Digital Industrial Radiography PDF

IAEA RADIATION TECHNOLOGY REPORTS No.
IAEA RADIATION TECHNOLOGY REPORTS No. 2

The introduction of powerful computers and reliable imaging
technologies has had a significant impact on traditional radiation
based non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques. In particular,
digitization of images provides economy of storage, efficiency of
communication, and increased speed of inspection and evaluation.
NDT laboratories in developed countries are progressing rapidly
with the digitization of radiation inspection data. New imaging
techniques using image intensifier systems, imaging plates and
flat panel detectors have increased the capacity for visualization of
Design, Development
surface and internal defects in welds, castings, forging composite
materials and concrete, revealing new potential for accurate
evaluation of such defects by radiation techniques. This publication
describes the design, development and optimization of an
affordable, low cost digital industrial radiology (DIR) fluoroscopic
system. It provides guidelines on building an economically viable,
easily assembled DIR system, providing interested Member States
and Optimization of
— including developing Member States — access to DIR technology.
a Low Cost System
for Digital Industrial
Radiology
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

VIENNA
ISBN 978–92–0–129310–7
ISSN 2225–8833
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DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND
OPTIMIZATION OF A LOW COST
SYSTEM FOR DIGITAL
INDUSTRIAL RADIOLOGY
The following States are Members of the International Atomic Energy Agency:
AFGHANISTAN GUATEMALA PANAMA

ALBANIA HAITI PAPUA NEW GUINEA
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ANGOLA HONDURAS PERU
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IAEA RADIATION TECHNOLOGY REPORT No. 2
DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND

OPTIMIZATION OF A LOW COST
SYSTEM FOR DIGITAL
INDUSTRIAL RADIOLOGY
International atomic energy agency

Vienna, 2013
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STI/PUB/1561
IAEA Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Design, development and optimization of a low cost system for digital
industrial radiology. — Vienna : International Atomic Energy Agency, 2013.
p. ; 30 cm. — (IAEA radiation technology reports series, ISSN 2225–8833 ;
no. 2)
STI/PUB/1561
ISBN 978–92–0–129310–7
Includes bibliographical references.
1. Radiography, Industrial — Instruments. 2. Nondestructive testing — Cost
effectiveness. 3. Radiation — Safety measures. I. International Atomic Energy
Agency. II. Series.
IAEAL13–00827
foreword
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) promotes industrial applications of non-destructive testing
(NDT) technology. In its regular programme, it supports continuous and effective transfer of NDT technology to
developing countries. These efforts have led to a stage of maturity and self-sufficiency in this area in many countries.
NDT methods are primarily used for detection, location and sizing of surface and internal defects in welds, castings,
forging composite materials, concrete, etc. NDT methods are also used in preventive maintenance of components
in the nuclear, aircraft and other industries, and in civil engineering structures. Thus, NDT technology contributes
significantly to the improvement of the quality of industrial products and the integrity of equipment and plant
components. It is especially important in developing Member States where resources are scarce and life extension
of components is critical. This has had a positive impact on the quality of industrial goods and services.
The introduction of powerful computers and reliable imaging technologies has had a significant impact on
traditional radiation based NDT techniques. In particular, digitization of images provides economy of storage,
efficiency of communication, and increased speed of inspection and evaluation. NDT laboratories in developed
countries are progressing rapidly with digitization of radiation inspection data. New imaging techniques using
image intensifier systems, imaging plates and flat panel detectors have increased the capacity for visualization of
defects and revealed new potential for accurate evaluation of defects by radiation techniques.
To review the new developments in digital industrial radiography (DIR) and to recognize the significant
potential of DIR techniques in the life assessment and extension of components, facilities and products, a meeting
of experts was convened at the IAEA in November 2005. Based on the results of this meeting, the IAEA conducted
several regional training courses in which participants from Member States were given training in DIR techniques.
The IAEA also supported establishing facilities for DIR techniques in some Member States.
Realizing the need for easy construction and assembly of a low cost, more economically viable system for
DIR technology, the IAEA conducted a coordinated research project (CRP) during 2007–2010 for research and
development in the field of digital radiology, with the participation of 12 Member State laboratories. The current
publication on design, development and optimization of a low cost DIR system is based on the findings of this CRP
and inputs from other experts. The report provides guidelines to enable interested Member States to build their own
DIR system in an affordable manner.
The IAEA wishes to thank the authors and CRP participants who contributed to this report. In particular, the
IAEA is grateful to U. Ewert and U. Zscherpel (Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Germany)
for their valuable contributions and guidance during the preparation of this report. The IAEA officers responsible
for this report were Joon-Ha Jin, A.A. Khan, B.P.C. Rao and P. Brisset of the Division of Physical and Chemical
Sciences.
EDITORIAL NOTE
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CONTENTS
1. introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1. The radiographic testing method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2. Filmless radiographic testing methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1. Limitations of the conventional film RT method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2. Film digitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.3. Fluoroscopy and radioscopy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.4. Computed radiography with imaging plates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.5. Digital detector arrays or flat panel detectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.6. Computed tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.7. Advantages of digital radiographic systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3. Essential concepts related to digital industrial radiography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1. Radiation attenuation in materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2. Characteristics of film image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3. Characteristics of digital image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF FLUOROSCOPIC SYSTEM

FOR DIGITAL INDUSTRIAL RADIOLOGY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1. BAM construction drawings for digital fluoroscope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.2. Selection of materials and components for construction of a digital fluoroscope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3. Instructions for assembly of digital fluoroscope housing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4. Problems encountered during implementation and their solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5. Cost analysis of various digital industrial radiology systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.1. Introduction to ISee! software for image processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.2. Data acquisition and image calibration procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.1. Software and hardware installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.2. Software operation and image acquisition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.3. Calibration of fluoroscope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3. Qualification procedures for fluoroscope qualification using Isee! According to ASTM E 2597. . . 22
3.3.1. Measurement procedure for basic spatial resolution (SRb). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.2. Measurement procedure for efficiency dSNRn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3.3. Measurement procedure for achievable contrast sensitivity
and specific material thickness range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.4. Identification of radiographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4. ACQUISITION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.1. Measurements of basic spatial resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4.2. Measurements of efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3. Measurements of achievable contrast sensitivity and specific material thickness range. . . . . . . . . . 34
4.4. Comprehensive results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.5. Comparison of results with those obtained from other digital industrial radiology methods . . . . . . 36
4.6. Experience with isotopic radiation sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.7. Standards, image quality and compensation principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.7.1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.7.2. Requirements for image quality in digital industrial radiology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.7.3. Magnification technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.7.4. Compensation principle I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.7.5. Compensation principle II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.7.6. Application of compensation principle II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.7.7. Selection of tube voltage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.7.8. Overall conclusion about image quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5. Radiation Protection Implications of Industrial Radiography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6. CATALOGUE OF IMAGES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7. SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
ANNEX: BAM construction drawings for producing a casing for

the digital fluoroscope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

1. introduction
1.1. The radiographic testing method
Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods, including radiography, are largely used for detection, location
and sizing of surface and internal defects (in welds, castings, forging, composite materials, concrete, etc.). The
radiographic testing (RT) method consists in passing a beam of radiation from a source (X rays or gamma rays)
through a test specimen and detecting it on the opposite side (Fig. 1).
FIG. 1. Typical set-up for radiographic inspection with films.
RT still represents the largest NDT method on the market. At present, the amount of industrial NDT carried
out using radiographic film sandwiched between lead intensifying screens as a detector is continuing to increase
around the world, largely for the following reasons:
—— RT is technically superior in detection ability for internal defects in many situations, e.g. inspection of
complicated shapes and where non-contact techniques are required.
—— RT is the only option for the majority of in-line factory production line testing, e.g. in-line testing of castings,
electronic components such as printed circuit boards and food products. Here, any interruption of the process
is unacceptable, and RT is the only testing method that can satisfy this constraint.
—— RT can detect defects in structures where direct access is not possible, e.g. pipelines and other structures
covered with thick paint or insulation, or having a rough surface finish. Here, other NDT methods require
considerable preparation effort and time.
—— RT shows good detection ability for defects in multi-layered structures, austenitic steels and composites where
other NDT methods such as ultrasonic testing cannot be used due to attenuation and scattering problems.
—— Results of inspections are easy to interpret.
The ability of this source–specimen–film system to detect flaws, usually referred to as sensitivity of flaw
detection, depends on a number of factors. Most of these can be attributed to all three components of the system:
the source, the specimen and the film. These factors can be briefly listed as:
(1) Type of specimen, its geometry, shape, thickness, physical density, type, location and orientation of defects
with respect to the direction of the beam;
(2) Energy of radiation and source size;
(3) Scattered radiation, filters if used, source to film and specimen to film distances;
(4) Type of film (its definition, contrast and graininess), film processing and optical density, viewing conditions,
intensifying screens;
(5) Operator’s eyesight, qualifications, skill and experience.
Sensitivity is a general term used to describe the ability of a radiograph to show details in the image. It is
a reference to the amount of information or detail in the image. For example, if very small flaws can be seen in
1
the radiograph, it is said to have high or good sensitivity. Radiographic sensitivity depends on image contrast,
definition and graininess.
Practically, sensitivity is determined through the use of image quality indicators (IQIs), of which there are
several kinds. These include the wire type, step wedge type, and step and hole type. In the wire type there are
two classifications, the single wire type and the duplex or wire pair type. The IQI, in principle, should be of the
same material as the test specimen. It is placed on the surface of the test specimen facing the source, and then the
exposure is made and the film is processed. The minimum diameter of the wire visible on the radiograph is noted.
The sensitivity is then calculated as a percentage, for example, 1%, 2%, 4%, etc. The lower the percentage, the
better is the sensitivity for flaw detection.
1.2. Filmless radiographic testing methods
1.2.1. Limitations of the conventional film radiographic testing method
Although film radiography presents high resolution images, it suffers from several major disadvantages
including the following:
—— Low efficiency leads to longer exposure times;

