 18 p  36
 36
p 2
 18
Put p=2 in the demand equation

Q d  54  8 p
Q d  54  8(2)
Q d  54  16
Q  38
Thus, equilibrium price is Rs 2 and equilibrium quantity is 38 kg.
Essay Questions
1. Solve 3x  y  2 z  11
x yz 6
2x  y  z  1
2. Solve x  y  z  53

x  2 y  3z  105
x  3 y  4 z  134
3. Solve 2 x  y  z  3
x  3 y  2 z  11
3x  2 y  4 z  1
1 1 1
4. Solve    11
x y z
3 4 1
   12
x y z
2 3 4
   29
x y z
x y
5. Solve  0
2 3
x y
 4
4 2
6. Solve 2 x  y  3z  7
3x  y  z  2
4x  3 y  2z  8
7. Solve 2 x  y  z  3
x  3 y  2z  8
3x  y  z  8
8. Solve x  2 y  3z  26
x  3 y  2z  1
3x  y  z  8
ANSWERS
1. 3x  y  2 z  11...............(1)
x  y  z  6......................(2)
2 x  y  z  1......................(3)
Take equation (1) and (2) and subtract equation (2) from equation (1)
3x  y  2 z  11
x yz  6
2 x  z  5...............(4)
Take equation (2) and (3) and subtract equation (3) from equation (2)
x yz 6
2x  y  z  1

 x  2 z  5......................(5)
Multiply equation (5) by 2

 2 x  4 z  10......................(6)
Take equation (4) and (6) and add it.
2x  z  5
 2 x  4 z  10
5z  15
15
z  3. Put z=3 in (4)
5
2x  z  5
2x  3  5
2x  5  3  2
2
x 1
2
Put z=3 and x=1 in (1)
3x  y  2 z  11
3(1)  y  2(3)  11
y  11  9  2
Answer: x = 1, y = 2, and z = 3
2. x  y  z  53...............(1)
x  2 y  3z  105..........(2)
x  3 y  4 z  134...............(3)
Take equation (1) and (2) and subtract equation (1) from (2)
x  2 y  3z  105
x  y  z  53
y  2 z  52................(4)
x  3 y  4 z  134
x  2 y  3z  105
y  z  29................(5)
Now,take equation (4) and (5) and subtract equation (5) from (4)
y  2 z  52
y  z  29
z  23
Substitute Z = 23 in equation (5), y  z  29
y  23  29
y  29  23  6
Now substitute z=23 and y=6 in equation (1), x  y  z  53

x  6  23  53
x  53  29  24
Answer: x = 24, y = 6, and z = 23
3. 2 x  y  z  3...............(1)
x  3 y  2 z  11............(2)
3x  2 y  4 z  1................(3)
Take equation (1) and multiply it by (2). Thus we have,
4 x  2 y  2 z  6...............(4)
Take equation (2) and (4) , add it
4x  2 y  2z  6
x  3 y  2 z  11
5x  y  17...........(5)
Take equation (2) and multiply it by (2). Thus we have,
2 x  6 y  4 z  22............(6)
Take equation (3) and (6) , add it
2 x  6 y  4 z  22
3x  2 y  4 z  1
5x  4 y  23..................(7)
Now take equation (5) and (7). Then subtract equation (5) from (7)
5x  4 y  23
5 x  y  17.
6
3 y  6, y  2
3
Substitute y=2 in equation (5) 5x  2  17
15
5 x  15, x  3
5

Now, substitute x=3 and y=2 in equation (1)
2(3)  2  z  3
62 z  3
z  1
Answer: x = 3, y = 2 , and z =- 1
1 1 1
4.    11
x y z
3 4 1
   12
x y z
2 3 4
   29
x y z
1 1 1
Let a  , b  , and c 
x y z
Thus the equation becomes;
a  b  c  11...............(1)
3a  4b  c  12..........(2)
2a  3b  4c  29..........(3)
Take equation (1), (2) and add it
a  b  c  11.
3a  4b  c  12
4a  5b  23..............(4)
Multiply equation (1) by 4. Thus we have
4a  4b  4c  44...............(5)
Add equation (3) and (5)
4a  4b  4c  44
2a  3b  4c  29
6a  b  15..........(6)
30a  5b  75..........(7)

Subtract equation (4) from (7)
30a  5b  75
4a  5b  23
26a  52
52
a 2
26
Substitute in equation (6) , 6(2)  b  15
b  15  12  3
Now substitute a=2, and b=3 in equation (1)
2  3  c  11
c  11  5  6
1 1 1 1 1 1
x  , y   , and z  
a 2 b 3 c 6
x y
5.   0.........(1)
2 3
x y
  4..........(2)
4 2
We can rewrite the first equation as
3x  2 y
0
6
Do cross multiplication. Then, we have
3x  2 y  0...............(3)
Next take equation (2). We get,
2x  4 y
4
8
2 x  4 y  32............(4)
3x  2 y  0...............(3)
2 x  4 y  32............(4)

(3)  4  12 x  8 y  0...............(5)
(4)  2  4 x  8 y  64...............(6)
Add equation (5) and (6), we have
16 x  64
64
x 4
16
Put x=4 in equation (3) or (4)
3x  2 y  0
3(4)  2 y  0
12  2 y  0
2 y  12
12
y 6
2
S0 x = 4, and y = 6
Check the answer
x y
  0.......(1)
2 3
4 6
 0
2 3
22 0
x y
 4
4 2
4 6
 4
4 2
1 3  4
6. 2 x  y  3z  7.........(1)
3x  y  z  2.........(2)
4 x  3 y  2 z  8.........(3)

Add equation (1) and (2).
5x  4 z  9.........(4)
9 x  3 y  3z  6.........(5)
Take equation (5) and (3) and add it
9 x  3 y  3z  6
4x  3 y  2z  8
(3)  (5)  13x  z  14.........(6)
52 x  4 z  56.........(7)
52 x  4 z  56.........(7)
5x  4 z  9.........(4)
(7)  (4)  47 x  47
47
x  1
47
Put x=1 in (4) 5x  4 z  9
5(1)  4 z  9.........(4)
4 z  4
4
z   1
4
Put x=1, z=-1 in (1)
2 x  y  3z  7.........(1)
2(1)  y  3(1 _)  7.

2  y  3  7.
 y  7 5  2
Solution: x=1, y=2, and z=-1
7. 2 x  y  z  3..........(1)
x  3 y  2 z  8.......(2)
3x  y  z  6............(3)
2x  y  z  3
3x  y  z  6
5x  9
9
x 
5
(1)  2  4 x  2 y  2 z  6..........(4)
4x  2 y  2z  6
x  3 y  2z  8
5x  y  14.....(5)
9
Substitute x  in equation (5)
5
9
5  y  14.
5
45
 y  14
5
9  y  14
 y  14  9  5
 y  5

9
Substitute x  and y  5 in equation (1)
5
9
2  (5)  z  3.
5
18
5 z  3
5
18  25
z 3
5
7
z 3
5
7
z  3
5
15  7
z
5
22
z 
5
9 22
Thus, x  , y  5 and z 
5 5
8. x  2 y  3z  26.........(1)
x  3 y  2 z  1.........(2)
3x  y  z  8............(3)
x  2 y  3z  26
x  3 y  2z  1
5 y  z  25...........(4)
(1)  3  3x  6 y  9 z  78.........(5)
3x  6 y  9 z  78
3x  y  z  8

