Format-Style Guide

for Preparing Research Reports

8th Edition
Fall 2016

Prepared by:
Water Research Foundation Communications & Marketing Staff

Prepared for:
Water Research Foundation
6666 West Quincy Avenue, Denver, CO 80235-3098

Published by:
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1

Purpose .................................................................................................................. 1
Organization of Guide ....................................................................................................... 1
Water Research Foundation Name Change .........................................................................1

CHAPTER 2: FORMAT..................................................................................................................3
Cover and Title of Report ....................................................................................................3
Acceptable Software ............................................................................................................3
Page Dimensions .................................................................................................... 3
Typeface ................................................................................................................ 3
Headings ............................................................................................................................................ 3
Pagination ............................................................................................................................4
Sections of Report ......................................................................................... 4
Front Matter .........................................................................................................................4
Half Title Page ........................................................................................................ 4
Title Page .................................................................................................................5
Disclaimer-Copyright Page ........................................................................... 5
Table of Contents .....................................................................................................5
List of Tables ...........................................................................................................5
List of Figures ..........................................................................................................5
Foreword ..................................................................................................................5
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................. 6
Executive Summary .................................................................................................6
Text ......................................................................................................................................6
Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................7
Chapter 2: Methods and Materials ...........................................................................7
Chapter 3: Results and Discussion .................................................................. 7
Chapter 4: Summary and Conclusions ............................................................ 7
Chapter 5: Recommendations to Utilities ................................................................7
Back Matter............................................................................................................ 8
Appendices .................................................................................................. 8
Glossary ...................................................................................................................8
References ................................................................................................................8
Abbreviations .......................................................................................................... 8
References in Text ........................................................................................ 9
References in List ................................................................................. 9

CHAPTER 3: ART PREPARATION, SOURCE NOTES, AND PLACEMENT

Physical Appearance ..........................................................................................................15
Black and White vs. Color Art .......................................................................15
Vertical or Portrait Orientation of Art When Possible ......................................... 15
Legible Art .............................................................................................................15
Source Notes and Copyright: Two Separate Issues ...........................................................15
 Placement of Art Relative to Text .....................................................................................16
Tables .................................................................................................................................16
Figures................................................................................................................................17

CHAPTER 4: USE OF COPYRIGHTED MATERIALS19

When to Request Permission, Copyright Guidelines ............................................. 19
What is Copyrightable? ...............................................................................................19
Fair Use........................................................................................................................19
Citation of Source ........................................................................................................20
How to Request Permission ........................................................................................ 20
Copyright Permission Form.........................................................................................20
Granting Permission ....................................................................................................20
Guidelines on Publishing or Presenting Water Research Foundation
Project Material ..................................................................................... 21

APPENDIX A: EXAMPLES .........................................................................................23

Half Title Page
Title Page
Title Page for Jointly Sponsored Project
Disclaimer/Copyright Page
Disclaimer/Copyright Page for Jointly Sponsored Project
Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Foreword
Acknowledgments
Executive Summary
References
Abbreviations
Table (With Source Note)
Figure (With Source Note)
Vertical (Portrait) Table That Runs Two Pages
Horizontal (Landscape) Table
Horizontal (Landscape) Figure
Equations
Lists

APPENDIX B: CHECKLISTS, FORMS, AND GUIDELINES (SEE MICROSOFT WORD

FILE)
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE

The Water Research Foundation sponsors beneficial research to the water industry in North
America and abroad. The final research report is one tool for communicating research results to
the principal audience—water utilities. WRF expects each contractor to write a clearly organized
and understandable report. To bring consistency in the format, style, and content of its research
reports, the Foundation has prepared this Format Style Guide. This guide assists contractors (i.e.,
authors) in preparing documents that utilities can readily use.
You should direct any questions concerning the contents of this guide to the WRF Research
Manager or Communications & Marketing (C&M) staff. Further, discuss with your Research
Manager and C&M staff if you plan to prepare a research report as a final deliverable but wish to
use a different format and style than the one presented in this guide.

ORGANIZATION OF GUIDE

This 8th edition of WRF’s Format Style Guide has three major sections. A template with
WRF’s style is also available. By carefully following the guidance throughout this publication,
you can minimize delays in publishing the final report.
The first section—Chapters 1 through 4—provides a narrative covering publication
procedure, format, table and figure preparation and placement, and use of copyrighted materials.
The second section—Appendix A: Examples—supplements the narrative with numerous
examples of how parts of a final report must look. Chapters 1 through 4 include electronic links to
the individual examples in Appendix A. The third section—Appendix B: Checklists, Forms, and
Guidelines—offers additional information related to report preparation or publication. Appendix
B is a separate file in Microsoft Word® so the forms can be filled in electronically. For your
convenience, the appendices also each include a table of contents so they can be printed out and
used as separate documents.

WATER RESEARCH FOUNDATION NAME CHANGE

The Water Research Foundation asks that all of its subscribers, researchers, partners,
related organizations, and vendors use the proper name formats, as described below, when
referring to WRF. Uniformity promotes the Water Research Foundation identity as an independent
organization and assists readers in distinguishing it from other organizations with similar
acronyms.
The full and complete name of the organization is Water Research Foundation. In the first
reference, the full name should be used in this format. After the first reference, the acronym WRF
may be used when referring to the Water Research Foundation.

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 CHAPTER 2
FORMAT

COVER AND TITLE OF REPORT

The Water Research Foundation provides the cover for the report. In cooperation with the
Research Manager, select a descriptive but concise title for the cover. The title should be no more
than 75 characters.

ACCEPTABLE SOFTWARE

Prepare the report with Microsoft Word® or Adobe InDesign® software.

PAGE DIMENSIONS

All reports should be formatted on 8½” x 11” paper size. All margins should be set to 1”.

TYPEFACE

WRF prefers 12-point Times New Roman type with single spacing for the text throughout
research reports. The chapter and section headings should be in 14-point type. Justify the right
margin.
For an occasional table or figure, you may need to use a smaller type size. WRF prefers
that type on art be no smaller than 8 point.

HEADINGS

For consistency in headings, use the format shown below and in the example. Pay special
attention to the style of type, placement of heading, and spacing above and below the heading.

SECTION & Bold uppercase letters, 14-point type, centered on line, and two line
spaces below
CHAPTER HEADS
A- OR FIRST-LEVEL Bold uppercase letters, 12-point type, aligned at left margin, and a
single line space above and below

B- or Second-level Bold upper- and lowercase letters, aligned at left margin, and a
single line space above and below
C- or Third-level Bold, italic upper- and lowercase letters, aligned at left margin, and
a single line space above and below

D- or Fourth-level Bold, italic initial uppercase letter and lowercase letters, indented
and run-in with text

E-or Fifth-level Italic, initial uppercase and lowercase letters, indented and run-in
with text

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PAGINATION

Page numbers will be centered ½” from the bottom of the page. Page numbers should be
in Times New Roman 10-point bold type.
Page numbers should appear on all pages for the report with the following exceptions: Do
not number the first four pages of the report. Number the rest of the front matter through the
executive summary in lowercase roman numerals (i.e., v, vi, etc.). The Contents must begin on
page v.
Beginning with Chapter 1, number the remaining pages with consecutive Arabic numerals
(i.e., 1, 2, 3, etc.). Consider blank pages when numbering the pages, but do not type the page
number on a blank page.

SECTIONS OF REPORT

Each major section of the report begins at the top of an odd-numbered page. To do this,
you may need to insert a blank page if the text in the previous section ends on an odd-numbered
page.
WRF reports require sections to be in the following order when submitted:

1. Half-title page (required). Contains only the title of the report

2. Blank page for use by the Foundation (required)
3. Title page (required)
4. Disclaimer-Copyright (required boilerplate)
5. Table of Contents (required). Include A- and B-level headings under each chapter
6. List of Tables (if applicable)
7. List of Figures (if applicable)
8. Foreword (required boilerplate)
9. Acknowledgments (required)
10. Executive Summary (required)
11. Report Chapters (e.g., Chapter 1: Introduction, Chapter 2: Methods and Materials, etc.)
12. Appendices (optional)
13. Glossary (optional)
14. Reference list (required)
15. Bibliography (optional)
16. Abbreviation list (required)
17. Index (only included in selected reports)

FRONT MATTER

The front matter precedes the body of the report

Half Title Page (page i)

The half title page contains only the title of the report.

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“About the Water Research Foundation” Page (page ii)

WRF’s report template includes standard text on this page.

Title Page (page iii)

The information on this page includes the title of the report, the name(s) and affiliation(s)
of the contractor(s) who prepared the report, and information on the sponsoring organization and
the publisher.

Disclaimer-Copyright Page (page iv)

Follow the example for the correct format and information for this page. If your project is
funded as part of a cooperative agreement between the Water Research Foundation and another
organization such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, modify the information as shown
in the example Disclaimer for a jointly sponsored project. The Foundation may add an ISBN
(International Standard Book Number) to this page before sending the report to the printer.

Contents (page v)

The Contents page lists all major elements of the report, including sections in the front
matter that follow the Contents. Include chapter titles and A- and B-level (first- and second-level)
subheadings in the table of contents. Please note that for the table of contents, the A-level headings
do not appear in capital letters; only the initial letter of each word is capitalized.
WRF prefers leaders (the series of dots) between the heading and the page number. When
you use leaders, there must be a minimum of three dots between the heading and the page number.
If a heading is too long to fit on one line, you will need to break it into two lines, indenting the
second line.

List of Tables (begins on odd-numbered page)

This section should provide a list of all tables used throughout the report. All table captions
should coincide with tables in the text.

List of Figures (begins on odd-numbered page)

This section should provide a list of all figures used throughout the report. All figure
captions should coincide with figures in the text, excluding notes unless they distinguish one figure
from another.

Foreword (odd-numbered page)

Use the standard text and format included in the example. Please note the spelling of
Foreword.

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Acknowledgments (odd-numbered page)

Use this section to thank utilities, project advisory committee members, research assistants,
administrative assistants, laboratory technicians, employers, etc. The Foundation prefers that you
use full first names rather than nicknames or shortened forms of first names. Also include the city
and state or country for each person listed. Note correct spelling of acknowledgments.

Executive Summary (begins on odd-numbered page)

The executive summary is the most influential part of the report. Besides inclusion in the
report, the executive summary will be posted as a separate document on the Foundation’s Web
site. It is crucial that this summary thoroughly covers the purpose, methods, and results of the
project, emphasizing the practical applications of the research. Write the executive summary in a
narrative style—leave the detailed data in the body of the report. Limit this summary’s length to
2−4 pages of text and include the following sections.