—— Radiographic films are not reusable;
—— Considerable film processing facilities are required;
—— Considerable time is required to develop the film and interpret the results;
—— Workers are exposed to hazardous chemicals during film development;
—— There are storage and retrieval costs for radiographs after inspection;
—— X ray film deteriorates over time;
—— Interpretation of radiographs is subjective;
—— There is difficulty in full automation.
1.2.2. Film digitization
Film digitization is not a filmless technology, but it allows the use of all means of computer processing with
traditional film exposures. There are several types of film digitization system, such as point by point digitization,
line by line digitization and array digitization. The most commonly used is point by point digitization, in which
the film is moved in front of a collection tube. A laser beam (with a wavelength of about 680 nm, red) with a fixed
diameter (approximately 50 µm) passes the film. The diffuse transmitted light through the film is integrated by
the collection tube and registered by a photo multiplier (PMT) on top of the collection tube. During the scan, the
folding mirror moves the laser beam along a horizontal line on the film. The film is moved with a speed of 75 lines
per second. The resulting voltage at the photo multiplier is proportional to the light intensity behind the film. After
logarithmic amplification, 12 bit digitization yields grey values that are proportional to the optical density of the
film.
Unlike in other digitization methods, the laser scanner illuminates with focused light and measures the
diffuse light intensity behind the film. All other methods illuminate with diffuse light (the film is illuminated with
a diffuser) and measure the light intensity that passes through film in one direction (camera objective or human eye
in traditional film inspection) (see Section 3.2).
Because of a spatial resolution of better than 10 µm and optical density of up to 5, high end digitization
yields several new possibilities for conventional RT. These include, for example, digital film archiving, quantitative
evaluation, image processing, automatic image evaluation, remote image transfer and production of reference
catalogues for flaw evaluation.
1.2.3. Fluoroscopy and radioscopy
In the typical source–specimen–film radiographic setup, the film is replaced with a fluorescent screen that
emits visible light when exposed to radiation. The screen, which contains the image of the test specimen, can either
be read by direct viewing or be photographed by a camera (fluoroscopy).
2
Alternatively, instead of a fluoroscopic screen, an image intensifier with a built-in scintillation screen can be
used to enhance the brightness of the input image as compared with a fluorescent screen. The intensified light image
at the exit screen of the image intensifier is coupled via mirror lenses to a charged coupled device (CCD) camera to
photograph the image (radioscopy). This CCD camera converts visual signals to electrical signals that can be fed
to a computer, where they can be processed and analysed. The light intensification of the image intensifier allows
inspection of moving objects in real time (e.g. 30 images per second) (see also Section 3.2).
1.2.4. Computed radiography with imaging plates
Direct digitizing systems accelerate the application of intelligent procedures to facilitate and enhance image
interpretation. For almost ten years, imaging plate systems have been available for NDT, and these can be used as a
filmless radiography technique, also known as computed radiography with imaging plates.
In the 1980s, a step forward was made in medicine by using imaging plates able to store the image, eliminating
the film and different chemicals, thus giving birth to computed radiography.
An imaging plate consists of a flexible polymer support coated with a sensitive layer. On top it is covered
with a thin transparent protective layer. The sensitive layer of the most common systems consists of a mixture of
BaFBr crystallites doped with europium and a binder. X ray or gamma ray quanta result in activation of F-centres
in the crystallites, which result in the emission of blue light photons upon stimulation with red light photons
through a process known as photo stimulated luminescence (see Fig. 2). After X ray exposure, imaging plates
have to be scanned by a laser scanner to obtain a digital image radiograph. Finally, the residual information stored
in the F-centres can be erased by exposure to bright white light and the imaging plate can be reused up to 1000
times. Different plate systems are commercially available with different thickness, unsharpness and sensitivity.
Guidelines and standards that define good workmanship criteria for new digital detectors have been developed and
remain under revision, aimed at avoiding a loss of information and reduced probability of flaw detection, which
may occur by adoption of medical systems without adaptation to NDT requirements.
FIG. 2. Principle of computed radiography with imaging plates.
1.2.5. Digital detector arrays or flat panel detectors
1.2.5.1. Indirect X ray imaging
The intrinsic photon detection in photodiodes works fine for light photons and X ray photons up to 20 keV.
Above that level, the absorption rate caused by the thin photodiode layer is too low for effective image generation.
For higher X ray energies, indirect detection is used based on a scintillation screen as used in a fluoroscope,
but here it is in direct contact with the photodiode matrix for light detection. In this way, nearly all light photons
3
leaving the scintillator screen are collected by the photodiodes directly touching the screen. All losses connected
with light imaging by a mirror and lens, as used in fluoroscopes, are omitted. The photodiode layer should not
be degraded by X ray radiation and the light detection should not be degraded by the penetrating X ray photons.
Because CCD elements are very sensitive to X rays and cannot be used in direct contact with the scintillator,
photodiodes made on complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) or amorphous silicon panels are used
for light detection.
In what is commonly called an amorphous silicon flat panel, X rays (or gamma rays) first strike a scintillation
layer. This layer emits photons in the visible spectrum. These photons are picked up by the underlying amorphous
silicon photodiode array, which converts them to an electric charge. This charge is then converted into digital
values for each pixel.
The scintillation layer is commonly composed of either caesium iodide or gadolinium oxysulfide. This
selection and the optimum scintillator thickness depend on the desired image unsharpness and radiation energies
used.
1.2.5.2. Direct X ray imaging with photo conductors
Another way to record information regarding detection of electromagnetic waves is what is called direct
imaging, using, for example, amorphous selenium technology or crystalline CdTe technology (Fig. 3). X rays (or
gamma rays) strike a photo conductor made of amorphous selenium or a CdTe layer, which converts them directly
into electric charge that is further converted to a digital value for each pixel. Pixelated metal contacts (pixel sizes
down to 70 µm are available) and ball grid arrays are used to contact the photoconduction layer to the underlying
CMOS or amorphous silicon readout electronics.
The transmitted X ray intensity at each detector element position in the detector array is converted to a digital
output level and fed to a computer, where the images from the individual slices and/or projections are computed in
a reconstruction process to form a three dimensional (3-D) image of the specimen.
FIG. 3. Comparison of detection technologies for digital detector arrays.
1.2.6. Computed tomography
Computed tomography (CT) uses measurements of X ray transmission from many angles encircling the test
specimen to compute the relative X ray linear attenuation coefficients of small volume elements (3-D voxels)
and presents the data as a cross-sectional or 3-D attenuation map. The clear images of interior planes of an object
are achieved without the confusion of superposition of features that is often found with conventional projection
radiography. In the typical source–specimen–film radiographic set-up, the film is replaced with a one dimensional
(1-D) or two dimensional (2-D) array of radiation detectors. For a 1-D detector array, the X ray beam and the detector
elements are collimated to a narrow slit and highly aligned to each other to define a slice plane in the specimen.
This slit collimation reduces scattered radiation from the inspected object and improves the reconstruction result of
this fan beam CT (which is important for high X ray energies with increased X ray scatter by the inspected object).
Faster inspection times can be realized by using a 2-D image detector (digital detector array or flat panel) and
a cone beam X ray beam. In this way, a 360° rotation provides projection images of a complete specimen volume.
The disadvantage is the missing suppression of scattered radiation generated in the object, which introduces
artefacts in the volume reconstruction and reduces the contrast in the projections.
4
Either the test specimen or the source–detector assembly can be translated and rotated to obtain projections
from multiple angles. the 3-D cone beam CT, in particular, needs computer clusters for image reconstruction of
data sets of gigabytes per inspected volume.
1.2.7. Advantages of digital radiographic systems
Digital industrial radiography (DIR) has the following benefits:
—— It reduces radiation dosage and exposures, resulting in less risk to the operator and less disruption to other
operations.
—— It reduces radiographic inspection time and improves productivity.
—— It eliminates film processing chemicals, chemical disposal and storage costs.
—— Digital radiographs are not degradable.
—— It is easily customized for field radiography in a portable package.
—— It allows analysis using image processing and defect detection algorithms.
—— Storage costs are minimized, as all images are stored on hard disks or optical media such as CD-ROMs or
DVD-RAMs. Images can also be accessed via network and even emailed to experts for real time verification.
—— Reusable imaging plates mean that savings can be generated, as one plate can be used many times.
Significant cost savings from the use of DIR systems have been reported by industry. With the advancement
of image intensifier systems, imaging plates, flat panel detectors and fast multimedia computers, DIR is finding
increased applications.
1.3. Essential concepts related to DIGITAL INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
1.3.1. Radiation attenuation in materials
Suppose we have a primary X ray intensity I0 incident on the surface of a material. After passing through the
material, with thickness x, we have intensity I, the relationship between I0 and I being:
I( x ) = I 0 e − µ x (1)
where µ is the linear attenuation factor, or absorption factor. Intensity I has the usual meaning, being the average of
the Poynting vector S, namely, the quantity of electromagnetic energy traversing a unit of surface in a unit of time.
If monochromatic radiation is used, m can be taken as constant. In practice it is better to use the effective attenuation
coefficient meff, which depends on the radiation energy, the test specimen thickness (because of radiation hardening
and generation of scattered radiation in the object), tube filters, detector screens and the geometrical set-up used for
inspection (this determines the scatter contribution). The coefficient meff will always be smaller than the theoretical
m as obtained for the mono-energetic narrow beam energy.
The effective attenuation coefficient meff can be calculated from the following formula (using NDT films with
optical density proportional to the radiation dose):
D
(
µ eff = 1n  object
− D fog ) 
 ∆w
 ( step fog )
D − D
(2)
where
Dfog is the optical density of the film fog and base;

Dobject is the optical density inside the object investigated (hole, step, etc.);
Dstep is the optical density at base material;
Δw is the wall thickness difference between base material and the imaged object.
5
1.3.2. Characteristics of film image
1.3.2.1. Optical film density
The process of film blackening can roughly be described as follows. The electromagnetic waves (or free electrons
generated by lead intensifying screens under X ray exposure) impinge the film and set free electrons from
negative Br ions. These electrons are captured by electron traps, so the free positive Ag ions are attracted by these
negative centres, becoming neutral and blackening the film after development. The number of neutral Ag atoms
formed on the film is directly proportional to the number of electromagnetic waves incident on it.
The optical film density achieved depends on the radiographic exposure or the radiation dose received by the
film, measured by the tube current or source strength multiplied by the time of exposure. The optical density D is
the degree of blackening of the film after development and fixing. It is also called the ‘film response’ to the dose of
radiation and is expressed as:
D = log(L0 L ) (3)
where
Lo is the diffuse light intensity (luminance) measured on the image viewer;

L is the diffuse light intensity (luminance) measured on the film on the viewer.
The IQI sensitivity achieved in the final radiograph depends on the value of achieved optical density D.
The number of photons incident on film is the number of photons that have traversed the material to be
studied and according to Eq. (4) is exponentially decreased; as a result, the film’s blackening density can be written
as:
D = DMax e − µ x (4)
where
D is the film blackening or optical density;

DMax is the quantity depending on the current of the X ray source, the film to source distance, exposure time t,
and some constants which are characteristic of the film used.
1.3.2.2. Image contrast, definition and granularity
The quality of a radiographic image can be described in terms of three factors, namely contrast, definition
(unsharpness) and image noise (granularity). All three of these important factors affect defect detectability.
Radiographic contrast is the density difference between areas of a radiograph. Obviously, an image becomes more
discernible when contrast is increased. Contrast depends on X ray energy, radiation scatter conditions, the type of
film and film processing used, and film density.
Definition refers to the sharpness or unsharpness of the image. In general, one can assume that a sharp image
is of higher quality than a less sharp image. Definition is dependent on the geometric condition of the radiographic
set-up, focal spot size, radiographic energy, intensifying screens used, type of film used and its development, and/
or radiation imaging system used.
The image noise, visible as granularity in the film image (e.g. by using a magnifying glass of 10×), depends
on the film speed (film sensitivity given by the film grain size during film manufacturing or film system class), the
development conditions and the exposure time (or optical density).
For linear NDT films, the normalized signal to noise ratio (SNRNorm) at an optical density of 2 can be
calculated from the following film system parameters:
SNRNorm = log(e )(G2 σ D ) (5)
6
where
G2 is the film gradient at an optical density of 2;

σD is the film granularity at an optical density of 2;
G2/σD is the gradient to noise ratio for films.
SNRNorm can be calculated from the curves drawn between gradient to noise ratios and the square root of the
dose (or exposure). However, at the limit of detection, the quality of the image depends on all three factors: contrast,
unsharpness and granularity.
1.3.3. Characteristics of digital image
1.3.3.1. Signal to noise ratio
The optical film density and granularity are defined for films only. If film is replaced with other detectors,
equivalent detector properties must be considered.
The image obtained by digital detectors is described in terms of ‘grey levels’, which is a kind of darkening or
blackening depending on the visual presentation of an image display. The exposure to the digital detectors by the
image-forming radiations produces a ‘grey level’ as digital pixel value numbers in the digital image. This can be
defined as the signal of the detector. The ‘grey level’ variations produced by fluctuations of the signal intensities of
the different detector elements due to quantum statistics of X ray radiation and/or electronic noise sources can be
referred to as ‘noise’ or ‘grey level variations’. The detector response can then be measured in terms of the signal
to noise ratio (SNR). Since imaging plates and digital detector arrays (DDAs) are linear detectors, their image
quality can be characterized by this SNR. For quantum limited detection, the SNR will improve the square root of
the X ray exposure, and the signal (grey level) is proportional to the exposure (mA·s). Thus, the requirement for a
minimum SNR in the image of digital detectors is equivalent to the requirement for a minimum optical density of
film. The SNR of a film can be derived from the film system class and the film density.
1.3.3.2. Contrast to noise ratio
The contrast C (in grey values) of IQIs and flaws is defined as the difference between the radiation intensities
measured with a detector, which is given as:
C = I − I flaw = ∆I (6)
The relative contrast, Cr, which is mainly used for digital systems, is normalized to the radiation intensity at
a given area in the radiation image:
Cr = ∆I I (7)
For very small thickness changes (differential), it can be derived from the attenuation law using μeff
(in 1/mm):
C = I∆wµeff
(8)
The specific contrast, Cs, is now defined as detector response, which is ΔI per thickness change (grey values
per mm):
Cs = C ∆w = Iµeff
(9)
Here, I is the radiation intensity at a specific pixel area in a radiographic image. The grey values of linear
detectors as well as the grey value difference increase with increasing exposure time (dose). Therefore, the detector
7
signal (S) for a given radiation intensity (linear to dose) determines the contrast of a flaw or IQI in any radiographic
image as follows:
Cs = Sµeff (10)
The perception of a certain flaw or IQI in an image depends not only on the Cs but also on the image noise.
Flaws and IQIs are only discernable if the contrast is higher than the image noise. Wires and lines are visible if the
contrast to noise ratio (CNR) is about one; pores and 1T holes are visible if the CNR is greater than 2.5. Higher
exposure dose increases the CNR proportionally to the square root of dose (or exposure), if the detector responds
linearly to dose and no other noise sources contribute to the image.
The CNR, which is the essential parameter for the visibility or detectability of flaws and IQIs, can be
calculated from the detector response, SNR, as a function of signal and dose as follows (small flaws):
CNR ∆w = (SNR )(µeff ) (11)
Therefore, the image quality depends on the μeff and the detector response SNR. This applies to all linear
X ray image detectors and NDT film systems. The CNR is inversely related to the contrast sensitivity, which is
normally measured as a percentage of detectable wall thickness difference.
1.3.3.3. Basic spatial resolution
The detectability of fine flaws depends on the detector unsharpness, the geometrical unsharpness, and the
SNR or CNR. If a magnification technique is applied, the total image unsharpness is the combined effect of
geometrical unsharpness and detector unsharpness divided by the magnification.
Digital detectors are typically characterized by their detector pitch (also called the pixel size), which is
equivalent to the distance between the centres of two neighbouring detector elements. To consider, in addition,
unsharpness contributions by the sensitive detection layer of imaging plates, CR scanners and DDAs, the concept
of the basic spatial resolution (SRb, in μm), was introduced, which corresponds to an effective pixel size. Whereas
the pixel size is determined by the construction or software settings (e.g. within CR scanners), the SRb can be
measured in the image in a number of ways. The most convenient and recommended method is to use the duplex
wire method (see the IQI description in EN 462-5, ASTM E 2002 or ISO 19232-5). The measurement with the
duplex wire IQI provides a total unsharpness value (uT) in μm which is equivalent to the spatial resolution. The
basic spatial resolution (SRb) is calculated by:
SRb = uT 2 (12)
1.3.3.4. Specific material thickness range
Considering the practical aspects of radiographic applications, an additional parameter used is the specific
material thickness range (SMTR), which means the extent of material thicknesses covered in the same image
without detector saturation and ensuring a minimum SNR in the image. Since this value is low for NDT film
systems (limited by the usable optical density range of 2–4.5, corresponding to a radiation intensity ratio of only
3), it usually is not considered for film radiography in textbooks and standards. Since modern DDAs and CR can
have a much wider dynamic range compared with even the double film technique, this parameter was introduced
for manufacturer characterization of DDAs in ASTM E 2597.
8
2. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF FLUOROSCOPIC SYsTEM
FOR DIGITAL INDUSTRIAL RADIOLOGY
2.1. BAM construction drawings for digital fluoroscope
The construction drawings developed by Germany’s Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing
(BAM) for producing a casing for the digital fluoroscope are provided in the Annex to this publication. These are
available in German; Table 1 provides a translation into English. German terms used in the drawings and their
translation into English are given in Table 2.
TABLE 1. PARTS OF THE HOUSING