5 y  10 z  70............(6)
5 y  10 z  70
5 y  z  25
9 z  45
45
z  5
9
Substitute z=5 in equation (4)
5 y  z  25
5 y  5  25
5 y  25  5
20
y  4
5
Substitute y=4 and z=5 in equation (1)
x  2(4)  3(5)  26
x  8  15  26
x  26  23
 x  3 Solution: x=3, y=4, and z=5

MODULE III
Basic Mathematical Concepts – Quadratic Equations

In the previous chapter we learned how to solve simple linear equations and linear
simultaneous equations. This chapter discusses how to solve quadratic equation. After
reading this chapter, you will be able to:
 Find the roots of quadratic equation
 Various methods to solve quadratic equations
 The uses of quadratic equation in Economics
Quadratic Function
A quadratic function is one which involves at most the second power of the independent
variable in the equation ax 2  bx  c where a and b are coefficients and c is constant. The
graph of a quadratic function is parabola.
Quadratic Equation
Equation of degree two is known as quadratic equation. This is one of the non-linear
equations. The general format of this equation can be written as ax 2  bx  c  0 . Where a, b
and c are real numbers and a is not equal to zero. The numbers b and c can also be zero .The
number a is the coefficient of x 2 , b is the coefficient of x, and c is the constant term. These
numbers can be positive or negative.
For example: x 2  5x  6  0 . Solving this equation we get two values for x. These two
values are known as the roots of the quadratic equation.
Methods to Find the Roots of the Quadratic Equation:
The general quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0 can be solved by one of the following
methods
1) By factorization method
2) By quadratic formula
3) By completing the square method
1. By Factorization Method
The factorization is an inverse process of multiplication. When an algebraic
expression is the product of two or more quantities, each these quantities is called factor.
Consider this example, if (x+3) be multiplied by (x+2) the product is x 2  5x  6 .The two
expressions
A. Procedures to Factorise the Quadratic Equation x 2  bx  c
1. Factor the first term ( x 2 is the product of x and x)
2. Find two numbers that their sum becomes equal to b (the coefficient of x) and the
product becomes equal to c (the constant term)
3. Equate these two expressions with zer0.
4. Apply Zero Property: if we have two expressions multiplied together resulting in
zero, then one or both of these must be zero. In other words, if m and n are
complex numbers, then m × n= 0, iff m=0 or n=0

Example: Find the roots of x 2  5x  6  0
Factors of x 2 are x and x. Next find two numbers whose sum is -5 and the
product is six. The numbers are -2 and -3
( x  3) ( x  2)  0
Thus either ( x  3) or ( x  2) should be equal to zero
( x  3)  0 , x=3
( x  2)  0 x=2
OR
x 2  5x  6  0
This equation can rewrite as
x 2  3x  2 x  6  0 -5 broken into two numbers
x( x  3)  2( x  3)  0 by factorising the first two terms and last two terms
( x  3)( x  2)  0 by noting the common factor of x + 3
( x  3)  0 or ( x  2)  0
So x=3 or x=2
2. Quadratic Formula
The roots of a quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0 can be solved by the following
quadratic formula
We can split this formula into two parts as

 b  b 2  4ac
 , and
2a
 b  b 2  4ac

2a
b
Accordingly, sum of roots:      and
a
c
Product of roots    
a

Example: Find the roots of 6 x 2  10 x  4  0
Here a=6, b= -10, and c=4
 b  b 2  4ac

2a
 (10)  (10) 2  4  6  4
x
26
10  100  96

26
10  4 10  2
  1
26 12
 b  b 2  4ac

2a
 (10)  (10) 2  4  6  4
x
26
10  100  96

26
10  4 10  2 8 2
   
26 12 12 3
2
Answer: x=1 or x= 
3
3. Completing the Square
This is based on the idea that a perfect square trinomial is the square of a binomial.
Consider the following examples:
x 2  10 x  25 is a perfect trinomial because this can be written in the square of a binomial

as ( x  5) . Consider x  6 x  9 , this equation can be written as ( x  3)
2 2 2
Now look at the constant terms of the above two equations, it is the square of half of the
coefficient of x equals the constant term;

2 2
1  1 
  10   25 , and   (6)   9 . Thus we use this idea in the completing the
2  2 
square method.
Steps under Completing the Square Method
1) Rewrite the equation x 2  bx  c in to x 2  bx  c

2
1 
2) Add to each side of the equation  b 
2 
3) Factor the perfect-square trinomial
4) Take the square root of both sides of the equation
5) Solve for x
Example: Solve x 2  6 x  4  0 by completing the square method.

Solution: First rewrite the equation as x 2  bx  c
x2  6x  4
2 2
1  1 
Add  b  on both sides. Here b=6 and  b = 3  9
2
2   2 
x2  6x  9  4  9
( x  3) 2 = 13
Now take the square root of both sides
x  32  13
( x  3) =  13
( x  3  13
So x=  3  13 or  3  13
OR
Rewrite the equation so that it becomes complete square. To rewrite the equation take the half
of the coefficient of x, add or subtract (depends on the sign of coefficient of x) with the x and
1 
square it. Here,  b   3
2 
( x  3) 2 = x 2  6 x  9
 x 2  6 x  4  ( x  3) 2  9  4 Deduct 9 from the expression
= ( x  3) 2  13  0

Take 13 to right side and put square root on both sides

 x  32  13
( x  3) =  13
( x  3  13
So x=  3  13 or  3  13
SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
In the second module you have learned simultaneous equations where both equations are
linear. In this section we would learn how to solve simultaneous quadratic equation. We start
with simultaneous equations where one equation is linear and other is quadratic. This will
give you a quadratic equation to solve.
Example: solve simultaneous equations
y  x2 1
y  5 x
Solution:
y  x 2  1.........................(1)
y  5  x...........................(2)
( y  x 2  1) - ( y  5  x) = x 2  1  5  x y will be cancelled
x  x6  0 2
Now solve this quadratic equation either by factorisation method or by quadratic formula.
By factorisation ( x  3) ( x  2)  0
So x  3  0 or x  2  0 Therefore, x=-3 or x= 2
OR
 x 2 1  5  x
x2  1  5  x = x2  x  6  0
Now we can move to simultaneous quadratic equations

Solve simultaneous quadratic equations
y  2 x 2  3x  2
y  x2  2x  8

Solution:
y  2 x 2  3x  2..............(1)
y  x 2  2 x  8...............(2)
Now equate equation (1) and equation (2)
2 x 2  3x  2  x 2  2 x  8
2 x 2  3x  2  x 2  2 x  8  0
x2  x  6  0
ECONOMIC APPLICATION
The quadratic equation has application in the field of economics. Here we discuss two
important Economics application of quadratic equation.
Supply and Demand
The quadratic equation can be used to represent supply and demand function. Market
equilibrium occurs when the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied. If we solve the
system of quadratic equations for quantity and price we get equilibrium quantity and price.
For example: The supply function for a commodity is given by p  q 2  50 and the demand
function is given by p  10q  650 find the point of equilibrium.
Solution:
At the equilibrium demand is equal to supply
q 2  50   10q  650
q 2  50  10q  650  0
q 2  10q  600  0
By factorization (q  30)(q  20)  0
So q=-30 or 20
Since negative quantity is not possible we take positive value as quantity. Thus the
equilibrium quantity is 20. Put q=20 in either demand function or supply function.
Supply function p  q 2  50
p  (20) 2  50
P=450
Cost and Revenue
The cost and revenue function can be represented by the quadratic equation. The total cost
is composed of two parts, fixed cost and variable cost. The fixed cost remains the same
regardless of the number of units produced. It does not depend on the quantity produced.
Rent on building and machinery is an example for the fixed cost. The variable cost is directly

related to the number of unit produced. Cost on raw material is an example for the variable
cost. Thus,
TC=FC+VC
The revenue of the firm depends on the number of unit sold and its price.
TR= P×Q. Where TR denotes total revenue, P shows price, and Q denotes quantity.
BREAK-EVEN POINT
Firm’s break-even point occurs when total revenue is equal to total cost.
Steps: 1-Find the profit function
2- Equate profit function with zero and solve for q.
If we deduct total cost function from total revenue function we get profit function.
Example: A firm has the total cost function TC  10.75q 2  5q  125
and demand function p  180  0.5q Find revenue function, profit function, and break-
even point .
Solution:
Total revenue function= price × quantity (TR=p × q)
p  q  (180  0.5q)q
 175q  0.5q 2
Profit function= Total revenue- total cost (  TR  TC)
 175q  0.5q 2  10.75q 2  5q  125