1. Objectives (required). State the relevant objectives of the project.

2. Background (required). Provide a brief background summary on the issues relating to the
project. Include a statement on what research gaps need to be filled concerning the issues.
3. Approach (required). Describe the research approach for this project including major
tasks completed by the research team.
4. Results/Conclusions (required). In a few paragraphs, describe the results and conclusions
of the research.
5. Applications/Recommendations (required). Describe how this research can be applied
by water utilities and the drinking water industry. Applications could include economic
implications, regulatory impacts, better communication with customers, technological
advancements, management concerns, etc. Make recommendations on how the water
industry can implement the research now. Use subheadings to focus on the specific
applications and recommendations.
6. Multimedia (optional). If the report includes software, videos, a Website, etc., include
this section with a description.
7. Research Partners (optional). Include co-funding organizations and/or Tailored
Collaboration partners.
8. Participants (optional). Most WRF projects include assistance from utilities, companies,
or other organizations. In a sentence or two, or short list, acknowledge these participants.
**Note: if you already mentioned participants in the Acknowledgments, there is no need
to list them a second time in the Executive Summary.

TEXT

It is encouraged to create the body of the report as the research is being conducted, so
progress reports take on the general format of the final report. This makes compiling the draft final
report less complicated.
Carefully review the periodic and draft final reports by proofreading for typographical
errors, misspelled words, and grammatical errors. In addition, ensure that all references cited in
the text appear in the reference list, and that figures and tables cited in the text are in chronological

6
order and contain what the text says they do.
The chapters described below are a guide to help you develop the report. You may include
some or all of these chapters, and additional ones not listed here.

Chapter 1: Introduction (page 1)

The introduction is an overview of the situation—in essence, a statement as to the need for
this research. Provide background information, review previous research on the topic, and outline
the rationale for and the objectives of the current research.

Chapter 2: Methods and Materials (begins on odd-numbered page)

In this part of the report, technical information explains how you conducted the research.
Another researcher ought to be able to use the information provided to duplicate the research.
Describe statistical methods, materials used, modifications of standard procedures, and new
methods. Simply reference standard methodology, saving details for descriptions of modifications
or for new materials or methods.

Chapter 3: Results and Discussion (begins on odd-numbered page)

Describe in words, figures, or tables, actual results and statistical analyses of results. Report
unusual results or difficulties with the experimental procedures. Provide interpretation of results
as they relate to previous research and the objectives of the research being described.

Chapter 4: Summary and Conclusions (begins on odd-numbered page)

Briefly describe the research project, including purpose, approach, and significant results.
Considering the results, describe conclusions drawn from this work. In addition, identify additional
research needs related to the topic.

Chapter 5: Recommendations to Utilities (begins on odd-numbered page)

The recommendation section is a very important part of the final report. Most readers work
for Foundation subscribers, principally public water utilities, that funded the research. These
readers are drinking water professionals responsible for the operation of water treatment plans,
maintenance of infrastructure, and water quality. Their interest is knowing how to apply your
research.
This section should describe the significance of the results to utility practice, show how
this information advances the science of water, and suggest how utilities can apply the project
results. Additional steps and limitations or caveats should be identified so utilities can take them
into consideration when using the information.

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BACK MATTER

The back matter follows the text of the report.

Appendices (begins on odd-numbered page)

In this section, include supplementary material that may aid the reader. Appendices might
include step-by-step analytical methods, raw data, or samples of questionnaire forms. If you
include more than one appendix, use letters to designate the various appendices (Appendix A,
Appendix B, etc.) and in numbers of equations, tables, and figures in the appendices (e.g., Table
A.1, Figure B.5, etc.).
If the appendices are longer than the rest of the report, or if the report plus appendices totals
over 400 pages, then the Appendices should be submitted separate from the final report.

Glossary (begins on odd-numbered page)

Consult the Foundation project manager to decide if your report needs a glossary. If you
prepare a glossary, arrange the words in alphabetical order, placing each term on a separate line
followed by its definition. End each definition with a period. Adopt a uniform style for definitions,
i.e., using only phrases or only complete sentences, not both. If needed, use cross-references
following a simple format: “Term. See. Preferred term.” For example,

Contactors. See. Post-filter adsorbers.

References (begins on odd-numbered page)

Use the guidance on the next page and the example when formatting the References.

Abbreviations List (begins on odd-numbered page)

Almost every research report contains a list of abbreviations. In the list for your report,
define all abbreviations and acronyms used in the text. Include common abbreviations except for
state names and chemical notation.
Alphabetize the list by abbreviations, ignoring punctuation, spaces, or symbols. Also
ignore subscripts and superscripts unless they differentiate otherwise identical abbreviations. In
those cases, list the abbreviations in order by their numerical and then letter subscripts and
superscripts. List identical abbreviations in the alphabetical order of their definitions. List
abbreviations beginning with a Greek letter at the end of the section representing the corresponding
English letter. That is, an abbreviation beginning with a mu (μ) appears at the end of the
abbreviations beginning with an em (m). Place individual symbols and Greek letters at the end of
the list according to the alphabetical order of their definitions.
The abbreviations list in the example reflects abbreviations used throughout this guide and
is for illustration only.

8
References in Text

Cite literature references in the text according to the author-date method. In this method,
the basic reference consists of the author’s last name and the year of publication, with no
punctuation in between, as in the following examples:

Concern about the initial portion of the filter run is due to the association of high
turbidities with high particle counts (McCoy and Olson 1986).

McCoy and Olson (1986) found that the association of . . .

Note that when the entire citation (i.e., name and year) appears within parentheses, there is
no punctuation between the name and year. Use commas to separate citations for two or more
references within parentheses, but use semicolons if one or more of the citations contain commas.

(Bouwer and McCarty 1983a, Huyakorn et al. 1987, Bower and Wright 1987)

(Bouwer and McCarty 1983a; Bower and Wright 1987; Odencrantz et al., forthcoming)

List the last name(s) of one to two authors, and designate three or more authors by using
“et al.” after the first author’s last name.

References in List

For the reference list itself, include the names of all authors—even when there are three or
more. Alphabetize entries according to the last name followed by the first initial(s) of the
first author. For more than one author, alphabetize next by the last name of second author and then
last name of third author. List entries for the same author(s) in chronological order by year.
For references published in the same year by the same author(s), use “a,” “b,” etc.,
designations (e.g., “1987a,” “1987b”) to differentiate them in the text and in the reference list.
Each entry’s components have a generic order. For the basic components of a book or
report, the order is:

Author or editor name(s) [Inverse order, last name first only for first author]. Year.
Title. Place [Location of publisher]: Publisher’s name.

The order for the basic components of a journal article is:

Author name(s) [Inverse order, last name first only for first author]. Year. “Article
title.” Journal name, Volume number (Issue number): beginning page number–
ending page number.

When in doubt about how to reference a particular type of source, follow the above format for
books.

9
 The most recent edition of The Chicago Manual of Style contains additional examples of
reference styles for other types of documents. Some specific examples of complete references
follow:

Acts, Public Laws, Statutes

National Environmental Policy Act. 1982. 42 U.S. Code. Sec. 4332.
Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986. 1991. Pub. L. 102 – 54, Sec. 3(q) (2), 105 Stat.
278.

AwwaRF Report published prior to 2009

*Note that there should be one space between multiple initials, as in the below example:

Duranceau, S. J., D. Townley, and G. E. C. Bell 2004. Optimizing Corrosion Control in

Water Distribution Systems. Project #2648. Denver, Colo.: AwwaRF.

WRF Report published since 2009

Najm, I., N. Patania Brown, K. Gramith, and T. Hargy. 2009. Validating Disinfection in
Ozone Contactors. Project #3168. Denver, Colo.: Water Research Foundation.

Forthcoming WRF reports

Martel, K., and K. Klewicki. Forthcoming. State of the Science: Plastic Pipe. Project #4680.
Denver, Colo.: Water Research Foundation.

Book With One Author

Heinrich, L. 2008. The Afterlife of Images: Translating the Pathological Body between China
and the West. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Book With Multiple Authors

Minow, N. N., and C. L. LaMay. Inside the Presidential Debates: Their Improbable Past and
Promising Future. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.
Ward, G. C., and K. Burns. The War: An Intimate History, 1941–1945. New York: Knopf, 2007.

Edited or Translated Book

Comaroff, J., and J. Comaroff, eds. 1993. Modernity and Its Malcontents: Ritual and Power in
Postcolonial Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Greenberg, J., ed. Of Prairie, Woods, and Water: Two Centuries of Chicago Nature Writing.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.
Silverstein, T., trans. 1974. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.

Book With an Author Plus Editor/Translator

García Márquez, G. 1988. Love in the Time of Cholera. Translated by E. Grossman. London:
Cape.

10
Chapter in a Book
Gerba, C. P. 1987. “Recovering Viruses From Sewage, Effluents and Water.” In Methods
for Recovering Viruses From the Environment. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press.
Willett, W. 1990. “Nutritional Epidemiology.” In Monographs in Epidemiology and
Biostatistics. New York: Oxford University Press.

Chapter in an Edited Book

Draper, J. E. 1987. “Paris by the Lake: Sources of Burnham’s Plan of Chicago.” In Chicago
Architecture, 1872–1922: Birth of a Metropolis, edited by J. Zukowsky, 107–19. Munich:
Prestel-Verlag in association with the Art Institute of Chicago.
Gould, G. 1984. “Streisand as Schwarzkopf.” In The Glenn Gould Reader, edited by T. Page,
308–11. New York: Vintage.
Snoeyink, V. L. and R. S. Summers. 1999. “Adsorption of Organic Compounds.” In Water
Quality and Treatment: A Handbook of Community Water Supplies, edited by R. D.
Letterman, 13.1–13.83. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Chapter in Forthcoming Book

Faraday, C. Forthcoming. “Protean Photography.” In Seven Trips beyond the Asteroid Belt,
edited by J. Oring. Cape Canaveral, FL: Launch Press.

Compact Discs
Instructions from the Chicago Manual of Style are as follows:
Include the name of the author or other person primarily responsible for the content; the title, in
italics or quotation marks, as applicable; the name of the recording company or publisher; any
identifying number of the recording; indication of medium (compact disc, audiocassette,
audiovisual file, etc.); and the copyright date or date of production or performance. Recordings
consulted online should include a URL or DOI

Drewes, J. E. 2001. An Investigation on Soil-Aquifer Treatment for Sustainable Water Reuse.

Project #90855. Denver, Colo.: AwwaRF. Compact Disc.

Dissertation or Thesis
Buffin, L. W. 1992. Treatment of Algae-Induced Tastes and Odors by Chlorine, Chlorine
Dioxide, and Permanganate. Master’s thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Blacksburg.
Hundt, T. R. 1985. The Removal of Fulvic Acid Using Aluminum Coagulants: Mechanisms and
applications. Ph.D. diss., The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

Journal Article
Journal names may be abbreviated, but please abbreviate consistently.

