Chapter-1

Introduction
Conventional vehicle layouts with the IC engine are widely developed and well
fabricated for use with various applications; however, emissions and fuel source
issues are driving vehicle development into a sustainable platform in almost all
vehicular applications. Hybrid vehicles and electrification of vehicle layouts are
effective ways to pose as a solution for the need of this sustainable development.
Most manufacturers have adopted hybrid electric vehicle layouts in order to improve
vehicle fuel economy and cost. Research on this development has further led to
development of electric vehicles to decrease the dependability on fuel sources while
increasing the efficiency of operation in vehicles. Though the development of electric
vehicles looks like a promising and viable option for the future, there are still a few
hiccups along the way that might interrupt the smooth transition of replacing all fuel
based systems with the electric powertrain.

Research has shed light on another means of hybridization, the hydraulic hybrid
vehicle. The hydraulic system provides large power capacity and at first glance is
suitable for hybridizing heavy duty vehicles. Compared the electric means of
hybridization, the hydraulic subsystems are known to recapture more energy during
braking which makes even the harshest driving conditions, i.e. with frequent start-
stops, operation in urban driving applications more efficient in recuperating energy.
These systems have a direct effect on the range and the operation efficiency of the
vehicle.

Regarding the transmission of power to the wheels, the transmission provided by the
hydraulic subsystems achieves similar characteristics as the conventional manual or
automatic transmissions in vehicles with continuously variable speed functions. In
principle, the hydraulic pumps convert mechanical energy to fluid hydraulic energy
and the hydraulic motors convert the high pressure hydraulic energy to mechanical
energy to drive the wheels. The valves on the hydraulic motor and pump allow the
continuous variable speed functions and broad gear ratios.

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There has been plenty of research done for manual transmissions vehicles, Series and
Parallel electric vehicles and electric vehicles. Growing interests by many institutions
and manufacturers has led to development of various Series and Parallel hydraulic
vehicles in the recent years. However most of the research has focused on the
improvement of energy management strategies of individual components such as
Hydraulic pumps and motors, batteries, PMSM motors, etc. for certain applications.
Energy control strategies have been researched only with insight on improving the
developed systems that can be applied only to the particular vehicle layout that has
been tailor fitted according to their baseline designs. There has been some research
comparing the energy efficiency of the different configurations of hydraulic and
electric hybrids.

Through this thesis, the hydraulic systems would be compared to the electric systems
through the terms of application. The technical comparisons between the two systems
would here be tested on the same platform via simulations using
MATLAB/SIMULINK ®. The comparisons mainly look into the potential benefits of
the adoption of the two systems for hybridizing the conventional IC engine layout in
order to increase the operating efficiency of the overall vehicle while increasing the
range and reducing.

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energy/fuel consumption. With the development of electric vehicles in the last few
years, the research also looks into the effectiveness of having an electric hydraulic
hybrid layout in order to reap further benefits of the electric powertrain and reduce its
disadvantages.

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 Chapter-2
HISTORY

Robert Anderson of Aberdeen, Scotland built the first electric vehicle

1870
Sir David Salomon developed a car with a light electric motor and very heavy storage
batteries. Driving speed and range were poor
1890 – 1910
Period of significant improvements in battery technology, specifically with
development of the modern lead-acid battery by H. Tudorand nickel-iron battery
by Edison and Junger.The German Dr. Ferdinand Porsche, built his first car, the
Lohner Electric Chaise. In 1905, H. Piper filed a patent for a petrol-electric hybrid
vehicle.
1913
With the advent of the self-starter (making it easy for all drivers to start gas engines),
steamers and electrics were almost completely wiped out. In this year, sales of electric
cars dropped to 6,000 vehicles, while the Ford Model T sold 182,809 gasoline cars.
1920-1965
Dormant periods for mass-produced electric and hybrid cars. So-called alternative
cars became the province of backyard tinkerers and small-time entrepreneurs
1977 – 1979
General Motors spent over $20 million in electric car development and research,
reporting that electric vehicles could be in production by the mid-1980s.
2000-2004
Toyota released the Toyota Prius, the first hybrid four-door sedan available in
the United States. The Toyota Prius II won 2004 Car of the Year Awards from Motor
Trend Magazine and the North American Auto Show. Toyota was surprised by the
demand and pumped up its production from 36,000 to 47,000 for the U.S. market.
2006
World’s First Full Hydraulic Hybrid in a Delivery Truck. Invention by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and its industry partners unveiled an
innovative new technology vehicle – the first-ever delivery van with a full series
hydraulic hybrid drivetrain in a UPS vehicle.

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 Chapter-3

Hydraulic Hybrids Vehicle

Hybridizing heavier vehicles with hydraulics is one of the viable options to improve the fuel
economy of the vehicle. Regenerating and reusing significant amounts of the kinetic braking
energy associated with their use in the city, characteristic of their drive cycles, coupled with
high system efficiencies enables heavier vehicle architectures to benefit in terms of fuel
economy. With higher mass also comes higher power requirement. The hydraulic propulsion
and storage subsystems are known for their higher power density in comparison to its electric
counterparts. Compared to batteries, the energy storage device in the hydraulic subsystem, the
hydraulic accumulator has a significantly higher ability to accept high rates and high
frequencies of charging and discharging. It would require several hours to recharge the high
energy density batteries. Even under fast charge, the battery cannot be fully charged at a high
rate which could by means other than propulsion reduce the range of the vehicle by at least
10%.

When compared to the electrical hybrid system, the HEV cyclic efficiencies have a significant
difference which can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Efficiencies while braking/accelerating electrically versus hydraulically (1).

One of the major contributions of the higher efficiency in the cycle allows higher amount of
regenerative capabilities which is harnessed via the regenerative braking systems. The fuel
economy improvement in hydraulic hybrid vehicles is associated with their use and their

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associated driving cycle. A larger improvement can be seen with worse driving conditions,
i.e. more frequent start-stop driving cycle. Shuttle busses, garbage trucks, delivery trucks, etc
are some of the vehicles that could benefit with this kind of hybridization.

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Hydraulic hybrids also pose as a sustainable option enabled by the fact that the hybrids would
pollute less with the engine operating less frequently and optimum efficiency. Hydraulic
technology has been around for more than 100 years resulting in lower acquisition and
maintenance costs.

Hybridizing of the vehicle hydraulically can be done in two ways, Parallel Hydraulic Hybrid
and Series Hydraulic hybrid shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Hydraulic hybrid layouts(2).

The parallel hydraulic hybrid is the most basic layout. It uses one hydraulic pump/motor to
provide energy in conjuncture with the IC engine during motoring operation and recover
regenerative braking energy in its pumping operation.

The series hydraulic hybrid disconnects the conventional driveline and uses two drive pump
motors to drive the vehicle. The primary motor drives the vehicle and regenerates braking
energy during pumping operation. The engine pump operation uses the engine’s energy to
recharge the accumulators SOC and during its motoring operation acts as a starter for the IC
engine.

