MARINE CONSTRUCTION: UNDERWATER CONCRETE

Underwater Concrete Technologies in

Marine Construction
The Masterbuilder | February 2016 | www.masterbuilder.co.in

Dr. Mohammad Arif Kamal

Professor, Al Amir College, Thiruppathur,
Tamil Nadu

C
oncrete is the premier and the most widely used con- include: underwater anti-washout property, self-compacting
struction material in the world for various types of civil property, and self leveling property. Anti-washout underwater
engineering works. During the construction of bridges, concrete offers superior performance when the concrete is in
dams or any other structure where the foundation part of the fresh state. By adding an anti-washout admixture to concrete,
structure lies underwater, one has to opt for underwater con- its viscosity is increased and its resistance to segregation under
struction. Underwater concrete has been in use for a long time. the washing action of concrete can be enhanced. When con-
Technological progress has mainly been made through the de- crete is placed under water, it induces concrete to deteriorate
velopment of improved methods for concrete placement and uniformity. Therefore it is important that we should follow prop-
better equipment. Improvements have been made as regards er mix design, concrete production and placement and quality
the design of the mix proportions, the implementation meth- control. This article presents a brief overview of the character-
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ods, and the quality of the admixtures itself. Superior features istics of antiwashout underwater concrete and discusses the
 MARINE CONSTRUCTION: UNDERWATER CONCRETE

Tremie method, which is the most common method used for is more suitable than a slump value. The relationship of these
underwater concrete placement. values is demonstrated in Figure 4. Table 1 provides criteria for
the relationship between flowability and conditions of execution.
Characteristics of Antiwashout Underwater Concrete
Antiwashout underwater concretes have slightly different Air Content
properties than ordinary hydraulic cement concrete because of Mortar and concrete mixed with cellulose ether have greatly
the effect of the admixture. Fresh antiwashout concrete can be increased air content; therefore, such antiwashout admixtures
characterized by the following properties: contain an air-detraining admixture to reduce the air content of
Flowability the concrete to between 3 and 5%. From a petrographic stand-
point, the bubble-spacing factor of concrete containing the an-
Underwater concrete must be so placed in the formwork tiwashout admixture is about the same as concrete without the
that it will require no further handling or compaction. The mix admixture, but the freezing and thawing resistance tends to be
therefore should be plastic, cohesive and have good flowability. somewhat low.
The mix should also be richer than it is for concrete placed in
air, usually no less than 7 bags of cement per cubic yard. Cohe- Bleeding
siveness and flow properties can be greatly improved by using
Concrete containing the antiwashout admixture retains
admixtures. A retarder and 4 percent entrained air are generally
more of the mixing water. Since the normal amount of admix-
re commended as the combination that ensures more uniform
ture used is more than double the amount required to prevent
concrete strength across the form, retards the initial set and
bleeding, very little, if any, bleeding occurs in antiwashout un-
internal heat development, and reduces laitance. Because of
derwater concrete. This lack of bleeding is responsible for the
the increased viscosity of antiwashout underwater concrete, the
small reduction in quality of the concrete and increases the
slump transformation takes place over several minutes. The
need for reinforcing steel.
slump is ultimately 8 to 10 in. To have a better understanding
of the flowability of this type of concrete, a slump-flow value or Setting Time
a spread value determined by the German Standard DIN 1048
The use of antiwashout cellulose admixtures affects the
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setting time of underwater concrete. When a cellulose anti-
washout admixture is used, the setting time (ASTM C 191, 2007)
is greatly extended; therefore, the antiwashout admixture con-
tains an accelerating admixture. The most common accelerat-
50 ing admixture amounts are adjusted to result in a final setting
time of from 5 to 12 hours. Antiwashout admixtures containing
Slump, Slump Flow Value (cm)

Slump flow acrylic have no effect on the setting time. When an air-entrain-
value ing, water-reducing admixture is added to the antiwashout ad-
40 mixture, the setting time is slightly extended, but the increase
in setting time for the normal admixture amounts is less than
5 hours. Specialty admixtures can extend the setting time for
underwater antiwashout concrete by 30 hours or more.
30 Slump value Mixtures for underwater placements

Concrete must be proportioned for very workable concrete

The Masterbuilder | February 2016 | www.masterbuilder.co.in
if it is to be placed underwater. The slump should be controlled
at approximately 7 in. Normally, the hydraulic-cement content
20
should be around seven bags per cubic yard. The maximum
size aggregate should be 1-1/2 to 2 in., and the fine aggregate
30 40 50 60 (fine) content should be around 45% of the total aggregate con-
tent. The concrete should be air entrained at about 6 to 7%. Any
Spread Value (cm)
application that improves the workability of concrete should be
Fig. 1: Relationship of slump, slump-flow value, and spread value considered. This includes pozzolans, natural aggregates in lieu