Choi, S. J., and G. M. Gulati. 2008. “Bias in Judicial Citations: A Window into the Behavior of
Judges?” Jour. of Legal Studies, 37 (January): 87–129. doi:10.1086/588263.
Edelman, L. B. 1992. “Legal Ambiguity and Symbolic Structures: Organizational Mediation of
Civil Rights Law.” American Jour. of Sociology, 97 (6): 1531–76.

11
Edelman, L. B., and S. M. Petterson. 1999. “Symbols and Substance in Organizational Response
to Civil Rights Law.” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 17:107–35.
Morasse, S., H. Guderley, and J. J. Dodson. 2008.“Paternal Reproductive Strategy Influences
Metabolic Capacities and Muscle Development of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar L.)
Embryos.” Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, 81 (4): 402–13. doi:10.1086/589012.

Magazine Article
Kauffman, S. 1989. Review of A Dry White Season (film), directed by Euzhan Palcy. New
Republic, October 9, 24–25.
West, J. 2014. “Top Ten Utilities to Follow on Facebook.” Municipal Sewer and Water
Magazine, January 30, 2014. Accessed August 8, 2014.
http://www.mswmag.com/online_exclusives/2014/01/top_10_utilities_to_follow_on_face
book.

Newspaper Article
Carey, B. 2008. “For the Brain, Remembering Is Like Reliving.” New York Times, September 4.
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/05/science/05brain.html.

Online PDFs/Documents
*When possible, include an access date.

Blute, N., and Y. Wu. 2013. Hexavalent Chromium Removal Research Project Report to the
California Department of Public Health. Los Angeles, Calif.: Hazen and Sawyer, Arcadis
U.S./Malcolm Pirnie. Accessed July 10, 2015.
http://www.glendaleca.gov/home/showdocument?id=14308.
Dionex. 2011. Sensitive Determination of Hexavalent Chromium in Drinking Water. Application
Update 179. Sunnyvale, Calif.: Dionex Corporation. http://www.dionex.com/en-
us/webdocs/110230-AU179-IC-Hexavalent-Chromium-Water-AU70415_E.pdf.

Organization as Author
BSI (British Standards Institution). 1985. Specification for Abbreviation of Title Words and
Titles of Publications. London: BSI.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization). 1997. Information and Documentation—
Bibliographic References. Part 2, Electronic Documents or Parts Thereof. ISO 690-2.
New York: American National Standards Institute.

Paper in Published Conference Proceedings

Horton, A. M. Corrosion Effects of Electrical Grounding on Water Pipes. Paper No. 519 in
Corrosion/91, March 11-15, 1991, Cincinnati, Ohio. Houston, Texas: National
Association of Corrosion Engineers.
O’Connor, J. T., B. J. Brazos, W. C. Ford, L. L. Dusenberg, and B. Summerford. 1984. Chemical
and Microbiological Evaluations of Drinking Water Systems in Missouri. In Proc. of the
Twelfth Annual AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference. Denver, Colo.: AWWA.

12
Patent
Iizuka, M., and H. Tanaka. 1986. Cement admixture. US Patent 4,586,960, filed June 26, 1984,
and issued May 6, 1986.

Presentation at a Meeting
Dabkowski, J. 1994. Safety While Working Near AC Powerlines. Presented at NACE
International Western Region Conference, Seattle, Wash., October 31-November 4, 1994.
Hatfield, B. 1981. Melbourne Water Distribution System Corrosion and Its Mitigation. Presented
at the Regional Conference of the Australian Water Works Association, Victorian
Branch, October 1981, at Thomson Dam Construction Township.

Rules and Regulations

California Code of Regulations. 2014. “Title 22, Division 4, Chapter 14, Article 3: Amend
Section 64213.” http://www.cdph.ca.gov/services/DPOPP/regs/Documents/DPH-11-005
HC MCL Reg Text_20140314_DWP_Final.pdf.
EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2016. “Third Unregulated Contaminant
Monitoring Rule.”http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/ucmr/ucmr3/.

Standard Methods
APHA, AWWA, and WEF (American Public Health Association, American Water Works
Association, and Water Environment Federation). 1992. Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater. 18th ed. Washington, D.C.: APHA.
APHA, AWWA, and WEF (American Public Health Association, American Water Works
Association, and Water Environment Federation). 1995. Part 6000 Individual Organic
compounds: 6220 Volatile Aromatic Organic compounds. Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater. 19th ed. Washington, D.C.: APHA.

Standards
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials). 1988. Annual book of Standards, Part 31,
D3370-76. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials.
AWWA (American Water Works Association). 1988. American National Standard for
Polyethylene Encasement for Ductile-Iron Piping for Water and Other Liquids.
ANSI/AWWA C105/A21.5-88. Denver, Colo.: AWWA.
NACE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers). 1995. NACE Standard RP-01-77 (1995
Revision), Recommended Practice: Mitigation of Alternating Current and Lightning
Effects on Metallic Structures and Corrosion Control Systems. Houston, Texas: NACE.
Approved July 1977. Revised July 1983, July 1995.

Unpublished Documents, Reports, Memos

Horton, A. M. 1991. Memorandum for Record: Indianapolis Water Company Corrosion Failures.
United States Pipe and Foundry Company, Technical Services.
Pullen, T. G. 1992. Investigation of Electrical Problem, Route 114 Pump Station, Christiansburg,
Virginia. JN9842. Anderson and Associates, Inc., 100 Ardmore Street, Blacksburg,
Virginia.

13
Westerback, A. E. 1966. Final Report on Internal CoRosion of Copper Pipes in Alameda, East
Bay Municipal Utilities District Internal Memo, Work Authorization No. 52347
(December).
Williams, V. 1990. Survey of Lead Services in the Highland Neighborhood Area, Louisville,
Kentucky. Louisville Water Company Internal Report. (August).

Unpublished Interviews and Personal Communications

In a parenthetical citation, the terms personal communication (or pers. comm.), unpublished
data, and the like may be used after the name(s) of the person(s) concerned, following a comma.
Reference list entries are NOT necessary, though each person cited must be fully identified
elsewhere in the text. Initials may be used for first names. The abbreviation et al. should be
avoided in such citations.

(Julie Cantor, pers. comm.)

(A. P. Møller, unpublished data; C. R. Brown and M. B. Brown, unpublished data)

Sources with an Unknown Publication Date

When the publication date of a printed work cannot be ascertained, the abbreviation n.d. takes
the place of the year in the reference list entry and text citations. Though it follows a period in
the reference list, n.d. remains lowercased to avoid conflation with the author’s name; in text
citations, it is preceded by a comma.

Smith, J. T. n.d. Title of Work…

(Smith, n.d.)

Websites
CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2015. “Processing Environmental Samples:
CDC Laboratory Protocol.” Accessed June 3, 2016.
http://www.cdc.gov/legionella/health-depts/inv-tools-cluster/lab-inv-tools/procedures-
manual.html.
EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2015a. “Ground Water Rule.” Accessed June 3,
2016. https://www.epa.gov/dwreginfo/ground-water-rule.

The below example is citing an individual entry from within an online EPA database. Note that
the database title is not in quotations, while the specific entry is in quotations:

EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2015b. Water Treatability Database. “Granular
Activated Carbon.” Accessed June 3, 2016.
https://iaspub.epa.gov/tdb/pages/treatment/treatmentOverview.do?treatmentProcessId=20
74826383.

To cite an undated website in a reference list, use an access date rather than n.d. (no date):

Evanston Public Library Board of Trustees. 2008. “Evanston Public Library Strategic Plan,
2000–2010: A Decade of Outreach.” Evanston Public Library. Accessed July 19.
http://www.epl.org/library/strategic-plan-00.html.

14
 CHAPTER 3
ART PREPARATION, SOURCE NOTES, AND PLACEMENT

The term art refers to all nontext, displayed material: tables, figures, graphs, charts, maps,
and photographs. This chapter discusses both the physical appearance of art and the placement of
art relative to text in the report.

PHYSICAL APPEARANCE

Black and White vs. Color Art

Color may be used in research reports. However, if you prepare the report in color, keep in
mind that many users will print the PDF version of the report in black and white, so faint colors
such as yellow will appear white, while darker colors such as red will appear black when printed.

Vertical or Portrait Orientation of Art When Possible

WRF prefers that art be designed and positioned vertically on the page, in portrait layout,
because vertical art is easier to read. However, horizontal or landscape-oriented tables and figures
are acceptable if the art would not be legible vertically. For example, tables with six or more
columns are usually presented most clearly in a horizontal format that allows 9” for the table
“width” (see horizontal [landscape] table).

Legible Art

Always look over all art carefully to see that it is legible and looks professional and
proofread art for typographical errors. If type is not legible or graphics look blotchy in your original
art, that art will look even worse on the printed page. Handwritten labels are not acceptable. The
Foundation prefers that type on art be no smaller than 8 point.

SOURCE NOTES AND COPYRIGHT: TWO SEPARATE ISSUES

If either the data or the physical art itself is not yours, you must include a source note with
the art. The scholarly responsibility of acknowledging sources is separate from the legal
responsibility of requesting permission for material under copyright. Art without a source note will
be assumed both to be your data and to be your creation. For example, if you have created a table
or graph to display significant data from another source, you should cite the source of the data
(using the author-date system).
All source notes should include a minimum of the author’s last name and year of
publication (“Source: Smith 1987”). Some source notes may require wording to clarify the extent
of duplication.

Source: author year. (Art itself taken from source)

Source: Data from author year. (Data only from source)
Source: Adapted from author year. (You modified art from source)

15
 For one or two authors, give both last names; for three or more, use the first author’s last
name and “et al.” List complete bibliographic information for all source notes in the reference list
(see “References”).
The source note for a table should be positioned at the foot of the table before other notes
(see example table). The source note for a figure precedes its caption on a separate line (see
example figure).
If you use art taken from a copyrighted publication or you closely reproduce art from a
copyrighted source, you must also request permission to use the art from the copyright holder. See
the sample letter requesting permission. Not requesting permission can delay publication of your
report, so you should request permission early. Chapter 4 discusses use of copyrighted materials.
Please consult your project manager or C&M staff with questions about copyright.

PLACEMENT OF ART RELATIVE TO TEXT

The Foundation assumes that you create tables for your report using your word processing
or desktop publishing software and therefore can position each table close to the first mention of
it in the text.
Because you most likely create figures with another type of software, you have a choice in
placing the figures. You may either group figures at the end of the chapter in which they appear,
or you may position each figure within the text close to the first mention of it in the text. Choose
one approach to figure placement and use it throughout your report.
All the following guidelines apply when placing art within the text:

• When placing art on a page with text or other art, insert at least one line return of space
to separate the art from text or other art.
• Art should follow its first mention in the text closely, unless it is grouped at the back of
a chapter or appendix.
• For tables and figures that run two or more pages, follow these rules:
• First page of art carries art number plus caption and the phrase “(continued)” should
appear at the foot of the art.
• On all following pages, table headings or figure captions should be the number and
the phrase “(continued)” with no title.
• For tables, please remember to repeat column heads on each page of table.
• Place all footnotes at foot of last page.