Electric hybrids have gained success in the parallel layout because current electric
technologies cannot handle full power for heavier vehicles. Technologies today have enabled
hydraulic machines to harness way higher power per kilogram when compared to electric
machines. This allows greater benefits to series hydraulic hybrids over parallel hydraulic
hybrids.

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3.1 Available technologies

New developments in the hydraulic hybrids can be seen by various manufacturers. Artemis
has developed a direct drive hybrid system that is directly connected to the driving wheel axle
without the need of any gearb

Figure 3. Direct drive series hydraulic hybrid(2).

The hydrostatic machines in the series hydraulic hybrid layout are Artemis’ Digital
Displacement motor/pump. Artemis claims that the maximum power which can be transferred
here is 200kW. The overall operating efficiency is stated as 85%. This series hybrid system
was implemented with success in a BMW 530i shown in Figure 4. With the NEDC driving
cycle the fuel consumption was reduced by 27% and 50% for the EUDC driving cycle. The
results mainly reflect reduced mechanical losses, regenerative braking with high efficiency
and optimal operation (max efficiency) of the IC engine

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.

Figure 4. Direct drive series hydraulic BMW 530i(3).

Another example of hydraulic hybrid system is by the manufacturer Eaton and the Eaton
Hydraulic Launch Assist system is a parallel hydraulic hybrid system.

Figure 5. Eaton HLA hybrid for refuse truck (4).

The Eaton system in Figure 5 focuses on harnessing regenerative braking energy and uses this
energy, stored by the high-pressure accumulator, to improve the acceleration of the truck. Test
data revealed a reduction in fuel consumption by 17% improvement in performance mode
which boosted the acceleration by 26% and 28% fuel reduction in economy mode.

Bosch-Rexroth Hydrostatic Regenerative Braking system is a hydraulic system designed to be

fitted in commercial vehicles without much cost or effort. Just for an add-on system they

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promote a boost in fuel consumption reduction by 25%. The Bosch system works well with
commercial vehicles because of its heavy vehicle segment and its high frequency of stop and
go drive cycles as in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Braking frequency versus braking power (5).

Parker Hannifin designed one of the first parallel hydraulic hybrids and soon after came up
with the first series hydraulic hybrid. The Cumulo Brake Drive developed in 1982 and the
Cumulo Hydrostatic Drive are shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Cumulo systems for city buse..

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Parker has continued with further development of Advanced Series Hydraulic Hybrid system
shown in Figure 8. The advanced series hybrid is based on a power split concept with one
hydraulic path and one mechanical path in parallel. At low speed the vehicle is propelled
using hydraulic energy and at high speed the mechanical path is used to power the wheels,
disconnecting the hydraulics. Disconnecting the hydraulic system from the mechanical path at
high vehicle speed is necessary because of the low loading torque at high speeds resulting in
low efficiencies of the hydraulic motor.

Figure 8. Parker advanced series hydraulic hybrid (7) and Figure 9. Schematic layout of
the split hybrid (2).

3.2 Electric hybrid vs. hydraulic hybrid

Hybrid vehicle research in the recent years has focused on the electric subsystems based on
the fact that higher efficiencies are obtained with ease of control with electric power. The
clean source of electric power has multiple advantages and goes in sync with the development
of sustainable vehicles for the future.

One of the differences in the layout of the driveline between the two subsystems is that in the
hydraulic hybrid layout, the gearbox between the hydraulic motor and driving wheel is
unnecessary. This brings lesser mechanical losses in the driveline. More importantly, this
means lesser losses in harnessing regenerative braking energy. Having this as an advantage
can be crucial during design phases as losses in the energy transfer both during accelerating
and braking can be minimized.

3.3 Energy recovery

To calculate the energy consumption for a vehicle, the number of components connected and
the efficiencies of each component play an important factor for achieving higher energy
recovery.

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Figure 10. Parallel electric vs. Parallel Hydraulic subsystems(2).

Upon calculation, the value for the energy recovering efficiency is 53% for electric system
and 69% for the hydraulic system. The values for the individual components of efficiencies
however vary with the speed of operation. Hence these values are recorded values of
component efficiency at a particular instance. The higher energy recovering efficiency
potential of the hydraulic systems is because of the higher component efficiencies for the
energy storage devices and also because of the lower mechanical losses generated by lower
gear ratios.

According to Parker Hannifin in their Cumulo systems, the hydraulic accumulators show case
a 94% round trip efficiency whereas the reported round trip efficiency for a Li-ion battery is
about 81% (90x90%)(8).

3.4 Electric machines vs. hydraulic machines

Electric machines by manufacturers UQM and Toshiba have been globally sold and
have known to have motor designs for various applications in sizes up to 150kW.
Toshiba’s permanent magnet motor with a nominal power rating of 38kW has a
maximum efficiency of 97%. High maximum efficiencies similar to Toshiba’s motors
are achieved by other manufacturers as well. However, this range of max efficiency is
limited. In comparison, the hydraulic motors have a higher efficiency rating at lower
speeds. This permits a different design approach for different vehicle applications.
The Artemis Digital hydraulic motor is designed to meet the requirements on high .

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3.5 There Are two Types of HHV:-
1. Parallel system
2. Series system
1. Parallel system :- In a series hydraulic hybrid, the dengine is directly connected to the hydraulic
pump with no direct connection to the wheels

Fig. Parallel system

2. Series system:- In a series hydraulic hybrid, the engine is directly connected to the hydraulic pump with
no direct connection to the wheels .

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 Fig.:- Series system

How Accumulators Work

The accumulators use nitrogen to keep the hydraulic fluid pressurized. When the
fluid is pumped into an accumulator the nitrogen (N2) inside the accumulator is
compressed. When all the hydraulic fluid is in an accumulator designed for high
pressure side of an HHV, the pressure of the nitrogen reaches 5000 pounds per
square inch (psi). If empty of fluid, the pressure of the nitrogen is about 2000 psi.
The pressure of the nitrogen in the low pressure reservoir will vary from 60 psi when
empty to 200 psi when full.

EPA has used two types of accumulators in their hydraulic hybrids:

1. Bladder Accumulator

2. Piston Accumulator

1.Bladder Accumulator Type

In this type of accumulator hydraulic fluid compresses a nitrogen-filled bladder to

create pressure. In HHVs, high pressure accumulators can operate between 2000 and
7000 pounds-per-square inch (psi).

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Advantage:- Highest efficiency with tests showing 97 percent energy retainment.

Disadvantage:-Nitrogen will permeate the foam bladder material over time and need
to be periodically recharged.

2.Piston Accumulator Type

In this type of accumulator, pressure is created when nitrogen is compressed in a

thin-walled metal cylinder shell by the hydraulic fluid pushing on a metal piston.

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Advantage: Virtually no nitrogen escapes so they will not have to be recharged.

