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Competency mapping
Over the past 10 years, human resource and organizational
development professionals have generated a lot of interest in the
notion of competencies as a key element and measure of human
performance. Competencies are becoming a frequently-used and
written-about vehicle for organizational applications such as:

* Defining the factors for success in jobs (i.e., work) and work roles
within the organization
* Assessing the current performance and future development needs of
persons holding jobs and roles
* Mapping succession possibilities for employees within the
organization
* Assigning compensation grades and levels to particular jobs and roles
* Selecting applicants for open positions, using competency-based
interviewing techniques

Competencies include the collection of success factors necessary for

achieving important results in a specific job or work role in a particular
organization. Success factors are combinations of knowledge, skills,
and attributes (more historically called "KSA's") that are described in
terms of specific behaviors, and are demonstrated by superior
performers in those jobs or work roles. Attributes include: personal
characteristics, traits, motives, values or ways of thinking that impact
an individual's behavior.

The term competency is quite generic and related to human behavior

and psychology. Competency is often defined as a quality of being
adequately qualified, intellectually able and emotionally stable. The
concept of competency is basically used to define a capability of being
able. Competency mapping is a psychological test that helps the
human resource management department to test the competence or
competency of an employee or a potential employee. It must be noted
that competency is measured in the employee's quality(es) and not
quantity (measurement of performance). For instance, while mapping a
person's competency the question 'when and where' comes into the
picture and not 'how much'. Thus, an employee's ability to perform in a
particular field is measured instead of measuring, 'how much will he
perform'. Most of the companies use simple multiple choice question
test to examine a person's competency.
Arya Chanakya, a well known royal adviser and prime minister from
Vedic India, penned a famous book known as the Arthashastra, which
is probably the first book on competency mapping. The book contains
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competency mapping models, the thesis and theories of human

aptitude, intelligence quotient, emotional quotient and in general
everything that is related to human behavior regarding work, logic and
emotions. This book is an excellent leadership and management book
and is more than 3000 years old.

What is Competency Mapping

Competency mapping is a process with the help of which the employer,
or the human resource team decides, that where would a particular
person work best, as per his aptitude and temperament. There are
several different factors that are considered during a competency
mapping process. There are also some simple processes that have
been made by experts in the field of clinical psychology. Some
important characteristics of a person's competency have been
elaborated below.

• Constitution: Every person's personality is based upon a definite

constitution. Some aspects about work such as a person's ability
to work as a team member or a team leader or even his
temperament to work individually are affected by this
constitution.
• Traits: Traits can be physical and also behavioral. The traits are
usually related to the constitution. Knowing the traits of a person
is absolutely important as the management's behavior with
every person differs.
• Self Concept: Every person has an interpretation about himself
and some self ideals. The management bears in mind these
simple ideals, even during day-to-day work, due to the fact that,
when these ideals are respected the employee tends to remain
happy and productive.
• Skill and Knowledge: Every employee has different skills and
knowledge. Competency mapping helps the company to know
more about the person's skills and knowledge. It must be noted
that even a simple virtue of being patient is treated as a skill by
the recruiters.

Several companies have started using competency mapping tools in

order to know more about their prospective employees or even current
employees. On an average, a competency mapping test on an
employee would depict skills and knowledge of the person, his ability
to work with other people, his constitution, his dedication and finally
his willingness to work.

A competency mapping presentation depicts every aspect of a

person's personality. The total process of competency management
ultimately helps the company in better personnel management and
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good workplace communication. Competency management is thus

often considered to be an indispensable management tool.

Origin of Management including Competency Mapping:

Chanakya's Arthshastra, an ancient Indian script/ book on Political

Science and Administration, written some 3000 years ago. Other
names of Chanakya were Mr. Kautilya, and Mr. Vishnu Gupt.
Constitutions of all the major countries have origin in this book. It could
be Indian Constitution, Irish, Canadian, USA, Australian, etc. and even
British unwritten constitutions have roots imbibed in this book. It is the
towering book in which you find the basics and applications of
Management Sciences, Chemistry, Physics, Military and War
techniques, Basic Engineering and Technologies, Ethics, Legal and
Judiciary and Fiduciary system, Values, Psychology, and Anthropology,
Organization Behavior, Human Resource Management. In fact major
basics of all Marketing Management, Human Resource Management,
basics of Management Models, are been directly lifted with some
modification from this book. Great efforts of Chanakya by all means;
and one of the greatest contributions to the world. You may call
Arthshastra as a Classical book once if you read, you will find other
subjects easy any time in your life.