 180q  11.25q 2  125
11.25q 2  180q  125
Break –even point
11.25q 2  180q  125  0
Use quadratic formula
 b  b 2  4ac
q
2a
Here a=11.25, b=-180, and c= -125
 (180)  (180) 2  4  11.25  125
q
2  11.25
180  32400  5625


22.5
180  38025

22.5
180  195

22.5

180  195
  16.66  17
22.5
180  195
  0.67
22.5
Since negative quantity is not possible we take positive value as quantity. Thus the break-
even point is 17.
QUESTIONS
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The roots of the equation x 2  7 x  12  0 are
a) 2, 5 b) -5, 2 c) 3, 4 d) -3, -4
2. The product of two numbers is 143 and the sum is 24, then the numbers are.
a) 18, 16 b) 11, 13 c) 14, 10 d) 15, 9
3. 9 x 2  kx  81  0 has equal roots when k = …….

a) ±54 b) ±34 c) ±64 d) ±44
4. The sum of two consecutive numbers is 13 and the sum of its square is 85, then the
numbers are.
a) 8, 5 b) 9, 4 c) 6,7 d) None of the above
5. The roots of the equation x 2  19 x  90  0 are
a) -9, 10 b) 10, -9 c) -9, -10 d) 9, 10
6. x 2  4 x  6  0 , has………………… roots
a) Imaginary b) Equal c) Rational d) None-of the above
7. x 2  6 x  9  0 , roots are……………
a) Rational and unequal b) Imaginary
c) Rational but equal d) Equal to each other
8. x 2  9 x  18  0 , roots are……………
a) Equal to each other b) Imaginary
c) Rational but unequal d) None of the above
9. The discriminant of the equation 3x 2  8x  4  0 is

a) 18 b) 16 c) -16 d) -18
10. The discriminant of the equation x 2  4 x  4  0 is

a) 0 b) 4 c) 1 d) None of the above
11. Sum of the two roots of a quadratic equation is 7 and their product is 12, equations is
a) x  12 x  7  0 b) x 2  12 x  7  0
2
c) x 2  7 x  12  0 d) x 2  7 x  12  0
12. The roots of the equation x 2  16  0 are

a) 8, 2 b) 4, -4 c) 4 d) -4
13. The roots of the equation 12 x 2  30 x  18  0 are
a) 1, 2 b) 2, 3 c) 3, 4 d) None of the above
14. X and Y are two numbers such that their sum is 15 and the sum of their reciprocal is
3
, then the value of X and Y are…………..
10
a) 6, 9 b) 5, 10 c) 12, 3 d) 8, 7
15. Find two consecutive numbers whose square has the sum 41
a) 7, 8 b) 6, 7 c) 4, 5 d) None of the above
16. The value of k for which the quadratic equation 4 x 2  2(k  1) x  (k  1)  0
a) 5, -3 b) 5, 3 c) -2, 3 d) 1, 2
17. The value of k for which the quadratic equation (k  5) x 2  6(k  5) x  9  0
has equal roots.
a) 5 b) -5 c) 6 d) -6
18. If one root of the equation is 3  5 , then equation is
a) x 2  3  5x  3  0 b) x 2  6 x  4  0
c) x 2  3  5x  3  0 d) x 2  4 x  6  0
19. If the roots of the equation 2 x 2  8x  y 3  0 are equal then the value of y is
a) 2 b) 3 c) -3 d) -2
20. x 2  5x  14  0 , the roots of the equation are

a) (2, 5) b) (-2, 5) c) (7, 2) d) (-7, 2)
21. x 2  9 x  18  0 , the factors of the equation are

a) (x+2)(x+9) b) (x+3)(x+6)
c) (x-2)(x-9) d) none of the above
22. x  6 x  9  0 , roots are

2
a) (3, 3) b) (-3, -3) c) (3, -3) d) (2, 9)

23. 2 x  3  0 , roots are
2
a) (0, 3/2) b) (0, 3) c) (2/3, 0) d) none of the above

24. ( x  2)  ............
2
a) x2  4x  2  0 b) x 2  4 x  2  0
c) x 2  4 x  4  0 d) x 2  4 x  4  0
25) x  4 x  3  0 , (   )  ........
2 2
a) 4 b) 6 c) 2 d) 1
ANSWERS
1. d) -3, -4
2. b) 11, 13
3. a) ±54
4. c) 6,7
5. d) 9, 10
6. a) Imaginary
7. d) Equal to each other
8. c) Rational but unequal
9. c) 6
10. b) x 2  6 x  4  0
11. d) -2
12. d) (-7, 2)
13. b) (x+3)(x+6)
14. b) (-3, -3)
15. a) (0, 3/2)
16. x 2  4 x  4  0
17. a) 4
Very Short Answer Type Questions
1. Solve the equation by factorization method x 2  8x  16  0

2. Examine the nature of the roots of 3x 2  8x  4  0
3. Examine the nature of the roots of x 2  4 x  4  0
4. Examine the nature of the roots of x 2  5x  6  0
5
5. If the sum of a number and its reciprocal adds to , then what is the number?
2
6. Construct a quadratic equation for the roots 6 and 4.
7. Find two consecutive numbers whose sum of squares is 85.

8. Solve the equation by factorization method x 2  x  6  0

9. Solve the equation by factorization method x 2  4 x  3  0
10. Solve the equation by factorization method 3x 2  14 x  8  0
11. Solve x+y=5
xy=6
12. Examine the nature of the roots of x 2  15  56  0
13. Write a short note on the importance of discriminant in the quadratic equation.
14. Solve the equation by factorization method 14 x 2  45x  9  0
15. Solve 6 x 2  6 x  36  0
Answers
1. x 2  8x  16
x 2  4 x  4 x  16  0 -8 broken into two numbers
x( x  4)  4( x  4)  0 By factorising the first two terms and
last two terms
( x  4)( x  4)  0 by noting the common factor of x -4
( x  4)  0
So x=4, Both roots are same
2. 3x  8x  4  0
2
The discriminant D  b  4ac

2
Here, a=3, b=-8, and c=4

D  b 2  4ac = (8) 2  4  3  4
=64 - 48=16
Since D >0 and perfect square. The roots are real, rational and
unequal
3. x 2  4 x  4  0
Here, a=1, b=4, and c=4
D  b 2  4ac = (4) 2  4  1 4
=16- 16=0
Since D =0. The roots are real and equal
4. x 2  5x  6  0
Here, a=1, b=-5, and c=6
D  b 2  4ac = (5) 2  4  1 6
=25 - 24=0
Since D >0. The roots are rational and unequal
5. Let be the number x.

