MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

MATHEMATICS
GRADE
10

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Contents:
Unit One
Polynomials 1
Unit Two
Equations 36
Unit Three
Geometry 65
Unit Four
Trigonometry 87
Unit Five
Sets 100
Unit Six
Quadratic Equations 123
Unit Seven
Indices and Surds 146

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Unit 1 Polynomials
Objective
 Define polynomials
 Write polynomials in standard form
 identify the leading coefficients and degrees of polynomials
 arranged polynomials in ascending powers of x and descending powers of
x.
 Add and subtract polynomials
 Multiply polynomials
 Use special products to multiply polynomials
1.1 Basic Definitions
An algebraic expression containing only terms of the form axn, where a is any
real number and n is a nonnegative integer, is called a polynomial in one
variable
or simply a polynomial. Here are some examples of polynomials in one
variable.
3x - 8, x4 + 3x3 - x2 - 8x -1, x3 + 5, 9x5
In the term axn , a is called the coefficient, and n the degree, of the term. Note
that the degree of the term ax is 1, and the degree of a constant term is 0.
Because
a polynomial is an algebraic sum, the coefficients take on the signs between the
terms. For instance,
x3 -4x2 + 3 = (1)x3 + (_ 4)x2 + (0)x + 3
has coefficients 1, -4,0 and 3. Polynomials are usually written in order of
descending powers of the variable. This is referred to as standard form. For
example, the standard form of 3x2 - 5 - x3 + 2x is
- x3+3x2+ 2x- 5 Standard form
The degree of a polynomial is defined as the degree of the term with the
highest power, and the coefficient of this term is called the leading coefficient
of
the polynomial. For instance, the polynomial
_
3x4 + 4x2 + x + 7
is of fourth degree and its leading coefficient is_3.
Definition of Polynomial in x
Let a0, a1, a2, a3, . . . , an be real numbers and let n be a nonnegative integer.
A polynomial in x is an expression of the form
an xn + a n-1x n-1 + . . . + a2x2 + a1x + a0
where an ≠ 0. The polynomial is of degree n, and the number an is called
the leading coefficient. The number a0 is called the constant term.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

The degree of a polynomial with one variable is the highest power to which
the variable is raised. Take a look!

Degree of Polynomials

Polynomials in one variable should be written in order of decreasing powers. If

this is the case, the first term is called the lead coefficient. The exponent of this
first term defines the degree of the polynomial.
5x4+3x3-7x2+3x-1

Leading coefficient Degree

The following are not polynomials, for the reasons stated.

• The expression 3x-1+5
is not a polynomial because the exponent in3x-1 is negative.
• The expression x3 + 3x1\2
is not a polynomial because the exponent in3x1\2is not a nonnegative integer.
Identifying Leading Coefficients and Degrees
Example 1 Write the polynomial in standard form and identify the degree and
leading coefficient of the polynomial.
(a)5x2 - 2x7 + 4 - 2x (b) 16 - 8x3 (c) 5 + x4 - 6x3
Solution
Polynomial Standard Form Degree
Leading Coefficient
(a)5x2 - 2x7 + 4 - 2x - 2x7+5x2- 2x+ 4 7 -2
(b) 16 - 8x3 - 8x3+16 3 -8
(c) 5 + x4 - 6x3 x4 - 6x3+5 4 1

A polynomial with only one term is a monomial. Polynomials with two unlike
terms are binomials, and those with three unlike terms are trinomials.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Here are some examples. Monomial:5x3,Binomial: - 4x +3, Trinomial: 2x2 +3x –

7. The prefix mono means one, the prefix bi means two, and the prefix tri means
three as shown in the table below

Example 2
a. State the degree of the polynomial 5xy2 − 3x2y3, and whether it is a
monomial, binomial, or trinomial.
Solution
Two terms, so it is a binomial. Degree is 5, since term 3x2y3 has sum of
exponents of the variables which is 5 (other term has smaller sum of
exponents).
b. State the degree of the polynomial 7x3y + 5x4y4, and whether it is a
monomial, binomial, or trinomial.
Solution
Two terms, so it is a binomial. Degree is 8, since term 5x4y4 has sum of
exponents of the variables which is 8 (largest sum for all terms).