If Geeta, Bible, Kuran, Gurugranthsahib, Adi Granth, Vedas, Vedanta

are classical scripts in spirituality then Arthshastra is one of the
classical book for above mentioned subjects. In fact all the classical
scripts have everything put in gist to live normal life happily. It is said
that once you master classical books everything becomes easier in
later part of life and work.

Competence is a standardized requirement for an individual to

properly perform a specific job. It encompasses a combination of
knowledge, skills and behavior utilized to improve performance. More
generally, competence is the state or quality of being adequately or
well qualified, having the ability to perform a specific role.

For instance, management competency includes the traits of systems

thinking and emotional intelligence, and skills in influence and
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negotiation. A person possesses a competence as long as the skills,

abilities, and knowledge that constitute that competence are a part of
them, enabling the person to perform effective action within a certain
workplace environment. Therefore, one might not lose knowledge, a
skill, or an ability, but still lose a competence if what is needed to do a
job well changes.

The competencies have five characteristics, namely:

* Motives: Things a person consistently thinks about or wants

that cause action, motives drive, direct and select behavior
towards certain actions. Example achievement motivation people
consistently set challenging goals for themselves, take
responsibility for accomplishing them and use the feedback to do
better

* Traits: Physical characteristics and consistent responses to

situations. Good eyesight is physical traits of a pilot. Emotional
Self Control and initiative are more complex consistent
responses to situations.

* Self Concept: A person's attitude value or self image. A

person's values are reactive or respondent motives that predict
what a person would do in the short run. Example: A person who
values being a leader would be more likely to exhibit leadership
behavior.

* Knowledge (Information a person has in a specific work area)

Example: An accountant's knowledge of various accounting
procedures.

* Skill (is the ability to perform certain mental or physical tasks)

Example: Mental competency includes analytical thinking. The
ability to establish cause and affect relationship.

The four general competences are:

• Meaning Competence: Identifying with the purpose of the

organization or community and acting from the preferred future
in accordance with the values of the organization or community.
• Relation Competence: Creating and nurturing connections to
the stakeholders of the primary tasks.
• Learning Competence: Creating and looking for situations that
make it possible to experiment with the set of solutions that
make it possible to solve the primary tasks and reflect on the
experience.
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• Change Competence: Acting in new ways when it will promote

the purpose of the organization or community and make the
preferred future come to life.

Types of competencies

1. Organizational competencies — unique factors that make an

organization competitive
2. Job/Role competencies—things an individual must demonstrate to be
effective in a job, role, function, task, or duty, an organizational level,
or in the entire organization.
3. Personal competencies—aspects of an individual that imply a level
of skill, achievement, or output

Types of competencies

MANAGERIAL

Competencies which are considered essential for staff with

managerial or supervisory responsibility in any service or program
area, including directors and senior posts.

Some managerial competencies could be more relevant for specific

occupations, however they are applied horizontally across the
Organization, i.e. analysis and decision-making, team leadership,
change management, etc.

GENERIC

Competencies which are considered essential for all staff, regardless

of their function or level, i.e. communication, program execution,
processing tools, linguistic, etc.

TECHNICAL/FUNCTIONAL

Specific competencies which are considered essential to perform any

job in the Organization within a defined technical or functional area of
work, i.e. environmental management, industrial process sectors,
investment management, finance and administration, human resource
management, etc.

Levels of Competency

1. Practical competency - An employee's demonstrated ability to

perform a set of tasks.
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2. Foundational competence - An employee's demonstrated

understanding of what and why he / she is doing.

3. Reflexive competence (An employee's ability to integrate

actions with the understanding of the action so that he / she
learn from those actions and adapts to the changes as and when
they are required.