1 5
Then x    
 x 2
x2  1 5

x 2
 2 x  5x  2  0
2
 2x2  4x  x  2  0
 2 x( x  2)  1( x  2)  0
 (2 x  1)( x  2)  0
So, x= ½ or 2
6. The equation can be constructed as

x 2  (Sum of roots) × x + (product of roots) =0
Here,   6 and   4
    10 , and     24
Thus the equation is x 2  10 x  24  0
7. Let the first number is x and the second number is x+1

From the question x 2  x  1  85
2
x 2  x 2  2 x  1  85
2 x 2  2 x  84  0
x 2  x  42  0
By factorization ( x  7)( x  6)  0
X= - 7 , x=6
From the question the two numbers are consecutive numbers. Thus numbers
are 6 and 7
8. x 2  x  6  0
Find two numbers whose sum is equal to the value of the coefficient of x (-1) and the
product is equal to the value of constant (-6)
The numbers are -3 and 2. Thus the factors are
( x  3)( x  2)  0
i) ( x  3)  0 or ii) ( x  2)  0
x3 x  2
9. x 2  4 x  3  0
Find two numbers whose sum is equal to the value of the coefficient of x (-4) and the
product is equal to the value of constant (-3)
The numbers are -3 and -1. Thus the factors are

( x  3)( x  2)  0
i) ( x  3)  0 or ii) ( x  1)  0
x3 x 1
10. 3x 2  14 x  8  0
Here, the coefficient of x2 is not unity. So multiply the coefficient of x2 by
Constant. 3×8=24
Now, find two numbers whose sum is -14 and the product is 24
The numbers are -12 and -2
3x 2  14 x  8  3x 2  12 x  2 x  8  0
3x( x  4)  2( x  4)  0
(3x  2)( x  4)  0
i) (3x  2)  0 or ii) ( x  4)  0
3x  2 x4
2
x
3
11. x+y=5………….(1)
xy=6…………..(2)
From the equation (1) y=5-x…….(3)
Put equation (3) in (1). Thus, we have,
x(5  x)  6
5x  x 2  6   x 2  5x  6  0
 1  x 2  5x  6  0
By factorization ( x  3)( x  2)  0
So, x=3 or x=2
When x=3, y=5-3=2

When x= 2, y=5-2=3
Answer: x = 3, y = 2
X = 2, y = 3

12. x 2  15  56  0
Here, a=1, b=-15, and c=56

D  b 2  4ac = (15) 2  4  1 56
=225 - 224=1
D>0, there are two distinct real solutions
13.The value of the expression

b 2  4ac is called the discriminant. The nature of roots of the
quadratic equation can be predicted by the value of the discriminant. Generally it is denoted
by D.
If D  0  Roots are imaginary and of the form p+iq and p-iq

D  0  Roots are equal to each other
D  0 and D is a perfect square  the roots are rational but unequal
D  0 and D is not aperfect square  the roots are irrational and of the form
p  q and p  q
14.
14 x 2  45x  9  0
Here, the coefficient of x2 is not unity. So multiply the coefficient of x2 by
constant. 14×9=126
Now, find two numbers whose sum is 45 and the product is 126
The numbers are 42 and 3
14 x 2  45x  9  14 x 2  42 x  3x  9  0
14 x( x  3)  3( x  3)  0
(14 x  3)( x  3)  0
i) (14 x  3)  0 or ii) ( x  3)  0
14 x  3 x  3
3
x
14
15.
6 x 2  6 x  36  0
 6  x2  x  6  0
Now, find two numbers whose sum is -1 and the product is -6

The numbers are -3 and 2

x 2  x  6  0  ( x  3)( x  2)  0
( x  3)  0 ( x  2)  0
X=3 x=-2
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Find the roots of the equation by quadratic formula 3x 2  8x  4  0
2. Solve 4 x 2  4 x  2  0
3. Solve 2 x 2  6 x  3  0
4. The product of two numbers is 3200 and when the larger number is divided by the
smaller number the result is 2. Find the numbers.
5. Solve y  x 2  2 x  2
y  2x  2
6. Solve y  x 2  5x  5
y  2 x  15
7. Divide 75 in to two parts so that the sum of their reciprocal is 1/18.
8. The sum of two consecutive numbers is 13 and the sum of its square is 85. Find
numbers.
9. Find the roots of the equation 3x 2  14 x  8  0
10. Q s  p 2  30 p  180 , Q d  130  10 p are supply and demand function of a firm

respectively. Find equilibrium quantity and price.
11. Demand for goods of a firm is given by the equation 2pq=200 and supply is given by
the equation 40+6p=2q, where p is the price and q is the quantity. Find equilibrium
quantity and price.
12. Solve 4 x 4  10 x 2  36  0
13. Solve x8  82 x 4  81  0
14. Solve 2 x  2 y  24  0
2 x 2  2 y 2  148  0
15. Solve x  y  3
x y 5
 
y x 2
ANSWERS
1. 3x 2  8x  4  0


 b  b 2  4ac

2a
 (8)  (8) 2  4  3  4
x
23
8  64  48

6
8  16 84
  2
6 6
 b  b 2  4ac

2a
8  64  48

6
8  16 84 4 2
   
6 6 6 3
2
Answer: x = 2 or x 
3
2. 4 x 2  4 x  2  0
 b  b 2  4ac

2a
 (4)  (4) 2  4  4  2
x
2 4
4  16  32

8
4   16 4  i 16
 
8 8
 b  b 2  4ac

2a
4  16  32

8

4   16 4  i 16
 
8 8
4  i 16 4  i 16
Answer: x  or x 
8 8
3. 2 x 2  6 x  3  0
Here a=2, b= -6, and c=-3
 b  b 2  4ac

2a
 (6)  (6) 2  4  2  3
x
2 2
6  36  24

4
6  60 6  7.75
   3.44
4 4
 b  b 2  4ac

2a
6  36  24

4
6  60 6  7.75
   0.4375
4 4
Answer: x = 3.44 or x = -0.4375
4. Let x be the larger number and y be the small number
By the question x  y  3200............(1) and

x
2
y
 x  2y..................(2)
Substitute equation (2) in (1) . Thus we have,
2 y  y  3200
2 y 2  3200
 y 2  1200  40
Substitute y=40 equation in (2) x  2y,
So x=80

Answer x = 80 and y = 40
5. y  x 2  2 x  2................(1)
y  2 x  2.........................(2)
Equate equation (1) and (2)
x2  2x  2  2x  2
x 2  2x  2  2x  2  0
x2  4x  4  0
By factorisation
( x  2)( x  2)  0
Therefore, x=2,
6. y  x 2  5x  5.....................(1)
y  2 x  15.......................(2)
Equate equation (1) and (2)
x 2  5x  5  2 x  15
x 2  5x  5  2 x  15  0
x 2  3x  10  0
By factorisation
( x  2)( x  5)  0
Therefore, x= 2 or x= -5
7. Let the parts be x and 75-x
1 1 1
By the question  
x 75  x 18
75  x  x 1

x(75  x) 18
1350  75x  x 2
x 2  75x  1350  0
x 2  30 x  45x  1350  0
x( x  30)  45( x  30)  0
( x  45)( x  30)  0
Thus x = 45, 30
8. Let X and Y are two numbers
From the question ( x  y)  13  y  13  x
( x 2  y 2 )  85
Put y  13  x in equation
( x 2  (13  x) 2  85
x 2  169  26 x  x 2  85
2 x 2  26 x  84  0
x 2  13x  42
By factorization ( x  6)( x  7)  0

i) x6  0 or x7  0
x6 x7
Thus, the two consecutive numbers are 6 and 7
9. 3x 2  14 x  8  0
 b  b 2  4ac