TABLES

Table numbers should be double-digit, keyed to the number of the chapter in which the
table appears (Table 2.1, Table 3.1, etc.). Center table captions (number and title) above the table
(see example table). The table caption should be in bold type. Use sentence style capitalization
for table title, column headings, and entries within the table. Units of measure in captions should
appear in parentheses. Use an extended single rule (a line) above and below column heads and at
the end of the table.
Use footnotes to explain or supplement material presented in a table, and use source notes
to credit data taken from another source. Place a table’s source note before all other notes at the
foot of the table (see example table).

16
FIGURES

Number figures (including drawings, charts, photographs, etc.) with double-digit numbers
keyed to the chapter number in which the art appears (Figure 2.1, Figure 2.2, Figure 3.1). A figure’s
caption (number and title) should be flush left beneath the figure (see example figure). The figure
caption should be in bold type. Use sentence style capitalization for figure titles, notes, and
legends. However, use headline style capitalization for labels within a figure or along axes of a
graph. Units of measure in axes labels should appear in parentheses.
The type and graphics in the figures must be legible. If your art is blotchy or hard to read,
it will become worse when printed.
The Foundation prefers that type on figures be 12-point size. On occasion, however, a
figure may need smaller type but not smaller than 8 point. Use real sub- and superscript characters
(“ft2” not “ft2” or “ft^2”) and real Greek letters (“μm” not “um”). To avoid ambiguity, spell out
words unless you abbreviate a term in the text (“concentration” not “concen.” but “GAC” is okay).

17
 CHAPTER 4
USE OF COPYRIGHTED MATERIALS

WHEN TO REQUEST PERMISSION, COPYRIGHT GUIDELINES

You are responsible for obtaining written permission to use any material copyrighted by
others. You must request permission before submitting your final report.

What is Copyrightable?

A U.S. copyright may exist for a work of authorship reduced to a tangible medium of
expression. It can be a literary work, musical work, dramatic work, pantomime or choreographic
work, pictorial, graphic, or sculptural work, motion picture or other audiovisual work, sound
recording, or architectural work. Copyright law may apply to a work even though:

• the author has not filed for copyright officially

• there is no legend indicating copyright ownership on a work
• a work is unpublished

As a result, if you use a work or a portion of a work, you should request permission from
the publisher (for a published work) or from the author (for an unpublished work) before using it
in any Water Research Foundation materials.
Most government publications are in the public domain because public funds supported
their development (this is usually true for U.S. federal, state, country, and city government
publications and for government publications of other countries). “Public domain” means that
material is not protected by copyright and may be used without requesting permission. However,
it is best to check with the government entity that created the work to ensure that there is no
ownership of the work, for example, by a private contractor who may have jointly created the work
with the government. Any work published before 1906 is in the public domain and is not
copyrighted.
For a helpful introduction to copyright basics, watch the following video:
http://www.copyright.com/learn/media-download/copyright-basics/.

Fair Use

Portions of some copyrighted materials may be used without permission. If you are using
an “insubstantial” portion of a copyrighted work for scholarly and noncommercial purposes,
permission is not required under interpretation of fair use. However, the definition of fair use varies
depending on the facts of each case. To avoid difficulties, you need to request permission for all
uses of previously copyrighted works of authorship.
In the case of artwork, for example, you must obtain permission to use in your report any
tables, charts, amps, photographs, etc., taken from a previously published, copyrighted source. If
you take data from several sources and create your own table or figure from that data, you do not
need to request permission, but you must list your sources beneath the new piece of art.

19
Citation of Source

You should always give a proper source for material that is not yours, regardless of whether
or not you need to request permission for a quote, figure, or table. (See Source Notes and
Copyright: Two Separate Issues on page 15) The scholarly responsibility of providing accurate
citations is a separate issue from the legal responsibility of requesting permission for reuse of
copyrighted material. For example, if you take raw data from several sources or use materials that
are not copyrighted, you should properly cite the source of such data or materials.

HOW TO REQUEST PERMISSION

When requesting permission, clearly identify the material and state how and where you
intend to use it. Be specific, stating author, title, edition number, year of publication, and page
number for materials from books.
Identify figures and tables by numbering the copyrighted source, and text materials by
beginning and ending wording. If the material is from a journal, include the journal title, volume
and page numbers, article title, and author’s name. Make sure to request permission from the
original publisher, not from one that reproduced the material. Send two original letters requesting
permission; the publisher will retain one and sign the other and return it to you. See the sample
letter requesting permission. Send the written permissions or copies of your requests for
permission (if permission has not yet been granted) to the project manager, along with the final
report. The Foundation will file them with other contract materials. If the publisher requests any
fees, talk to the project manager.
You may request permission to use Foundation materials directly from the Foundation Web
site by completing the form at http://www.waterrf.org/Pages/request-material-use.aspx.
The Foundation will send any courtesy copies of the report that are stipulated as a condition
of granting permission.

COPYRIGHT PERMISSION FORM

You need to document your use of copyrighted materials. Complete a Copyright

Permission Form by logging in every table and figure in your report, regardless of whether they
are original or not. The Foundation will delay publication of any report missing a completed form.

GRANTING PERMISSION

The Foundation copyrights reports to protect the work they represent. In your contract with
the Water Research Foundation, you assigned copyright to the Foundation. If you receive any
requests to reprint material from your Foundation work, forward the request to the Foundation.
See your Foundation contract for additional information on interim publications during the project
period.

20
GUIDELINES ON PUBLISHING OR PRESENTING WATER RESEARCH
FOUNDATION PROJECT MATERIAL (Updated May 2016).

1. Any material created from Water Research Foundation (WRF) research where a Project
Funding Agreement (PFA) or Multi-Funded Research Agreement (MFRA) was signed is
WRF’s Intellectual Property (IP). WRF’s IP includes text, tables, and figures that were
created during the project and is included in the Scope of Work, periodic reports, draft
report, final report, or other materials produced during the course of a project. As stated in
the agreements, you (PI or co-PI) may use without restrictions all data produced during the
course of the project such as innovations, creations, processes, designs, methods, formulas,
plans, technical data, and specifications. See the Agreement and reference the Intellectual
Property section for details and guidance agreed upon by your organization specifically for
this project in determining what falls under WRF IP.
2. If you (PI or co-PI) wish to publish WRF’s IP in a journal, book, or any other publication,
even if the publication is online only, you may do so as long as you obtain written
permission from WRF. This holds true even if the final report has not yet been published
by WRF.
3. Most organizations no longer require assignment of copyright for conference presentations.
Instead, they will ask for your permission for them to post/publish the presentation and/or
proceedings. You do not need formal permission from WRF for this type of use, but as
always, you should acknowledge that WRF funded the project and add source lines to WRF
IP. If the conference organizer requires assignment of copyright, then you must request
permission from WRF to include any copyrighted materials.
4. If WRF’s IP has been revised for journal/book publication, copyright permission may not
be required. It is still best to consult with WRF before publishing this material.
5. For WRF IP, if the journal or book publisher (or conference or workshop sponsor) requires
you to sign a copyright or publishing agreement with them, you may do so as long there is
a clause that allows you to submit material that is already copyrighted. You should then
request copyright permission from WRF and submit that permission to the other party.
6. If there is no clause in the agreement with the other publisher or sponsor that allows use of
material that is already copyrighted, then you must inform them that you would like to
publish material that is copyrighted to WRF. If the publisher/sponsor allows you to publish
the copyrighted material, you may sign the copyright or publishing agreement and also
submit WRF copyright permission letter.
7. If the other publisher or sponsor does not allow you to use copyrighted material, then you
may not publish or present WRF’s IP with them.

21
 APPENDIX A
EXAMPLES

This appendix contains numerous examples of points discussed in the narrative of Chapters
2 through 4. When you prepare your draft final report, please follow the format exactly as presented
in this appendix. The examples provided include the following:

Half Title Page

Title Page
Title Page for Jointly Sponsored Project
Disclaimer/Copyright Page
Disclaimer/Copyright Page for Jointly Sponsored Project
Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Foreword
Acknowledgments
Executive Summary
Headings and Margins
References
Abbreviations
Table (With Source Note)
Figure (With Source Note)
Vertical (Portrait) Table That Runs Two Pages
Horizontal (Landscape) Table
Horizontal (Landscape) Figure
Equations
Lists

23
Optimization of Filtration
for Cyst Removal
Half title page: Title aligned
left, Verdana font, size
30, title case, single spaced

Notice there is no
page number on
the half title page.
Optimization of Filtration
for Cyst Removal
Title  Page:  Title
aligned left, Verdana
font, size 30, title case,
single spaced

Prepared by:
Nancy L. Patania, Joseph G. Jacangelo, Laura Cummings, Andrzej
Wilczak, Kelley Riley, and Joan Oppenheimer
Montgomery Watson, 250 North Madison Avenue, Pasadena, CA 91109-7009

No space between lines. Author

names bold, organization
Sponsored by: address on one line, NOT bold.
Water Research Foundation Font = Verdana size 11.
6666 West Quincy Avenue Denver, CO 80235-3098 This is how multiple authors
from the same organization
should appear. The order of
authors should not be changed.

No space between lines.

Organization name bold, address
NOT bold. Organization address
on one line. Font = Verdana size
11.

Published by:

Notice there is no
page number on
the title page.
Revenue Instability and
Conservation Rate Structures
Title Page: Title aligned
Prepared by: left, Verdana font size 30,
Thomas W. Chesnutt and John Christianson
NOT bold, title case
A&N Technical Services, Inc., Santa Monica, CA 90401

Anil Bamezal
Western Policy Research, Santa Monica, CA 90405

Casey N. McSpadden
A&N Technical Services, Inc., Washington, DC 20005

and

W. Michael Hanemann
University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720

Example of how to arrange

Jointly sponsored by:
multiple authors who work
Water Research Foundation
6666 West Quincy Avenue Denver, CO 80235-3098 at several different
organizations. The order in
and which the authors are
listed tends to be
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency important; do not shuffle
Washington, D.C. them around.

Published by:
Co‐sponsor(s) 

Even if a report is jointly

sponsored, it is still only
published by WRF
(99.99% of the time)  Notice there is no
page number on
the title page.
 Disclaimer
heading centered,
Verdana font size
DISCLAIMER 12, NOT bold.