How Parallel Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles

Work
In a parallel hydraulic hybrid vehicle (HHV), the engine still provides power to the wheels
through a standard transmission. The hydraulic components are attached to the
driveshaft and assist in stopping and accelerating the vehicle. There are four main modes
of operation in a parallel HHV :

 Regenerative Braking
 Light Acceleration
 Extended Acceleration
 Cruising

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Regenerative Braking

When a parallel HHV brakes the pump/motor is activated and (acting as a pump)
uses the rotating energy from the wheels to pump fluid from the low pressure
reservoir and transfer it into the high pressure accumulator for later use. This
spares the friction brakes from being used to stop the vehicle. The image at
right provides a simple visual of this process.

Light Acceleration

When a parallel HHV needs to accelerate at moderate speeds only the pump/motor(acting
as a motor) provides power to the driveshaft. This process spares the engine from having
to burn as much fuel to accelerate the vehicle. The image at right provides a simple
visual of this process.

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Extended Acceleration

When a parallel HHV is undergoing a heavy or extended acceleration the pump-motor

(acting as a motor) provides power to the driveshaft, but power from the engine is also
added. This process reduces the amount of engine power needed to accelerate
powerfully and quickly thereby saving fuel.The image at right provides a simple visual of
this process.

Cruising

When a parellel HHV is cruising the engine alone supplies full power to the wheels
through the transmission and driveshaft.The image at right provides a simple visual of
this process.

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 .

How Series Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles

Work
In a regular vehicle, power is provided to the wheels by the engine through the
transmission and drive shaft. In a parallel hydraulic hybrid there is a conventional
engine and drive train system with hydraulic hybrid technology attached to the drive
shaft . In a series HHV, the engine is not directly connected to the wheels. Instead a
pump/motor, acting as a motor, uses high pressure fluid from an accumulator to
propel the vehicle .
Here is how a series hydraulic hybrid words during its three modes of operation:

 Light Acceleration/Short Cruising

 Extended Cruising/Heavy Acceleration
 Regenerative Braking

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Light Acceleration/Short Cruising

When the accelerator pedal is pressed, the drive pump/motor uses high
pressure fluid from the high pressure accumulator to rotate the wheels. The
fluid that has been used to rotate the wheels is then at a lower pressure and
is transferred into the low pressure reservoir.

Extended Cruising/Heavy Acceleration

When the pressure level drops to a certain point the engine will turn on and begin to
take fluid from the reservoir, pressurize it and transfer the fluid to the drive
pump/motor. Any excess high pressure fluid from the engine pump not needed by
the drive pump/motor will be stored in the accumulator. Since it is not connected to
the wheels, the engine will operate at its "sweet spot" where it runs most efficiently
when it is on. The engine will shut off when it is no longer needed.

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Regenerative Braking

In city stop-and-go traffic a key way fluid is pressurized is the braking process. When the
vehicle starts braking, the pump/motor uses the momentum of the vehicle to pressurize
fluid from the reservoir and stores it in the accumulator. Later when the vehicle
accelerates only this newly pressurized fluid is used. This process captures and reuses
over 70% of the energy normally lost during braking.

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 Chapter-4
Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicle Layouts

HHV technology provides the possibility for multiple drivetrains or hardware configurations. Each drive
train has a variety of advantages and disadvantages. Each drive train has a variety of advantages and
disadvantages. EPA and its industry partners are currently researching different types of drive trains to
determine which will be the most durable, efficient, clean and cost-effective option. There are three drive
trains that have emerged among the different vehicle applications.

HHV Layout 1

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The first layout shown at right includes an integrated hydraulic hybrid rear drive
assembly. The rear drive assembly consists of two hydraulic pump/motors integrated
into the rear axle. The pump/motors of this assembly are capable of performing
regenerative braking. There is one engine hydraulic pump/motor that produces fluid
pressure when needed. The energy storage system consists of two hydraulic fluid
storage vessels. The first vessel is for high pressure hydraulic fluid or hydraulic fluid
pressurized up to 5000 psi (pounds per square inch). It is called an accumulator. The
second vessel is for low pressure hydraulic fluid or hydraulic fluid pressurized up to
180 >psi. It is called a reservoir. The entire closed loop fluid system holds about 22
gallons of hydraulic fluid, with the possibility of even smaller storage systems.
Hydraulic fluid is fundamentally no different from transmission fluid currently being
used in most vehicles Initial laboratory tests results for this HHV layout in a pilot
vehicle showed greater than 70% improvement in fuel efficiency (mpg) with a
corresponding 40 percent reduction in CO2 emissions. At $2.75 per gallon fuel costs
and with the projected high volume manufacturing costs of $7000, this hybrid would
pay for itself in less than 3 years and deliver a lifetime (20 years) fuel and brake
maintenance savings of over $50,000. This vehicle was tested on-road by UPS during
2006 & 2007.

HHV Layout 2

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The hardware configuration for the second layout is shown at right. This vehicle has a single
pump/motor coupled with a four-speed computer shifter clutch-less transmission. This vehicle has
a similar engine pump/motor and energy storage accumulator system to that of the first layout.

Originally this design was applied with a standard diesel engine in a UPS delivery vehicle with
encouraging results. Work on this vehicle has continued into phase 2 efforts to include an alchol
engine. Alcohol engines use E85 (Ethanol) or M85 (Methanol) and burner cleaner than diesel or
gasoline.This removes the need for NOx aftertreatment. An optimized alcohol engine is capable of
40 percent peak efficiency.

HHV Layout 3
This design uses a drive system that is similar to the first layout. In this design the drive
pump/motor is rotated 90 degrees and mounted to the chassis frame and uses a driveshaft to
provide power to the rear differential. By not having the pump/motors directly integrated into the
rear differential they can be integrated into a vehicle in a way that maximizes space.

This layout demonstrates the versatility of HHV technology because it has been or is being applied
to urban delivery vehicles, yard holsters and shuttle buses. Additionally, it has the same potential
for being used with advanced engines. It is currently being evaluated with a diesel engine in a yard

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hostler and is set to be evaluated with an HCCI (Homogeneous Combustion Charge Ignition)
engine in a shuttle bus.

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 Chapter-5

Demonstration Vehicles
In cooperation with its partners, has successfully installed and tested hydraulic hybrid
technology in a variety of vehicles. These demonstration vehicles, featured below, have
shown tangible real-world results, including fuel economy improvements of 30 percent
to over 100 percent over their conventional counterparts.

Full Series HHV in a UPS Delivery Vehicle

On June 21, 2006, EPA and its partners announced the world's first series hydraulic
hybrid urban delivery vehicle. This vehicle is a promising part of the solution to the
growing energy crisis. This revolutionary vehicle underwent real world testing by UPS in
2006 and 2007 and had encouraging results.

This vehicle:
 Achieved 60-70 percent improvement in fuel economy
 Has an estimated 2-3 year payback when produced in high volume
 Partnerships with Eaton, UPS, Parker, International Truck and Engine corp., the
US Army, FEV, Morgan-Olson and Southwest Research Institute
 Undergoing real world tests by UPS
 Won an award for hybrids in the 2007 Michelin Bibendum Challenge in
Shanghia, China

Series Hydraulid Hybrid Yard Hostler

A yard hostler is an off-road truck used to transfer cargo containers at marine ports, rail
yards, warehouses and distribution centers. EPA in cooperation with APM Terminals,
Parker-Hanniffin, Kalmar Industries, R. H. Sheppard Co., Webasto, FEV, the Port Authority
of New York and New Jersey, Port of Rotterdam, and the New Jersey Department of
Environmental Protection created this highly-efficient yard hostler using hydraulic hyrid
technology.