Slump Flow Value (cm) Softness Conditions for Applications Conditions for Execution
When it is desired to keep Concrete pump pressure
40 Hard consistency the flow small, such as the transmission boundary
execution of a slanted path
Less than 50-m concrete pump
45 Medium consistency General case
pressure transmission distance
When excellent filling capabil- Concrete pump pressure
50 Medium soft consistency
ity is needed transmission distance of 50–200 m
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Table 1: Criteria of relationship between flowability and conditions of execution

 MARINE CONSTRUCTION: UNDERWATER CONCRETE

of crushed stone, and use of chemical admixtures to extend

the setting time and permit additional water reduction. The fine
aggregate proportion should be higher than it is under normal
conditions: approximately 45 percent of the total aggregate.
Coarse aggregate should be gravel rather than crushed rock,
the maximum size being about 3/4 inch. In the case of large
mass placings, aggregate up to 11/2 inches in diameter can be
used.

Underwater Dispersion Resistance

The dispersion resistance of concrete during an underwa-

ter placement operation is evaluated by such tests as the ce-
mentitious materials outflow rate, the change of water perme-
ation rate, the turbidity of the water, the change of pH value, and
the change of composition. The rate of dispersion is decreased
as the quantity of antiwashout admixture in the underwater
concrete is increased.

Underwater Concrete Placement Method

Fig. 2: The underwater concrete construction using the Tremie Method
There are mainly five methods for placing concrete under
water which are listed below: against the end of the pipe. The plate should be 2 inches larg-
er in diameter than the pipe. A single or double wire attached
- Tremie method cent rally to the plate passes through the pipe to be attached to
- Pump method the hopper. As the Tremie is lowered to the bottom of the form,
- Hydrovalve method water pressure holds the plate tightly in position. Then the pipe
- Toggle bags and hopper are filled. The plate-retaining wire is released if it
- Bags work is single, or withdrawn if it is double, and the Tremie is raised
Among these five methods Tremie method is the most about 4 to 6 inches from the bottom of the form, allowing the
common method used for underwater concrete placement. concrete to flow into place.

The Tremie Method

The most common method of handling concrete under wa-

ter is by Tremie. A Tremie consists essentially of a vertical steel
pipeline, topped by a hopper and is long enough to reach from
a working platform above water to the lowest point of the un-
derwater form work. By this technique the steel pipeline, with
a watertight seal at its tip, is placed at the bottom of the form
work. Depending upon depth, the pipe is filled or partially filled
with concrete. Then the pipe is gently raised about 6 inches
to release the concrete letting it rise up around the tube. The
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major objective is to see that the mix flows as continuously and

steadily as possible against the pressure of the water until the
form is full. The lower end of the pipe must remain submerged
in the concrete at all times to maintain its seal under water.
By this procedure the concrete is forced and consolidated into
place under its own weight.
Tremie pipe should be heavy and rigid enough to withstand
external water pressure while remaining perfectly stable during Fig. 3: Diagram showing the Tremie Method
the placing operations. Smooth, seamless pipe is preferable for
maximum flow with a diameter of not less than 6 inches and not These closures are usually in the form of cones, plugs or
more than 12 inches. The pipe is normally assembled in long dishes of concrete or steel that fit tightly within the pipe. They
sections, depending on size, mass and depth of the placing. are attached to the hopper by wire and are lowered down the
Some form of rubber packing ring is necessary at the joints to pipe to allow the hopper to be charged continuously. After the
seal them properly or else the cement paste may be washed Tremie is filled, the valve is released and the pipe is raised to
from the mix. The bottom end of the Tremie must be smooth allow the concrete to flow. An effective plug can be provided by
and without flanges, so it can be withdrawn cleanly leaving no forcing an inflatable rubber ball into the top of the pipe. The ball
voids. In proper Tremie placing, a closure is used to seal the is pushed downward by the weight of the concrete. Using a ball
pipe prior to placing the concrete. The simplest type of closure for the plug offers the advantage that it will pop to the surface
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has a flat rubber gasket wooden or steel plate which butts on leaving the pipe. A Tremie hopper should always be partially
 MARINE CONSTRUCTION: UNDERWATER CONCRETE