This study was funded by the Water Research Foundation (WRF). WRF
assumes no responsibility for the content of the research study reported in this
publication or for the opinions or statements of fact expressed in the report.
The mention of trade names for commercial products does not represent or
imply the approval or endorsement of the Foundation. This report is presented
solely for informational purposes.

Example Disclaimer
language for reports that
are solely funded by WRF.
Text is centered, Verdana
font, size 11, NOT bold.

Copyright information
centered at bottom of
page. Verdana font size
Copyright © Year
11, NOT bold.
by Water Research Foundation

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

No part of this publication may be copied,
reproduced or otherwise utilized without
permission.

ISBN [inserted by the Foundation]

Printed in the U.S.A.

Notice there is no
page number on
Copyright/
Disclaimer page
 Disclaimer
heading centered,
Verdana font size
DISCLAIMER 12, NOT bold.

This study was jointly funded by the Water Research Foundation (WRF) and the
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) under Cooperative Agreement No.
1425-2-FC-81-18330. WRF and Reclamation assume no responsibility for the
content of the research study reported in this publication or for the opinions or
statements of fact expressed in the report. The mention of trade names for
commercial products does not represent or imply the approval or endorsement of
either WRF or Reclamation. This report is presented solely for informational
purposes.

Example Disclaimer language

for reports that are co-funded
by multiple organizations. Text
is centered, Verdana font, size
11, NOT bold.

Copyright information
centered at bottom of
page. Verdana font size
Copyright © Year 11, NOT bold.
by Water Research Foundation

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

No part of this publication may be copied,
reproduced or otherwise utilized without
permission.

ISBN [inserted by the Foundation]

Printed in the U.S.A.

Notice there is no
page number on
Copyright/
Disclaimer page
All caps for 
section and 
chapter titles, Centered,  Set one tab 
Times New Roman CONTENTS bold, all  at 6.5” with 
size 12  caps, size 14  leader dots 
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ vii

LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... ix

FOREWORD ................................................................................................................................. xi
One 
return/ 1  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................................... xiii
line space 
between 
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...........................................................................................................xv
sections 

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND ............................................................1

Indent A‐ Overview ..............................................................................................................................1
level  Objectives ............................................................................................................................1
headings,  Significance of the Project ...................................................................................................2
title case  Review of Previous Studies .................................................................................................2

CHAPTER 2: IDENTIFICATION AND EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL

Indent  METHODOLOGIES AND TECHNOLOGIES ..................................................................5
turnover  Determining Potential Direct Identification Techniques .....................................................6
lines Literature Search ......................................................................................................7
Patent Search ............................................................................................................7
Interviews With Vendors .........................................................................................8
Indent B‐ Potential Direct Identification Technologies ...........................................................8
level  Overview of Indirect Method.............................................................................................17
headings,  Conclusions ........................................................................................................................18
title case  
APPENDIX A: TECHNOLOGY SEARCH.................................................................................67

APPENDIX B: DIRECT METHOD FIELD TESTS ...................................................................71

APPENDIX C: DEFECTOSCOP AF 2.833 SETUP PROCEDURE ...........................................79

REFERENCES ..............................................................................................................................85

ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................................87

Page numbering begins on page v, which is

always the Table of Contents. Page numbers
are centered in footer, Times New Roman
font size 10, bold. Note that page numbers
for front matter (Contents, List of Tables,
List of Figures, Foreword,
Acknowledgments, and Executive Summary)
are Roman numerals!

v
 Centered,  Set one tab 
Sentence style  TABLES
bold, all caps, size 14  at 6.5” with 
capitalization 
leader dots 
1.1 Cases of injury in various industries ....................................................................................7
One 
return/ 1  3.1 Relationships between raw water quality and treatment processes ...................................35
line space 
between  3.2 Treatment process and water quality parameters in relation to automation level
table 
titles 
and staffing.............................................................................................................37

3.3 Plant size and complexity in relation to automation level and staffing (sorted
by plant size) .........................................................................................................38

3.4 Plant size and complexity in relation to automation level and staffing (sorted
by number of treatment processes) .......................................................................39
Indent 
turnover 
lines  3.5 Plant size and complexity in relation to automation level and staffing (sorted by
complexity index) ..................................................................................................40

3.6 Plant size and flow variation in relation to automation level and staffing.........................41

3.7 Plant criticality in relation to automation level and staffing ..............................................42

3.8 Control system design or installation date in relation to automation level

and staffing.............................................................................................................43

3.9 Control system remoteness in relation to automation level and staffing ...........................44

5.1 Common analytical sensors used in water treatment .........................................................70

5.2 Common sensor operating principles.................................................................................71

6.1 Maintenance labor time estimation for turbidity analyzer .................................................84

6.2 Estimates of maintenance time for some common water treatment

plant instruments ...................................................................................................84

6.3 Instrumentation maintenance labor time estimate .............................................................88

6.4 Software maintenance labor time estimate ........................................................................88

6.5 Control system hardware maintenance labor time estimate ..............................................89

6.6 Total maintenance labor time estimate ..............................................................................89

Note that section begins on

odd-numbered page

vi
 Centered,  Set one tab 
Sentence style  FIGURES bold, all caps, size 14  at 6.5” with 
capitalization 
leader dots 
1.1 Participating utility field-testing location map ....................................................................5
One 
return/ 1  2.1 Typical connections to domestic electrical configurations and potable
line space 
water services ...........................................................................................................9
between 
table 
titles  2.2 Alternating current return paths .........................................................................................11

2.3 Corrosion rates of steel in soil exposed to various levels of AC .......................................17

2.4 Comparison of virtual DC and AC waveforms created by hand-held hair dryer ..............21

4.1 Participating utilities reporting shock incidents related to removing water meters
during the period 1989-1994 ..................................................................................36
Indent 
turnover 
lines  4.2 Participating utilities reporting corrosion failures of distribution and service
piping due to grounding effects from 1989 to 1994 ..............................................36

6.1 Schematic diagram of current paths for buried electrically continuous water
services .................................................................................................................126

6.2 Schematic diagram of current paths for buried electrically discontinuous water
services .................................................................................................................127

6.3 Schematic diagram of current paths for electrically discontinuous water services
in air .....................................................................................................................128

6.4 Copper and zinc concentrations as a function of AC-ma*h for initial scoping
tests at EBMUD with 123 VAC applied ..............................................................133

6.5 Lead concentration as a function of AC-ma*h for initial scoping tests of EBMUD
with 123 VAC applied .........................................................................................133

6.6 Copper and zinc concentrations as a function of AC-ma*h for initial scoping tests
at EBMUD with ~53 VAC applied ......................................................................134

6.7 Lead concentration as a function of AC-ma*h for initial scoping tests at EBMUD
with ~53 VAC applied .........................................................................................134

6.8 Follow-on testing test article Type “A”; Cu/DU/Cu........................................................137

6.9 Follow-on testing test article Type “B”; Cu/PVC/Cu ......................................................138

6.10 Follow-on testing test article Type “C”; Cu + Pb/DU/Cu + Pb .......................................139

Note that section begins on
odd-numbered page
ix
 Note correct  Centered, 
spelling  FOREWORD bold, all caps, size 14 

The Water Research Foundation (Foundation) is a nonprofit corporation that is dedicated

to the implementation of a research effort to help utilities respond to regulatory requirements and
traditional high-priority concerns of the industry. The research agenda is developed through a
process of consultation with subscribers and drinking water professionals. Under the umbrella of
a Strategic Research Plan, the Research Advisory Council prioritizes the suggested projects
based upon current and future needs, applicability, and past work; the recommendations are
forwarded to the Board of Trustees for final selection. The Foundation also sponsors research
projects through the unsolicited proposal process; the Collaborative Research, Research
Applications, and Tailored Collaboration programs; and various joint research efforts with
organizations such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation, and the Association of California Water Agencies.
This publication is a result of one of these sponsored studies, and it is hoped that its
findings will be applied in communities throughout the world. The following report serves not
only as a means of communicating the results of the water industry’s centralized research
program but also as a tool to enlist the further support of the nonmember utilities and individuals.
Projects are managed closely from their inception to the final report by the Foundation’s
staff and large cadre of volunteers who willingly contribute their time and expertise. The
Foundation serves a planning and management function and awards contracts to other
institutions such as water utilities, universities, and engineering firms. The funding for this
research effort comes primarily from the Subscription Program, through which water utilities
subscribe to the research program and make an annual payment proportionate to the volume of
water they deliver and consultants and manufacturers subscribe based on their annual billings.
The program offers a cost-effective and fair method for funding research in the public interest.
A broad spectrum of water supply issues is addressed by the Foundation’s research
agenda: resources, treatment and operations, distribution and storage, water quality and analysis,
toxicology, economics, and management. The ultimate purpose of the coordinated effort is to
assist water suppliers to provide the highest possible quality of water economically and reliably.
The true benefits are realized when the results are implemented at the utility level. The
Foundation’s trustees are pleased to offer this publication as a contribution toward that end.

Name of current chair Robert C. Renner, P.E.

Chair, Board of Directors Chief Executive Officer
Water Research Foundation Water Research Foundation

Note that section begins on

odd-numbered page

xi
 Note correct 
Centered, 
spelling  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
bold, all caps, size 14 

The authors of this report are indebted to the following water utilities and individuals for
their cooperation and participation in this project:

American Water Works Service Company, Inc., Quality Control and Research
Laboratory, Belleville, Ill., Cheryl Norton
City of Portland Bureau of Water Works, Portland, Ore., Roger Edwards
South Central Connecticut Regional Water Authority, New Haven, Conn., Noel
Grant

In addition, J. Denis Newbold helped design the research effort at the Stroud Water
Research Center and was entirely responsible for the modeling effort. His advice and help, plus
the advice of the Project Advisory Committee (PAC)—including R. Scott Summers, Associate
Professor of Environmental Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio; Anne
Camper, Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, Mont.; and
Christine A. Otis, City of Tampa Water Department, Tampa, Fla.—and the help of initial Water
Research Foundation project officer, Shelly Cline, are appreciated.
The authors wish to acknowledge the technical assistance of Heather Brooks and
Sherman Roberts. Shelby VonTill typed the manuscript, and Heather Brooks and Thomas
Condon helped with data management and production of graphics.

Note that section begins on

odd-numbered page

xiii
A‐level heading  Centered, 
(flush left, bold,  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY bold, all caps, size 14 
all caps, size 12) 

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this project was to assess the extent and implications of copper pitting and
pinhole leaks for residential potable water plumbing systems. Additionally, the project team
planned to investigate known and suspected causes of copper pitting and pinhole leaks through
case studies at participating communities.

BACKGROUND

Copper pitting that manifests into a pinhole leak greatly shortens the usable lifespan of
potable plumbing pipes. The resulting leak can damage housing infrastructure and other
valuables or potentially lead to mold growth. Homeowners, in turn, are adversely impacted by
pinhole leaks and bear the financial burden associated with premature pipe failure.
Unfortunately, factors that cause pinhole leaks and corresponding mitigation strategies are not
well understood.