4. Applied competence - An employee's demonstrated ability to

perform a set of tasks with understanding and reflexivity.

Application levels of a competency

ADVANCED

Demonstrates high level of understanding of the particular competency

to perform fully and independently related tasks.

Frequently demonstrates application that indicates profound level of

expertise. Can perform adviser or trainer roles. Work activities are
carried out consistently with high quality standards.

PROFICIENT

Demonstrates a sound level of understanding of the particular

competency to adequately perform related tasks, practically without
guidance. Work activities are performed effectively within quality
standards.

KNOWLEDGEABLE

Demonstrates a sufficient understanding of the particular competency

to be used in the work place, but requires guidance Tasks or work
activities are generally carried out under direction.

COMPETENCY MAPPING

Competency mapping is a process through which one assesses and

determines one's strengths as an individual worker and in some cases,
as part of an organization. It generally examines two areas: emotional
intelligence or emotional quotient (EQ), and strengths of the individual
in areas like team structure, leadership, and decision-making. Large
organizations frequently employ some form of competency mapping to
understand how to most effectively employ the competencies of
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strengths of workers. They may also use competency mapping to

analyze the combination of strengths in different workers to produce
the most effective teams and the highest quality work.

The steps involved in competency mapping with an end result of job

evaluation include the following:

1) Conduct a job analysis by asking incumbents to complete a

position information questionnaire (PIQ). This can be provided for
incumbents to complete, or you can conduct one-on-one
interviews using the PIQ as a guide. The primary goal is to gather
from incumbents what they feel are the key behaviors necessary
to perform their respective jobs.

2) Using the results of the job analysis, you are ready to develop
a competency based job description. A sample of a competency
based job description generated from the PIQ may be analyzed.
This can be developed after carefully analyzing the input from
the represented group of incumbents and converting it to
standard competencies.

3) With a competency based job description, you are on your

way to begin mapping the competencies throughout your human
resources processes. The competencies of the respective job
description become your factors for assessment on the
performance evaluation. Using competencies will help guide you
to perform more objective evaluations based on displayed or not
displayed behaviors.

4) Taking the competency mapping one step further, you can use
the results of your evaluation to identify in what competencies
individuals need additional development or training. This will
help you focus your training needs on the goals of the position
and company and help your employees develop toward the
ultimate success of the organization.

Behavioral event interview

A behavioral interview is a structured interview that is used to collect

information about past behavior. Because past performance is a
predictor of future behavior, a behavioral interview attempts to
uncover your past performance by asking open-ended questions. Each
question helps the interviewer learn about your past performance in a
key skill area that is critical to success in the position for which you are
interviewing. The interview will be conducted face-to-face whenever
possible.
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Using the STAR Technique

In a behavioral interview, the interviewer will ask questions about your

past experiences. A useful way to prepare for this style of questioning
is to use the STAR technique. The STAR technique is a way to frame
the answers to each question in an organized manner that will give the
interviewer the most information about your past experience. As you
prepare to answer each question, consider organizing your response
by answering each of the following components of the STAR technique:

What was the Situation in which you were involved?

What was the Task you needed to accomplish?
What Action(s) did you take?
What Results did you achieve?

Repertory grid

The repertory grid is a technique for identifying the ways that a person
construes his or her experience. It provides information from which
inferences about personality can be made, but it is not a personality
test in the conventional sense.

A grid consists of four parts.

1. A Topic: it is about some part of the person's experience

2. A set of Elements, which are examples or instances of the

Topic. Any well-defined set of words, phrases, or even brief
behavioral vignettes can be used as elements. For example, to
see how I construe the purchase of a car, a list of vehicles within
my price range could make an excellent set of elements

3. A set of Constructs. These are the basic terms that the client
uses to make sense of the elements, and are always expressed
as a contrast. Thus the meaning of 'Good' depends on whether
you intend to say 'Good versus Poor', as if you were construing a
theatrical performance, or 'Good versus Evil', as if you were
construing the moral or ontological status of some more
fundamental experience.