Example 3 Determine whether each algebraic expression is polynomial

1 1
a.-3 b. 3x+2 -1 c. 3x-2 +4y2 d.  2 e. x49-8x2 +11x-2
x y
solution
a. The number -3is a polynomial of one term. A constant term.
1
b. Since 3x+2 -1 can be written as 3x  ,it is a polynomial of two terms
2
c. The expression 3x-2 +4y2 is not a polynomial because x has a negative
exponent.
1 1
d. if the expression  2 is rewritten x 1  y 2 ,then it fails to be a polynomial
x y
because of negative exponents . So a polynomial does not have a variables in
1 1
denominators, and  2 is not a polynomial
x y
e. The expression x49-8x2 +11x-2 is a polynomial
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 4. state the degree of each polynomial and the coefficient of x2.
Determine
whether the polynomial is monomial binomial or trinomial
x2
a)  5x 3  7 b)x48-x2 c)6
3
solution
1
a) The degree of this trinomial is 3, and the coefficient of x2 is
3
b) The degree of this binomial is 48, and the coefficient of x2 is  1
c) Because of 6= 6x0, the number6 is monomial with degree 0, Because
of x2 does not appear in this polynomial, the coefficient of x2 is 0
Although we are mainly concerned here with polynomial in one
variable, we will also encounter polynomials in more than one
variable, such as
4x2-5xy+y2, x2+y2+z2, ab2 - c3
Evaluating a Polynomial
To evaluatea polynomial, we substitute number(s) in for the variable(s) and then
do
the computations, remembering to follow the order of operations, to arrive at a
single number
Example 5 Find the value x3 + 5x2 _ 6x - 3 of when x = 4.
Solution
When x = 4 the value of x3 + 5x2 _ 6x - 3 is
x3 + 5x2 - 6x - 3 = (4)3 – 5(4)2 – 6(4) – 3 Substitute 4 for x.
= 64 - 80 = 24 =3 Evaluate terms.
=5 Simplify.
2
Example 6 Evaluate 5x – 4x + 6 for x = 3.
1. Substitute value of x into expression 5x2– 4x + 6 = 5(3)2– 4(3) + 6
2. Simplify expression = 5·9 – 4(3) + 6
= 45 – 4(3) + 6
= 45 – 12 + = 33 + 6= 39
Example 7 Evaluate x5– 3x3 – x + 2 when x = -2
First we substitute –2 in for x to get: (-2)5– 3(-2)3– (-2) + 2 = -32 – 3(-8) + 2 + 2
= -32 + 24 + 2 + 2
3 2
Check yourself Now you try one: 3x – 5x – x + 4 when x = -3 Answer: -119
Example 8 Find Q(3) and Q(-1)if Q(x) = 2x3– 3x2–7 x – 6.
Solution
To find Q(3), replace x by 3 in Q(x) = 2x3– 3x2–7 x – 6
= 2. 33– 332–7. 3– 6
= 54– 27–21–6
=0
To find Q(–1), replace x by – 1 in Q(x) = 2x3– 3x2–7 x – 6
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