APPROACH

Multiple data sources were used to assess the extent of pinhole leaks. National surveys
were conducted targeting plumbers, homeowners, businesses, and corrosion experts. The team
also reviewed a database of copper failures spanning 30 years. The mechanistic causes of pinhole
leaks were investigated via intensive case studies at participating communities, where
hydrological, biological, and aqueous chemical factors were considered.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS

Pinhole leaks have been confirmed in all states and most major urban areas.
Approximately 8.1 percent of homeowners nationally have experienced at least one pinhole leak
and between 21−60 percent of homes in certain communities have observed pinhole leaks. The
total cost of pinhole leaks and pinhole leak prevention in the United States is estimated at $967
million annually, with the largest proportion of cost ($564 million) in single family homes
particularly devoted to repairs (44 percent). About 58 percent of responding water utilities
reported using corrosion inhibitors, and annual costs of dosing corrosion inhibitors per customer
(connection) ranged from $0.10 to $5.72 with an average of $1.16.
Case studies at communities experiencing pinhole leaks were designed to confirm
suspected pinhole leaks and identify new mechanisms causing pinhole leaks. In terms of internal
copper corrosion problems caused by unfavorable water chemistry and microbiology, three
factors emerged with strong links to pinhole leaks: (1) high pH and high levels of disinfectant,
exacerbated by aluminum and other particles, (2) local production of H2S in and around pits by
sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB), and (3) erosion corrosion in hot water recirculation systems.
Other factors are believed to influence pitting corrosion and pinhole leaks.

Note that section begins on

odd-numbered page

xv
APPLICATIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS

The results of the various surveys demonstrate that copper pitting is a nationwide
concern, particularly where certain unfavorable water chemistry and microbiological factors are
present in the distribution system.
B‐level heading (flush left, 
Economic Implications bold, title case, size 12) 

The total cost of pinhole leaks and pinhole leak prevention in the United States is
estimated at $967 million annually, with the largest proportion of cost ($564 million) in single
family homes. Repair costs comprise the largest proportion of overall costs (44 percent) followed
by time costs (31 percent) and property damage costs (25 percent). Costs of pinhole leaks
relative to the number of single family homes are proportionately higher in hot spot areas than in
the rest of the United States due to two factors: (1) higher incidence of pinhole leaks, and (2)
higher costs per pinhole leak. Total costs in hot spot regions varied from $580 to $1,716
compared to $459 in the rest of the United States. Approximately half of respondents were
willing to pay more for a guarantee that their plumbing would remain leak free for 50 years.
Mean willingness to pay was higher for respondents who have had a pinhole leak ($1,258)
compared to respondents that had no leaks ($1,021).
In general, pinhole leaks have received little attention from water utilities, as the annual
amount spent by U.S. utilities is $350,000 a year to monitor pinhole leak complaints. About 58
percent of responding water utilities reported using corrosion inhibitors, and most utilities on
average have been using inhibitors for 15 years. The results of this research demonstrated that
the relatively low cost of a utility using corrosion inhibitors to reduce copper pitting (annual
average cost of $1.16 per customer account) can save customers hundreds to thousands of dollars
in plumbing and repair costs.

Customer Relations Benefits

The results of this study provide utilities with a better understanding of the occurrence,
costs, and factors that contribute to pinhole leaks in customer plumbing. By being proactive
about addressing pinhole leaks in the community, utilities can improve customer satisfaction and
reduce negative complaints for the utility’s customer service department.

Water Quality and Hydraulic Impacts

Three water quality and hydraulic factors were shown to have a strong correlation to
pinhole leaks: (1) high pH and high levels of disinfectant, exacerbated by aluminum and other
particles, (2) local production of H2S in and around pits by sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB), and
(3) erosion corrosion in hot water recirculation systems. Significant effort was expended in this
project to refine techniques capable of detecting sulfides and SRB bacteria involved in copper
pitting corrosion under conditions found in potable water systems.

xvi
Operational Impacts

This project developed a protocol to help utilities assess the extent of pinhole leaks in
their community. The protocol involves surveys of local plumbers, cultivating relationships with
customers, and a proactive effort to take when leaks are encountered.

MULTIMEDIA

The printed report is accompanied by a searchable CD-ROM that contains detailed case
studies from the participating communities. The case studies include detailed information on the
hydrological, biological, and aqueous chemical factors that led to copper pitting failures.

RESEARCH PARTNER

EPA

PARTICIPANTS

Utilities from Florida, New Mexico, Tennessee, Ohio, Connecticut, and Iowa participated
in this project.

xvii
 1″ top 
margin 

Chapter number 
CHAPTER 1 and title 
Two returns/ 
LABORATORY SCALE OZONATION EXPERIMENTS (centered, bold, 
2 line spaces  all caps, size 14) 
A‐level heading 
OZONATION OF TOXINS IN FOUR WATERS (flush left, bold, all 
One  B‐level heading (flush left,  caps, size 12) 
return/  Introduction bold, title case) 
1 line 
space  Several studies have shown that the destruction of m-LR by ozone is strongly dependent
on the dose (Hart and Stott 1993, Carlile 1994, Fawell et al. 1993, Rositano and Nicholson 1996,
Croll and Hart 1996, Hart et al. 1997). There is also evidence that the effectiveness of ozonation
will depend on the water quality. Work by Hart and Stott (1993) and Carlile (1994) demonstrated
that lower ozone doses were required for the destruction of microcystin in treated water
compared with raw water, where the treated water had a significantly lower dissolved organic
carbon concentration, and therefore lower ozone demand. Rositano (1996) found that ozonation
of a culture of Microcystis aeruginosa, with cell counts equivalent to a heavy bloom, required
high doses of ozone and extended contact times to destroy the microcystins present. Of these
studies only Rositano et al. (1998) and Rositano (1996) related the required dose for destruction
1″ left  1″ right 
of microcystin LR to the appearance of a residual of ozone in solution. Carlson (1993), Bose et
margin  al. (1994) and Andrews and Huck (1994) have shown that the concentration of DOC, and the margin 
nature of the natural organic material (NOM), will affect the ozone demand of the water, as will
the pH and alkalinity. As the ozone demand of the water will determine the ozone dose at which
a residual can be detected, it is likely that this value is also very important in the ozonation of
microcystin LR.
Anatoxin-a is also destroyed by ozone, however the doses required for complete destruc-
tion appear to be higher than those required for microcystin (Carlile 1994, Pierronne, 1993). Car-
lile (1994) also found a strong effect of water quality – in particular DOC concentration - on the
ozone doses required for destruction of the toxin.
Preliminary work of Rositano et al. (1998) on the ozonation of saxitoxins indicated that
the toxicity determined by mouse bioassay decreased with increasing dose of ozone. At the time
no analytical technique was available for saxitoxins.
In this Chapter the effect of ozonation on m-LR and m-LA, anatoxin-a and saxitoxins in
four treated waters is described. The aim of the work was to clarify the effect of water quality on
the destruction of the toxins, and to relate the results to practical application in a wider range of
waters.
One 
return/  Materials and Methods
1 line  C‐level heading (flush left, bold, 
space  Four Treated Waters italics, title case) 

Treated water, before chlorination, was used in this study. The waters studied, the raw
water source and the treatment processes are described below.
Hope Valley. Hope Valley Reservoir was sometimes supplemented by River Murray
water. The treatment process was conventional treatment, alum coagulation, sedimentation, rapid
sand/anthracite filtration.
D‐level heading (indent, 
bold, italics, title case) 
Set bottom margins to 1” (may 
differ from page to page due to  The first page of Chapter 1 is always
line or paragraph breaks)  1
page 1. Note the switch to Arabic
numerals.
 1″ top 
margin 
No 
extra  Myponga. Myponga Reservoir was the water source. The treatment process was dis-
spaces/ solved air flotation (DAF), rapid sand filtration.
run into  Morgan. Source water. River Murray was the source water. The treatment process was
text  conventional treatment, as for Hope Valley.
Groundwater. Lake Wallace and well water served as the Morgan groundwater, in an
approximately 70:30 mixture. Treatment process: DAF, rapid sand/anthracite filtration.

NOM Analysis and Characterisation E‐level heading (indent, italics, 

title case) 
Samples were filtered through 0.45 μm membrane. True colour was determined by com-
paring the absorbance of the sample, at 456 nm (50 mm path length), with a platinum/cobalt
standard (50 Hazen Units (HU)). Specific colour was determined by dividing true colour by
dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration. DOC was measured using a Seivers 820 Total
Organic Carbon Analyser. UV absorbance scans were obtained using a GBC UV/Vis 918
spectrophotometer. The specific UV absorbance (SUVA) was calculated using the equation:
SUVA=100*(abs254/ DOC). High performance size exclusion chromatography (HPSEC)
analysis was based on the method used by Chin et al. (1994). The column (Shodex Protein KW-
1″ left  802.5, molecular weight range 0.1K-50K, Waters Australia) was calibrated using polystyrene 1″ left 
margin  sulphonates of molecular weight 35K, 18K, 8K, 4.6K and acetone. These compounds are margin 
considered to best represent the structure and conformation of NOM in solution. Ultraviolet
absorbance at 260 nm was used for the detection of NOM during HPSEC analysis.

Preparation of Stock Ozone Solution

A stock solution of ozonated water was prepared by constantly bubbling ozone gas
through high purity water either at room temperature (20o C + 1o C) or on ice (4o C) (Figure
3.1). Ozone gas was generated by an Ozonia CFS-1A ozone generator fed with high purity
oxygen. The ozone concentration in the gas phase was varied by varying the current to the
ozonating unit, typical concentrations for ozone in the gas phase ranged between 50 and 60 mg
L-1. The Indigo Colorimetric Method (APHA et al. 1998) was used for determination of the
ozone concentration. The concentration of ozone was determined at regular intervals during each
experiment to minimise errors in the applied doses. The room temperature during ozonation
experiments remained constant at 20o C.

Determination of Ozone Requirement for Four Waters at T=5 Minutes

Volumetric flasks (100 mL) containing 75 mL of test water were prepared. Flasks were
dosed in triplicate with increasing volumes of ozonated water up to 15 mL. High purity water
was added to each flask such that after the addition of ozone the final volume was 90 mL. The
flasks were shaken vigorously for 5 minutes, 10 mL of indigo solution was then added to the
flask and again shaken for another 15 seconds. The residual was then determined. For the
Myponga and Hope Valley waters, the ozone stock solution was generated at room temperature
and the concentration of ozone was between 10.7 mg L-1 and 13.6 mg L-1.