Part No. Quantity Description Material
Stainless steel X5CrNi18-10
(ASTM Alloy Type 304, EN 1.4301,
1 1 Casing bottom plate UNS S30400) or similar
2 1 Casing right plate X5CrNi18
3 1 Casing left plate X5CrNi18
4 1 Casing top plate X5CrNi18
5 1 Casing front plate X5CrNi18
6 1 Input window Aluminium alloy
7 1 Casing rear plate X5CrNi18
8, 9 2 Bolts (as part of handle) X5CrNi18
10 1 Handle X5CrNi18
11 1 Mirror holder X5CrNi18
12 1 First surface mirror (purchased) First surface mirror
13 1 Holder of inner (CCD camera) casing X5CrNi18
14 1 Flat spring X5CrNi18
15 1 Camera holder, part 1 Aluminium alloy
16 1 Camera holder, part 2 Aluminium alloy
17, 18 2 Lead glass holder, upper side X5CrNi18
19 1 Lead glass holder, bottom side X5CrNi18
20 1 CCD camera (purchased)
21 1 Lead glass (purchased) Lead glass (Pb glass)
22 2 Spring (diameter: 10 mm × 1 mm × 13 mm) (purchased) X5CrNi18
23 1 Inner casing right plate X5CrNi18
24 1 Inner casing left plate X5CrNi18
25 1 Inner casing left shielding Lead/Pb
26 1 Inner casing right shielding Lead/Pb
27 1 Inner casing from (main beam) shielding Lead/Pb
28 1 Inner casing top shielding Lead/Pb
29 1 Inner casing bottom shielding Lead/Pb
30 1 Inner casing rear shielding Lead/Pb
BS 4168 - M4 x 10 4 Hexagon socket set screw with cone point X5CrNi18
DIN 7991/M4 x 12 12 Hexagon socket countersunk head screw X5CrNi18
Hexagon socket countersunk
DIN 7991/M5 x 16 2 X5CrNi18
head screw
DIN 912/M4 x 20 17 Hexagon socket head cap screw X5CrNi18
9
TABLE 2. TRANSLATION OF TERMS IN THE DRAWINGS
German English
Teil/Bauteil part
Gehäuse/Kameragehäuse/Detektorgehäuse Casing/camera casing (fluoroscope casing)
Kameraabschirmung Camera shielding
Spiegel Mirror (first surface mirror)
Halter Holder
Bolzen Bolts
Platte Plate
Blech Thin plate (thin metal sheet)
Blei Lead (Pb)
For details, see the drawings in the Annex to this publication.
2.2. Selection of materials and components for construction

of A digital fluoroscope
In addition to the drawings used to construct the housing, including X ray and light shielding, some
components have to be purchased commercially. The drawings are adapted to the selection of special parts as
described in the following. If other parts are used, some of the construction details may need to be changed.
To assemble a digital fluoroscope, the items listed in Table 3 need to be purchased (one item per position).
The total price of the components for one fluoroscope unit (excluding personal computer and FireWire hub) was
about €2160 (excluding value added tax) in Europe in 2008.
2.3. Instructions for assembly of digital fluoroscope housing
The manufactured digital fluoroscope housing and shielding components comprise 26 fabricated details, two
springs (detail No. 22), a CCD camera with an objective, a first surface mirror, a fluorescent screen, lead protecting
glass and number of connecting screws (Fig. 4). Detail numbers mentioned in this section correspond to those in
the BAM drawings provided in the Annex to this publication.
FIG. 4. The fluoroscope housing and shielding details to be assembled.
10
For the assembling processes:
(1) The housing must have black matt painting inside to avoid harmful reflection. Therefore, the corresponding
parts must be painted before the beginning of assembly.
(2) Start the assembly from the ‘camera module’ (Fig. 5). Leave the fixing of the lead glass and its supports
(detail Nos 17 and 18) for the end of module assembly.
(3) Using adjusting screws and springs (detail No. 22), fix the objective’s optical axis in the middle of the circular
hole of the steel plate (detail No. 19). During this adjustment, the screws may extend beyond the camera
bearing plate (detail No. 13) (Fig. 6). In this case, shorter screws may be used or additional hollows in lead
(detail No. 30) should be drilled.
TABLE 3. ADDITIONAL ITEMS TO BE PURCHASED FOR COMPLETION OF THE DIGITAL

FLUOROSCOPE
Price per item in euros
Item No. Name/description Supplier (prices from 2008, excluding
value added tax)
1 Kyokko DRZ-PLUS fluorescent Kasei Optonix, Ltd., 1060 Naruta, Odawara 185
screen City, Kanagawa, 250-0862, Japan, (for one 197 mm × 294 mm
Phone: +81-465361027, Fax: +81-465361151, sheet),
email: [email protected] , one 115 mm × 155 mm sheet
web site: http://www.kasei-optonix.co.jp is needed as input area
2 FOculus FO442SB 2/3′′ CCD New Electronic Technology NET GmbH, 1810
Camera Lerchenberg 7, D-86923 Finning, Germany,
Phone: +49 (0)88 0692340, Fax: +49 (0)88 06923477,
email: [email protected],
Web site: http://www.net-gmbh.com
3 EO Megapixel fixed FL lens Edmund Optics GmbH, Schoenfeldstrasse 185
12 mm/1:1.8, Edmund Optics 8, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany,
(Product ID NT58-001) Phone: +49 (0)721 6273730,
Fax: +49 (0)721 6273750,
email: [email protected],
Web site: http://www.edmundoptics.com/
4 First Surface Mirror, 81 mm × Edmund Optics GmbH (as above) 12
100 mm (1 mm support), Edmund
Optics (Product ID Y41-621)
5 X ray protective Pb-Glas 65 mm Advanced Materials SCHOTT AG, 55
× 65 mm, 10 mm thickness Huettenstraße 1, D- 31073 Gruenenplan, Germany,
(2.5 mm Pb-equivalent @ 180 kV Phone: +49 (0) 5187 7710,
or similar) Fax: +49 (0)5187 771300,
Email: [email protected]
Web site: www.schott.com
6 Personal computer running Various brands and models are possible; a supplier Not included, locally
Windows XP and having active located at the site of the project partner is probably available
FireWire (IEEE-1394) interface a, preferable
minimum CPU frequency 2 GHz,
minimum RAM 512 MB.
a
Active FireWire (IEEE-1394) means that the camera power is supplied via FireWire. Virtually all six pin connectors found
on desktop motherboards have this. In laptops/notebooks, FireWire implementation is usually with a four pin connector; these have
no power wires. In this case, an additional active FireWire hub having an external 12V power supply can solve the problem. It is also
possible to use old external iPod (from Apple Inc.) FireWire adapter cables, which enables charging the iPod while connected to the
Mac Powerbook.
11
FIG. 5. The camera module (Teil means part).
FIG. 6. Detail No. 13 with screws sticking out approximately 5 mm.
(4) Continue assembling shielding and housing details according to the BAM drawings. Leave the installation of
the mirror and the fluorescent screen until the end, to minimize the possibility of damage to them.
(5) Carefully paste the first surface mirror (detail No. 12) on the pivot plate (detail No. 11). This can be done
using two-sided sticky tape.
(6) Fix the plate bearing mirror at a 45˚ angle to the optical axis of the objective directed by the reflecting side to
the place where the fluorescent screen will be installed.
(7) The aluminium plate (detail No. 6) must be clean and smooth to avoid artefacts on the radiographic pictures.
If there are any scratches on any of its sides, the plate should be abraded and, if necessary, polished (possibly
galvanically).
(8) Carefully paste the fluorescent screen on the aluminium plate (detail No. 6). This can be done using two-sided
sticky tape.
12
(9) Before installing the fluorescent screen into the system, the positions of the mirror and the objective can be
adjusted by the implementation of some tests in visible light. This can be done using a BAM adjustment
target printed on thin paper and installed in place of the fluorescent screen (Fig. 7).
FIG. 7. Adjustment of mirror and objective positions in visible light.
The assembled fluoroscope and the fluorescent screen can be seen in Fig. 8. The overall dimensions of the
assembly are 285 mm × 195 mm × 182 mm, and its approximate weight is 30 kg.
FIG. 8. Assembled fluoroscope and fluorescent screen.
13
2.4. Problems encountered during implementation and their solutions
Table 4 shows some of the problems observed during the case studies in participating laboratories as well as
their solutions.
TABLE 4. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED AND THEIR SOLUTIONS (cont.)
Problem encountered Solution

Light reflection from the internal walls of the Use black matt painting inside the fluoroscope box along with firm and light-tight
housing causes image artefacts assembly
Increased background noise due to scattered Use masking and collimation of the X ray beam
radiation
Dark image, distortion, no image for thick Turn aperture of the objective to maximum
specimens Adjust brightness to obtain grey value between 2 and 10 for no radiation. Adjust
shutter (exposure time per frame) to have a high grey value for the thinnest part of
the specimen to be inspected (just below the red warning colour in the V2 window)
Unstable image from self-rectifying single Try another tube with constant potential generator
tank X ray tubes Use digital temporal filter in V2 software
Image distortion caused by improper geometry Assemble the housing strictly according to BAM drawings
of the housing (smaller or large dimensions of Field of view should be 100 mm × 150 mm
the fluoroscope’s optical system) To increase or decrease field of view, change the optical system (dimensions,
magnification, etc.)
Image quality cannot be measured correctly, Use Duplex Wire IQI according to ISO 19232-5, ASTM E2002 or EN 462-5 and
e.g. Duplex wire IQI readout or wire number one of the following:
readout is too low — Single Wire IQI according to ISO 19232-1 and EN 462-1 or ASTM E 747
— Plate Hole Penetrameter according to ASTM E1025
— Step/Hole IQI according to EN 462-2
Use compensation principle for IQI sensitivity measurement as described in

ISO/DIS 17636-2
Follow the requirements for minimal SNR values and exposure time as specified in
ISO/DIS 17636-2
Increase exposure time if wire IQI readout is too low
Duplex Wire IQI procurement IQI suppliers, for worldwide distribution:
http://www.wilnos.de (request IQI manufactured by Kowotest, clear IQI)
http://www.ie-ndt.co.uk/ (old version in yellow colour)
V2.exe software does not work on some This problem has not been solved yet. BAM is working on it. Only one V process
computers at all. On others, it can only can access the Direct Show library per device; more processes running on the same
run in an unstable way, caused by a failing computer do not show any image data
connection of V2 to the direct show library Check if the computer has the minimum specifications and operating system as
and resulting in no image data and a frame recommended in the V2 manual. Reinstall the software and hardware according to
rate of 0 frames per second manufacturer instructions
Follow the guidelines of the V2 manual exactly
Check Windows Direct Show version and try other ones
As a final option, reformat the hard disk and reinstall Windows, e.g. WinXP SP2
(be aware of potential data loss)
FO control does not work on some computers Incomplete driver installation by FO control software installation process or
(only 32 bit drivers available) FireWire hardware issues
Try another computer with 32 bit Windows version and working FireWire
connection providing 12 V to the camera
FireWire connectors and adapters are not Select a camera of equivalent specifications with USB connection
readily available in some countries
Wrong exposure conditions, measurements of Follow procedures or protocol for image analysis included in this publication
quantitative parameters, IQI values, etc.
14
TABLE 4. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED AND THEIR SOLUTIONS (cont.)
Problem encountered Solution

Difficulties in image analysis or lack of Updates of ISee! software:
functions in software http://www.kb.bam.de/~alex/ic/index.html
Latest ISee! manual:
http://www.kb.bam.de/~alex/ic/ic-manual_v1.10.pdf
Updates of V2 software:
http://www.kb.bam.de/~alex/v2/index.html
Problems with image acquisition and Select proper number of frames to be averaged (frame integration number):
fluoroscope calibration 50–500 is suggested. It should be high enough to meet the required minimum
SNR value
Frame integration number for calibration must be two to four times the frame
number used for acquisition
Follow the calibration procedure:
http://www.kb.bam.de/~alex/ic/calibration-correction/index.html
2.5. Cost analysis of various Digital Industrial Radiology systems
The construction of the digital fluoroscopic system (DFS) consists of two parts, i.e. the casing (housing and
shielding) and the optical components. Table 3 lists the components of the digital fluoroscope. These were directly
purchased and provided by the IAEA at a total cost of €2882 per DFS. Table 5 shows the cost of DIR systems of
different Member States. For the fabrication of the DFS casing, the cost ranges between €1900 and €3000, depending
on the manufacturing costs in the Member States. The software developed by BAM was used and the other hardware
items listed in the table were provided by the IAEA at a total cost of €2882 per DFS. Therefore, the total cost to
fabricate the complete DFS was observed to range between about €4800 and €5900 without taking into consideration
the cost of the computer and the shipping and transportation costs. The prices indicated exclude taxes and overhead. It
can be observed that the overall cost of the DFS is quite comparable among the various Member States.
For purposes of comparison, the costs of commercial DIR technology such as film digitization, computed
radiography, flat panel and image intensifier in selected Member States are also given in Table 5. It should be
highlighted that a DFS can be built at a cost of about €5000. This is about 10–20% of the cost of comparable
commercial DIR systems that provide similar image quality.
TABLE 5. COST OF DIGITAL INDUSTRIAL RADIOLOGY SYSTEMS (EUROS) IN SELECTED