= 2. (–1)3– 3(–1)2–7. (–1)– 6

= –2– 3+7–6
= –4
S0, Q(3) = 0 and Q(-1) = –4

EXERCISES 1.1
InExercise 1 –12 Identify each polynomial as a monomial, binomial, or
trinomial and state its degree.
1 . –1 2. 5 3. m3 4. 3a8 5. 4x + 7 6. a + 6
10 2 6 3 6 2
7. x –3x + 2 8. y – 6y + 9 9. x + 1 10. b –4
3 2 2
11. a – a + 5 12 . –x + 4x – 9
InExercise 13 –20 Evaluate each polynomial as indicated.
13. Evaluate 2x2 -3x +1 for x = -1.
14. Evaluate 3x2 - x + 2 for x = - 2.
15. Evaluate - 3x3 - x2 + 3x - 4 for x = 3.
16. Evaluate -2x4 - 3x2 + 5x _ 9 for x = 2.
17. If P(x) 3x4 _ 2x3 + 7, find P(_ 2).
18. If P(x) _2x3 + 5x2 _ 12, find P ( 5).
19. If P(x) 1.2x3 _ 4.3x _ 2.4, find P(1.45).
20. If P(x) _ 3.5x4 _ 4.6x3 + 5.5, find P(_2.36).
In Exercise 21 –28 Determine whether each algebraic expression is a
polynomial.
21.3x 22. -7 23. x-1+4 24. 3x -3 +4 x-1 25. x 2 -3x+1
x 3 3x 2 1 9
26.  4 27.  y 3 28. x 50 
3 2 x y2
In Exercise 29 –36 State the degree of each polynomial and the coefficient of
x3.Determine whether each polynomial is monomial, or binomial, or trinomial
x7
29.. x4- 8x3 30..15- x3 31.-8 32.17 33. 34. 5 x4
15
x 3 5x
35.. x3 +3 x4 -5 x6 36..  7
2 2

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

1.2 Operations on Polynomials

1.2.1Adding Polynomials
To add two (or more) polynomials, simply put a plus sign between them and
then simply combine like terms. This can be done in either a horizontal or a
vertical format, as shown in the following Examples .
Adding Polynomials Horizontally
To add polynomials we simply add any like terms together .. so what is a like term?

3x2y & 2x2y Notice that the variable part of the terms are
exactly the same! The coefficients can be
different!
7ab2c & -3ab2c & 9ab2c All three are like terms since the variables terms
are exactly the same!

EXAMPLE 3: Use a horizontal format to add 2x3 + x2 - 5 and x2 + x + 6.

Solution
(2x3 + x2 – 5)+( x2 + x + 6) Write original polynomials.
3 2 2
=2x +( x + x )+ ( x)+(– 5 + 6) Group like terms.
3 2
=2x +2x + x+1 Combine like terms.
EXAMPLE 4: Add: x - 3x - x , - x - 2x + 3x, and 3x2 - 4x – 5
4 3 2 3 2

( x4 - 3x3 + x2)+( - x3 - 2x2 + 3x )+( 3x2 - 4x – 5) Write original polynomials

4 3 3 2 2 2
x +(- 3x - x ) ( x - 2x +3x ) +( 3x - 4x) +( – 5) Group like terms
. x4- 4x3+2 x- x– 5 Combine like terms

Check your- self 3x4 _ 2x3 _ 4x2, x3 _ 2x2 _ 5x, and x2 + 7x _ 2

Adding Polynomials Vertically
Use a vertical format to add (5x3 + 2x2 - x +7) , (3x2 - 4x + 7), and (- x3 + 4x2 –
8).
Solution
5x3 + 2x2 - x + 7
3x2 -4x +7
- x3 + 4x2 – 8.
4x3 + 9x2 - 5x –6

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

1.2.2 Subtracting polynomials

To subtract one polynomial from another, add the opposite. You can do this by
changing the sign of each term of the polynomial that is being subtracted and
then adding the resulting like terms.