filled with concrete to keep its seal. Loss of a Tremie seal caus- livery because the mix inside the pipe begins to stiffen; mix too
es segregation and the forming of a gravel plug in the bottom harsh or too stiff making plastic flow impossible; poor aggre-
of the pipe. Loading should be slow and steady. The hopper size gate grading and, in particular, insufficient fines; the lubricating
depends on the mix’s rate of delivery, the volume of concrete coating on the pipe walls is broken and sticking follows.
being placed, and the rate at which Tremie action is maintained. Stoppages sometimes can be avoided by applying vibration
Maximum center-to-center distance recommended for Tremie or shock blows to the Tremie pipe. However, great care is need-
pipes varies with the size, depth and configuration of the plac- ed to avoid losing the seal between the concrete in the form
ing, but the average figure is about 15 feet. The Tremie should and that in the pipe. By raising the Tremie above the surface,
be close to the congested form work and reinforcement. For the concrete below the stoppage will fall out and be replaced
very large jobs, the formwork is either divided or filled in sec- by water, usually freeing the flow in the process. Using a rubber
tions or several Tremies are used. The first load of concrete dis- ball valve offers the best situation in which to replace a lost seal.
charged into a Tremie should be especially rich in mortar. This Recharging of the hopper can be resumed over the ball while
provides a lubricating coating through the pipe which eases the the pipe end is inserted about 18 inches below the level of the
flow of subsequent loads. At the time of closure release, plac- concrete in the f o rm. A slow pressure is then applied to the ball
ing begins with the pipe end suspended 4 to 6 inches from the forcing the water out of the pipe. A sudden out-surge of water
bottom of the form. The initial outrush of concrete will create a should be guarded against as it will wash away fines and lead
protective barrier to prevent the entry of water from the end of to segregation under the pipe. Pressure at the end of the pipe is
the pipe. usually sufficient to deform the ball and force it clear.
The pipe should remain in this position until a thickness of
concrete ranging from 3 feet to 4 feet 6 inches has been built
up in the form. The raising action of the Tremie can then begin,
delivering new loads of concrete into the hopper until the form
is full. The depth of pipe submersion necessary before lifting
can begin depends on the depth of the water, the plasticity of the
mix, and the concrete’s rate of delivery into the hopper. Three
to five feet is a reasonable average under most conditions. The
deeper the pipe end is submerged initially, the flatter the sur-
face of the concrete will be. The main concern is to place new
concrete with the least possible disturbance to the concrete al-
ready in place, while maintaining the top surface as level as the
job allows. Slow, steady raising of the Tremie is essential.
Under no circumstances should the concrete be allowed
to rush out quickly, or water may enter at the pipe ends. If the
seal is lost, surges of concrete in contact with water will cause
segregation, washing-out of fines and excessive laitance. The
rate of placing for most jobs should be figured on the basis of
Fig. 5: The underwater construction using Tremie in Lake Okeechobee
at least 12 to 15 inches per hour. Once placing has begun, it
should proceed continuously until the form is full. For this rea-
Case Study 1: Lake Okeechobee S65e Structure Tailwater
son a breakdown in mix supply is quite serious when placing
Weir
concrete under water. Reserve equipment should always be on
hand to assure on-the-job continuity. Adequate provision must The American Bridge completed two 2,700CY (2,065m³)
be made for lowering the Tremie into the form and raising it as
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underwater concrete pours, meeting a major milestone on this

placing proceeds. Most large scale handling is done by crane or $14.3M, 5 month emergency project for the South Florida Water
derrick and smaller jobs by scaffold mounted hoists. Stoppages Management District near Okeechobee, Florida. The concrete
during Tremie placing can cause considerable difficulty and ev- was placed by Tremie using four concrete pumps in two 18 hour
ery effort should be made to foresee and avoid them. The main continuous pours during the weekends of June 21-22 and July
causes of stoppages are: pipe diameter too small as the mix 12-13, at rates up to 230CY (175m³) per hour. As a result of the
gradually forms a bridge across the pipe walls; delays in de- success of these two pours, the project is now expected to finish
on or ahead of the August 16 completion date.
The emergency weir is a tail water structure located about
4,500’ (1,370m) downstream of the S65E control structure and
lock - the last structure on the Kissimmee River before its dis-
charge into Lake Okeechobee 8½ miles below. The project is
necessitated by record low water levels in the 730-square-mile
Lake Okeechobee. Low water in the lake results in the potential
of unprecedented head differentials above and below the struc-
ture, as the wet season returns and river flow increases. This
exposes the structure to possible flotation and sliding during
excessive hydrostatic head, and to scouring induced by high ve-
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Fig. 4: The Tremie pipe spacing – should be 3-5 times of the Tremie pour locity and hydraulic jump during openings.
 MARINE CONSTRUCTION: UNDERWATER CONCRETE

Case Study 2: Bandra Worli Sea Link, India

The Bandra Worli Sea Link Project in Mumbai, completed

in the end of 2008, provides a much faster means to commute
from the island city to the western suburbs of Mumbai with
Worli and central Mumbai. As a crucial passage and landmark
structure in the city, the 5.6 kilometer Bandra Worli Sea Link
spans the Mahim Bay, part of the Arabian Sea, and has eight
lanes and two cable-stayed bridges with prestressed concrete
viaduct approaches. The harsh environment in the Arabian Sea
and the complex design of the sea link has generated unique
requirements for concrete applications.