Set bottom margins to 1” (may 
differ from page to page due 
to line or paragraph breaks)  2
Indent  Centered, 
turnover lines  REFERENCES bold, all caps, size 14 

Anderson, S., K. Langry, and P. Daley. 1993. The Impact of Water Conserving Fixtures on
Residential Water Use Characteristics in Tampa, Florida. Presented at
the Regional Conference of the Australian Water Works Association, Victorian Branch,
October 31-November 4, 1993.
Anholt, R. H. 1992. Molecular Aspects of Olfaction. In Science of Olfaction. Edited by M. J.
Serby and K. L. Chobor. New York: Springer-Verlag.
APHA, AWWA, and WEF (American Public Health Association, American Water Works
Association, and Water Environment Federation). 1992. Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater. 18th ed. Washington, D.C.: APHA.
APHA, AWWA, and WEF (American Public Health Association, American Water Works
Association, and Water Environment Federation). 1995. Part 6000 Individual Organic
Compounds: 6220 Volatile Aromatic Organic Compounds. Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater. 19th ed. Washington, D.C.: APHA.
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials). 1988. Annual Book of Standards, Part 31,
D3370-76. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials.
AWWA (American Water Works Association). 1988. American National Standard for
Polyethylene Encasement for Ductile-Iron Piping for Water and Other
Liquids. ANSI/AWWA C105/A21.5-88. Denver, Colo.: AWWA.
Baes, C. F., and R. E. Mesmer. 1976. The Hydrolysis of Cations. New York:
Wiley-Interscience.
Becker, W. C., and C. R. O’Melia. 1996. Treatment of Algae-Induced Tastes and Odors by
Chlorine, Chlorine Dioxide, and Permanganate. Master's thesis. Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, Blacksburg.
Bennett, M. W., and W. Myers. 1992. Making Automated Systems Successful: How to Win the
Hearts of Organizational Skeptics. Jour. AWWA, 84(1):52-54.
Block, M., and T. Hirschfeld. 1986. Apparatus Including Optical Fiber for Fluorescence
Immunoassay. U.S. Patent 4,582,809.
Borland International, Inc. 1997. "Oracle Licenses Borland’s Java Development Tools."
Budavari, S., M. O’Neil, A. Sith, and P. E. Heckelman, eds. 1989. The Merck Index. 11th ed.
Rahway, N.J.: Merck.
Buffin, L. 1992. Treatment of Algae-Induced Tastes and Odors by Chlorine, Chlorine
Dioxide, and Permanganate. Master’s thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University, Blacksburg.
Calabrese, E. J., C. Gilbert, and H. Pastides, eds. 1989. Safe Drinking Water Act: Amendments,
Regulations and Standards. Chelsea, Mich.: Lewis Publishers.
Chesnutt, T. W., J. Christianson, A. Bamezi, C. McSpadden, and W. M. Hanemann. 1995.
Revenue Instability and Conservation Rate Structures. Denver, Colo.: AwwaRF and
AWWA.
Choi, S. J., and G. M. Gulati. 2008. "Bias in Judicial Citations: A Window into the
Behavior of Judges?" Journal of Legal Studies, 37 (January): 87 - 129.
doi:10.1086/588263.

71 Just like the first page of a chapter,

the Reference list will always begin
on an odd-numbered page
 ABBREVIATIONS Centered, 
bold, all caps, size 14 

Aa effective cross-sectional area of the advecting volume

As effective cross-sectional area of the volume of storage zones in the bioreactor
AC alternating current
A–C asbestos cement
AC-ma*h product of the average milliamperes of AC and the contact time
AHA Aldrich humic acid
amp ampere
ANSI American National Standards Institute
AOC assimilable organic carbon
APHA American Public Health Association
Assn. Association
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
AWWA American Water Works Association
Note space between 
BDOC biodegradable dissolved organic carbon
alphabetical groups 
BOM biodegradable organic matter
Bq m-3 Becquerel per cubic meter

°C degrees Celsius
Ca concentration of tritiated water in the advecting fluid within the bioreactor
CBE Council of Biology Editors
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
Cl. Club
cm centimeter
cm2 square centimeter
Co. company

DC direct current
diss. dissertation
DO dissolved oxygen
DOC dissolved organic carbon
dpm/mL disintegrations per minute per milliliter
DU dielectric union

EBMUD East Bay Municipal Utility District

ed. edition
eds. Editors
ES effective size
EPRI Electric Power Research Institute
Ignore punctuation or 
symbols when 
°F degrees Fahrenheit alphabetizing 
Fed. Reg. Federal Register

73 Just like the first page of a chapter,

the Abbreviations list will always
begin on an odd-numbered page
 Model calculations were performed using two available computer programs which
calculate equilibrium chemical speciation and include surface complexation modeling of ion
adsorption at the oxide-water interface, HYDRAQL (Papelis et al. 1988) and MINEQL+, v.3.0
(Schecher and McAvoy 1994). For consistency between programs, the diffuse double layer was
chosen to describe electrostatic effects at the charged oxide surface. The two programs are very
similar. The principal differences are: (1) MINEQL+ has interactive input and output interfaces,
(2) HYDRAQL has more flexibility in modeling surface electrostatics, (3) MINEQL+ includes in
its thermodynamic data base the adsorption constants compiled by Dzombak and Morel for
hydrous ferric oxide, (4) ionic strength corrections for adsorption constants (i.e., activity
coefficients for solution species) are made automatically by MINEQL+ but not by HYDRAQL.
To obtain identical results with both programs, adsorption constants must by individually
adjusted in the HYDRAQL input file.
The surface complexation model can be applied to model the removal of dissolved
constituents during coagulation by assuming that (1) the added coagulant is stoichiometrically
converted to the hydroxide solid, (2) removal of the dissolved constituents can be attributed to
adsorption, which occurs to the same extent as would adsorption on an equivalent concentration
of preformed sorbent, and (3) the adsorbed contaminant is entirely removed by settling and
filtration such that the concentration of the contaminant in the product water corresponds to its
calculated dissolved concentration. For ferric chloride, stoichiometric conversion to the
hydroxide solid (HFO) yields 0.55 mg HFO/L per mg FeCl3 added.
Characteristics of HFO recommended by Dzombak and Morel, including stoichiometry,
specific surface area, surface site concentrations and adsorption constants, were used. The HFO
surface parameters and equilibrium constants used in the modeling are summarized in Table 2.8
and Table 2.9.

PROCEDURES FOR MEMBRANE STUDIES Table callout 

in text 
Membrane Test Unit

A laboratory RO/NF test unit was constructed for the membrane studies. This unit offers
a wide range of applied pressures, crossflow velocities, and feedwater temperatures. Ultimate
temperature control is of paramount importance to obtaining reproducible data of membrane
selectivity. Center table number and title 
above table, bold, sentence style 
capitalization for table title 
Table 2.8
HFO surface parameters used in the computer modeling
Parameter Formula Value
Stoichiometry Fe2O3·H2O 89 g HFO/mol Fe
Surface area 600 m2/g
Surface site density
Weak adsorption sites (≡FewOH) 0.2 mol sites/mol Fe
s
Strong adsorption sites (≡Fe OH) 0.005 mol sites/mol Fe
Source: Dzombak and Morel 1990.
Source note at the foot of table 

12
 LOOP 5
RT
(CONTROL)

FREE CL 2 CONTACTING
RT LOOP 2

RT LOOP 2A
NH2 Cl
CONTACT
PO4 or
Si

Cl 2 NaHCO3 RT LOOP 3
RAW
WATER

NaOH RT LOOP 1

NaOH
CONTACTING

Cl2 N H3
O3

RT LOOP 6
N H 2 Cl
CONTACT PO4 or
Si
CO2 RT LOOP 4
O3

Source: AWWA 1997.

Source note between figure and 
Figure 4.1 Pipe rack schematic caption  

Figure caption flush left below figure, 
bold, sentence style capitalization 

26
Center table number and title 
above table, bold, sentence style 
capitalization for table title 
Table 5.3
Number of community water systems sampled and planned for the random survey,
by source-size category and state
Number of CWSs sampled / number of CWSs planned Per-
State Source-size category centage
or other GW- GW- GW- GW- GW- SW- SW- SW- SW- SW- of
entity VSM SM MED LRG VLRG VSM SM MED LRG VLRG Total planned
AK 4/4 1/1 0 0 0 1/1 0 0 0 1/1 7/7 100
AL 0/0 2/2 2/2 1/1 0 0 0 1/1 3/3 5/5 14/14 100
AR 2/2 2/2 1/1 0 0 0 0/1 1/1 1/1 1/1 8/9 89
AZ 5/5 2/2 1/1 2/2 1/1 0 0 0 0 6/6 17/17 100
CA 19/20 5/5 4/3 7/7 11/11 2/2 2/2 2/2 5/5 30/30 87/87 100
CO 4/5 1/1 0 0 0 1/1 1/1 0/1 2/2 6/6 15/17 88
CT 5/5 1/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2/2 5/5 13/13 100
DE 2/2 1/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1/1 4/4 100
FL 13/13 5/6 3/3 7/7 17/17 0 0 0 1/1 3/3 49/50 98
GA 11/12 2/3 1/1 1/1 1/1 0 1/1 1/1 3/3 8/8 29/31 94
HI 0 1/1 0 0 1/1 0 0 0 0 0 2/2 100
IA 7/7 4/4 1/1 1/1 1/1 0 0 0 0 2/2 16/16 100
ID 5/5 1/1 1/1 1/1 0 1/1 0 0 0 1/1 10/10 100
IL 7/7 4/5 2/2 2/2 1/1 0 1/1 1/1 3/3 8/8 29/30 97
IN 4/4 4/4 2/2 2/2 1/1 0 0 1/1 1/1 4/4 19/19 100
KS 4/4 3/3 0 1/1 0 0 1/1 1/1 1/1 3/3 14/14 100
KY 1/1 0 0 0 0 0 1/1 2/2 4/5 2/2 10/11 91
LA 8/8 5/5 1/3 2/2 ½ 0 0 1/1 1/1 5/5 24/27 89
MA 2/2 0/1 2/2 3/3 1/1 0 0 1/1 4/4 8/8 21/22 95
MD 3/4 1/1 1/1 1/1 0 0 0 0 1/1 5/5 12/13 92
ME 2/2 1/1 0 0 0 0 1/1 0 1/1 0 5/5 100
MI 8/9 4/4 1/1 1/1 1/1 0 0 1/1 2/2 4/4 22/23 96
MN 5/6 4/4 1/1 3/3 0 0 0 0 1/1 2/2 16/17 94
MO 8/8 4/4 2/2 1/1 1/1 0 1/1 1/1 1/1 4/4 23/23 100
MS 5/5 8/9 3/3 2/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 18/19 95
MT 4/5 1/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1/1 6/7 86
NC 15/16 3/3 1/1 1/1 0 0 1/1 2/2 4/4 7/7 34/35 97
ND 1/1 1/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1/1 0 3/3 100
NE 5/5 2/2 1/1 1/1 0 0 0 0 0 1/1 10/10 100
NH 5/5 1/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1/1 1/1 8/8 100
NJ 3/3 2/2 2/2 4/4 1/1 0 0 0 1/1 8/8 21/21 100
NM 5/5 1/1 1/1 1/1 1/1 0 0 0 0 0 9/9 100
NV 2/2 1/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1/1 4/4 100
NY 12/15 3/4 1/1 3/3 4/4 1/1 2/2 2/2 4/4 16/16 48/52 92
OH 7/7 4/4 2/2 3/3 2/2 0 1/1 1/1 4/4 10/10 34/34 100
OK 3/3 1/2 1/1 1/1 0 1/1 2/2 2/2 2/2 4/4 17/18 94