Subtracting Polynomials Horizontally

Use a horizontal format to subtract x3 + 2x2 - x - 4from 3x3 + 5x2 - 3.
(3x3 – 5x2 + 3) - (x3 + 2x2 – x – 4) Write original Write original
polynomials
3x3 – 5x2 + 3 – x3 – 2x2 + x + 4 Add the opposite.
3 3 2 2
3x – x +(– 5x – 2x )+ (x)+( 3+ 4) Group like terms.
2x3 – 7x2 + x+ 7 Combine like terms.
Be especially careful to get the correct signs when you are subtracting one
polynomial from another. One of the most common mistakes in algebra is to
forget
to change signs correctly when subtracting one expression from another.
Subtract Polynomials vertically
Use a vertical format to subtract 3x4 – 2x3 + 3x – 4 from 4x4 – 2x3 + 5x2 – x +
8.
(4x4 – 2x3 + 5x2 – x + 8)  (4x4 – 2x3 + 5x2 – x + 8)
– (3x4 – 2x3 + 3x – 4)  – 3x4 + 2x3 – 3x + 4)
4 2
x + 5x – 4 x + 12
Check yourself Add the following:
(a)(x2 + 2x − 1) + (2x3 − 4x2 + x + 7) (b) (5x4 − 3x2 + 2x + 4)+(2x3 − x2 + 6x − 3)
Solutions
(a) Will we add these two horizontally
(x2 + 2x − 1) + (2x3 − 4x2 + x + 7) Write original polynomials
= x2 + 2x − 1 + 2x3 − 4x2 + x + 7 Removing symbols of grouping (brackets)
= 2x3 + x2 + (− 4x2 ) + 2x + x + (−1) + 7 Writing terms in descending order of powers
= 2x3 + [x2 + (− 4x2 )] + [2x + x] + [(−1) + 7] Grouping like terms
= 2x3 − 3x2 + 3x + 6 Combine like terms

(b) We will add these two vertically

5x4 + 0x3 − 3x2 + 2x + 4
2x3 − x2 + 6x – 3
5x4 + 2x3 − 4x2 + 8x + 1

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

EXERCISES:1.2
In Exercise 1− 5 ADD:
1. (x2 + x + 5) + (3x2 − 10x + 4) 2. (−6x2 + 7x + 3) + (3x2 + x + 3)
3. (3y3 + 4y + 9) + (2y2 + 4y − 21) 4. (7x3 + 4x − 1) + (2x2 − 6x + 2)
5. (5a3 − 6a2 + 3a) + (a2 − 2a − 3)
In Exercise 6−10 SUBTRACT:
6. (3x2 + 2x − 2) − (5x2 − 5x + 6) 7. (5y2 − y + 2) − (−2y3 + 3y − 3)
8. (−2x2 − x + 4) − (−x3 + 3x − 2) 9. (x2 − 3xy) − (−2x2 + xy)
10. (5y2 − 2y + 1) − (−3y2 − y − 2)
Answers
In Exercise 11−21 Perform the indicated operations and simplify:
11. (3x3 - 7x2 + 5x - 3) + (8x3 + 2x2 = 6x + 1)
12. (5x4-3x3+2x-7)-(2x4+3x3-4x2+6x+9)
13.(3x2+x-3)¡(2x2-5x+5)-(=7x2=5x+6)
14.(3x2 + 4x – 7) –(2x3 - 5x + 2)-(3x2 - 4x)
15.(9x2y - 3x2 + 2y) - (4x2y - 4x2 - 3y)
16.(6x3y2 - 3x2y3 + 7x2y2)+( 5x2y3 - 8x2y2 + 12x3y2)
17.(6x2 - x +1) + (–x2 + x – 2)
18.(x2 – 5x – 3) – (4x2 + 8x – 9)
19. (4y3 – 3y + 2) – (5y2 – 7y – 6)
20.(x2 – 6x + 5) – (– 3x2 + 5x – 9)
21.(– 5a3 + 3a – 7) + (4a2 – 3a + 7)
In Exercise 22−31 Add the polynomials.
22. (4x2 + 4x + 1) + (4x + 20) 23. (–7x2 + 9x – 15) + (8x – 8)
24. (5x3 – 6x + 10) + (x3 + 10x – 9) 25. (3x2 + 3x – 9) + (5x2 + 7x3 –
4)
26. (8x2 + 4x + 1) + (5x2 + 4x + 16) 27. (–x2 + 5x + 9) + (–x2 + 6x + 9)
28. (–12x3 – 8x2 – 7) + (6x3 + 9x2 – x) 29. (2x3 – 7x2 + 16) + (6x3 + 5x2 –
1)
30. (9x2 – 7x + 55) + (3x + 8) 31. (7x3 + 4x + 1) + (4x2 + 20x5)
In Exercise 32−45 Subtract the polynomials.
32. (6x2 + 4x + 1) – (4x + 20) 33. (–7x9 + 12x6 – 12) – (5x9 + 4x6 –
9)
34. (8x3 – 6x + 10) – (x3 + 10x – 9) 35. (4x8 + 3x – 34) – (5x8 + 70x –
42)
36. (–9x2 + 44x + 2) – (7x2 + 10x + 99) 37. (–8x2 + 15x + 28) – (–x2 + 44x +
9)
38. (–16x3 – 12x2) – (6x3 – 11x2 – x) 39. (4x6 – 9x7 + 16) – (5x6 + 25x7 –
10)
40. (9x2 – 7x + 65) – (11x + 8x2) 41. (9x5 + 4x + 1) – (9x3 + 2x5)
42.(5p2 − 3) + (2p2 − 3p3) 43.(a3 − 2a2) − (3a2 − 4a3)
44.(4 + 2n3) + (5n3 + 2) 45. (4n − 3n3) − (3n3 + 4n)