2a
 (14)  (14) 2  4  3  8
x
23
14  196  96

6
14  100

6
14  10 24
  4
6 6
 b  b 2  4ac

2a
 (14)  (14) 2  4  3  8
x
23
14  196  96

6
14  100

6
14  10 4 2
  
6 6 3
Answer: x = 4 or x = 2/3
10. Q  p  30 p  80 , Q  420  10 p
s 2 d
At equilibrium Qs = Qd
p 2  30 p  80  420  10 p
p 2  30 p  80  420  10 p  0
p 2  40 p  420  0
 b  b 2  4ac
p
2a
a=1, b=40, c=-420

 (40)  (40) 2  4  1  340

2 1
 40  1600  1360

2
 40  2960

2
 40  54.40588

2
 40  54.40
  7.20
2
 40  54.40
  47.2
2
Take positive value as price. Thus equilibrium price is 7.20
Q d  420  10 p
To get equilibrium quantity put p=7.20 in demand function
Q d  420  10(7.2)
420  72  348
Answer: Equilibrium quantity is348 and equilibrium price is 7.20
11. 2 pq  200............(1)
40  6 p  2q............(2)
From the equation (2)
(40  6 p)
q
2
 q  20  3 p..............(3)
2 p(20  3 p)  200
40 p  6 p 2  200
 6 p 2  40 p  200  0
 2  3 p 2  20 p  100  0
Apply quadratic formula. Here a=3, b=20, and c= -100
 b  b 2  4ac
p
2a
 (20)  (20) 2  4  3  100

23
 20  400  1200

6
 (20)  1600

6
 20  40

6
 20  40 20 10  20  40  60
p   p   10
6 6 3 or 6 6
10
p
P can’t be negative 3
Put obtained p value in equation (3), we get
10
q  20  3( )  30
3
10
Answer: p  , q  30
3
12. 4 x  40 x  36  0
4 2
Put y=x2,.Then equation becomes,

4 y 2  40 y  36  0
 y 2  10 y  9  0
Use factorization method, find two numbers whose sum is -10 and its product is 9.
y 2  10 y  9  0  ( y  9)( y  1)  0
( y  9)  0 y 9
( y  1)  0  y 1
Now, we are able to find the value of x. As x  y, x  y

2
When y=1, x  1  1
When y=9 x  9  3
Answer: x = 1, x = -1, x = 3, and x = -3
13. x  82 x  81  0
8 4
Put y=x4,.Then equation becomes,

y 2  55 y  54  0
y 2  82 y  81  0  ( y  81)( y  1)  0
( y  81)  0  y  81
( y  1)  0  y 1

Now, we are able to find the value of x. As x  y, x  y

4 4
When y=81, x  81  3
4
When y=1 x  1  1
4
Answer: x = 3, and x = 1
14. 2 x  2 y  24  0..................(1)
2 x 2  2 y 2  148  0...........(2)
From equation (1)
2 x  24  2 y  x  12  y...........(3)
Put equation (3) in (2)
2(12  y) 2  2 y 2  148  0
2(144  24 y  y 2 )  2 y 2  148  0
288  48 y  2 y 2  2 y 2  148  0
 4 y 2  48 y  140  0
 y 2  12 y  35  0
y 2  12 y  35  0  ( y  7)( y  5)  0
( y  7)  0 y 7
( y  5)  0 y 5
When y=7 x=12-7=5
When y-5 x=12-5=7
Thus, the solutions are:
Y=7 x=5
Y=5 x=7
15. x  y  3...............(1)
x y 5
  ................(2)
y x 2
Take equation (2) and rewrite it as
x2  y2 5

yx 2
Do cross multiplication
2 x 2  2 y 2  5 yx..........(3)
From equation (1) y=3-x……..(4). Apply equation (4) in (3)
2 x 2  2(3  x) 2  5(3  x) x
2 x 2  2(9  6 x  x 2 )  (15  5x) x
2 x 2  18  12 x  2 x 2 )  15x  5x 2

2 x 2  18  12 x  2 x 2  15x  5x 2  0
9 x 2  27 x  18  0
 9  x 2  3x  2  0
By factorisation (x-2)(x-1)=0
X=2, or x=1
Put x values in equation (4)
When x=2, y=3-2=1
When x=1 y=3-1=2
Solutions: x = 2 y=1
x=1 y=2
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. Find the roots of the equation ( x 2  (13  x) 2  85

a). By factorization method
b).By quadratic formula
b c
Show that sum of roots is equal to  a and the product is equal to a
2. Consider the equation 18x  12 x  30  0 .Find the solution by completing the square
2
method.
3. Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations
2 x 2  6 y 2  114
6 x  2 y  10
4. Solve the following simultaneous equation
12 x 2  8xy  32  0
16 x  4 y  52
5. A firm has the total cost function TC  16q 2  12q  250
and demand function p  180  2q
Find, a). TR function
b). Profit function
c). Profit when q=25
d). Breakeven point
6. A firm has the total cost function TC  61.25q 2  428q  240

and demand function Q  600  0.5 p
Find, a). TR function
b). Profit function
d). Breakeven point
7. Solve the following simultaneous equation
2 x 2  3 y 2  147
3x  y  13
8. Solve the equation by completing the Square
4x2  4x  3
ANSWERS
1. ( x  (13  x)  85
2 2
x 2  169  26 x  x 2  85
2 x 2  26 x  84  0
x 2  13x  42
a ) By factorization ( x  6)( x  7)  0
i) x6  0 or x7  0
x6 x7
b) By quadratic formula x 2  169  26 x  x 2  85
2 x 2  26 x  84  0
x 2  13x  42
Here a=1, b= -13, and c=42

 b  b 2  4ac

2a
 (13)  (13) 2  4  1  42
x
2 1
13  169  168

2
13  1 13  1
  7
2 2
 b  b 2  4ac

2a
 (13)  (13)2  4 1 42
x
2 1
13  169  168

2
13  1 13  1
  6
2 2
  6 , and   7 Thus, x=6 or x=7

b
Sum of roots:     
a
 13
  13
1
    7  6  13
c
Product of roots:    
a
42
  42
1
    7  6  42
2. 18x 2  12 x  30  0
Divide the whole equation by 18
18 x 2 12 x 30
  0
18 18 18
2 x 15
x2   0
3 9
2 x 15
 x2  
3 9
Add the square of half of the coefficient of x to both sides. Here, the coefficient of x is
2 1
. Hence, the half of the coefficient is
3 3
2
1 1
  
 3 9
2 x 1 15 1
x2    
3 9 9 9
Express the left-hand side as perfect square
2
 1  15 1
x    
 3 9 9
2
 1  16
x   
 3 9
Take square root on both sides,

2
 1 16
x  
 3 9
1 4
x 
3 3
So,

1 4 1 4
x  x 
3 3 3 3
4 1
x   1
3 3
4 1 5
x  
3 3 3
Answer: x=1 or x= -5/3
3. 2 x 2  6 y 2  114....................(1)
6 x  2 y  10.........................(2)
6 x  2 y  10
 2 y  10  6 x
y  5  3x
Substitute the value of y in the equation (1)
2 x 2  6(5  3x) 2  114
2 x 2  6(25  30 x  9 x 2  114
2 x 2  150  180 x  54 x 2  114  0
56 x 2  180 x  36  0
28x 2  90 x  18  0
14 x 2  45x  9  0
14 x 2  45x  9  0
Here, a=14, b=45, and c=9
 b  b 2  4ac