COUNTRIES AT THE TIME THE COORDINATED RESEARCH PROJECT WAS CARRIED OUT
Fluoroscope (housing
Film digitization Computed
and shielding) as Flat panel Image
Country system radiography
BAM design + optical (manufacturer) intensifier
(manufacturer) (manufacturer)
components a
Argentina 2000 + 2882 = 4882 32 000 77 000 45 000 (Yxlon
(GE) (GE) XRS 232)
India 2000 + 2882 = 4882 50 000 55 000 60 000 40 000
(Array 2905) (HD-CR 35 NDT, (Thales, France) (Yxlon
Dürr NDT) XRS 232)
Malaysia 3000 + 2882 = 5882 45 000 60 000 50 000
(Array 2905) (HD-CR 35 NDT, (FPDigit13-127,
Dürr NDT) Balteau NDT, USA)
Pakistan 2000 + 2882 = 4882 33 000 40 000, 45 000
(GE FS-50B) (CR 35 NDT, (GE system)
Dürr NDT)
Romania 2000 + 2882 = 4882
Syrian Arab Republic 200 + 2882 = 3082
Uruguay 1900 + 2882 = 4782
Uzbekistan 400a + 2882 = 3282
a
Internal costs.
15
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
3.1. Introduction to ISee! software for image processing
ISee! is software developed by BAM for the purpose of radiographic image analysis using the Microsoft
Windows operating system. The demonstration and full versions of this software, along with the user manual, can
be downloaded from the Internet (http://www.kb.bam.de/ic). There is no installation required. The entire file can be
copied to a personal computer and run using the ic.exe or ic-demo.exe file, as applicable.
To process images, open the digital image in ISee! (just drop the image file via mouse on the ISee! program
icon). The digital images can be raw data (without calibration) or can be captured including calibration. The image
stored in the form of raw data is calibrated by using ISee! for optimum contrast sensitivity and better flaw detection
with the digital fluoroscope.
The main purpose is analysis, i.e. adjustment for the human eye, of various tasks such as wall thickness
measurement, profile based measurement, calculation of image statistics, SNR measurement in a defined window
region, various types of filter for image enhancement and documentation of high resolution images with high bit
depth usually arising in scientific and industrial digital imaging and in DIR in particular.
The details of functions and parameters for operation are available in the user manual. The manual also
provides tips on useful image processing tools for better visualization of the digital radiographs on monitor screens
and paper prints.
3.2. Data acquisition and image calibration procedure
3.2.1. Software and hardware installation
The selected FireWire camera FOculus FO442SB requires special drivers to operate under Windows
operating systems. The manufacturer (NET GmbH, Germany) provides the latest version on its web site
(http://www.net-gmbh.com). The following files were available during the CRP for download concerning the
FO442SB camera:
(1) FOcontrol_Install_4.0.3.0.exe (the camera drivers and the demo application FOcontrol.exe);
(2) FOcontrol_V3.0.7.0_manual.pdf (the user manual for the demo application FOcontrol.exe);
(3) NET_FOculus_S_user_manual_v1.15_001.pdf (the detailed description of the FO442SB camera
specifications and the software and driver installation).
The first file has to be started once on the computer to install all necessary drivers and the demonstration
application “FOcontrol.exe”. Finally, a link to this demonstration application is installed on the desktop. After the
software installation, reconnect the camera to the hot pluggable FireWire interface. Only then will all necessary
Windows drivers be installed and the camera become visible under the system -> hardware -> device manager as
‘image processing device’ with the name ‘NET GmbH 1394 Digital Camera’. When the device is shown in the
manager window without a yellow exclamation mark, the camera is ready for operation.
A beep should be heard from the computer when the camera is connected or disconnected on the running
Windows system. The camera power has to be provided by the FireWire cable. A standard six pin IEEE 1394 cable
and connector at the computer provide this power; the smaller four pin connectors found on laptops do not. Here,
adapter cables from four pin to six pin with an additional power supply of 12 V should be used.
Caution: Be sure to connect the six pin cable only side correctly. With force the steel frame of the six pin
connector can be expanded so that the cable, turned 180°, can be plugged in. If power is then provided to the
camera, the exit circuit of the FireWire interface inside the camera will be destroyed and the camera will have to be
sent for repair to the manufacturer (Net GmbH, Germany).
3.2.2. Software operation and image acquisition
As the next step, start the FOcontrol application from the desktop link. Select the set-ups as shown in Fig. 9.
Clicking the ‘start camera’ button will show a live camera image; the ‘stop camera’ button will erase this image
16
from the window. If all works correctly, stop the camera and exit FOcontrol. For more information, see the manual
(FOcontrol_V3.0.7.0_manual.pdf).
FIG. 9. FOcontrol.exe demonstration application of NET GmbH for basic camera tests.
The application V2.exe was developed especially for data acquisition with the Radio5000 fluoroscope at
BAM and released under GNU public domain. This program does not require any installation; simply start V2.exe
from a suitable directory. The V2.exe file requires some more dynamic link libraries (DLLs) to run, as shown in
Fig. 10. There is no installation required; simply start V2.exe and keep all four files in the same directory.
FIG. 10. V2 acquisition program and its components.
The main window, as shown in Fig. 11, appears on the desktop after starting the application V2.exe. Clicking
the ‘About’ button opens the window pictured in Fig. 12.
17
FIG. 11. Main window of the V2.exe application with live camera image (camera recognized as ‘Device 0’, image size 1388 pixels ×
1040 pixels, 8 bit grey values 0–255 in the live image, frame rate 6.49 frames per second).
The V2.exe application uses standard Windows video streams via DirectShow and ActiveX. In this way, a
wide range of video devices with live data streams are supported, at the moment only with 8 bit colour or greyscale
images. The basic functions of V2 are as follows:
(1) Display of live video in the main window with markers on information clipping (grey values of 0 are displayed
in blue, grey values of 255 in red; see Fig. 11).
(2) Control of camera settings via ‘Setup’ button.
(3) Integration of multiple fames to 16 bit greyscale images by averaging of 8 bit frames and scaling to 16 bits for
increased dynamic range and SNR.
(4) Temporal median filtering prior to averaging for suppression of directly converted X ray photons reaching the
CCD chip despite the lead shielding.
(5) Selection of file name for storage of integrated images as standard 16 bit TIFF image.
(6) Calibration of the integrated raw images via calibration set-up file (see Section 3.2.3) for reduction of
electronic background (so-called dark image) and inhomogeneities between single pixels via additional
multiple gain images (‘bright images’ with flat field X ray exposure of different intensities). V2 allows also
replacement of ‘bad pixels’.
(7) The calibration procedure, file and functionality are the same as used in ISee! via the menu Image -> Adjust
pixels … .
18
FIG. 12. ‘About’ window for the BAM V2.exe software, with information on licence and availability.
There can be several circumstances in which the V2.exe program simply crashes. This can be caused by
software bugs between the public domain library used for Video-I/O and the DLLs provided by the camera
manufacturer. This is outside the V2.exe program and cannot be prevented completely. It can also happen that the
camera is recognized but no data are transferred (0 frames per second and a black image window). This occurs
mostly after reconnection of the camera to the system. In this case, start the FOcontrol.exe application and start and
stop the camera as shown in Fig. 10. After exiting the FOcontrol.exe, the program V2.exe should start smoothly
and display the correct camera live data as shown in Fig. 11.
The first line ‘View’ in V2.exe allows configuration of the image display in the main window. All possible
choices are shown in Fig. 13.
FIG. 13. All possibilities to control the image display in the V2 main window.
19
The right most bottom menu shown in Fig. 13 requires some explanation. ‘View-automatic’ is the default
greyscale presentation, i.e. scaling of the maximum 16 bit grey values in the image data to the 8 bit dynamic range
of the display. Here, the complete image (View) is automatically scaled, i.e. the minimum grey value is scaled to
black and the maximum grey value in the image is scaled to white. The scaled grey value range is displayed on the
right most side of the ‘View:’ line.
The top option ‘ROI-automatic’ is selected when a red rectangle is drawn by the mouse (left mouse button
pressed) inside the main image window. Then only the grey values inside this red rectangle are considered for
automatic histogram scaling to full 8 bit of the display. By pressing the right mouse button and moving the mouse,
the position of this red region of interest (ROI) rectangle can be moved inside the image window.
The other settings shown in Fig. 13 (bottom image), from ‘16 bpp (full dynamic)’ up to ‘4 bits dynamic’, fix
the look-up table for image display to the indicated number of bits considered in the image grey values. The image
at the top of the figure shows the selection of different data streams. That in the middle shows the image display
with different zooming factors, also adjustable via the scroll wheel on the mouse. At the bottom are different
settings for grey value stretching. The numbers on the right hand side show the grey value range displayed between
black and white.
The ‘Reset’ button in the V2 window resets the used IO library, the ‘Setup’ button calls the camera
configuration window. The layout of the set-up window depends on the camera functionality and the implemented
features of the ActiveX video components by the manufacturer of the camera driver. For the FOculus camera, this
is shown in Fig. 14.
There are only two parameters that have to be adjusted and checked every time the camera is reconnected
with the FireWire interface: ‘Brightness’ (grey value of dark image without exposure) and ‘Shutter’ (which
determines the light exposure time of each camera frame). None of the other parameters should be changed. The
correct settings are shown here for the BAM camera working at 200 ms exposure time (shutter = 1829) and a dark
level of 1–2 grey values (brightness = 555). For details see the camera manual at: NET_FOculus_S_user_manual_
v1.15_001.pdf.
If ‘Brightness’ and ‘Shutter’ are not set correctly, images as shown in Fig. 14 are acquired with clipped grey
values (zero value in blue, maximum value of 255 in red). Information kept in the marked blue and red regions is
lost in the image and cannot by enhanced by any frame integration, so it is important to set the ‘Brightness’ level
correctly. This will avoid any blue coloured pixels showing grey values of zero. The optimum setting is also shown
in Fig. 14. At ‘Brightness’ equal to 555, the electronic background of the camera without light is between 1 and 2
grey values. The exact ‘Brightness’ value depends on the individual camera and its actual temperature.
FIG. 14. Typical image with clipped grey level values as result of incorrect selection of brightness and shutter (left), and optimum
settings of the camera FOculus FO 442SB (right).
20
On the right hand side of Fig. 14 is the camera control Windows shown for the FOculus FO 442SB camera
after pressing the ‘Setup’ button in the V2 main window. Only the ‘Net Video Control’ tab is of importance; the
‘NET camera Control’ tab should not be changed.
The other important setting parameter, electronic ‘Shutter’, will set the exposure time for the single camera
frame. This value is an encrypted value derived from the frame time in ms. Depending on the selected frame time,
the correct ‘Brightness’ setting will change, because the dark signal of the CCD chip will increase with increasing
frame exposure time. So it is useful to operate the fluoroscope only with a very limited number of different shutter
settings, because the fluoroscope calibration also depends on this setting. Depending on the available X ray power
and distances, the frame exposure time should be long enough to have enough signal in the middle of the image. At
BAM, an X ray tube up to 225 kV and 1.8 kW at a distance of 700 mm is used. For this source, a frame exposure
time of 200 ms (five frames per second unprocessed raw data) was always the optimum (shutter = 1829).
Table 6 provides typical shutter values and the corresponding frame exposure times calculated from the
formula given in the user manual (NET_FOculus_S_user_manual_v1.15_001.pdf).
TABLE 6. FRAME EXPOSURE TIME OF THE CCD CHIP AND CORRESPONDING SHUTTER VALUE
SETTING IN THE CAMERA SOFTWARE CONTROL TAB
1394 Shutter value Frame exposure time 1394 Shutter value Frame exposure time
1 1 µs 1729 0.1 ms
10 10 µs 1829 0.2 ms
100 100 µs 2129 0.5 ms
500 500 µs 2422 1 ms
550 1 ms 2522 2 ms
650 2 ms 2822 5 ms
950 5 ms 2944 10 ms
1045 10 ms 3044 20 ms
1145 20 ms 3318 60 ms
1445 50 ms 3323 65 ms
Figure 15 shows a snapshot of an ongoing flat field exposure. This is an example of ongoing integration with
V2 (9 frames of 50 are already done) using all features including calibration. The acquired grey values of a single
frame are between 14 and 129, so no clipping is shown and the source calibration should also work. The computer
load by the applied temporal filtering of five frames and image integration decreases the frame rate from five to
two frames per second. So an overall exposure time of 50 × 0.2 s = 10 s is integrated, but the time needed for this
integration is 50 × 0.5 s = 25 s. So a faster computer will save some overall exposure time.
FIG. 15. Snapshot of an ongoing flat field exposure.
21
3.2.3. Calibration of fluoroscope
As shown in Fig. 16, the calibration is controlled via a simple text file. The content of the file used here is
given as highlighted text in Fig. 16.
FIG. 16. Principle of fluoroscope calibration via text file containing keywords and image names used for grey value correction.
The keyword ‘adjust_black’ controls that the first image (dark_200ms_50frames.tif) is used to subtract
any dark offset from each of the following white images. All the following images (here, only one image,
“bright_200ms_50frames.tif”, with a homogeneous exposure at the screen) are used for pixel-wise linear
interpolation of the image to be calibrated for equalization of the individual pixel responses to provide the same
median grey value of the calibration image. More details on image calibration can be found in the documentation
included in the ISee! package (see http://www.kb.bam.de/ic). There, identical functions can be used via Image ->
Adjust pixels.
A typical calibration text file for the BAM fluoroscope is given here:
$adjust_black
Dark2-200ms-240s.tif
Fe5mm-220kV-1mA-700mm-200ms-180s.tif
A 5 mm thick steel plate was used for calibration. Besides the dark image, four white images were generated
for calibration of the full dynamic range. With 8 mA at a 700 mm distance, no detector saturation was obtained. The
other, darker images should have grey values linearly increasing from the darkest to the brightest image.
It is useful to have at least double the integration time for detector calibration as used later for image
acquisition. If the source to detector distance changes, some artefacts in the detector calibration will appear, because
of the changes in X ray source shading overlying the internal detector shading (mainly from objective).
In Fig. 17 the improvement of image quality is shown before and after calibration for an Inconel step wedge.
Of course, during acquisition of images for fluoroscope calibration, the calibration function in V2 has to be
deactivated (e.g. no source calibration text file as in Fig. 16). Exposure conditions are given in the displayed file
name.
3.3. Qualification procedures for fluoroscope qualification using Isee!