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

ANWERS
1. 4x2 − 9x + 9
2. −3x2 + 8x + 6
3. 3y3 + 2y2 + 8y – 12
4. 7x3 + 2x2 − 2x + 1
5. 5a3 − 5a2 + a – 3
6. −2x- + 7x − 8
7. 2y3 + 5y2 − 4y + 5
8. x3 − 2x2 − 4x + 6
9. 3x2 − 4xy
10. 8y2 − y + 3
11.11x3 = 5x2 = x = 2
12. 3x4 - 6x3 + 4x2 - 4x – 16
13. 8x2 + 11x – 14
14. -2x3 + 13x – 9
15. 5x2y + x2 + 5y
16. 18x3y2 + 2x2y3 - x2y2
17.5x2 –1
18. –3x2 –13x + 6
19. 4y3 – 5y2 – 4y + 8
20. –2x2 – x – 4
21. –5a3 + 4a2
22. 4x2 + 8x +21
23. –7x2 + 17x – 23
24. 6x3 + 4x + 1
25. 7x3 + 8x2 + 3x – 13
26. 13x2 + 8x + 17
27. –2x2 + 11x + 18
28. –6x3 + x2 – x – 7
29. 8x3 – 2x2 + 15
30. 9x2 – 4x + 63
31. 20x5 + 7x3 + 4x2 + 4x + 1
32. 6x2 – 19
33. –2x9 + 8x6 – 3
34. 7x3 – 16x + 19
35. –x8 – 67x + 8
36. –16x2 + 34x – 97
37. –7x2 – 29x + 19
38. –10x3 – x2 + x
39. –x6 – 34x7 + 26
40. x2 – 18x + 65
41. 7x5 – 9x3 + 4x + 1
42. −3p3 + 7p2 – 3
43. 5a3 − 5a2

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

44. 7n3 + 6
45. −6n3

1.3 Multiplying Polynomials

The simplest type of polynomial multiplication involves a monomial multiplier.
The product is obtained by direct application of the Distributive Property. For
instance, to multiply the monomial 3x by the polynomial (2x2 –5x + 3) ,
multiply
each term of the polynomial by 3x
3x(2x2 –5x + 3) = (3x)(2x2) – (3x)(5x) +(3x)(3)
= 6x3 – 15x2 + 9x
Products with Monomial Multipliers
Example 7 Multiply the polynomial by the monomial.
(a) (2x –7)( –3x) (b) 4x2(–2x3 + 3x + 1)
Solution
(a) (2x –7)( –3x) = (2x)(-3x ) – (7)(-3x) Distributive Property
2
=– 6x + 21x Properties of exponents
3 2 3 2 2
(b) 4x (–2x + 3x + 1)= 4x (–2x )+(4x (3x) + (4x )(1) Distributive Property
2