2a
 (45)  (45) 2  4  14  9

2  14
 45  2025  504

28
 45  1521  45  39 6 3
   
28 28 28 14
 b  b 2  4ac

2a
 (45)  (45) 2  4  14  9

2  14

 45  2025  504

28
 45  1521  45  39 84
     3
28 28 28
3 3
  , and   3 Thus, x   or x  3
14 14
4. 12 x 2  8xy  32  0...................(1)
16 x  4 y  52..................(2)
Rewrite the equation (2)
 4 y  52  16 x
y  13  4 x..........(3)
Substitute equation (3) in (1)
12 x 2  8x(13  4 x)  32  0
 12 x 2  104 x  32 x 2  32  0
44 x 2  104 x  32  0
 4  11x 2  26 x  8  0
 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
Here, a=11, b=-26, and c=8
 (26)  (26) 2  4  11  8

2  11
26  676  352

22
26  324 26  18
 
22 22
26  18 44
 2
22 22
Or
26  18 8 4
 
22 22 11

Substitute the value of x (x=2) in the equation (2). It gives the y value
16(2)  4 y  52
32  4 y  52
20
 4 y  20  y   5
4
4
Next, substitute x
11 in equation (2)
4
16( )  4 y  52
11
64
 4 y  52
11
64 572  64
 4 y  52   4 y 
11 11
508 508 1
 4y  y 
11 11 4
508 127
y 
1441 11
The solutions are
X=2 y = -5
X = 4/11 y = -127/11
5. TC  16q  12q  250

2
p  180  2q
a). Total Revenue function
TR  p  q  (180  2q)q
180q  2q 2
b). Profit Function
  TR  TC  (180q  2q 2 )  (16q 2  12q  250)
168q  10q 2  250
 10q 2  168q  250

 1  10q 2  168q  250

10(25) 2  168(25)  250
10(625)  4200  250
6250  4200  250
=2300
d). Breakeven point

10q 2  168q  250
 b  b 2  4ac
q
2a
Here a = 10, b =- 168, and c = 250

 (168)  (168) 2  4 10  250
q
2 10
168  28224  10000


20
168  18224

20
168  134.9963

20
168  134.9963
  15.14  15
20
168  134.9963
  1.65  1
20
The break-even points are 1 and 15.
6. TC  61.25q 2  428q  240................(1)

Q  600  0.5 p.......................(2)
a). Total Revenue Function
TR  p  q
From equation (2)
0.5 p  600  q  p  300  05q
TR  (300  05q)

300q  0.5q 2
b). Profit Function

  TR  TC  (300  05q 2 )  (61.25q 2  428q  240)
300  05q 2  61.25q 2  428q  240
 61.75q 2  428.q  60
 1  61.75q 2  428.q  60
C) Profit when q=12
61.75(12) 2  428(12)  60
8892  5136  60  3696
d) Break –even point

61.75q 2  428.q  60  0
 b  b 2  4ac
q
2a
Here a=61.75, b=-428, and c= -60

 (428)  (428) 2  4  61.75  60
q
2  61.75
428  183184  14820


123.5
428  198004

123.5
428  444.9764

123.5
428  444.9764
  7.06  7
123.5
428  444.9764
  0.1375
123.5
Since negative quantity is not possible we take positive value as quantity. Thus the break-
even point is 7.

7. 3x 2  3 y 2  183.......(1)
3x  y  13............(2)
Rewrite the equation (2)

 y  13  3x
y  13  3x..........(3)
Substitute equation (3) in (1)
3x 2  3(13  3x) 2  183
 3x 2  3(169  78x  9 x 2 )  183
3x 2  507  234 x  27 x 2  183
30 x 2  234 x  324  0
 10 x 2  78x  108  0
 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
Here, a=10, b=-78, and c=108
 (78)  (78) 2  4  10  108

2  10
78  6084  4320

20
78  1764 78  42
 
22 20
78  42 120
 6
20 20
Or
78  42 36 9
 
20 20 5
Substitute the value of x (x=6) in the equation (2). It gives the y value
3(6)  y  13
18  y  13

 y  13  18  5
y 5
9
Next, substitute x
5 in equation (2)
9
3   y  13
5
27
 y  13
5
27
 y  13 
5
65  27 38
y 
5 5
38
y
5
Thus, solutions are x=6, y=5
x=9/5 y=-38/5
4x2  4x  3
8.
Rewrite the equation as
4x2  4x  3  0
Divide the equation by 4 and reduce it
3
x2  x  0
4
3
x2  x 
4
Add square of half of the coefficient of x to both sides. The coefficient of x is 1. Therefore half
of the coefficient of x is ½
2
1 1
  
2 4

1 3 1
x2  x   
4 4 4
Express left hand side as perfect square. Then, we have

2
 1
x   1
 2
Take square root on both sides
2
 1
x    1
 2
1
x  1
2
1 1
Thus, x 1 x  1
2 2
1 1
x  1 or x  1 
2 2
1 3
x  x  
2 2
1 3
Solutions: x , x
2 2

MODULE IV
Graphs and Economic Applications
Linear Equations
A linear equation looks like any other equation. It is made up of two expressions set equal to
each other. A linear equation is special because:
1. It has one or two variables.

2. No variable in a linear equation is raised to a power greater than 1 or used as the
denominator of a fraction.
3. When you find pairs of values that make the linear equation true and plot those pairs
on a coordinate grid, all of the points for any one equation lie on the same line. Linear
equations graph as straight lines.
A linear equation in two variables describes a relationship in which the value of one of the
variables depends on the value of the other variable. In a linear equation in x and y, x is
called the independent variable and y depends on it. We call y the dependent variable. The
independent variable is plotted along the horizontal axis. Most linear equations are functions
(that is, for every value of x, there is only one corresponding value of y). When you assign a
value to the independent variable, x, you can compute the value of the dependent variable, y.
You can then plot the points named by each (x,y) pair on a coordinate grid.
A linear equation is an equation for a straight line.
There are many ways of writing linear equations, but they usually have constants (like "2" or
"c") and must have simple variables (like "x" or "y").
These are linear equations:
y = 3x − 6
y − 2 = 3(x + 1)
y + 2x − 2 = 0
5x = 6
y/2 = 3
But the variables (like ‘x’ or ‘y’) in Linear Equations do NOT have:
Exponents (like the 2 in x2)
Square roots, cube roots, etc

Forms of linear Equations
(a) Slope-Intercept Form
The most common form is the slope-intercept equation of a straight line
Y = mx + b
Where ‘y’ is slope, and ‘b’ is intercept.
Before we move further, we will make two concepts clear (a) What is a slope and how is it
measured. (b) What is intercept and how it is measured.
Slope
The Slope (also called Gradient) of a straight line shows how steep a straight line is.
The method to calculate the slope is:Divide the change in height by the change in horizontal
distance. (see figure)

Example1
The slope of this line is
So the slope is equal to 1
Example 2
So the slope is equal to 2.The line is steeper, and so the slope is larger.
Example 3

So the slope is equal to 0.6.The line is less steep, and so the slope is smaller.
Example 4
That line goes down as you move along, so it has a negative slope.
Example 5
A line that goes straight across has a slope of zero.
Example 6

(b) Intercept of a Straight Line
The intercept of a straight line is the point where it crosses the axis.
The Y intercept of a straight line is simply where the line crosses the Y axis.
Example:
In the above diagram the line crosses the Y axis at 1.So the Y intercept is equal to 1.
Graph of a linear equation
y = 2x+1 is a linear equation. When graphed, we get the following.