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This HHV is estimated to:
 Improve fuel efficiency by 50-60 percent
 Reduce maintenance and operation costs
 Reduce emissions and climate change greenhouse gases by over 30 percent
Full Series HHV In A Ford Expedition SUV

This hydraulic hybrid was built to demonstrate the fuel savings that result from
combining a full series hydraulic hybrid system with a diesel engine. The prototype was
installed in a 2003 Ford Expedition SUV. This vehicle was announced and displayed to the
public in 2004 SAE World Congress. The results were remarkable:
 85 percent improvement in fuel economy with a diesel engine
 Less than two year payback when produced in high volume
 Expected net lifetime savings from $4,000 up to $6,000 from fuel costs and
brake maintenance
 Displayed excellent performance

Parallel HHV In A Ford F-550

This Ford F-550 parallel hydraulic hybrid vehicle was built to demonstrate the benefits of
parallel hydraulic hybrids and to examine the cost-effectiveness of parallel systems.

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This HHV:
 Demonstrated the ease of retrofitting trucks with hydraulic hybrid technology
 Achieved a 20-30 percentimprovement in fuel economy
 Won a Gold award for mpg improvement and a Silver award for performance at
the 2003 Michelin Bibendum Challeng.

Full Series HHV in a Passenger Car Test Chassis

In the 1990s, the Partnership for New Generation of Vehicles was established to help U.S.
automakers design a family-sized sedan that could achieve 80 mpg. A team of engineers
working at EPAs National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory in Ann Arbor, Michigan,
succeeded in meeting this goal by using a revolutionary type of hydraulic hybrid. The
chassis shown at right represents a large car platform, like a Taurus or Impala.

This HHV:
 Achieved 80+ mpg on combined EPA city/highway driving cycles

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  Achieved 0-60 miles per hour in 8 seconds
 Used a small 1.9 liter diesel engine
 Showed no need for expensive lightweight materials to improve fuel economy
 EPA estimated that in high volume the hydraulic components would only add
$700 to the base cost of the vehicle and would pay for itself very quickly
 The unique design did not use exotic or toxic materials that are difficult for
manufacturers to dispose of
 This demonstration vehicle led to several cooperative R&D partnerships, as well
as licensing agreements with industry partners who want to explore adapting
this cost-effective technology to the market

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 Chapter-6

World’s First Full Hydraulic Hybrid in a Delivery Truck

‰ The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and its industry partners unveiled an
innovative new technology vehicle – the first-ever delivery van with a full series hydraulic hybrid
drivetrain in a UPS vehicle. ‰ The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and its industry
partners unveiled an innovative new technology vehicle – the first-ever delivery van with a full
series hydraulic hybrid drivetrain in a UPS vehicle. ‰

EPA is leading the development of hydraulic hybrid vehicles. This breakthrough technology can
cost-effectively reduce emissions and drastically reduce fuel consumption while maintaining or
improving performance. ‰ EPA is leading the development of hydraulic hybrid vehicles. This
breakthrough technology can cost-effectively reduce emissions and drastically reduce fuel
consumption while maintaining or improving performance. ‰ This advanced technology UPS
demonstration vehicle achieves:
 60-70% better fuel economy in laboratory tests
 40% or more reduction in carbon dioxide, the primary greenhouse gas
 Ability to recoup additional cost for new hydraulic hybrid technology in less than 3 years.

‰ In a full hydraulic hybrid, a hydraulic drivetrain replaces the conventional drivetrain and
eliminates the need for a conventional transmission. It increases vehicle fuel economy in three
ways: it permits the recovery of energy that is otherwise wasted in vehicle braking, it allows the
engine to be operated at much more efficient modes, and it enables the engine to be shutoff during
many operating conditions such as when the vehicle is decelerating and stopped at a light. ‰ In a
full hydraulic hybrid, a hydraulic drivetrain replaces the conventional drivetrain and eliminates the
need for a conventional transmission. It increases vehicle fuel economy in three ways: it permits the
recovery of energy that is otherwise wasted in vehicle braking, it allows the engine to be operated
at much more efficient modes, and it enables the engine to be shutoff during many operating
conditions such as when the vehicle is decelerating and stopped at a light. ‰ A delivery vehicle is
an excellent application for hybrid technology since its service cycles involve numerous braking
events. Hydraulic hybrid technology has significant commercial potential for a wide range of
medium-sized vehicles such as urban delivery trucks, shuttle/transit buses, and waste disposal
vehicles. ‰ A delivery vehicle is an excellent application for hybrid technology since its service

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cycles involve numerous braking events. Hydraulic hybrid technology has significant commercial
potential for a wide range of medium-sized vehicles such as urban delivery trucks, shuttle/transit
buses, and waste disposal vehicles. ‰ The organizations that contributed to the development of the
UPS demonstration vehicle are: EPA, Eaton Corporation, UPS, International Truck and Engine
Corporation, U.S. Army – National Automotive Center, and Morgan-Olson. Major technical
support was provided by FEV Engine Technology, Inc. and Southwest Research Institute. ‰ The
organizations that contributed to the development of the UPS demonstration vehicle are: EPA,
Eaton Corporation, UPS, International Truck and Engine Corporation, U.S. Army – National
Automotive Center, and Morgan-Olson. Major technical support was provided by FEV Engine
Technology, Inc. and Southwest Research Institute. ‰ Eaton Corporation - played a key role with
EPA to develop the innovative integrated hydraulic rear-drive used in this UPS package vehicle. ‰
Eaton Corporation - played a key role with EPA to develop the innovative integrated hydraulic
rear-drive used in this UPS package vehicle. ‰ EPA estimates that the added costs for the hybrid
components, produced in high volume, for a package delivery vehicle have the potential to be less
than $7,000, which would be recouped in less than three years by the lower fuel and brake
maintenance costs. In today’s dollars, the net lifetime savings over this vehicle’s typical 20 year
lifespan are estimated to be more than $50,000. If fuel prices continue to increase at a faster rate
than inflation, the lifetime savings would be even greater. ‰ EPA estimates that the added costs for
the hybrid components, produced in high volume, for a package delivery vehicle have the potential
to be less than $7,000, which would be recouped in less than three years by the lower fuel and
brake maintenance costs. In today’s dollars, the net lifetime savings over this vehicle’s typical 20
year lifespan are estimated to be more than $50,000. If fuel prices continue to increase at a faster
rate than inflation, the lifetime savings would be even greater. ‰ EPA and UPS plan to evaluate
the demonstration vehicle in on-the-road service during 2006. ‰ EPA is developing a second UPS
demonstration vehicle in a second phase of this partnership in order to explore the cost
effectiveness of a different full hydraulic hybrid system configuration under a variety of load and
driving cycle conditions. EPA also plans to install an EPA Clean Diesel Combustion (CDC) engine
in the phase 2 vehicle. The CDC engine does not need NOx aftertreatment to achieve 2010 NOx
standards.