= –8x5 + 12x3 + 4x2 Properties of exponents

To multiply two binomials, you can use both (left and right) forms of the
Distributive Property. For example, if you treat the binomial(2x + 7) as a single
quantity, you can multiply(3x – 2) by(2x + 7) as follows

(3x – 2) (2x + 7) = 3x(2x - 7) – 2(2x –7)

= 3x(2x)- 3x(7) – 2(2x)+ 2(7)
= 6x2 + 21x – 4x – 14

Product of Product of Product of Product of

First terms Outer terms Inner terms Last terms

= 6x2 + 17x – 14
The four products in the boxes above suggest that you can
put the product of two
binomials in the FOIL form in just one step. This is called the
FOIL Method.
Note that the words first, outer, inner, and last refer to the
positions of the terms
in the original product (see diagram above).

Multiplying Binomials (Distributive Property)

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 8 Use the Distributive Property to multiply x + 2 by x –3.

Solution
x + 2)( x –3) = x(x - 3) + 2(x _ 3) Distributive Property
= x2 – 3x + 2x– 6 Distributive Property
= x2 – x – 6 Combine like terms.
Multiplying Binomials (FOIL Method)
Example 9 Use the FOIL method to multiply the binomials..
(a)(x – 3)(x – 9) (b) (3x + 4)(2x + 1)

FO  I  L = x2 – 12x + 27
(a)(x – 3)(x – 9)= x 2
- 9x - 3x  27
 F O I  L = 6 x2 + 11x + 4
(b) (3x + 4)(2x + 1) = 6 x 2  3x  8x  4
To multiply two polynomials that have three or more terms, you can use the
same basic principle that you use when multiplying monomials and binomials.
That is, each term of one polynomial must be multiplied by each term of the
other
polynomial. This can be done using either a horizontal or a vertical format.
Multiplying Polynomials (Horizontal Format)
Example 10 (4x2 _ 3x_ 1)(2x _ 5)
(4x2 _ 3x_ 1)(2x _ 5) = 4x2(2x _ 5) _ 3x(2x _ 5) _ 1(2x _ 5) Distributive
Property
= 8x3 _ 20x2 _ 6x2 - 15x _ 2x _ 5 Distributive
Property
= 8x3 _ 26x2 - 17x _ 5 Combine like
terms.
When multiplying two polynomials, it is best to write each in standard form
before using either the horizontal or vertical format. This is illustrated in the
next
example.
Multiplying Polynomials (Vertical Format)
Write the polynomials in standard form and use a vertical format to multiply.
Example 11 (4x2 + x _ 2)(5 + 3x _ x2)
Solution
With a vertical format, line up like terms in the same vertical columns, much as
you align digits in whole-number multiplication.

4x2 + x _ 2 Write in standard form.

 _ 2
x + 3x +5 Write in standard form.
_
4x4 _
x3 + 2 x2 _ 2
x (4x2 + x _ 2)
12x3 + 3 x2 – 6x 3x (4x2 + x _ 2)
+20 x2 +5 x– 10 5(4x2 + x _ 2)

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

_
4x4 +11x3 + 25 x2– x – 10
Polynomials are often written with exponents. As shown in the next example,
the properties of algebra are used to simplify these expressions.

Expand (x – 4)3.

Solution
(x – 4)3=(x – 4) (x – 4) (x – 4) Write each factor.
=[(x – 4) (x – 4)](x – 4) Associative Property of Multiplication
=[(x2 – 4 x – 4x+16] (x – 4) Multiply(x – 4) (x – 4).
=[(x2 – 8 x +16] (x – 4) Combine like terms.
= x2 (x – 4) – 8 x(x – 4)+16(x – 4) Distributive Property
= x3– 4 x2– 8 x2+ 32 x+ 16 x–64 Distributive Property
= x3– 12 x2+ 48 x–64 Combine like terms.