We see that The graph of y = 2x+1 is a straight line. In this equation 2x means when x
increases, y increases twice as fast. We can also see from the diagram that when x is 0, y is
already 1. Hence +1 is also needed in the equation of the line. That is how we get the
equation y = 2x +1.
Different forms of equation of a straight line
There are different forms by which a straight line is expressed. The most popular one is the
slope – intercept for we have already seen. Here is a list of all the forms.
1. Slope-Intercept Form; y = mx + b(not discussing in detail, as we have already done that)
2. Point-Slope Form:
The "point-slope" form of the equation of a straight line is:y - y1 = m(x - x1)
Using this formula, when we know:one point on the lineand the slope of the line, then we can
find other points on the line.
(x1, y1) is a known point
m is the slope of the line
(x, y) is any other point on the line
We can see the Point-Slope Form is a different form of the Slope-Intercept Form.
So the slope is
Cross multiplying we get

So, it is just the slope formula in a different

way.
Example 1
Here slope is
y - y1 = m(x - x1)
We know the value of m from the above calculation.

We can also read from the figure that the values of x1
is 3 and y1 is 2. That is (x1,y1) = (3,2).
Substituting in the form y - y1 = m(x - x1) we get

equation of this straight line as
y - 2 = 3(x - 3)
We can further simplify the equation that we just got
y – 2 = 3(x – 3)
y – 2 = 3x–9
y = 3x – 9 +2
y = 3x – 7 (which is of the slope – intercept form)
Example 2

Here slope is
y - y1 = m(x - x1)
We know the value of m from the above calculation.

We can also read from the figure that the values of x1
is 0 and y1 is 0. That is (x1,y1) = (0,0).
Substituting in the form y - y1 = m(x - x1) we get

equation of this straight line as
y-0= 3(x - 0)
y = −3x
Example 3: Vertical Line
What is the equation for a vertical line? Here the slope is

undefined. In fact, this is a special case, and we use a
different equation, like this:
X = 1.5
Every point on the line has x coordinate 1.5,
that’s why its equation is x = 1.5
Question 1
Using the given point(in Fig 1), find the equation of this straight line in Point-Slope Form
Fig 1 Fig 2

The equation of this straight line in Point-Slope Form is y - 2 = 3(x - 1)
This is how we work out it. (refer to fig. 2)
First find the slope:

m = = 3/1 = 3
Next use the formula y - y1 = m(x - x1)
Substitute x1 = 1, y1 = 2 and m = 3
Therefore y 2 = 3(x − 1)
Example 2
Using the given point (in Fig1), what is the Point-slope equation of this line

Fig 1 Fig 2
the Point-slope equation of this line is y + 3 = −2(x −4)
This is how we workout
Fist find the slope, m = −2/1 = −2
Now use y - y1 = m(x - x1)

Substitute x1 = 4, y1 = −3 and m = −2
⇒ y −(−3) = −2(x − 4)
⇒ y + 3 = −2(x − 4).
Graphical solution of linear equations
Example 1: Graph the function 3y + 15x = 30
To solve this first set the equation in the slope intercept form y = mx + b. Then solve it for y
in terms of x.
3y + 15x = 30
3y = −15x + 30
y = −5x + 10

From this we can find the value of slope, which is the value of m, that is, −5.
Slope m = −5
We know that at y intercept, x = 0. So to find y intercept, equate x = 0 in the equation.
y = −5(0) + 10
y = 10
So the y intercept is (0,10)
Similarly find the x intercept by equating y = 0.
0 = −5x + 10
5x = 10
x = 2.
So the x intercept is (2,0)
By plotting the x and y intercepts we can graph the equation as given in the following figure.
Question 1:
Graph the function 2y − 6x = 12
2y = 6x + 12
y = 3x + 6
From this we can find the value of slope, which is the value of m, that is, m = 3.
y = 3(0) + 6

y= 6
So the y intercept is (0,6)
0 = 3x + 6
3x = −6
x = −2.
So the x intercept is (−2,0)
Question 2:
Graph the function 8y − 2x + 16 = 0
8y = 2x − 16
From this we can find the value of slope, which is the value of m,
y = −2
So the y intercept is (0,−2)

Question 3:
Graph the function 6y + 3x − 16 = 0
6y = −3x + 16
From this we can find the value of slope, which is the value of m,
y=3
So the y intercept is (0, 3)

Simultaneous linear equations

Simultaneous equations can be solved in several ways. Here we see how they are solved
graphically. We shall explain it with the help of the following example.
Example
Solve simultaneously for x and y:
x + y =10
x − y =2
The two equations in the problem are linear equations and let us plot them.
Equation 1: x + y=10
0 + y = 10
y = 10

x + 0 = 10
x = −10
So the x intercept is (−10,0)
By plotting the x and y intercepts we can graph the equation x + y = 10 as given in the figure
below. But before that we have to find the intercepts for the second equation also.
Equation 2: x – y= 2
0−y=2
y = −2
So the y intercept is (0, −2)
x−0=2
x=2
Let us now plot the two equations. The intersection of the graphs of the two equations will be
the values of x and y that will solve both equations. See the following figure.
From the intersection of the graphs of the two curves we know that the solution to the
problem is y = 4 and x = 6.

Question 1
x–y=2
2x + y=10
Equation 1: x – y = 2
0–y=2
y = −2
So the y intercept is (0, −2)
x–0=2
x=2
By plotting the x and y intercepts we can graph the equation x – y = 2 as given in the figure
Equation 2: 2x + y =10
2(0) + y =10
y = 10
2x + 0 =10
2x =10
x =5

From the intersection of the graphs of the two curves we know that the solution to the
problem is y = 2 and x = 4.
Question 2
2x + 3y = 7
4x + y = 9
Equation 1: 2x + 3y = 7
2(0) + 3y = 7
3y = 7
y = 2.33
So the y intercept is (0, 2.33)
2x + 3(0) = 7

2x = 7
x = 3.5
So the x intercept is (3.5,0)
By plotting the x and y intercepts we can graph the equation x – y = 2 as given in the figure
Equation 2: 4x + y = 9
4(0) + y = 9
y=9
4x + 0 = 9
4x =9
x =2.25
So the x intercept is (2.25,0)
From the graph we see that the point of intersection of the two lines is (2, 1)

Hence, the solution of the simultaneous equations is x = 2, y =1.
Question 3
2x + 3y = 5
x − 3y = 7
From the graph we see that the point of intersection of the two lines is (4, −1)
Hence, the solution of the simultaneous equations is x = 4, y =−1.
Question 4
2x − 3y = −6
x+y=7

Hence, the solution of the simultaneous equations is x = 3, y = 4.
Question 5
4x - 6y = 12
2x + 2y = 6
Hence, the solution of the simultaneous equations is x = 3, y =0 .

Note:
Please note the following points.
1. When we plot the two equations, if the lines are parallel, they do not intersect, and in such
cases there is no solution.
Consider the following system of linear equations:
x− y = −2
x− y = 1.
When we plot, we get two parallel lines.
In this cases there is no solution.
2. When we plot the two equations, if the lines are concurrent (both equations give same line)
then there are infinite solutions.
Consider the following system of linear equations:
x-y=1
2x - 2y = 2
Multiply the first equation by 2 to put the equations in the form
2x - 2y = 2
2x - 2y = 2
When we plot we get the same (concurrent) line for both equations.