and with its size comes added mass. From preliminary perspective, a garbage/refuse truck was selected
for the vehicle simulations. However, the garbage/refuse trucks come in different sizes for different
applications. Also, the other vehicles in the similar weight category like delivery vans, bucket trucks,

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 shuttle busses, tow trucks, etc. can benefit from this hybridization. To increase the generality of the
vehicle simulations, a class 6 truck with 9000 kg mass vehicle was selected. This represents the gross
vehicle weight of medium duty vehicles or the test/curb vehicle weight for a heavy-duty vehicle. Having
the vehicles run in the same scenario within the cities allows the results to be analysed for a medium duty
truck which in this case could be the gross vehicle weight of a delivery truck or the test vehicle weight of
the shuttle bus. Similarly, it can also be analysed as the gross vehicle weight of a light/small garbage truck
or the test vehicle weight of a large garbage truck. For the vehicle simulations, the parameters of the truck
are similar to a medium duty International truck: Durastar® and the table below shows the basic
specifications. More details on the latest model are available here (24).
Table 3. Modeled specifications.

Engine Cummins 6.0 L V8

Transmission Allison transmission

Maximum power at 3300 rpm (kW) 230

Maximum torque at 2000 rpm (kW) 770

Maximum speed (rpm) 4500

Transmission gear ratios and relative efficiencies:

1st gear 3.44; 0.9883

2nd gear 2.23; 0.967

3rd gear 1.41; 0.994

th
4 gear 1; 1

Differential gear ratio and efficiency 3.212; 0.96

Vehicle mass(kg) 8500 kg*

Frontal area ( 2)
6.767

Aerodynamic drag coefficient 0.5

Rolling resistance coefficient 0.005

Wheel radius (m) 0.413

Axle configuration and wheels on rear axle 4x2; 4 wheels

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*The vehicle in the simulations has an updated mass of 9000 kg to accommodate the masses for the
hydraulic subsystem components.

3.1.1 Component sizing

3.1.1.1 Hydraulic components

The modeled hydraulic components now are sized for the application in this segment.

Hydraulic Pump/Motor

The conventional series hydraulic system makes use of two motor/pumps. To increase the hydraulic
machine’s efficiency during operation, three hydraulic machines are used in the layout.

The engine pump/motor is mainly influenced by sizing on the capability of it absorbing the maximum
engine power, performing the pumping operation at minimum pressure (1000 psi). The system will
remain pressurized above the minimum pressure almost at all times. The engine motor is also used here as
a starter for the engine.

The drive motor integrated with the transmission and differential has been designed with two
drive motors. The primary motor provides most of the acceleration to the vehicle while the
secondary motor having designed with a gear ratio of 1.6 runs at higher speeds or during hard
acceleration with gradient performance. If the primary motor is capable of providing the power
required, the secondary motor is set to idle. The splitting of the motors ensures higher
efficiencies of use with each of the motors, thus improving the operating efficiency at even high
speeds. The engine pump motor has a maximum displacement of 200 3/ and the primary and
secondary drive motors have a maximum displacement of 160 3/ and 120 3/ respectively.

Hydraulic accumulators

The pressure in the low-pressure reservoir is between 50 and 250 psi and the pressure in the high-pressure
accumulator is between 1000 and 5000 psi, both representing the minimum and maximum pressures
respectively. The accumulators need to store the regenerative braking energy and have excess energy
stored at all times for the engine restarts. A smaller accumulator would lead to a problem with more
frequent engine restarts but designing a larger system would add weight and the resulting space problems.
The designed series hydraulic hybrid will have a capacity of 110 litres, out of which 70 litres is the
maximum fluid capacity. The high-pressure accumulator could store 1050 kJ of energy at maximum
operational pressure.

3.1.1.2 Electrical subsystem

To have a comparison, the series hydraulic hybrid vehicle is compared to its electrical rival, a series
electric and a series parallel hybrid vehicle. Having a fuel consumption analysis here allows further
insight into the potential of hybridizing vehicles. Having the two configurations in the electrical

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subsystems diversifies the comparisons by having fuel consumption as a standard to measure the scaling
of the hydraulic hybrid and its performance.

The series electric hybrid was designed based on similar characteristics as the BAE systems that make
series hydraulic buses. It uses a 120 kW motor and a 25 kWh battery with a nominal voltage of 330 V.

The parallel electric hybrid was scaled to the Eaton electric systems fitted in parallel. It uses a 55 kW
motor and a 4 kWh battery with a nominal voltage of 340 V.

3.1.2 Power management and control

The strategy for the series hydraulic hybrid is to reduce the usage of the engine and use the engine at its
most fuel-efficient point during usage. During its start operation, the engine would operate on the
optimum efficiency line by controlling engine pump displacement and throttle position. The engine has
two tasks to execute. Either deliver power to drive the motor or fill the accumulator. During its operation
at low power demand, the engine power would drive the motor and the surplus power would be redirected
to charge the accumulators. The accumulator can always provide energy as the secondary power source is
there is a peak power source required during running. In the event that the driver requires more power, the
engine would operate at a higher power rage along the same trajectory of the optimum efficiency line. In
the extreme cases only is the engine allowed to deviate from the optimum trajectory line to produce
maximum power. In the series hydraulic hybrid, two hydraulic drive motors would provide energy to the
wheels efficiently. Along with the conventional transmission and differential, the primary motor provides
most of the propulsion and the other motor is an assistant motor tuned with a fixed gear ratio of 1.5 to
provide power during hard accelerations. If the primary motor is capable of providing power on its own,
the secondary motor can be set to idle. This split of motors allows the primary motor to operate at higher
efficiencies and allows the secondary motor to focus on power filling which improves the efficiency when
compared to a single large motor.

3.1.3 Operation modes

Hydraulic power mode

In this mode the power driving the wheels comes only from the high pressure accumulator until either the
SOC drops to the lower set limit of SOC threshold or the displacement of the motor reaches its maximum
value. The maximum displacement refers to the sum of the displacements of both the primary drive motor
and the secondary drive motor with its fixed gear ratio. In the former case where the fluid in the high-
pressure accumulator is close to depletion, the engine needs to be switched on and deliver power before
the fluid is depleted to oversee smooth transition. In the latter case, where the maximum displacement of
the motors is met, the engine must be switched on to increase the power delivered to the wheels. The limit
value of SOC threshold plays an important role here as a higher SOC threshold can improve vehicle
performance but a lower SOC threshold would mean decreased engine restarts. This is discussed in detail
in the results section.