Four-hour slump retention

In the construction of the bridge sub-structure, concrete

used in the pile cap and piers was cast on the job site in the sea.
The concrete was produced on shore and then transported by
sea barge and placed in-situ. This process can take up to four
hours, depending upon the roughness of the sea. Sometimes,
strong winds and tidal variations even make it harder to supply
and apply materials in the open sea.
Fig. 5: Tremie Technology used in Bandra Worli Sea Link, India
Special precast elements
tones of CO2 for each cubic meters of concrete for the Tremie
Bandra Worli Sea Link project has 9 approach bridge mod- seal. The total Tremie seal concrete for the project was 20,000
ules. Each approach bridge module comprises two indepen- cubic meters and reduced approximately 4,400 tones of CO2.
dent carriageways. The deck of the carriageways consists of
triple cell precast box girders supported on piers founded on an Conclusion
independent substructure. The cable-stayed main bridge has
For in-the-wet construction of navigation structures, un-
two similar precast triple cell boxes. The precast segments for
derwater concrete construction is a critical component un-
the bridge are cast at a central precasting yard using the short
derwater concrete construction can be accomplished with the
line method. The concrete for the segments is supplied by the
same degree of reliability as above water construction. If it is
batching plant and is pumped into each mould. Thus the con-
not carried out properly, with the proper concrete mixture and
crete had to achieve 25 MPa strength within 24 hours without
placement, it can result in a major overrun in construction
steam curing.
cost and schedule. The essential difference between under-
Consistent strength for high-volume fly ash concrete water concrete and conventional concrete is in the workability
requirements. The uunderwater concrete must flow laterally
The last but very important requirement was to enable the and compact itself under its own buoyant weight, while con-
usage of high-volume fly ash concrete (HVFAC) for Tremie seal ventional concrete is compacted with mechanical vibration. The
concreting, which was done under the pile cap. HVFAC technol- antiwashout underwater concrete is being considered for use
ogy allows large volumes of fly ash to replace Portland cement in many underwater structures and other large-scale projects.
in various concrete applications, thereby providing the multiple Under current conditions, several problems remain, such as:
The Masterbuilder | February 2016 | www.masterbuilder.co.in

benefits of reduced CO2emissions, improved cost-benefit ra- (1) differences in performance of the more than ten kinds of
tios for infrastructure development, and reduced environmen- admixtures currently being marketed, (2) differences in mixing
tal impacts related to the disposal of fly ash. In this case, the fly methods and placement methods used by various contractors,
ash contents were up to 50% of the total binder. As specified and (3) inappropriateness of the antiwashout concrete for use in
by the customer, the compressive strength requirement for above-water structures due to its drying shrinkage and poor re-
Tremie seal concrete was 30 MPa after 28 days. As the concrete sistance to freezing and thawing. It is recommended, therefore,
was placed underwater, cohesive concrete with good workabil- that the engineer and contractor fully understand the quality
ity was needed in order to be placed with the Tremie pipe or of the antiwashout underwater concrete and the procedures
pump. Knowing the challenging requirement of the customer, involved in the placement of this relatively new and innovative
BASF Construction Chemicals India aptly provided integrated material.
solutions to address it.
References
Consistent strength for high-volume fly ash concrete
- Sam X.Yao, and Ben C. Gerwick, Under Ground Concrete-Mix Design
In general, CUBIC METERS grade concrete made with Port- And Construction Practices.
land cement only will require a cement content of around 400 - Jagadish.R., Underwater concrete.
kg per cubic meters. With the high content of fly ash, Tremie - R. B. Peck, W. E Hanson, T.H.Thornburn, ‘Foundation engineering’.
seal concrete in this project consumed Portland cement of just - http://www.construction.asiapacific.basf.com/apex/ConstructionAP/
en/content/Nurun/market-segments/Infrastructure/India-Band-
180 kg per cubic meters. This would result in a saving of 0.22
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ra-Worli-Sea-Link w