Since any point on this line has coordinates which will satisfy both equations, so there are an
infinite number of solutions.
Applications in Economics - Isocost Lines
The isocost line is an important component when analysing producer’s behaviour. The
isocost line illustrates all the possible combinations of two factors that can be used at given
costs and for a given producer’s budget. In simple words, an isocost line represents a
combination of inputs which all cost the same amount.
suppose that a producer has a total budget of Rs 120 and and for producing a certain level of
output, he has to spend this amount on 2 factors A and B. Price of factors A and B are Rs 15
and Rs. 10 respectively.
Units of Units of
Combinations Capital Labour
Price = 150Rs Price = Rs 100 Total expenditure (
in Rupees)
A 8 0 120
B 6 3 120
C 4 6 120
D 2 9 120
E 0 12 120

The general formula of an isocost is PkK + PLL = T, where K and L are capital and labour, Pk
and PL are the prices of capital and labour respectively, and T is total outlay.
The budget line or price line of the indifference curve analysis is a similar concept.
Example 1
In a factorytwo inputs coal (C) or gas (G) is used in the production of steel. The cost of coal
used is 100 and the cost of gas used is 500. Draw an isocost curve showing the different
combinations of gas and coal that can be purchased (a) with an initial expenditure (E) of
10000, (b) if expenditure increases by 50 percent, (c) if the price of gas is reduced by 20
percent. (d) if the price of coal rises by 25 percent.
(a) Expenditure of coal + expenditure on gas = total expenditure
PcC + PgG= E
100C + 500G = 10000
C = 100 – 5G
The graph of this is the solid line in figure (a)
(b) A 50 percent increase in expenditure makes the new outlay 15000. So the new equation
will be
100C + 500G = 15000
C = 150 – 5G
The graph of this is the dashed line in figure (a)

(c) If the price of gas is reduced by 20 percent, the new price will be 400. So the new
equation is
100C + 400G = 10000
C = 100 – 4G
The graph is the dashed line in figure (b)
(d) ) If the price of coal is reduced by 25 percent, the new price will be 125. So the new
equation is
125C + 500G = 10000
C = 80 – 4G
The graph is the dashed line in figure (c)
Problem 1
A person has Rs. 120 to spend on two goods (X and Y) whose respective prices are Rs. 3 and
Rs.5. (a) draw a budget line (b) what happens to the original budget line if the budget falls by
25 percent. (c) what happens to the original budget line if the price of X doubles (d) what
happens to the original budget line if the price of Y falls to 4.
(Note that a budget line is similar to an isoquant).
(a) The general function of a budget line is PxX + PyY = B
If Px = 3, Py = 5and B = 120, we can write the budget line as
3X + 5Y = 120

Solving for Y in terms of X in order to graph the function,
The graph is the solid line in figure (a)
(b) If the budget falls by 25 percent, the new budget is 90. The equation for the new budget
line will be 3X + 5Y = 90.
The graph is the dashed line in figure (a). The lowering of budget causes the budget line to
shift to the left.
(c) If Px doubles, the equation becomes 6X + 5Y = 120
The graph is the dashed line in figure (b). With a higher price for X, less X can be bought
with the given budget.
(d) If Py now equals 4,
3X + 4Y = 120
The graph is the dashed line in figure (c) in the panel.
Supply and Demand Analysis
A graphical analysis of the market combines the demand curve, which captures the demand
side, with a corresponding supply curve, which illustrates the supply side. Equilibrium in

supply and demand analysis occurs when Qs = Qd. We can determine equilibrium price and
quantity by equating the supply and demand functions.
Example 1
A demand function is given by the equation where P is the

price good, Y is income, Ps is the price of a substitute and T is taste. You are further given
the data that Y = 5000, Ps = 25 and T = 30. (a) draw the demand function (b) What happens if
income increases to 7400.
(a) Let us re write the demand function including all the available information
This is graphed in the following figure.
(b) If income increases to 7400, we have
This is graphed as the dashed line in the above figure.
Problem 1
Find the equilibrium price and quantity for a market represented by the supply function
Qs = −20 + 3P and the demand function Qd = 220 – 5P.
Equilibrium is the point where
Qs = Qd
−20 + 3P = 220 – 5P
3P + 5P = 220 + 20

8P = 240
P = 30
So the equilibrium price is Rs. 30. Substitute P = 30 in supply function or demand function to
find equilibrium quantity.
Qs = −20 + 3(30) = −20 + 90 = 70 = equilibrium quantity
Equilibrium price is Rs. 30 and equilibrium quantity is 70.
Problem 2
Find the equilibrium price and quantity for a market represented by the supply function
Qs + 32 −7P = 0 and the demand function Qd – 128+9P = 0.
Qs = 7P −32
Qd = 128 – 9P
7P −32 = 128 – 9P
16P = 160
P= 10
So the equilibrium price is Rs. 10. Substitute P = 10 in supply function or demand function to
find equilibrium quantity.
Qs = 7(10) −32 = 70 – 32 = 38 = equilibrium quantity.
Equilibrium price is Rs. 10 and equilibrium quantity is 38.
**************

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School of Distance Education

MATHEMATICAL TOOLS FOR

(CUCBCSS - 2014 Admission)

Calicut university P.O, Malappuram Kerala, India

Complementary Course for BA Economics

Module I & IV Dr. Chacko Jose P.

Module II & III: Mr. Shihabudheen M.T

Edited and Compiled by: Dr. P. P. Yusuf Ali

Layout: Computer Section, SDE

Mathematical Tools for Economics 1 Page 2

MODULE – I Basic Mathematical Concepts: –

MODULE II Basic Mathematical Concepts: -

MODULE III Basic Mathematical Concepts :-

MODULE IV Graphs and Economic Applications 122

Basic Mathematical Concepts :– Arithmetic and Algebra

Mathematical Tools for Economics 1 Page 5

Mathematical Tools for Economics I Page 6

= (3)2 − 2 × 4 Calculate the exponent.

eg:- 2 + 2 = 4, 3 – 2 = 1, 5 x 5 = 25, 49/7=7.

Mathematical Tools for Economics I Page 7

Rule 1: Addition and Subtraction

Mathematical Tools for Economics I Page 8

Numbers have factors:

And expressions (like x2+4x+3) also have factors:

Factoring is also the opposite of Expanding:

Both 2y and 6 have a common factor of 2:

Mathematical Tools for Economics I Page 9

So you can factor the whole expression into:

So 2y + 6 has been “factored into” 2 and y + 3

Mathematical Tools for Economics I Page 10

In 82 the ‘2’says to use 8 twice in a multiplication,

an tells you to multiply a by itself,

Some more examples:

Exponents make it easier to write and use many multiplications

Example: 96 is easier to write and read than 9 × 9 × 9 × 9 × 9 × 9

Here are the Rules of Exponents

Rule name Rule Example

am · a n = a m+n 23 · 24 = 23+4 = 128

(bn)m = bn·m (23)2 = 23·2 = 64

b1/n = n√b 81/3 = 3√8 = 2

Mathematical Tools for Economics I Page 12

Mathematical Tools for Economics I Page 13

22. 23 · 24 = 23+4 = 27 = 2·2·2·2·2·2·2 = 128

A polynomial can have:

Mathematical Tools for Economics I Page 14

 3xyz + 3xy2z - 0.1xz - 200y + 0.5

And these are not polynomials

There are special names for polynomials with 1, 2 or 3 terms:

Adding and Subtracting Polynomials

are all like terms because the variables are all x

(1/3)xy2 -2xy2 6xy2 xy2/2

Mathematical Tools for Economics I Page 15

(1) 2x2 + 6x + 5 + 3x2– 2x – 1

You may re arrange with like terms written together

(3) (3x2 - 6x + xy) +(2x3 - 5x2 -3y) + (7x + 8y)

(4) (2x2 - 4y + 7xy - 6y²) − (-3x2 + 5y - 4xy + y²)

Mathematical Tools for Economics I Page 16

Mathematical Tools for Economics I Page 17

Question 1: Simplify (x + 2y)(3x − 4y + 5)