Refill mode

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In this mode, the engine would act as the primary power source for the vehicle. Here the objective is to
increase/refill the high-pressure accumulator’s SOC while maintaining optimum operation of the engine.
The accumulator SOC is steadily increased here until the predetermined SOC upper threshold is met. The
engine switch off can be set by either this threshold limit and if the power supplied by the two drive
motors, is lesser than the maximum displacement of the two motors. Here it is important to set the
predetermined upper SOC threshold limit. If the limit is set too high, the accumulators would not have
enough capacity to capture the regenerated braking energy during the braking events. Similarly, a low
SOC upper threshold would lead to more frequent engine restarts, hence having a negative impact on fuel
economy.

Regenerated energy mode

The drive motor/pump operates as a pump here in this mode to recapture braking energy until the max
limit of SOC is met (SOC=1). When the maximum SOC of the accumulator is met; the mechanical brakes
can be engaged.

Mechanical braking mode

If the SOC of the accumulator reaches its maximum value, 1, the accumulator would be disconnected
from the drive line and the traditional mechanical brakes are applied. Also, when the vehicle speed is
close to zero, the mechanical brakes of the system are engaged. It is at these points that the displacement
of the drive pump is set to zero.

Engine start mode

Having the hydraulic subsystem as an auxiliary power source, it is capable of acting as a starter for the
vehicle. This would eliminate the need of a traditional electric starter motor. Here, the engine pump
would act as a motor and is used to start the engine by using energy from the accumulator. The initial
SOC is also important here as it cannot be zero for starting the engine.

3.1.4 STATEFLOW Logic

For the execution of the operation modes within the simulation in MATLAB/SIMULINK®,
STATEFLOW® allows the strategy to be implemented with ease as shown in Figure 36. The control
strategy implantation allows this realistic visualization to be easily downloadable to the electronic control
unit (ECU) of the vehicle. The logic implemented monitors the pedal position from the driver along with
the other input variables which is the SOC, vehicle speed, engine speed, primary and secondary
motor/pump displacements.

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 Figure 36. Simulink STATEFLOW logic.
The actuation controls for the hydraulic machines used are executed within the actuation controls
block shown in Figure 37.

Figure 37. Actuation controls block.

The Testing of these models with the simulated conditions under the various drive cycles is discussed
in Case I of the Simulation Results section.

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 3.2 Case II: Hydraulic hybridization of an electric vehicle
The hybridization of vehicles in the last few years have tackled vehicle hybrids with IC engines to
generate better results in terms of higher efficiencies and lesser fuel consumption. With development of
newer technologies, increased focus on the development of electric vehicles in terms of sustainable
vehicle transport has been a trend among major manufacturers. The benefits of electrification of vehicles
surpass all other means of future development in vehicles due to its ease of energy management. However
in the near future, such developments require additional facilities like charging stations, charge
scheduling in cities due to high loads required by power grids, etc to facilitate smooth transition into
seeing the vehicles developed now to be implemented on the roads.

From the characteristics of the two hybridization systems discussed in the previous sections, namely the
electric and hydraulic hybridization, one cannot help but notice the advantages of having both the systems
developed into vehicles. At first glance, the two systems, eventhough have similar roles in the vehicle
layouts, have quite a lot of difference in operational characteristics. Having reached this day and age
where the cost, efficiencies of operation, energy consumption, maintenance, etc play a vital role in future
vehicle development. In certain vehiclular applications there could be scope for development of these
systems under one layout, thus attaining the benefits of the two systems add up to deliver better results.
With the differences in the two layouts comes the possibility where the two systems have certain synergy
that could be productive for certrain vehicle types, where only development of one of the systems would
seem obsolete. Examples of such areas have been specified in Section 1.

Battery electric forklifts

Forklifts in the past had a preference towards IC engine propelled forklifts due to its unparalleled
performance in terms of lift and travel speed. With improvement in AC motor technology and batteries
and battery charging methods, for a large majority of forklift applications, electric forklifts have now the
means to surpass its IC engine counterpart. Electric forklifts that rely on batteries perform well without
producing any exhaust emissions. This reduces the damage caused not only to the environment but any
goods/products that the forklifts work with. A plus here would be improved air quality at the area of
operation as well as reduced noise pollution. The lower noise and vibration levels are another benefit to
the operators by reducing fatigue. Apart from the operation, the electric forklifts are known to have
significant cost advantages through their life cycle operation. The economic benefits are directly
influenced by lower fuel costs, longer operational life, and lesser costs spent on maintenance. According
to Yale forklifts, Figure 38 shows the operational costs for both an electric and IC engine forklift.

Figure 38. Potential savings(25).

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The total acquisition cost is an important factor for making the choice between the various technologies
available, instead of just comparing the initial costs. The total acquisition costs involve initial costs,
maintenance costs, replacement part costs and all the indirect costs related to the purchase. The
involvement of operational costs for AC PMSM driven electric forklifts could be beneficial if a time
period of 5 years is considered. The return of investment would begin after a year or two based on the
operation. Data from 2012 reveals this cost difference in ownership shown in Figure 39. The initial
investment for electric forklifts is significantly higher than its IC engine alternative. The increases in costs
are a direct resultant of increased costs of electrical components, mainly the battery and charger. In
addition to having purchase the electric forklift, two additional batteries and charger may be needed
depending on the number of hour shifts that the forklift is meant to operate.

Figure 39. Total cost of ownership(26).

The savings per vehicle here is substantial and as most operators own a fleet, the savings for converting to
electric forklifts is a real deal. These are benefits apart from the obvious higher efficiencies of operation
of electric motors and batteries versus the IC engine counterpart. Figure 40 shows a comparison of the
three types of forklifts technologies.

Figure 40. Overall comparison of technologies(26).

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With development of AC PMSM motors, the electric forklifts are comparable to IC engine forklifts in
terms of acceleration, greadeability, lift speed etc. Having electric braking helps reducing brake wear
which would be caused due to mechanical braking in a conventional forklift. Battery operated Electric

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forklifts use electrical energy for driving and to lift loads. This is done using two electric motors, one for
driving and one for lifting loads. Additionally, with the electric layout, the forklift is now able to recover
regenerative braking energy. It is also possible here to recover potential energy when loads are lifted
and/or lowered. The massive battery here acts as a counterweight for stability. Electric forklifts, as in
Figure 41, only comprise of the lower class forklifts (by weight) and can handle a variety of lift
capacities; however most of them have lift capacities in the range of 3000-6000 lbs or 1300-2700
kilograms. They are known for their applications indoor with narrow aisles and indoor environments with
no tailpipe emissions, where ICE powered forklifts cannot compete.

Figure 41. Forklift class segregation(27).

One of the main disadvantages of battery powered forklifts is the long charging hours. The batteries
designed in the forklifts today are capable of handling long shifts of 6-8 hours, it takes long to charge the
batteries which is valuable time wasted for its application. In most cases to operate tight shifts, like 24/7
operation, there is a requirement of three battery packs per forklift. In many a case, the 8:8:8 rule is
followed which is 8 hours to deplete the battery, or one shift, 8 hours to charge the battery and 8 hours to
properly cool the batteries. Even in this case, time is lost for changing batteries, 15 minutes for automatic
change out and 45 minutes if done manually with the presence of a queue (28). Newer technologies have
shortened the 8:8:8 timings by fast charging, charging batteries at quicker rates which could be
incorporated during breaks. There still would be a disadvantage here because there is a limit to how far
this technology can be adopted. Such fast charging would for instance, require weekly monitored
equalizing charge to prevent harm to the battery.