An Area Model for Multiplying Polynomials

Example 13 Show that
(x + 2)(2x + 1) = 2x2 + 5x + 2.
Solution
An appropriate area model to demonstrate the multiplication of two binomials
would be A = lw, the area formula for a rectangle. Think of a rectangle whose
sides are x and 1, and two squares whose sides are 1. The total area of these
nine
rectangles is
2x2 + 5x + 2. Area = (width)(length)
Another way to find the area is to add
the areas of the rectangular parts, as
shown
in Figure 1. There are two squares
whose sides are x, five rectangles whose
sides are x and 1, and two squares
whose sides are 1. The total area of
these nine
rectangles is
2
2x + 5x + 2 Area =sum of rectangular areas
Because each method must produce the same area, you can conclude that

(x + 2)(2x + 1) = 2x2 + 5x + 2.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Special Products
Some binomial products have special forms that occur frequently in algebra.
For instance, the product(x + 3) (x – 3) is called the product of the sum and
difference of two terms. With such products, the two middle terms subtract
out,
as follows.
(x + 3) (x – 3)= x2 – 3x + 3x – 9 Sum and difference of two terms
= x2 – 9 Product has no middle term.
Another common type of product is the square of a binomial .With this type
of product, the middle term is always twice the product of the terms in the
binomial.
2
(2x + 5) = (2x + 5)(2x + 5) Square of a binomial
2
= 4x + 10x +10x + 25 Outer and inner terms are
equal.
= 4x2 + 20x + 25 Middle term is twice the product of the
terms
in the binomial

Special Products
Let a and b be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions. Then the
following formulas are true.
Sum and Difference of Same Terms Example
2 2
(a + b) (a - b)= a - b (3x – 4)(3x + 4)=(3x)2 - 42
9x2 - 16
Square of a Binomial Example
2 2 2
(a + b ) = a + 2ab+ b (4x + 9)2 = (4x)2 + 2(4x)(9) + 92
= 16x2 + 72x + 81
(a - b ) 2 = a2 - 2ab+ b2 (x + 6)2 = x2 + 2(x)(6) + 62
= x2 + 12x + 36

The square of a binomial can also be

demonstrated geometrically. Consider
a square, each of whose sides are of
length a + b. (See Figure 2). The total
area includes one square of area a2, two
rectangles of area ab each, and one
square of area b2. So, the total area is a2
+ 2ab+ b2

Example 14 Multiply the polynomials.

(a) (3x – 2)(3x + 2)
(b) (2x – 7)2
(c) [(a – 2) + b]2
13
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Solution
(a) (3x – 2)(3x + 2)= (3x)2 – 22 Sum and difference of same terms
= 9x2 – 4 Simplify.
2 2 2
(b) (2x – 7) =(2x) – 2(2x)(7)+ 7 Square of a binomial
2
= 4x – 28x + 49 Simplify.
2 2 2
(c) [(a – 2) + b] =(a – 2) +2(a – 2) b+ b Square of a binomial
2 2
=a – 4a + 4 + 2ab - 4b +b Simplify.

Applications
There are many applications that require the evaluation of polynomials.
Example 7
A box is created from a sheet of cardboard 20 in. on a side by cutting a square
from each corner and folding up the sides (Figures 5-3 and 5-4). Let x represent
the length of the sides of the squares removed from each corner.
a. Find an expression for the volume of the box in terms of x.
b. Find the volume if a 4-in. square is removed.

Solution:
a. The volume of a rectangular box is given by the formula V = lwh . The length
and width can both be expressed as 20 - 2x . The height of the box is x.
Hence the volume is given by
V=l w h
= (20 - 2x) (20 - 2x)x
=(20 - 2x)2 x
=(400 -80x +4x2)x
=400 x -80 x2+4x3
=400 x -80 x2+4x3
14
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

= 4x3-80 x2+400 x
b. If a 4-in. square is removed from the corners of the box, we have in.The
volume is
V = 4(4)3 - 80(4)2 + 400(4)
=4(64) - 80(16) + 400(4) = 256 - 1280 + 1600= 576
The volume is 576 in.3
Check yourself (Skill Practice)
A rectangular photograph is mounted on a square piece of cardboard
whose sides have length x. The border that surrounds the photo is 3 in. on
each side and 4 in. on both top and bottom.
a. Write an expression for the area of the photograph and multiply.
b. Determine the area of the photograph if x is 12.