4. A set of ratings of Elements on Constructs. Each element is

positioned between the two extremes of the construct using a 5-
or 7-point rating scale system; this is done repeatedly for all the
constructs that apply; and thus its meaning to the client is
captured, and statistical analysis varying from simple counting,
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to more complex multivariate analysis of meaning, is made

possible.

Step 1

The individual or group begins with a repertory grid, pen or pencil, and
five to eight blank cards.

Step 2

Then the elements are written across the top of the grid.

Step 3

After this, the subject(s) write numbers on one side of the cards which
correspond with the elements at the top of the grid.

Step 4

The cards are turned face down, shuffled, and then three cards are
drawn at random.

Step 5

The subject(s) mark on the grid which three elements were drawn with
an "X". They then decide: "Out of the three elements chosen, which
two seem to have something more in common with each other?"
These two elements are connected with a line.

Step 6

Always on the left side of the grid, the subject(s) will describe what
aspect these two elements share. On the right side, they will express
what it is that makes the third element different from the other two. (If
this is too difficult, people are allowed to write something they believe
to be the opposite of the left hand construct).

Step 7

Finally, the elements are rated to the constructs. Each element is

rated to the constructs on a scale of one to five, with the left construct
as "1" and the right construct as "5". For example, on a scale of 1 to 5,
with "1" being most like a "lesson carefully designed for students
needs" and five as "giving students second language activities just to
kill the time", we see that the subject(s) rated the element, "students
are happy" as more like the left construct, with a rating of "2", the
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element, "students are active" as like the right construct, with a rating
of "5", "students retain L2" as like the left side with a rating of "1", and
so on.

One the first row has been rated, the individual or group turn the three
cards over, shuffle them, and begin the process all over again. They
may reshuffle in the case of drawing the same three card combination
as before.

Repertory grids were an invention of the late George Kelly, a mid-West

American engineer turned psychologist/psychotherapist who wrote up
his work in the '50s. They consist of a rectangular matrix of ratings of
things called "elements" (usually placed in the columns) each rated on
adjectival phrases or simple adjectives known as "constructs".

Critical incident technique

The CIT is a method for getting a subjective report while minimising

interference from stereotypical reactions or received opinions. The
user is asked to focus on one or more critical incidents which they
experienced personally in the field of activity being analysed. A critical
incident is defined as one which had an important effect on the final
outcome. Critical incidents can only be recognised retrospectively.

CIT analysis uses a method known as Content Analysis in order to

summarise the experiences of many users or many experiences of the
same user.

The Critical Incident Technique (or CIT) is a set of procedures used

for collecting direct observations of human behavior that have critical
significance and meet methodically defined criteria. These
observations are then kept track of as incidents, which are then used
to solve practical problems and develop broad psychological principles.
A critical incident can be described as one that makes a significant
contribution - either positively or negatively - to an activity or
phenomenon. Critical incidents can be gathered in various ways, but
typically respondents are asked to tell a story about an experience
they have had.

CIT is a flexible method that usually relies on five major areas. The first
is determining and reviewing the incident, then fact-finding, which
involves collecting the details of the incident from the participants.
When all of the facts are collected, the next step is to identify the
issues. Afterwards a decision can be made on how to resolve the issues
based on various possible solutions. The final and most important
aspect is the evaluation, which will determine if the solution that was
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selected will solve the root cause of the situation and will cause no
further problems.

Advantages

• Flexible method that can be used to improve multi-user systems.

• Data is collected from the respondent's perspective and in his or
her own words.
• Does not force the respondents into any given framework.
• Identifies even rare events that might be missed by other
methods which only focus on common and everyday events.
• Useful when problems occur but the cause and severity are not
known.
• Inexpensive and provides rich information.
• Emphasizes the features that will make a system particularly
vulnerable and can bring major benefits (e.g. safety).
• Can be applied using questionnaires or interviews.

Disadvantages

• A first problem comes from the type of the reported incidents.

The critical incident technique will rely on events being
remembered by users and will also require the accurate and
truthful reporting of them. Since critical incidents often rely on
memory, incidents may be imprecise or may even go
unreported.
• The method has a built-in bias towards incidents that happened
recently, since these are easier to recall.
• It will emphasize only rare events; more common events will be
missed.
• Respondents may not be accustomed to or willing to take the
time to tell (or write) a complete story when describing a critical
incident.