Another disadvantage of battery powered forklifts is the power declination as the battery discharges. This
along with battery ageing has known to decrease the productivity of the forklift with time. The problems
could also be linked with additional factors such as facilities like charging stations, charge scheduling in
cities due to high loads required by power grids or insufficient power supply from the grid by the city, etc.
One way to reduce the problems is by increasing the range or battery discharge time. This can be

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achieved by reducing the energy consumption of the forklift by maintaing higher efficiencies of the
operating systems.

3.2.1 Electric hydraulic hybrid layout

Hydraulic hybrids popularly have two designed layouts: the series and parallel layouts. These are layouts
that have been tried and tested on IC engine (conventional) vehicles. There are however other possible
layouts, just like with the electric hybrids, such as complex or series-parallel hybrid, through the road
hybrid etc. When it comes to the case of forklifts, the electric forklifts have started to make a segment for
themselves with the many advantages that they bring to the operator. Adding the hydraulic system to the
electric forklift would only make sense because of its low speed applications and constant stop and go
operation. As hydraulic systems excel in this domain, having it installed in the forklift could probably
help in decreasing the load on the battery and electrical systems. Hydraulic systems, characteristic of their
high-power density could pose as an added benefit with certain applications that the electric forklift has to
deal with. The high energy density electrical systems are known for their higher efficiencies of operation
but at low speeds of operation the hydraulic systems boast their higher efficiencies. As seen from the
results of the simulation from Case I, the hydraulic hybrid systems also perform better with their higher
cyclic efficiencies resulting in greater energy capture with regenerative braking. Forklifts in certain
applications also require additional hydraulic energy for lifting purposes, which can be blended with the
hydraulic hybrid layout. The advantages rack up for having these systems installed into forklifts and a
possible positive outcome could be expected with only a few drawbacks such as increased noise and
maintenance.

Since there is a lack of literature on this subject, only conventional layout configurations (i.e. series or
parallel) were considered to be adopted to the electric forklift. The series hydraulic hybrid could be a
good option here due to its low speed application and it generating higher efficiencies with more frequent
stop and go driving styles than the parallel hydraulic hybrids. But having the electric forklift performing
well in its segment and having a parallel hydraulic subsystem to focus as an assistance system would
make sense. Also, an influencing factor here is that the work circuit is powered in parallel to the driving
subsystems. Same is the case with the hydraulic assistance systems for the work circuits with it being
powered in parallel with the main electric layout. Hence instead of going into deeper concepts of layout
configurations for the electric hydraulic hybrid, an even more basic layout, i.e. the parallel layout was
selected for the forklift.

The parallel hydraulic subsystem with the electric system could focus on increasing the cyclic efficiencies
involved with the system without the need of complication. Having it designed in the parallel layout also
has a design benefit where the hydraulic motors could be designed for propultion and/or lifting and
lowering, i.e powering the work circuit, without complications.

The forklift specifications and the component sizing are discussed in the next section under Case II of the
Simulation Results.

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 4. Simulation results and analysis
The results of the simulation tackle the segregated cases individually to better understand the
hybridization of the vehicles. In order to avoid confusion, the results have been segregated into two cases
as were described in the previous section.

4.1 CASE I: Medium duty truck with conventional IC

engine and hybrid
In order to be completely analysed, the Series Hydraulic Hybrid for the class VI truck will be tested on
two driving cycles. The EPA Urban Dynamometer Driving Cycle (UDDS) and the Highway Fuel
Economy (HWFET) driving cycle would be used to interpret the performance of the medium duty vehicle
in the urban cities and highway respectively. The driving cycles also captures the ideal situation’s driving
characteristics of the selected vehicle’s use in the city and highway, and would be interesting to see the
Series Hydraulic Hybrid’s performance in comparison to the Series and Parallel type Hybrid Electric
Vehicle.

Figure 42. Test driving cycles(29).

The importance of setting the limits for the SOC threshold plays a key role in controlling the initial SOC
of the accumulator per cycle. The initial SOC in turn has an effect on the fuel consumption of the vehicle.
As mentioned in the operation modes section, control of the vehicles components is devised around the
SOC threshold limits. For a selected SOC_lower_threshold, selecting a higher SOC_higher_treshold
would result in less frequent restarts of the engine and longer engine running times. However, for the
same SOC_higher_treshold, selecting a larger value for the SOC_lower_treshold would mean lowering
the average engine running times but with more frequent engine restarts. A high SOC_higher_treshold
could lead to decrease the benefits of the system caused by lack of capacity to capture regenerative
braking energy.

The difference between the limits of the SOC threshold has a direct influence on the engine’s duty cycle.
In order to completely capitalize the on the potential of capturing regenerative braking energy and
acceptable increase in engine restarts, the selected SOC thresholds:

SOC_lower_treshold: 0.2

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SOC_higher_treshold: 0.5

The initial SOC varies the fuel consumption of the vehicle too. The variation in the initial SOC generates
fairly small variations with the fuel consumption. The max initial SOC, SOC =1, is used for UDDS and
HWFET driving cycles.

4.1.1 The urban dynamometer driving cycle

The UDDS driving cycle is mostly used for light duty vehicles. The aggressive slopes of acceleration may
not be as realistic as light duty vehicles but the medium duty trucks can have similar driving
characteristics. In the following simulations vehicle speed error has been significantly reduced.

Figure 43. UDDS driving cycle.

Figure 44. Accumulator SOC variation with UDDS driving cycle.

Figure 45. Engine speed variation with UDDS driving cycle.

Figure 44 shows the accumulator’s SOC variation with the UDDS driving cycle. Figure 45 shows the
engine’s speed (rpm) variation with the UDDS driving cycle. The peaks generated here by the engine
show the need of the engine to provide additional power that cannot be met with the hydraulic drive
motors. It is at this time that the controller designed allows the engine pump’s displacement to its
maximum to increase the SOC of the accumulator. This obviously also depends on the SOC of the
accumulator at that point of time.

Figure 46shows the displacement as a factor of the engine’s pump/motor, primary and secondary drive
pump/motors respectively.

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 Figure 46. Hydraulic machines variation with UDDS driving cycle.
Focus on the displacement characteristics around the 195 second mark allows important performance
analysis. During this period, the engine’s pump reaches the maximum displacement factor. During this
point, the pump harnesses the full engine power. The primary drive motor is used most of the time with
high efficiency and the secondary drive motor kicks in only when it is required. This allows higher
efficiencies when compared to a single larger motor in use. There does however lay a drawback in this
design. Electrically, there would be an unsmooth torque curve followed by a mechanical delay when
switching to the secondary motor. This does also create a vehicle speed error within the simulation.