“Continued” line below table on  (continued)
right side of page 

31
 Table number and 
“continued” for table 
title, centered, bold 

Table 5.3 (Continued)

State Number of CWSs sampled / number of CWSs planned Per-
or other Source-size category centage
entity GW- GW- GW- GW- GW- SW- SW- SW- SW- SW- of
Repeat  VSM SM MED LRG VLRG VSM SM MED LRG VLRG Total planned
column  OR 5/6 1/1 0 1/1 0 1/1 1/1 1/1 2/2 2/2 14/15 93
headings  PA 11/14 4/5 2/2 1/1 0 1/1 1/1 2/2 6/6 15/15 43/47 92
RI 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1/1 1/1 100
SC 3/4 1/1 1/1 0 0 0 0 0 2/2 3/3 10/11 91
SD 2/2 1/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1/1 4/4 100
TN 1/1 1/1 1/1 1/1 1/1 0 1/1 2/2 4/4 4/4 16/16 100
TX 25/24 12/14 3/6 3/3 3/3 0/1 1/2 2/2 5/5 17/17 71/77 92
UT 3/3 1/1 1/1 1/1 0 0 0 0 0 4/4 10/10 100
VA 11/11 2/2 0 0 0 0 1/1 1/1 2/2 6/6 23/23 100
VT 2/3 1/1 0 0 0 0 1/1 0 0 0 4/5 80
WA 15/17 4/4 1/1 2/2 1/1 1/1 1/1 0 1/1 2/2 28/30 93
WI 7/7 4/4 2/2 1/1 1/1 0 0 0 1/1 3/3 19/19 100
WV 2/2 0/1 0 0 0 0 2/2 1/1 1/1 1/1 7/8 88
WY 2/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2/2 100
NA 6/6 2/2 0 0 0 1/1 0 0 0 0 9/9 100
PR 1/2 1/1 1/1 1/1 0 ½ 2/2 0/1 1/4 6/8 14/22 64
292/ 121/ 50/ 63/ 53/ 12/ 26/ 30/ 79/ 228/ 954/
Total 311 132 54 63 53 14 28 32 83 230 1,000 95
Percen-
tage of
planned 94 92 93 100 100 86 93 94 95. 99 95
GW - ground water; SW - surface water; VSM - very small; SM - small; MED - medium; LRG-
large; VLRG - very large; NA- Native American Lands; PR- Puerto Rico

32
 Center table number and title 
Appendix A: Examples | 45
above table, bold, sentence style 
capitalization for table title
Table 9.3
Electrochemical fundamentals—bronze

Exposure conditions Exposure Electrochemical data*

Corrosion Anodic Cathodic
current Surface Tafel Tafel
Metal Free Cl2† Combined Cl2‡ Duration density§ potential** slope†† slope††
type Class pH (mg/L) (mg/L) (days) (μA/cm2) (mV) (mV/decade (mV/decade
of current) of current)
Bronze 1 8.8 0 0 1 0.55 30 40 90
7 0.17 60 80 150
20 0.16 60 85 160
2 7.5 0 0 1 0.7 20 40 80
7 0.18 60 70 120
20 0.17 80 80 120
3 6.0 0 0 1 2.35 10 35 60
7 1.0 60 80 100
20 0.5 65 90 120
4 7.5 0.5 0 1 2.8 170 60 160
7 1.2 70 60 170
20 0.5 60 60 170
5 7.5 0 0.50 1 2.5 130 75 170
7 0.8 80 70 170
20 0.4 70 60 160

Source: Reiber 1993

*Some polarization data points are interpolated from measurements preceding or following the stated duration.
†Free chlorine presented as mg/L total Cl2.
‡Combined chlorine presented as mg/L total Cl2.
§Corrosion current density is convertible (Faraday’s Law) to a corrosion penetration rate. The approximate conversion constant for copper-based metals
is1μA/cm2 = 1.2 mpy.
**Surface potentials are measured relative to the Ag-AgCl reference electrode (3 M).
††Tafel slopes are expressed as the polarization offset (mV) corresponding to a decade increase in current density.

Source note and footnotes 
below table  54
Center landscape 
46 | Format-Style Guide
figure on the page 

;
Note use of black, 

;;
8 white, and patterns, 

; ;;
no gray shading  Flavobacterium spp.
Fall

;; ;;
7
Winter Sphingomonas spp.

; ;;
Spring
6 Mycobacterium spp. Summer

; ;;
; ;;
5
Percent of Total

; ; ;; ; ;;
Methylobacterium spp.
4 Pseudomonas spp.

3
;;;
Bacillus spp.
;
; ;
; ;;;
; ; ;
;;; ;;
;;
Staphylococcus spp.

2
;
;
;;
;; ;
; ;
; ;;
;;
;
; ;
;
; ;
;
;
;;;
;;
;;
;;
Kurthia spp.

0
;;
;;; ;
; ; ;
; ;;; ; ; ;;
;; ; ;;; ;;
;; ;
;;
Bacteria

Figure 3.5 Bacteria identification by season for the free-chlorine system

Figure caption flush left below figure, 
bold, sentence style capitalization 
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 Hydraulic Loading Rate

Acceptable hydraulic loading rate range for SSF is 0.016 – 0.16 gallons per minute per
square foot (gpm/ft2) (0.04 – 0.4 meters per hour [m/h]) (Huisman and Wood, 1974). A
hydraulic loading rate of 0.08 gpm/ft2 was selected for the SSF plant based on the information
obtained through pilot study. This hydraulic loading rate meets the Arizona Department of
Environmental Quality (ADEQ) design requirements, 0.032 – 0.16 gpm/ft2 (ADEQ, 1987).
Callout in text 
Filter Area

The total filter area is calculated by using Equation 6.1.

Indent or center equations  Q Equation number in 
A= parenthesis  (6.1)
HLR

where A = filter bed area, square feet (ft2)

Q = SSF plant peak flow, gallons per minute (gpm)
HLR = hydraulic loading rate, gallons per minute per square foot (gpm/ft2)

Two acres of filtration area would be needed to treat 10 MGD of water through SSF at a
hydraulic loading rate of 0.08 gpm/ft2 (0.2 m/h). For the SSF plant to produce 175.6 MGD,
eighteen filters of two acres each would be needed. For plant redundancy and reliability, an
additional two filters of two acres each was considered, resulting in a total of twenty parcels with
a total of 40 acres of filtration area.

Initial Height of Filter Sand Bed

Visscher recommended a bed depth between 2.65 and 2.95 ft (0.8–0.9 m) (Visscher,
1987). Depth of 3.0 ft is selected for SSF plant to mirror pilot test sand depth.

Indent and define  Di − D f
variables  Y= (6.2)
R*F

where Y = number of years of operation before sand bend is rebuilt

Di = initial height of filter sand bed, ft
Df = minimum height of filter sand bed, ft
R = sand depth removal per scraping, ft per scraping
F = frequency of scraping, number of scrapings per year

Operators of the slow sand facility at West Hartford, Conn., do not remove the
schmutzdecke from their filters, they disrupt the layer by harrowing, and a portion of the debris
is removed by headwater drainage (AWWA, 1991; Collins et al., 1991). For SSF cost
development, it was assumed that the filters would be cleaned using “harrowing” method as
opposed to scraping, which was done for pilot testing.

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 configuration provided the most definitive results for the sorting of Pb from the other materials.
Surface probe measurements are not significantly affected by changes in pipe diameter. Surface
probes are typically inserted into the test object to obtain measurements from an inside surface
but can also be used on the outside of a test object.
Proper probe selection is essential for the successful outcome of a test. The following
criteria were used in the selection of the eddy current probe:

• Electrical considerations:
- Enhancing the phase separation of the Pb signal from the signals of the other
metals found in water service lines. In general, phase separation due to
conductivity changes in the test subject for the alloys of interest increases with
Space  decreasing frequency.
above and  - Decreasing the sensitivity to lift-off. The sensitivity to lift-off decreases with
below lists  lower frequency.
- Being a side sensing probe to enhance contact with surface
- Being compatible with the eddy current instrumentation
• Mechanical considerations:
- Size relative to the diameter of the service line
- Length of cable relative to the length of the service line
- Waterproof
Bullet for main point and 
Electronics and Scope dash for subpoint 

The electronic circuitry of test instruments varies, depending on the manufacturer and the
mode of operation. The electronics typically operate on a bridge circuit principle. Test objects
are placed in each of the two coils. The secondary coil and its test object are represented by a
fixed load of 16 μH. The bridge circuit is then electrically balanced. The result of this balance is
described as a point on an impedance plane. With the primary coil (test coil) in air, a zero point
is determined. Then, using samples taken from water service lines as known materials, the
instrument’s (such as Defectoscope 2.833 [manufactured by Foerster Instruments, Inc.,
Pittsburgh, Pa.]) response to Pb, Cu, Fe, galvanized iron, brass, and plastic is evaluated (Figure
3.5). Note that plastic shows no response on the scope. Although galvanized iron is now shown
on the figure, its response is similar to that of Fe and appears slightly to the left of Fe. The
response to these materials is displayed as a varying amplitude and phase signal on the
instrument’s screen. An unknown service line’s response can then be compared to the response
of known samples. This comparison was the basis for the determination of Pb.
Several methods of eddy current data presentation can be employed. Phase and amplitude
are the basic bits of information coming from the probe as it interacts with the materials around
it. Other important information about the test relates to probe position.
The signals can be interpreted by a local observer (as done in this study) or by some form
of automatic control device (such as a threshold alarm and sorting gate for product inspection on
an assembly line). The display method employed during this project was the “flying dot” on a
CRT, which is a real-time display of phase and amplitude. In this method, the CRT graphically
represents an impedance plane. The test coil’s impedance appears as a point on the screen. The
position of the point has both amplitude and phase values. This method of presentation is
common.

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