According to ASTM E 2597
Procedures for image processing and data evaluation using ISee! version 1.10 are described in detail
in the user manual. This manual, with procedures and examples for image processing, is available at
http://www.kb.bam.de/ic.
22
The purpose of the following guidelines is to demonstrate and to assist in the application of the ASTM E 2597
standard for digital fluoroscope qualification. For full information and understanding of the concepts, it is necessary
to read the full standard text of ASTM E 2597.
FIG. 17. Images of an Inconel step wedge with ASTM 2-2T penetrometers (after digital high pass filtering ‘Enhance details’). Top:
image without calibration, only 2–4T holes are visible. Bottom: after application of fluoroscope calibration to the raw data. Vertical
banding is removed, the steps are more homogeneous and 2–2T holes are visible between 0.2 (5 mm) and 0.5 (12.5 mm) inch thickness.
The following equipment was used for the qualification example:
—— X ray equipment: YXLON MCF-160 (constant potential, focal spot of 5.5 mm, 160 KV, 0.5–40 mA
(depending on the voltage);
—— Duplex wire IQI (EN 462-5, ASTM E 2002);
—— Aluminium (Al) and stainless steel (SSt) step wedges (point 5.2 in ASTM E 2597 – 07);
—— Dose rate meter and video camera to register the values remotely;
—— Filters: 20 mm Al, 38 mm Al and 4 mm SSt used at tube port.
23
3.3.1. Measurement procedure for basic spatial resolution (SRb)
(1) Place the duplex wire IQI directly on the detector (fluoroscope) with an angle between 2 and 5° to the rows/
columns of the detector to avoid that wire pairs are in the same pixel lines.
(2) Choose a source to detector distance of >1000 mm.
(3) Define conditions such as focal spot size, no filters, etc.
(4) Select the radiation energy (e.g. 90 kV). The current of the X ray tube is to be selected such that the grey
value of the duplex wire IQI is 80% (±5%) of full saturation for the fluoroscope. In the example here, the
acquisition parameters of V2 using the FO442SB CCD camera in the fluoroscope were:
(a) Shutter — 1829 (corresponds to 200 ms frame time);
(b) Brightness — 555;
(c) Number of frames — 500;
(d) Temporal filter — 5.
(5) Use Fig. 18 and Eq. (13) to calculate the SRb.
(6) The measurement is to be carried out using a profile plot in ISee! on an area of 60% of the lines of the duplex
wires for profile integration averaged to avoid variability along the length of the wires (Fig. 18). Use the
mouse cursor within Isee! Version 1.10.2 to read the dip separation in per cent after marking of the 100%
position at the dip maximum and the 0% position at the background between the wire pairs.
(7) The SRb is calculated as the linear interpolation of the wire pair distances between the last wire pair with
more than 20% dip between the wires in the pair and the first wire pair with less than 20% dip between the
wires (Fig. 18):
(D1 − D2 ) (R1 − 20)
SRb = D1 − (13)
( R1 − R 2 )
where
D1 is the size of the smallest wire pair with >20% resolution of the gap;
D2 is the size of the largest wire pair with <20% resolution of the gap;
R1 and R2 are the modulation of the corresponding wire pair (dip %value) of D1 and D2, respectively.
FIG. 18. Evaluation of the duplex wire IQI for determination of SRb.
24
3.3.2. Measurement procedure for efficiency dSNRn
(1) The efficiency of the digital fluoroscope is measured in the free beam without an object in front of the digital
fluoroscope. For comparison between participants and between other detectors such as film, CR or DDAs, a
typical dose of 1 mGy at the detector is used. The measurement is to be performed at a few points where the
dose is above and below 1 mGy. The efficiency at 1 mGy can then be computed from the series of measured
points. The series of points measured during the tests and a linear interpolation function including the point 0
dose/0 dSNRn verifies that the measurements are reliable and without artefacts. For simple verification, a
dose of 1 mGy is reached if a D7 film (including 0.025 mm Pb screens) shows a density of about 0.6 above
fog.
(2) Obtain an offset image (black image, without radiation) with the digital fluoroscope using the same frame
time (shutter and brightness setting in V2) as will be used later for the dose exposures. It is essential that for
all digital fluoroscope settings used during acquisition of exposures, a corresponding offset image without
any exposure dose is available. It is important, too, that for all measurements done for dSNRn, only the raw
data of the digital fluoroscope without calibration are used. For an example of a correct offset image, see
Fig. 19.
FIG. 19. Acquisition of a correct offset image with the digital fluoroscope.
(3) The beam current and/or time of exposure needs to be adjusted such that a certain known dose rate is obtained
at the location of the digital fluoroscope as measured with an ionization gauge (dose rate meter). Such a dose
measurement may be made without any interference from scatter, so it is best to complete this measurement
prior to placing the digital fluoroscope. The dose is obtained by multiplying the dose rate by the exposure time
in seconds (or fractions thereof). To arrive at the 1 mGy dose, it is recommended to measure all of the data
points (a few points below and above the 1 mGy dose) and record the mA·s values required to achieve these
dose levels prior to placing the digital fluoroscope. The radiation qualities to be used for this measurement
may be selected and documented. The radiation quality used for the example measurements was as follows:
60 kV (the standard requires 50 kV), 90 kV (20 mm Al), 120 kV (38 mm Al; the standard requires 40 mm)
and 135 kV (4 mm SSt; the standard requires 120 kV and a 3 mm Cu plate). The material required to adjust
the radiation quality has to be placed at the tube port of the radiation source. The ionization gauge used for
measuring the dose rate is to be calibrated as per the manufacturer’s recommendation.
25
(4) Two images are collected (for each dose and each filter) under identical conditions immediately after one
another. A correct example showing the attached dose meter is shown in Fig. 20. The two images are used to
calculate the noise without any fixed pattern noise or other potential anomalies through a difference image
(only the quantum noise is retained in this difference image). The difference image can be obtained with
ISee! (v.1.10.2) applying the subtract function from ‘pixel arithmetics’ (see Fig. 21). An offset of 1000 should
be added to this difference to avoid any clipping of noise values below 0. An example of what cannot be
used as a difference image is shown in Fig. 22(a) (something was changed in the data acquisition of the two
images); only an image as shown in Fig. 22(b) is useful for further analysis.
FIG. 20. One of the two raw images for dSNRn measurement and its characteristics.
FIG. 21. ‘Pixel arithmetics’ in the ISee! software for calculation of the difference image.
26
FIG. 22(a). Incorrect difference image showing details.
FIG. 22(b). Correct difference image showing constant background without any details and homogeneous noise from the X ray
photons.
(5) Compute the noise (standard deviation) in a 20 pixel × 55 pixel area over five regions of the difference
image. The mean value of these five standard deviations will be called the ‘σ[difference image]’. The five
20 pixel × 55 pixel areas are to be placed on the image such that one is at the centre of the image and four are
at the corners with a distance to the edge of 10% of the effective digital fluoroscope range (Fig. 23).
27
FIG. 23. Areas to be measured.
(6) Calculate the mean signal of the 20 pixel × 55 pixel averaged areas over the same five locations in one of the
‘non-difference’ images. This will be called the ‘Mean GV [first image]’ (no calibration is needed).
(7) Calculate the average, in the same areas, of an offset image (without radiation). This is called the ‘Mean OV’
(see Fig. 19).
(8) Calculate the dSNRn value using the following equation:
(Mean GV [ first image]− Mean OV ) ( 2 × 88.6 )
dSNRn = × (14)
σ [ difference image ] SRb
V2.exe is used without any pixel calibration because a ‘difference’ image is used for calculation.
The basic spatial resolution SRb from Section 3.3.1 is used for normalization.
(9) The dSNRn value obtained for the five different regions is averaged to obtain the final dSNRn value.
(10) A plot may be drawn between various values of dSNRn (Y axis) and the square root of dose (X axis). Straight
lines showing linear behaviour of dSNRn with the square root of dose should be obtained for different
radiation energies. A typical plot is shown in Fig. 24 from ASTM E 2597, and the one from the example
is shown in Fig. 25. The slopes of these straight lines define the efficiency of the detector. The value to be
reported is the dSNRn at 1 mGy dose, depending on the radiation quality.
FIG. 24. Plot of dSNRn for efficiency measurements at different radiation qualities from ASTM E 2597.
28
FIG. 25. Plot of dSNRn for efficiency measurements with the fluoroscope.
3.3.3. Measurement procedure for achievable contrast sensitivity and specific material thickness range
(1) These measurements will be made using the two step wedge test blocks (Al and SSt).
(2) Place the step wedge for all these tests in front of the detector, with a source to detector distance of 1000 mm.
(3) Collimate the beam to an area where only the step wedge is exposed.
(4) If the area of the detector is too small to capture the complete step wedge in one image, two or more images
with identical X ray and detector settings may be captured to cover the complete step wedge.
(5) ‘Setup’ for this measurement should be set to 160 kV, with a 0.5 mm Cu filter placed directly in front of the
tube.
(6) The X ray tube current (mA) under this beam spectrum needs to be determined such that the detector is not
saturated under the thinnest step for the integration time selected for all tests. Images are to be generated by
averaging frames to obtain, as a minimum, 16, 64 and 256 s effective exposure times. These times should be
calculated by multiplying the number of frames by the time of one frame (as set by the shutter value in the
camera set-up of V2.exe).
(7) The images should be calibrated for this test.
(8) The signal (mean grey value) and noise (standard deviation) of each step should be computed in three
rectangular regions, as shown in Figs 26 and 27. The minimum size of the rectangular ROI for evaluation is
20 pixels × 55 pixels. The noise should be computed in the same rectangular region using the median of the
single line standard deviations as listed in ASTM E 2446 and used in ISee!.
(9) CNR (5%) should be computed as the ratio of the contrast (difference in signal between the region on the
groove and those off the groove ) to the noise of those regions off the groove, using Eq. (15) as follows:
0.5×( signal (area 1) + signal (area 3) − signal (area 2)) (15)

CNR (5%) =
0.5×(noise (area 1) + noise (area 3))
(10) This is computed for each step of the step wedge images.
(11) With a groove thickness of 5% of the base step thickness, the specific contrast (CSa) can be calculated from
Eq. (16) as follows:
 5 
CSa =   (16)
 CNR(5% )
29
FIG. 26. Step wedge evaluation for specific contrast (CSa) calculation.
FIG. 27. Measurement areas for determination of the specific contrast (CSa).
(12) Obtain values of CSa for different image acquisition times, say, 16, 64 and 256 s.
(13) Draw a curve between CSa [% of penetrated wall thickness] and wall thickness for each material and exposure
time (see Fig. 28).
(14) For calculations of SMTR, first compute the normalized SNR for each step with ISee! (read the normalized
SNR value).
(15) Draw a curve between SNR and wall thickness for each material and exposure time.
FIG. 28. Example of a CSa measurement for fluoroscope according to ASTM E 2597.
30
FIG. 29. Example of an SMRT measurement for fluoroscope according to ASTM E 2597.
(16) For 2% sensitivity it should come out to be SNR ≥130. In the example in Fig. 29, the specific material
thickness range for 2% sensitivity is from 10 to 77 mm Al with 4 s exposure time.
(17) For 1% sensitivity applications a SNR ≥250 should be achieved. In the example in Fig. 29, the SMTR for 1%
sensitivity would be 10–56 mm at 16 s exposure time.
A summary of all results of the participating countries is given in Section 4.
3.3.4. Identification of radiographs
The following naming and indexing system is to be used for providing digital radiographs:
(1) Country name XXX (e.g. ARG, PAK, etc.);

(2) Method (digital fluoroscope (FL), computed radiography (CR); image intensifier II, film digitization (FD));
(3) Material (e.g. SSt or Al);
(4) Type of specimen (e.g. weld (W) or casting (C));
(5) Thickness in mm (e.g. 50);
(6) Serial number of specimen;
(7) Exposure conditions, kV, mA, source to detector distance, integration time (e.g. 200kV_50mAs_700mm_60s).
31
4. ACQUISITION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
4.1. Measurements of basic spatial resolution
All participating countries provided SRb values based on the measurement procedure described in
Section 3.3.1. The results are shown in Table 7.
Table 7. BASIC SPATIAL RESOLUTION (SRb) obtained with the digital fluoroscopes
Exposure conditions Measurements

Basic spatial
Source to
Smallest wire Largest wire resolution ,
b
Country Test specimena Nominal
detector Pre-filter, SRb
focal spot kV mA No. No.
distance if any (µm)
(mm) (>20% dip) (<20% dip)
(mm)
Argentina Duplex IQI 1000 5.5 No 100 30 D6 D7 200
Germany Duplex IQI 1000 3.5 No 90 1 D6 D7 190
India Duplex IQI 1000 1.5 No 90 1 D6 D7 200
Malaysia Duplex IQI 700 3 No 225 3 D6 D7 200
Pakistan Duplex IQI 1000 1.6 No 100 4 D7 D8 190
Romania Duplex IQI 700 3 No 200 4.5 D6 D7 200
Syrian Arab Republic Duplex IQI 700 1.5 No 200 4 D7 D8 180
Uruguay Duplex IQI 700 2.3 No 120 8 D6 D7 200
Uzbekistan Duplex IQI 1000 3 No 160 4.5 D6 D7 200
a
IQI at detector front surface.
b
Averaged and rounded.
The average SRb of all manufactured fluoroscopes was 200 µm. This corresponds to the expected value from
the fluorescence screen manufacturer. Thus the optics and data acquisition hardware have an adequate fit to the
screen unsharpness.
4.2. Measurements of efficiency
The measurement of the dSNRn is required to evaluate the efficiency of the developed fluoroscope and
to compare it with the commercially available digital detectors (fluoroscope, computed radiography, DDAs and
digitized film). The measurement procedure is described in Section 3.3.2. Table 8 summarizes the measurement
results obtained by the Member States that took part in the CRP.
The results are very similar, despite the fact that the Syrian Arab Republic used only 8 bit data acquisition
and Pakistan also reported problems. For these reasons, neither was able to reach the values of the other countries.
TABLE 8. Efficiency measurements for different radiation qualities

(dSNRn at 1 mGy dose at detector entrance window) (cont.)
Condition for 1 mGy Noise of
Mean Efficiency
Ionization gauge or (standard Mean grey
offset (dSNRn,
Tube dose meter deviation) value
Country Distance Integration value averaged
current (manufacturer, difference (first
(mm) time (s) (first value) at
(mA) model) image at image)
image) 1 mGy
1 mGy
Efficiency (dSNRn) at 50 kV, no material
Argentina 1000 27 0.2 Berthold TOL-F 388.20 14 406 403.00 22.6

Germany 1000 6 4 PTW Unidos 962 52 352 6 400 22.0
PTW Unidos
Malaysia 1100 10 7 29.1 1 740 358.2 29.7
(TW23331-0841)
32
TABLE 8. Efficiency measurements for different radiation qualities
(dSNRn at 1 mGy dose at detector entrance window) (cont.)
Condition for 1 mGy Noise of
Mean Efficiency
Ionization gauge or (standard Mean grey
offset (dSNRn,
Tube dose meter deviation) value
Country Distance Integration value averaged
current (manufacturer, difference (first
(mm) time (s) (first value) at
(mA) model) image at image)
image) 1 mGy
1 mGy
Syrian Arab Babyline 81, Eurisys
1000 4 40 5 110 50 12.0
Republic measures, France
Efficiency (dSNRn) at 90 kV, 30 mm Al
Argentina 1000 20.3 0.85 Berthold TOL-F 301.4 19 417 397 39.5
Germany 1000 10 24 PTW Unidos 387 51 840 6392 52
Pakistan 1000 4 55 10.0
Uruguay 1000 8 52 Inovision, 451B 51 3 450 370 37.5
Efficiency (dSNRn) at 120 kV, 40 mm Al
Efficiency (dSNRn) at 120 kV, 3 mm Cu
Germany 1000 7.7 22 PTW Unidos 402 52 102 6385 50.4
PTW Unidos
Malaysia 1100 10 10 26.94 2 670 373 53.4
(TW23331-0841)
Pakistan 1000 4 33 13.0
Efficiency (dSNRn) at 160 kV, 10 mm Fe
PTW Unidos
Malaysia 1100 10 10 27.32 2 510 380 48.8
(TW23331-0841)
Pakistan 1000 4 33 9.5
Efficiency (dSNRn) at 100 kV, no material
PTW Unidos
Malaysia 1100 10 10 31.29 2 410 364.2 40.9
(TW23331-0841)
Syrian Arab Babyline 81, Eurisys
1000 4 11 3.9 93 50 11
Republic measures, France
Polimaster,
Uzbekistan 1000 4.5 8 54 6 580 300 64.6
ДКГ-РМ1621
Efficiency (dSNRn) at 220 kV, 8 mm Cu
Germany 1000 4.8 6 PTW Unidos 789 53 845 6405 26.6