The fuel consumption of the medium duty truck with the conventional IC engine layout gives 25.135
L/100 km. The series hydraulic hybrid consumes 13.86 L/100 km. The series electric hybrid vehicle
consumes 16.83 L/100 km. The parallel electric hybrid vehicle consumes 14.25 L/100 km.

4.1.2 The highway fuel economy driving cycle

Figure 47. HWFET driving cycle.

The HWFET driving cycle represents driving for light and medium duty vehicles. Due to lack of
complete braking, the engine runs closer to the sweet spot of operation, resulting in lesser fuel
consumption. Because the hydraulic machines operate at high efficiencies at lower speeds, the hydraulic
subsystem is used less frequently in this driving cycle.Figure 48 and Figure 49 show the accumulator’s
SOC and engine speed variation with the HWFET driving cycle respectively.

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 Figure 48. Accumulator SOC variation with HWFET driving cycle.

Figure 49. Engine speed variation with HWFET driving cycle.

The fuel consumption for the convention IC engine layout is 20.1 L/100 km. The series hydraulic hybrid
consumes 16.8 L/100 km. The benefits of this system are limited because of lesser use of the hydraulic
machines. It can be concluded that the series hydraulic hybrid is better suited for in city use.

The series electric hybrid consumed 17.87 L/100 km and the parallel electric hybrid consumed 14.84
L/100 km.

4.1.3 Downsizing potential

In the series hydraulic hybrid vehicle, the accumulator, the secondary power source provides sufficient
power density to ensure that the vehicle’s acceleration performance isn’t compromised. The conventional
engine in the vehicle is the Cummins 6.0 Liter V8 diesel engine. Based on the application, there is a
possibility of exploiting the downsizing potential in the series hydraulic hybrid. An assumption made here
for the downsized engine is that the 4.8 Liter V6 diesel engine scales proportionally to the conventional
vehicle.

Figure 50. Engine operating points Conventional V8 without hybridization versus V6 hydraulic hybrid.

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The size of the engine has a direct relation with the vehicle’s acceleration capability. The acceleration
capability of the vehicle with the series hydraulic hybrid with its downsized V6 engine is compared with
the traditional vehicle without any hybridization. The acceleration benefits from the hydraulic system
however the benefit varies on the initial SOC of the accumulator. Figure 51 shows the comparison of the
series hydraulic hybrid with the components sized in the previous section to the traditional IC engine
layout with the initial SOC of the accumulator set to max (SOC=1). This control of the initial SOC of the
vehicle is completely characterized by the set values of the SOC threshold limits. The difference in the
acceleration times are given in Table 4.

Figure 51. Acceleration timing with downsized engine.

Table 4. Acceleration times with variation in initial SOC.

Conventional Series Hydraulic Hybrid with V6

V8

Initial SOC - 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

TIME (Sec) 23.7 28.9 27.2 25.8 24.1 23.6

Unless the SOC reaches the upper limit threshold (SOC=1) by regenerative braking energy, the drive
pump would recharge the accumulator SOC above 0.8 after complete stop. However, this downsizing
possibility is limited to the specificity of the vehicle design. Downsizing would make sense if the vehicle
was designed with the gross vehicle weight in mind and not the test/curb vehicle weight. This is because
some vehicles would make better use of the excess power, so it would be sensible for those vehicles to
keep the existing conventional engine and hybridize hydraulically. So, the potential of downsizing comes
down to the vehicles application and specific design of that vehicle..

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 Fig.Hydraulic hybridization with conventional IC engine layout.

The test vehicle parameters were chosen here with the vehicle’s application in mind along with its
associated mass and driving characteristics in the city. The hydraulic system needs space to be installed

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[Type text] Page 48
 Conclusions

Through this thesis, investigation of the hydraulic hybridization of vehicles and its incentives were tested
through simulation using MATLAB/SIMULINK ®. Energy consumption and increase of vehicular range
was an emphasis throughout these simulations and a characteristic high efficiency system was modelled
with high fidelity. With the vehicle application in mind, vehicle layouts were established with segregation
of the two simulation tests.

With the first set of simulations, the conventional IC engine was hybridized and compared with a series
hydraulic hybrid layout and further compared with the electric hybrids. The application selected here was
for that of a medium duty vehicle which could have vehicles designed for various applications. The series
hydraulic hybrid showcased better results with reduced fuel consumption and higher acceleration
possibilities. The series hydraulic hybrid performed with higher efficiency when compared to the parallel
electric hybrid but at a limitation of use at lower speeds. With certain applications like in the case of
garbage trucks the adoption of the hydraulic components would make sense as it would out shine the
other layouts with worse conditions, i.e. more frequent stop and go drive style. Through these simulations
the higher efficiencies at lower speeds and higher power density was clear in the case of hydraulic
hybrids.

The second set of simulations tackled a different vehicle application with a different base used, i.e.
electric energy for propulsion. The case of electric forklifts and their advantageous use over the IC engine
forklifts was discussed along with its limitation of higher initial costs with batteries and charging and
downtime. Through the simulations, a basic parallel hybrid architecture was designed and tested with the
versatile drive cycle, VDI 2198 used for testing forklifts. The energy consumption was reduced by using
the parallel hybrid layout by operating the electric motor at higher efficiencies and an increased
regenerative braking energy recuperated by the hydraulic motors characterised by braking at low speeds.
There was also an added benefit in the performance characterised by the high-power density of the
hydraulic systems which has a direct influence on productivity of the forklift.

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 Future work
The proposed vehicle systems have been designed to meet the needs of the application in the near future.
All of the components and layouts have been selected and scaled based on available technologies and
hence the concepts can be visualised easily. The selected designs have been compared to various
alternatives and designed with high fidelity yet more iterations with further testing would be required for
the applications.

Having auxiliary loads (such as air conditioning systems, lighting, etc.) modelled in the simulations
would depict more accurate results of energy consumption.

The heat management model in the simulation is a basic model in the case of the electric vehicle
simulations. A more accurate heat management model would depict more realistic vehicle operation.

A possibility here into further investigations on various kinds of layouts could be tested and the results
hence compared. Having the electric hydraulic hybrid designed in the conventional parallel layout is a
basic way of achieving a new kind of hybrid vehicle but further comparisons with other possible layout
designs (for example with a series layout, series-parallel layout, through the road hybrid, etc.) could be a
more efficient system and could bore better results.

The second set of simulations, with the case of electric hydraulic hybrid forklifts, could be investigated
further in terms of use and application of the hydraulic system. With greater iterations of the designed
system comparisons could be established to check if using the hydraulic systems for lifting purposes
instead of propulsion could bore better results. For this of course, the lifting and lowering of loads and the
energy required for it needs modelling.

Comparisons could also be established on the use of different hydraulic machines with greater efficiencies
and newer technologies that could increase the benefits of use of the hydraulic system. Some of the newer
technologies have been mentioned in Section 1.

Furthermore, the control strategy used along with the layout configurations could be upgraded in terms of
the application in order to reap more benefits.

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