COMPETENCY ASSESSMENT

Competency assessment involves the measurement of an individual's

competencies. Measures include cognitive ability tests, biodata
instruments, structured interviews, job knowledge tests, diagnostic and
promotion tests, and measures of customer service, and social skills.
With the advent of increased agency responsibility for staffing
decisions, valid personnel selection assessments are more critical than
ever. The Office of Personnel Management's research and
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development staff are experts in producing selection methods that can

be tailored to specific agency needs.

Key Features

• Selection methods cover the entire spectrum of job-relevant

abilities, including reasoning and social skills, and are offered in
a variety of formats:

o Multiple-choice tests, either computer-based or paper

and pencil
o Structured interviews
o Biodata questionnaires
o Job-knowledge tests
o Social skills inventories
o Executive assessment centers
o Language-learning ability tests
o Physical performance tests
o Professional examinations for managers and executives

• Complete documentation of development process and validity

analysis
• Nationwide network of test administrators can effectively and
efficiently administer tests of OPM design

Why You May Want To Use These Services

• Increased productivity
• Enhanced diversity of candidates

Assessment Center Exercises An Assessment Center can be defined

as "a variety of testing techniques designed to allow candidates to
demonstrate, under standardized conditions, the skills and abilities
that are most essential for success in a given job" (Coleman, 1987).
The term "assessment center" is really a catch-all term that can
consist of some or all of a variety of exercises. Assessment centers
usually have some sort of in-basket exercise which contains contents
similar to those which are found in the in-basket for the job which is
being tested. Other possibilities include oral exercises, counseling
simulations, problem analysis exercises, interview simulations, role
play exercises, written report/analysis exercises, and leaderless group
exercises (Coleman, 1987; Filer, 1979; Joiner, 1984). Assessment
centers allow candidates to demonstrate more of their skills through a
number of job relevant situations (Joiner, 1984).
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360 DEGREE FEEDBACK

In human resources or industrial/organizational psychology, 360-

degree feedback, also known as 'multi-rater feedback', 'multisource
feedback', or 'multisource assessment', is employee development
feedback that comes from all around the employee. "360" refers to the
360 degrees in a circle. The feedback would come from subordinates,
peers, and managers in the organizational hierarchy, as well as self-
assessment, and in some cases external sources such as customers
and suppliers or other interested stakeholders. It may be contrasted
with upward feedback, where managers are given feedback by their
direct reports, or a traditional performance appraisal, where the
employees are most often reviewed only by their manager.

The results from 360-degree feedback are often used by the person
receiving the feedback to plan their training and development. The
results are also used by some organizations for making promotional or
pay decisions, which is sometimes called "360-degree review."

Benefits

• Individuals get a broader perspective of how they are perceived

by others than previously possible.
• Increased awareness of and relevance of competencies.
• Increased awareness by senior management that they too have
development needs.
• More reliable feedback to senior managers about their
performance.
• Gaining acceptance of the principle of multiple stakeholders as a
measure of performance.
• Encouraging more open feedback — new insights.
• Reinforcing the desired competencies of the business.
• Provided a clearer picture to senior management of individual's
real worth (although there tended to be some 'halo' effect
syndromes).
• Clarified to employees critical performance aspects.
• Opens up feedback and gives people a more rounded view of
performance than they had previously.
• Identifying key development areas for the individual, a
department and the organization as a whole.
• Identifying strengths that can be used to the best advantage of
the business.
• A rounded view of the individual's/ team's/ organization's
performance and what the strengths and weaknesses are.
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• Raised the self-awareness of people managers of how they

personally impact upon others — positively and negatively.
• Supporting a climate of continuous improvement.
• Starting to improve the climate/ morale, as measured through
the survey.
• Focused agenda for development. Forced line managers to
discuss development issues.
• Perception of feedback as more valid and objective, leading to
acceptance of results and actions required.
• Gaps are identified in one's self-perception versus the perception
of the manager, peer or direct reports.
• Customizing the questions to one's organizational competencies.
• Opportunities are many, we only fail to recognise them most of the time.