The efficiency of the digital fluoroscope depends on the X ray energy. Figure 30 shows the measured
dependence of the efficiency (dSNRn) in the centre of the fluoroscopic screen from the radiation energy.
33
FIG. 30. BAM measured centre efficiency at different radiation energies.
Data in Fig. 30 were taken with 2 s frame time and 2 frames (centre 1), and with 0.2 s and 20 frames (centre
2) for exposure with 1 mGy. A third exposure was taken with 2 s frame time and 20 frames with a total exposure of
10 mGy. This curve was normalized by 1/sqrt(10) and included in this figure.
The developed fluoroscope has the highest sensitivity at about 100 kV tube voltage. At lower energies the
protecting input screen of 1 mm Al limits the efficiency, and at higher energies the efficiency declines because of
the reduced attenuation of the fluorescence screen.
4.3. MEASUREMENTS OF ACHIEVABLE CONTRAST SENSITIVITY

AND SPECIFIC MATERIAL THICKNESS RANGE
These measurements according to Section 3.3.3 and ASTM E 2597 allow the contrast sensitivity of the digital
fluoroscope to be evaluated, depending on the material and its wall thickness. For aluminium, a wall thickness of
up to 100 mm was investigated; for steel up to 12.5 mm. The radiation quality is fixed to 160 kV and 0.5 mm Cu at
the tube port in accordance with ASTM E 2597.
Tables 9 and 10 give measurement results for aluminium and steel step wedges with six steps.
TABLE 9. MEASUREMENT RESULTS FOR ACHIEVABLE CONTRAST SENSITIVITY (CSa, %)

FOR ALUMINIUM STEP WEDGE WITH SIX STEPS (10, 20, 40, 60, 80 AND 100 mm THICKNESS)
(SDD = 1000 mm; SOD = 600 mm; pre-filter = 0.5 mm Cu; voltage = 160 kV)
CSa (%) at step No.:
Tube 1 2 3 4 5 6
Country current
Exp. time (s) Exp. time (s) Exp. time (s) Exp. time (s) Exp. time (s) Exp. time (s)
(mA)
16 64 256 16 64 256 16 64 256 16 64 256 16 64 256 16 64 256
Argentina 14 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.4 0.3
Germany 3.5 1.9 1 0.8 1.6 1 0.5 2.1 1.3 0.9 1.5 3.5 7
Pakistan 4 3.2 0.2 5.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.9 0.5 0.4 1.7 1.3 1.3 2.1 1.8 1.6 2.5 1.8 1.6
Romania 1 1.6 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.3 1.1 1.9 2.1 1.4 2 2.6 1.9 2.1 2.2 1.7 3.2 3.6 3
Syrian Arab Republic 4 1.2 0.9 0.6 0.9 0.7 0.4 1.2 0.8 0.4 1.8 1.1 0.6 2.9 2.2 1.2 5 3.8 2.8
Uruguay 8 1.1 0.6 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.3 1 0.5 0.3 1.3 0.7 0.4 2.7 1.4 1.1 5 3.2 2.5
34
Table 10. Measurement results for achievable contrast sensitivity (CSa, %) for
stainless steel step wedge with six steps (1.3, 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 and 12.5 mm thickness)
(SDD = 1000 mm; SOD = 600 mm; pre-filter = 0.5 mm Cu; voltage = 160 kV)
CSa (%) at step No.:
Tube 1 2 3 4 5 6
Country current
Exp. time (s) Exp. time (s) Exp. time (s) Exp. time (s) Exp. time (s) Exp. time (s)
(mA)
16 64 256 16 64 256 16 64 256 16 64 256 16 64 256 16 64 256
Argentina 12.3 1 0.6 0.5 2.6 1.6 1.2 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.6 0.3 0.2
India 2 1.7 1 0.7 1.5 1 0.5 1.5 1.3 0.4 2.6 1.4 0.8 3.6 3.2 1 5.5 0.7 1.3
Malaysia 8 1.3 0.7 0.4 1.2 0.6 0.3 1.2 0.6 0.4 2.4 0.9 0.7 5.6 1.2 0.8 4.6 2.1 1.4
Pakistan 4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.2 1.1 0.7 0.6 1.3 1 1 1.9 1.5 1.5 2.4 1.7 1.6
Romania 1.8 3.3 3.2 2.3 2.2 1.8 1.4 2.9 2 1.7 5.7 3.6 3.2 8.6 4.4 4.5 12 7.3 7.2
Syrian Arab Republic 4 1.5 0.9 0.5 1.5 0.9 0.5 1.5 0.8 0.5 1.6 1.1 0.6 2.3 1.5 0.8 3.1 2.2 1.4
Uruguay 8 1.2 0.6 0.4 1 0.6 0.3 1.2 0.6 0.4 1.4 0.7 0.5 2.6 1 0.9 3.8 1.6 1.3
Uzbekistan 4.5 2.1 2.1 2.1 1.4 1.4 1.4 2.5 1.6 1 2.4 1.5 1.1 5.2 4.1 3.4 13 7.3 6.5
The specific contrast CSa as reported in Tables 9 and 10 increases with the exposure time, but decreases for a
fixed exposure condition with increasing wall thickness.
Finally, the achieved SMTR was reported by the different countries as presented in Table 11.
Table 11. SNR values for each step of the above step wedges and the resulting
specific material thickness range (SMTR, mm) for SNR >130 or SNR >250
The results obtained are highly dependent on the calibration procedure and the SNR reached at the single
steps of the set wedges. As expected, the SMTR of the less absorbing aluminium material is higher than that of
steel. If the SNR measured at a specific step did not reach the minimum SNR value of 130, the corresponding wall
thickness is outside the SMTR.
4.4. Comprehensive results
All Member States that participated in the CRP were able to construct, assemble and operate the DFS as
described in this report. The DFSs of all participants achieved a similar basic spatial resolution of about 200 µm.
35
The efficiency of the DFS measured in normalized SNR per mGy radiation dose is dependent on the radiation
energy and had a maximum at 100 kV. The maximum SNR at this energy is between 40 and 80 as measured by the
participating Member States for a dose of 1 mGy at the DFS screen, neglecting the measurement artefacts.
The results of measurements of achievable contrast sensitivity varied much more between the different
countries. This is a result of differences in detector operation and especially in detector calibration. This showed
that experience and knowledge are necessary for optimum DFS operation.
The results for SMTR were the most different between the countries. India reported extremely good results,
Argentina was also able to report reasonable material ranges. The other countries had problems reaching the
requested SNR values of 130 or even 250, and were able to achieve only low SMTR values. The limitations in
SRb and SNR are the application limits of the DFS for NDT inspections. The following subsections highlight these
limits in more detail.
Besides the measurement results reported in this section, a catalogue of images was prepared and collected
from a variety of test samples acquired with the DFS as well as from other digital radiological detectors. Some
examples from this catalogue are provided in Section 5.
4.5. Comparison of results with those obtained

from other digital industrial radiology methods
Several measurements using CR systems were carried out by BAM to measure the normalized SNRn
of imaging plate scanner systems at 220 kV. A DDA was also evaluated for comparison. Figure 31 shows the
efficiencies of different digital systems in comparison with those of selected digitized X ray films. Differential
dSNRn values can be measured for the digital fluoroscope and DDAs only, because only these can be calibrated.
Differential comparison cannot be applied accurately with other CR systems. Therefore, the uncalibrated SNRn
values were compared.
Fig. 31 Comparison of dSNRn and SNRn values obtained with CR systems of different detectors and films.
It can be concluded that the DFS has a sensitivity comparable to that of C5 film systems (ISO 11699-2)
and high resolution CR systems. The advantage of the DFS is its applicability to a wide variety of inspections
with different required sensitivities. Basically, the operator has to decide which dose is required for the exposure.
36
Exposures with a higher dose provide significantly better contrast sensitivity than do short exposures. A typical
exposure (220 kV, 8 mm Cu) of an X ray film system C5 (e.g. Agfa D7, Kodak AA400) requires about 3.6 mGy
at the film. The DFS at 220 kV and 10 mGy provides a dSNRn of about 80 (in screen centre). The C5 film system
(AGFA D7) provides a dSNRn of only 56. From this number it can be derived that the fluoroscope (centre part of
the input screen) can provide the same contrast sensitivity as the C5 film system in half the exposure time. Due to
the significant reduction of the DFS sensitivity at the outer rim of the fluorescence screen, it is recommended to
use the DFS with the exposure conditions as given in exposure charts for C5 film systems (at 220 kV) to achieve
comparable image quality. This was experimentally verified for aluminium and steel. DFS exposures after proper
calibration provided radiographs with the same or even more visible wires than those from digitized C5 films.
Experiments were carried out to compare the quality of CR and DFS radiographs with the BAM test weld
BAM 5 (8 mm mild steel). Figure 32 shows the DFS exposure of BAM 5. It can be seen that the radiograph shows
more wire and step hole IQI values than is required for class B testing of ISO 17636, EN 462-3, EN 1435 and
ASTM 1742 (2%). The new ISO/DIS 17636-2 proposal requires achieving some minimum IQI values for wires
or step hope IQIs and the duplex wire IQI, depending on the material thickness. Taking this into account, the DFS
provides only the testing class A, due to the limitation of image sharpness. The missing sharpness (proven by
duplex IQI) is compensated for by the additional wires seen, as required in ISO/DIS 17636-2.
Test Weld BAM 5

Fine Cracks are visible!
CEN 462-3
• Wires
• requires W 14
• Wire W16 visible
• Step Holes
• requires H5
• visible H4
• ASTM E1025
• better 2-2T
• Duplex wire EN 462-5,
ASTM 2002
• Visible D 7
• SRb = 200µm
High pass filtered for better presentation Call ISee
FIG. 32. DFS exposure of test weld BAM 5 (8 mm mild steel weld) after high pass filtering.
Figure 33 shows the radiographs taken with the DFS and the CR system of Dürr (HD-CR35 NDT and HD-IP).
Both of the exposures were carried out at 130 kV with 100 mA. Figure 33 also shows the two digital radiographs
in detail. No major differences can be observed. For better image evaluation, a high pass filter of ISee! (enhanced
details) was applied. The visual image evaluation shows that the CR image is noisier and the contrast to noise ratio
enables a significantly better visualization of cracks in the DFS image despite the higher unsharpness.
37
BAM Low Cost Fluoroscope vs. Computed Radiography
BAM5 test weld (8mm Fe), 130 kV, 0.5 m FOD, ~100 mAs
BAM fluoroscope 17 mA, 6 sec ST-VI IP, Dürr CR35V, 10 mA, 10 sec
(a) (b)
BAM Low Cost Fluoroscope vs. Computed Radiography

BAM5 test weld (8mm Fe), 130 kV, 0.5 m FOD, ~100 mAs
High pass filtered High pass filtered
BAM fluoroscope 17 mA, 6 sec ST-VI IP, Dürr CR35V, 10 mA, 10 sec
(c) (d)
FIG. 33. Comparison of (a) DFS und (b) CR radiography. The radiographs were taken under the same exposure conditions. After
high pass filtering, it can clearly be seen that (c) the DFS image is less noisy and shows better the crack details despite the higher
unsharpness than (d) the CR image.
38
4.6. Experience with isotopic radiation sources
A successful attempt was made by India to use the digital fluoroscopic system with gamma rays (192Ir).
It is pertinent here to point out that in industrial radiography, isotopic sources are widely preferred for field
applications, and a wide variety of sources such as 75Se, 169Yb and 192Ir are in use. Experiments using 192Ir were quite
encouraging. Images could be obtained with suitable collimation of the radiation beam focused primarily on the
ROI and additional shielding around the casing to prevent scattered radiation from reducing the SNR.
The DFS was used for the examination of welds using 192Ir. The objects chosen were 8 and 10 mm thick
stainless steel welds. Since these were preliminary trials, the choice of the thickness was based on the source
activity (~18 Ci) and the source–detector distance, which was fixed at 400 mm to ensure a higher dose rate at the
detector face. A slightly longer integration time was also used. Figure 34(a) shows the gamma ray image of the
weld with the DFS. The radiographic film image is also given for comparison purposes (Fig. 34(b)). It should
be highlighted here that, compared with X ray imaging, gamma ray imaging necessitated the use of additional
shielding. The gamma ray beam was collimated with the conventional tungsten collimator and additional shielding
of lead of about 3 mm was provided around the DFS to ensure that radiation did not impinge on the CCD camera.
In addition, lead bricks were placed on the front side to provide a window so that radiation was restricted to the
ROI alone.
FIG. 34(a). Exposure of a 10 mm thick steel weld with 192Ir and a digital fluoroscope.
FIG. 34(b). Exposure of the same 10 mm thick steel weld with 160 kV X rays and film.
The gamma ray image using the DFS was contrast stretched, while the film image using X rays was subjected
to high pass filtering to effectively show the defects in the specimen. It can be observed from Fig. 34 that porosity
can be detected in the gamma ray image (though not all could be detected). A comparison of the image quality
indicates that, in the case of the DFS, the duplex wire IQI of the 6D wire could be resolved, indicating a larger
39
unsharpness of 0.25 mm compared with film. While 1T could be resolved in the film, the 10-4T can be resolved in
the DFS image, although with difficulty and processing. However, this is a major achievement, as it clearly reveals
the potential of the DFS for use with gamma rays. This would be a real benefit to field personnel, as it would
provide a low cost system with comparable sensitivity.
A spin-off from this CRP was a study of the dependence of the attenuation coefficient µ of the 192Ir gamma
rays in steel. 192Ir has many gamma lines (130, 270, 296, 310, 320, 468, 485, 590, 610 and 890 keV) and is considered
to be equivalent to a 600 kV X ray generator. It is well known that µ depends on energy (E) and penetrated material
thickness (x):
µ = µ (E, x) (17)
During the course of the experimental measurements, it was observed that µ, as a function of the thickness
traversed by gamma rays, is best described by the following two nonlinear functions for non-collimated and
collimated beams. Here, x is the thickness of the traversed steel and is measured in cm, coefficients a and b have
the units of µ to be cm-1. The fits have been made in the range of 0.1 cm < x < 8 cm.
In the case of a non-collimated beam using 192Ir and radiographic films, the following was obtained:
0.090 ± 0.003
µ noncollimated = (0.4787 ± 0.0016) + (18)
x
For a collimated beam the following was obtained:
0.129 ± 0.004
µ collimated = (0.6838 ± 0.0024) + (19)
x
These enhance the accuracy of results and can be used to derive a wall thickness difference from intensity
differences using the ‘Penetrameter’ function of the ISee! software.
4.7. Standards, image quality and compensation principles
4.7.1. Introduction
Since 2005, different standards for DIR have been developed and published. The international standards
committees started with computed radiography. Most of these standards are now under revision. In 2010, the first
practice on radiography with DDAs was published by ASTM International (ASTM). Similar standards are now
under development at the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) and International Organization for
Standardization (ISO). Table 12 provides an overview of present applicable RT and CT standards and the proposals
that can be used for radiography with the developed digital fluoroscope.
TABLE 12. STANDARDS FOR RADIOGRAPHY WITH THE DIGITAL FLUOROSCOPE

Standard Application
CEN: EN 13068 Radioscopy
CEN: prEN 16016 parts 1–4 NDT radiation methods CT
ASTM: Digital Detector Arrays Manufacturing Characterization (E 2597), Practice (E 2698), Guide (E 2736),
Performance Evaluation and Long-Term Stability (E 2737)
ASTM: E 2422 Digital catalogue of light alloy casting, digitized from ASTM E 155 films
ISO: ISO/FDIS 10893-7 NDT of steel tubes: Digital RT for inspection of longitudinal and spiral welded seams
ISO: ISO/DIS 17636-2 NDT of welds: Digital RT for film replacement
ISO: ISO 15708 parts 1–2 NDT radiation methods CT
Table 13 provides guidance on how digital detectors can be used for film replacement. All film standards
worldwide require that a minimum optical film density be exceeded. The equivalent value in digital radiography
is the linearized SNR. Also, in digital radiography IQIs are to be used. These are basically wire, step hole or plate
hole IQIs. The image quality values achieved should be the same as or better than those with film radiography.
40
Contrast to noise ratio management by increase of radiation dose and the specific DDA or digital fluoroscope
calibration allows an extraordinary increase of contrast sensitivity. It is obvious that a higher CNR permits the
visualization of smaller defects, which inherently have a smaller contrast (see also Section 1.3.3). The high contrast
sensitivity technique has been developed to improve the testing quality and to prove the compensation principles.
TABLE 13. BASIC STANDARD REQUIREMENTS FOR FILM AND DIGITAL RADIOLOGY IN
COMPARISON
Film Digital detector (CR)
Achieve minimum SNRn
Achieve minimum optical density
or calibrated minimum pixel value
Do not exceed maximum unsharpness Correct geometry and detector selection
Prove minimum IQI perception with:
– Wires; Achieve minimum CNRn,
– Step holes; or use same IQIs to prove quality,
– Plate holes use optional unsharpness IQI
4.7.2. Requirements for image quality in digital industrial radiology
After qualification of the digital fluoroscope, it is to be used with a sufficient frame time and frame integration
number for providing digital radiographs with an SNRn ≥100 in the heat affected zone of the weld radiographs and
SNRn ≥70 in the image region of the thickest section of the casting. The measurement of SNRn is to be carried
out after calibration but before image processing with any digital filter. For measurement of SNR and SNRn, a
20 pixel × 55 pixel window is to be used. For higher accuracy, a 20 pixel × 200 pixel window can be used.
The IQIs listed in the following subsections are to be used.
4.7.2.1. Wire IQI in accordance with ISO 19232-1
The requirement of the visibility of wires is to be selected in accordance with ISO 19232-3 or ISO 17636, or
EN 1435 testing class A (see Table 14). The wires to recognize are to be selected in agreement with the nominal
wall thickness for weld inspection. The wire IQIs are to be placed nearest to, but not crossing, the weld. The wires
are to be positioned 90° to the weld. The visibility of the wires is to be read nearest to the weld, and the smallest
visible wire is to be at least two thirds visible over its full length. For best presentation in the catalogue, the single
wire IQI is to be placed above the weld and the duplex wire IQI is to be placed below the weld, but both on the
source side.
The IQIs for casting inspection are to be placed at the thickest and thinnest area of the specimen.
4.7.2.2. Plate hole IQI of ASTM E 1025
A 2% wall thickness is to be used for thickness selection (ASTM E 1742). The required radiographic
sensitivity is 2–2T. These IQI are to be used with shims for wall thickness compensation to the real thickness of the
weld, if the thickness of the weld exceeds the nominal thickness by more than 20%.
TABLE 14. MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS OF ISO/DIS 17636-2 (TESTING CLASS A) ON IQI

REQUIREMENTS FOR DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY (cont.)
Wire number, Specified wall Duplex IQI
Specified wall Specified wall Hole number,
diameter (mm) thickness, t Wire diameter and
thickness, t (mm) thickness, t (mm) diameter (mm) Unsharpness
(mm) spacing (mm)
t ≤ 1,2 W18, t≤2 H3, t≤2 D11 0.080
0.063 0.20 0.16
1.2 < t ≤ 2 W17, 2 < t ≤ 3.5 H4, 2<t≤5 D10 0.100
0.08 0.25 0.20
41
TABLE 14. MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS OF ISO/DIS 17636-2 (TESTING CLASS A) ON IQI
REQUIREMENTS FOR DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY (cont.)
Wire number, Specified wall Duplex IQI
Specified wall Specified wall Hole number,
diameter (mm) thickness, t Wire diameter and
thickness, t (mm) thickness, t (mm) diameter (mm) Unsharpness
(mm) spacing (mm)
2 < t ≤ 3.5 W16, 3.5 < t ≤ 6 H5, 5 < t ≤ 10 D9 0.130
0.10 0.32 0.26
3.5 < t ≤ 5 W15, 6 < t ≤ 10 H6, 10 < t ≤ 25 D8 0.160
0.13 0.40 0.32
5<t≤7 W14, 10 < t ≤ 15 H7, 25 < t ≤ 55 D7 0.200
0.16 0.50 0.40
7 < t ≤ 10 W13, 15 < t ≤ 24 H8, 55 < t D6 0.250
0.20 0.64 0.50
10 < t ≤ 15 W12, 24 < t ≤ 30 H9,
0.25 0.80
15 < t ≤ 25 W11, 30 < t ≤ 40 H10,
0.32 1.00
25 < t ≤ 32 W10, 40 < t ≤ 60 H11,
0.40 1.25
32 < t ≤ 40 W9, 60 < t H12, a
0.50 1.60
40 < t ≤ 55 W8, b
0.63
55 < t W7, b
0.80
a
Duplex IQI should be used in conjunction with either a wire or step/hole IQI.
b
Duplex IQI should be examined using a profile display; the largest wires which have a dip separation below 20% between the
wire pair determine the unsharpness.
4.7.2.3. Duplex wire IQI in accordance with ASTM E 2002 or ISO 19232-5 or EN 462-5
The first unresolved wire pair is to be achieved in accordance with Table 14. The IQI (Fig. 35) is to be
positioned nearest to the weld but slightly tilted by about 2–5° to the horizontal or vertical detector orientation.
FIG. 35. Duplex wire type image quality indicator.
4.7.3. Magnification technique
If the required duplex wire indicated in Table 14 cannot be achieved and the compensation cannot be applied,
a magnification technique is recommended. Before this is used, it is to be determined whether the focal spot and
distance cause additional unsharpness. A larger source to detector distance and a smaller focal spot will reduce the
unsharpness.
42
4.7.4. Compensation principle I
4.7.4.1. Compensation of reduced contrast (µeff) by increased SNR
The image quality in DIR depends on the product of effective attenuation coefficient µeff, also called specific
contrast, and the SNR. This applies for CR, DDAs, DFs and X ray film. Figure 36 illustrates the effect of noise on
flaw detection.
The specific contrast to noise ratio per wall thickness difference, Δw, which is the essential parameter for the
visibility of flaws and IQIs of a given size, can be calculated from the detector response (SNR) as a function of
exposure dose as follows (small flaws only; see Fig. 36 and Section 1.3.3):
CNR / ∆w = SNR ⋅ µ eff (20)
Typical IQIs as plate holes (ASTM E 1025), step holes (ISO 19232-2) or wires (ISO 19232-1) change the
hole diameters or wire diameters with their thickness. Therefore, the hole or wire visibility depends on the image
unsharpness and the achieved CNR. If the hole diameter is much larger than the unsharpness, the equivalent IQI
sensitivity (EPS, defined by IQI thickness in % of the penetrated material thickness for 2T hole visibility) changes
proportionally to about 1 / SNR ⋅ µ eff .
a) b)
Intensity
Intensity
Contrast Contrast
Signal Signal
(base material) (base material)
Length Length
Notch visible! Notch not visible!
Contrast/Noise is high Contrast/Noise is low

Signal/Noise is high Signal/Noise is low
FIG. 36. The influence of noise on the visibility of a notch in radiography: (a) the notch is visible if the noise contribution can be
neglected; (b) the notch is not visible if the noise is just higher than the contrast.
Since the grey values of the pixels in the digital images (assuming the signal is linear to dose) depend on noise
and signal intensity independent of the contrast and brightness processing for image viewing, the SNR has been
proposed and accepted as a value equivalent to the optical density and a certain film system in film radiography
(EN 14784-1, EN 14784-2 and ASTM E 2445, E 2446). Visibility details of flaws can be increased by the SNR of
the DDA image in comparison with a digitized film image (Fig. 37).
43
BAM 5, 8mm steel
Fuji IX25
SNRnorm~ 265
Best (slowest) NDT film
Images high pass

filtered for better
presentation
PerkinElmer 1620
SNRnorm~ 1500
Mag. 3x, Micro Focus
DDA exposure
FIG. 37. Effect of increased signal to noise ratio of digital detector array image in comparison with digitized film image.
4.7.4.2. High contrast sensitivity technique
Four typical noise sources arise in radiography:
—— Photon noise depending on exposure dose (e.g. mA·s or GBq·min);

—— Structure noise of detector (fixed pattern noise);
—— Crystalline structure of material (e.g. nickel based steel, mottling);
—— Surface roughness of test object.
The first two noise sources can be influenced by the exposure conditions and detector selection. The SNR of
images achieved depends on the exposure dose (low dose application). The SNR increases with the square root of
mA·min or GBq·min, due to the improved photon quantum statistics. The structure noise of films and imaging
plates depends on the manufacturing process and can be influenced by the selection of the specific detector type
(e.g. fine or coarse grained film). Film development and imaging plate scanner properties also contribute to the final
noise value. The structure noise of detectors and all noise sources depending on the object properties determine the
maximum achievable SNR and, therefore, limit the image quality independent of the exposure dose (high dose
application). Only with DDAs and a DFS can the structure noise (due to different properties of the detector or
camera elements and fluorescent screen) be corrected by a calibration procedure, since the characteristic of each
element can be measured quite accurately. Figure 37 shows the effect of an SNR increase (equivalent to a CNR
increase) on the visibility of fine flaw indication. The digitized fine grained film provides an SNR of 265 in the
base material region. The DDA image was measured with an SNR of about 1500. It shows significantly finer flaw
indications. Digital fluoroscopes achieve SNR values between those of digitized films and DDAs.
In film radiography, it is well understood that the image quality increases if the tube voltage is reduced. In
DIR, it can also be observed that the image quality increases in a certain range if the tube voltage is increased.
44
The higher photon flow (X ray intensity behind the object) increases the SNR in the detected image faster than
the reduction of the contrast by the decreased transmission contrast (also known as specific contrast or effective
attenuation coefficient, µeff). This effect depends on the ratio of attenuation decrease to SNR increase (see also
Eq. (20)), since the product of SNR and µeff controls the contrast sensitivity in the digital radiograph. The effect
has been observed if DDAs and a DFS are used for film replacement. Well calibrated DDAs and DFSs typically
can be exposed at higher tube voltages than can films. However, too high a tube voltage may even reduce the
attenuation faster than the SNR increases. The maximum achievable SNR is the limiting parameter for the described
compensation. It depends on the detector efficiency and the detector calibration of DDAs or the structure noise of
the imaging plates. It also depends on the noise of the material’s structure and the material’s roughness. Therefore,
the compensation by increase of the tube voltage is restricted depending on the detector and material properties and
especially on the maximum achievable SNR in the radiograph.
Figure 38(a) shows a typical example for the compensation of decreased contrast (µeff) by increased SNR.
A step wedge with ASTM E 1025 IQIs (2%) was exposed at different X ray energies and mA·min with a constant
source to detector distance. The visibility of the 2T hole (denoted by 2 in Fig. 38(b)) was achieved with increasing
kV of the tube at shorter exposure times. This cannot be achieved with X ray films, since they will always be
exposed to an optical density between 2 and 4. In this case, the films of a given class always have the same SNR in a
small range owing to its specific manufacturing process. The increase of the tube voltage from 80 to 150 kV allows
the reduction of exposure time down to 20% for DIR in the example shown in Fig. 38. All thickness steps of the test
object can be inspected with one exposure at 150 kV. The steps with the smallest thickness are even radiographed
with 2–1T quality. Here, the tube voltage increase yields a higher efficiency and an increased thickness range based
on the digital ‘high CNR’ technique.
4.7.5. Compensation principle II
4.7.5.1. Compensation of insufficient detector sharpness (high unsharpness) by increased SNR
The EN 14784-2 standard requires the application of high definition CR systems for X ray inspection with
pixel sizes of less than 50 µm for class B inspection (for wall thickness <12 mm and tube voltages <150 kV).
Most available digital systems do not allow a resolution below 50 µm pixel size and are excluded for industrial
X ray applications in Europe. The recent trials have shown that DDAs and DFSs provide better image quality and
IQI visibility than do industrial X ray films. In a high contrast sensitivity mode, the DDAs achieve significantly
better IQI readings than do film exposures. This effect is observed when sub-pixel contrast resolution is achieved.
This is the case if the SNR at the detector is increased considerably. If a wire or crack is smaller than a pixel,
it still influences the contrast and can be seen in the image if the contrast is sufficiently higher than the noise.
Therefore, systems with insufficient spatial resolution can be applied if their high unsharpness is compensated for
by an increased SNR.
The improved SNR of the DDA allows wire W19 (50 µm diameter) to be detected at a detector pixel size of
200 µm without a magnification technique.
It is proposed to permit the application of unsharp systems, if the visibility of the required wire or step hole
IQI is increased by compensation for missing duplex wire resolution through SNR enhancement (see EN 462-5,
ASTM E 2002 and the requirements of EN 14784-2). Several new standards define minimum duplex wire values
for specific applications (e.g. ISO/DIS 10893-7, ISO/DIS 17636-2). Typically, one higher (smaller diameter, see
EN 462-1) single wire (resulting in higher contrast sensitivity) is to be seen through adjustment of parameters that
increase the SNR if an additional duplex wire of spatial resolution is required in the system qualification for a given
material thickness and application. It was proposed in CEN TC 138 WG 1 that the compensation should allow a
maximum 2 wires versus wire pair compensations. The compensation should be applicable to plate hole IQIs as
well. This is still under discussion.
This effect has been proven with a PE XRD 1620 detector in combination with YXLON’s Image.3500
software. Even at a magnification of 1 and a basic spatial resolution of 200 µm (pixel size), the significantly higher
SNR of the DDA allows the detection of crack indications that are hidden by noise in the film image with its much
better basic spatial resolution SRb of 40 µm. Figure 39 shows the radiograph of a No. 13 wire IQI on an 8 mm
steel plate. The radiographs were high pass filtered for better graphical presentation. The digitized film shows wire
No. 16 and the DDA image shows wire No. 19 as being visible, with wire No. 19 having a diameter of 50 µm.
45
Therefore, the detector shows the wire 19 indication with a sub-pixel resolution. The DFS investigations also show
improved wire visibility, even if the wire diameter is smaller than the basic spatial resolution of the DFS.
FIG. 38(a). Step wedge of steel with ASTM E 1025 IQIs for determination of image quality.
FIG. 38(b). Achieved IQI quality (smallest visible hole of 2% IQI; 1 — 1T hole; 2 — 2T hole; 4 — 4T hole) as a function of kV, mA·min
and wall thickness in inches for test object shown in FIG. 38(a).
46
FIG. 39. Comparison of visibility of wire type IQIs according to EN 462-1 for film (left) and DDA (right) at 8 mm wall thickness
(images high pass filtered for better visualization).
4.7.6. Application of compensation principle II
If both IQI sensitivities (contrast sensitivity by single wires (W) and spatial resolution by duplex wires (D))
indicated in Table 14 cannot be achieved by the detector system used, an increase in single wire visibility is to
compensate for too high unsharpness values (i.e. if the required D 8 and W 12 are not achieved at the same time
for a specific detector set-up, D 7 and W 13 provide an equivalent detection sensitivity). The compensation is to be
limited to a maximum compensation of two wires and wire pairs.
For DDAs, the contrast sensitivity depends on the integration time and mA (tube current) used for acquisition
of the radiographic images for a given distance and tube voltage. Thus the single wire or step hole visibility can
be increased by increasing the frame integration time and/or frame number and mA setting. This also applies for
CR, but with limitations associated with the maximum achievable SNR due to the structure noise of the sensitive
crystalline photostimulable luminescence layer.
4.7.7. Selection of tube voltage
The tube voltage for film exposure is to be selected according to curve 2 of Fig. 40 for steel and according
to curve 4 for aluminium. The voltage is not to exceed these values for the radiographic technique. For digital
radiography, it is recommended to reduce the kV by 20%, especially for radiography with an image intensifier and
CR. The suitable kV for the digital fluoroscope may be different and should be found by test exposures.
47
FIG. 40. Recommended energy for exposure according to ISO 17636-1.
4.7.8. Overall conclusion about image quality
—— The image quality in digital radiography is predominantly determined by the CNR.

—— Optimizing the contrast without considering the noise in digital radiography is not useful.
—— The maximum permitted X ray voltage for film radiography (EN 444, EN 1435, ISO 5579, ISO 17636) can
be exceeded in digital radiography. The increase of X ray tube voltage above the limit of EN 444 improves
the image quality of digital radiographs, taken with very well calibrated DDAs and a DFS, above the quality
level of the best NDT films because of the increase of SNR (compensation principle I).
—— The image unsharpness limits the perception of small and linear structures only partially and can be
compensated for by increased SNR (compensation principle II). Wires can also be seen in digital radiography
at a high SNR, if the basic spatial resolution of the detector or the geometrical unsharpness is greater than the
wire diameter.
48
5. Radiation Protection Implications of Industrial
Radiography
Industrial radiography is routinely used for the detection of defects in welds in engineering structures and
components. It is one of the major non-destructive methods for imaging defects in material structures using X ray
or gamma ray emitting radionuclides such as 192Ir and 60Co. Exposure of any part of the human body to X rays or
gamma rays may be harmful, and this necessitates appropriate regulatory controls over the use of ionizing radiation
for industrial radiography.
General requirements for protection and safety are given in the Radiation Protection and Safety of Radiation
Sources: International Basic Safety Standards (BSS) [1], with more specific guidance in the IAEA Safety Guide on
Radiation Safety in Industrial Radiography [2].
The low cost DIR system described in this report reduces the typical exposures needed to produce an
acceptable radiographic image to about 10–50% of that needed for film based industrial radiography. This should
result in lower occupational doses per image, all other factors being the same. Whether this translates into lower
occupational doses overall (such as per year) will depend, for example, on whether the lower exposures needed to
produce an image lead to an increase in the number of images being taken per day. In any case, the requirements
given in the BSS [1] and elaborated in the Safety Guide [2] are still applicable.
The radiation protection regulatory body in a Member State where the use of DIR is being proposed will need
to ensure that the DIR system and its use will meet all the radiation protection requirements of the Member State.
6. CATALOGUE OF IMAGES

Catalogues were prepared during the CRP to allow a comparison of the image quality obtainable from the
DFSs with that of images from digitized films and from CR systems using imaging plates and image intensifiers.
Each catalogue comprises four images: one image obtained from a photograph of the test specimen, one from its
fluoroscopic image, one image using digitized films, and one image from image intensifiers and CR systems. The
images were identified according to the details set out in Section 3.3.4.
Many test specimens were fabricated by the participants. These include welding and casting samples of steel
and aluminium with real flaws. Some examples of the collected catalogue images are provided in this section.
49
50
Discontinuities: Porosity category A, shrinkage (sponge), cracks
51
Discontinuities: Foreign Material, shrinkage (sponge)
52
Discontinuities: Cracks, lack of penetration, porosity, lack of material, undercut
53
54
Discontinuities: Vermicular pores, longitudinal crack, heavy metal inclusions
55
Discontinuities: Lack of penetration, undercut, porosity
56
7. SUMMARY
(1) A low cost DFS for DIR can be built within the planned cost of €5000, and a step by step procedure is given
in this publication.
(2) The DFS provides image quality comparable with that of other commercial industrial systems for DIR. The
achievable contrast sensitivity is better than or equal to that provided by computed radiography and digitized
films in a certain material thickness range, but is less than that provided by modern DDAs.
(3) The attractive features of this system include: the reduction of radiation dosage and inspection time; protection
of the environment resulting from the elimination of chemical processing; long term storage of digital data
without degradation; digital data analysis; quantitative defect detection and evaluation; and easy digital data
transmission.
(4) Because of the compact design of the DFS, it is suitable for mobile inspection of welds and castings.
(5) The concept of a low cost DIR system has the potential for use in providing training in DIR technology. The
IAEA may wish to consider supporting such training centres in developing countries.
57
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[2] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Radiation Safety in Industrial Radiography, IAEA Safety
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65
annex
BAM construction drawings for producing a
casing for the digital fluoroscope
The drawings reproduced in this Annex are for a typical low cost system for digital industrial radiology
(courtesy of the Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Germany).
67
Teil is German for part
68
69
70
Part 1, material V2A. All tolerances must be within +/- 0.05.
71
72
Part 6, material Aluminium. All tolerances must be within +/- 0.05.
73
Part 9 – 2x, material V2A. All tolerances must be within +/- 0.1.
74
Mirror and camera holes.

All tolerances must be within +/- 0.02.
75
Mirror and camera holder. Teil is German for part.
Mirror holder part 11, material V2A. All tolerances must be within
+/- 0.02.
76
Mirror to be glued onto part 11 holder.
77
Camera shielding and holder. Teil is German for part.
78
79
80
81
All surfaces must be finished angular
and parallel to each other.
Camera shielding, part 13, material V2A
Camera shielding part 14, material V2A. All tolerances must be within
+/- 0.1.
82
and parallel to each other.
All surfaces must be finished

angular and parallel to each other.
All tolerances must be within +/-
0.05.
83
Camera shielding, part 17+18, material V2A. All tolerances
must be within +/- 0.02.
Camera shielding, part 19, material V2A. All tolerances must

be within +/- 0.05.
84
Part 20 - camera
Part 21 – Lead plate
85
Part 22 – stainless steel suspension spring
All surfaces must be finished angular and

parallel to each other. All tolerances must be
within +/- 0.05.
Camera shielding, part 23, material V2A.
86
and parallel to each other. All tolerances
Camera shielding, part 24, material V2A.
All surfaces must be finished angular and parallel to each

other. All tolerances must be within +/- 0.05.
Camera shielding, part 25+26, material Lead.
87
and parallel to each other. All tolerances
Camera shielding, part 27, material Lead.
All surfaces must be finished angular and parallel to each other.

88
All surfaces must be finished angular and parallel to each
other. All tolerances must be within +/- 0.05.
All surfaces must be finished

angular and parallel to each
other. All tolerances must be
within +/- 0.05.
89
CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW
Azizova, A. Navoi Mining and Metallurgy Combinate, Uzbekistan
Dorobantu, V Timisoara Politechnica University, Romania
Ewert, U. Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Germany
Garci, A. National Atomic Energy Commission, Argentina
Hamzah, A.R. Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia
Harara, W. Atomic Energy Commission, Syrian Arab Republic
Infanzon, S. Uruguayan Society for NDT, AENDUR, ANCAP, Uruguay
Jin, Joon-Ha International Atomic Energy Agency
Khan, A.A. International Atomic Energy Agency
Rao, B.P.C. International Atomic Energy Agency
Venkatraman, B. Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, India
Zaheer, A. National Centre for Non-Destructive Testing, Pakistan
Zscherpel, U. Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Germany
91
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12-09551

The introduction of powerful computers and reliable imaging
technologies has had a significant impact on traditional radiation
based non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques. In particular,
digitization of images provides economy of storage, efficiency of
communication, and increased speed of inspection and evaluation.
NDT laboratories in developed countries are progressing rapidly
with the digitization of radiation inspection data. New imaging
techniques using image intensifier systems, imaging plates and
flat panel detectors have increased the capacity for visualization of
Design, Development
surface and internal defects in welds, castings, forging composite
materials and concrete, revealing new potential for accurate
evaluation of such defects by radiation techniques. This publication
describes the design, development and optimization of an
affordable, low cost digital industrial radiology (DIR) fluoroscopic
system. It provides guidelines on building an economically viable,
easily assembled DIR system, providing interested Member States
and Optimization of
— including developing Member States — access to DIR technology.
a Low Cost System
for Digital Industrial
Radiology
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

VIENNA
ISBN 978–92–0–129310–7
ISSN 2225–8833
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IAEA RADIATION TECHNOLOGY REPORTS No.

IAEA RADIATION TECHNOLOGY REPORTS No. 2

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

IAEA RADIATION TECHNOLOGY SERIES

IAEA RADIATION TECHNOLOGY REPORTS

AFGHANISTAN GUATEMALA PANAMA

DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND

International atomic energy agency

Marketing and Sales Unit, Publishing Section

Printed by the IAEA in Austria

IAEA Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

1.1. The radiographic testing method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF FLUOROSCOPIC SYSTEM

2.1. BAM construction drawings for digital fluoroscope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.1. Introduction to ISee! software for image processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4. ACQUISITION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4.1. Measurements of basic spatial resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

5. Radiation Protection Implications of Industrial Radiography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

ANNEX: BAM construction drawings for producing a casing for

CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

FIG. 1. Typical set-up for radiographic inspection with films.

1.2. Filmless radiographic testing methods

1.2.1. Limitations of the conventional film radiographic testing method

—— Low efficiency leads to longer exposure times;

1.2.2. Film digitization

1.2.3. Fluoroscopy and radioscopy

1.2.4. Computed radiography with imaging plates

FIG. 2. Principle of computed radiography with imaging plates.

1.2.5. Digital detector arrays or flat panel detectors

1.2.5.1. Indirect X ray imaging

1.2.5.2. Direct X ray imaging with photo conductors

FIG. 3. Comparison of detection technologies for digital detector arrays.

1.2.6. Computed tomography

1.2.7. Advantages of digital radiographic systems

Digital industrial radiography (DIR) has the following benefits:

1.3. Essential concepts related to DIGITAL INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

1.3.1. Radiation attenuation in materials

Dfog is the optical density of the film fog and base;

1.3.2.1. Optical film density

Lo is the diffuse light intensity (luminance) measured on the image viewer;

D is the film blackening or optical density;

1.3.2.2. Image contrast, definition and granularity

SNRNorm = log(e )(G2 σ D ) (5)

G2 is the film gradient at an optical density of 2;

1.3.3. Characteristics of digital image

1.3.3.1. Signal to noise ratio

1.3.3.2. Contrast to noise ratio

CNR ∆w = (SNR )(µeff ) (11)

1.3.3.3. Basic spatial resolution

1.3.3.4. Specific material thickness range

TABLE 1. PARTS OF THE HOUSING

For details, see the drawings in the Annex to this publication.

2.2. Selection of materials and components for construction

2.3. Instructions for assembly of digital fluoroscope housing

FIG. 4. The fluoroscope housing and shielding details to be assembled.

TABLE 3. ADDITIONAL ITEMS TO BE PURCHASED FOR COMPLETION OF THE DIGITAL

FIG. 6. Detail No. 13 with screws sticking out approximately 5 mm.

FIG. 7. Adjustment of mirror and objective positions in visible light.

FIG. 8. Assembled fluoroscope and fluorescent screen.