Skill Practice Answers

15a. A = (x - 8) (x -6);
A = (x2 - 14x + 48
b. 24 in.2

1.4. Factoring Polynomials

Sections 1.3 we learned multiplication of polynomials , in This section we will
switch from the process of multiplying polynomials to the reverse Process
known as factoring polynomials. To factor a polynomial means to
express the polynomial as a product of two or more
polynomials.

In the product 5 . 7 = 35, for example, 5 and 7 are factors of 35.

In the product (2x + 1) (x – 6) = 2x2 - 11x = 6, the quantities (2x + 1) and (x – 6)
are factors of 2x2 - 11x = 6
2.1 Factoring Out the Greatest Common Factor
The greatest common factor (GCF) of a polynomial is the greatest factor that
divides each term of the polynomial evenly. For example, the greatest common
factor of 9x4 + 18x3 - 6x2 is 3x2. To factor out the greatest common factor from a
polynomial, follow these steps:
15
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Steps to Remove the Greatest Common Factor

1. Identify the greatest common factor of all terms of the polynomial.
2. Write each term as the product of the GCF and another factor.
3. Use the distributive property to factor out the greatest common factor.
Note: To check the factorization, multiply the polynomials.
Example 1 Factor out the greatest common factor.

a. 12x3 + 30x2 b. 12c2d3 - 30c3d2 - 3cd

Solution:

a. 12x3 + 30x2 The GCF is 6x2.

=6x2(2x) + 6x2(5) Write each term as the product of the GCF
andanother factor.
=6x2(2x + 5) Factor out 6x2 by using the distributive property.
A factoring problem can be checked by multiplying the factors:
Check: 6x2(2x + 5)= 12x3 + 30x2

b. 12c2d3 - 30c3d2 - 3cd The GCF is 3cd.

2 _ 2 _
= 3cd (4cd ) 3cd (10c d) 3cd (1) Write each term as the product of the GCF
and another factor.
2 _
= 3cd(4cd 10c2d _ 1) Factor out 3cd by using the distributive
property.

Check: 3cd(4cd2 _ 10c2d _ 1) = 12c2d3 _ 30c3d2 _ 3cd ✔

EXAMPLE 2 Factor out the greatest common factor.

a) 24x3 _ 32x2 b) 2x3y _ 8x2y2 _ 6xy3
Solution
a) For the terms 24x3 and 32x2, 8 is the greatest integer factor of 24 and 32 and
x2 is the highest-powered variable factor common to x3 and x2 So, the greatest
common monomial factor of 24x3 and 32x2 is8 x2 You can factor the given
polynomial as follows.
24x3 _ 32x2 = (8x2)3x _ 8x2(4) = 8x2(3x _ 4)
b) For the terms 2x3y , 8x2y2 and 6xy3 , 2 is the greatest integer factor of 2, 8 and
6 and xy is the highest-powered variable factor common x3y , x2y2 and xy3 So,
the greatest common monomial factor of 2x3y , 8x2y2 and 6xy3 is 2xy You can
factor the givenpolynomial as follows.
2x3y _ 8x2y2 _ 6xy3 = (2xy)x2 _ (2xy)4xy _ (2xy)3y2 = 2xy(x2 _ 4xy _ 3y2)
Factoring Out a Negative Factor
Sometimes it is advantageous to factor out the opposite of the GCF, particularly
when the leading coefficient of the polynomial is negative.This is demonstrated

16
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

in Example 3. Notice that this changes the signs of the remaining terms inside
the parentheses.
Example 3 Factor out the quantity _5a2b from the polynomial
_
5a4b _ 10a3b2 _ 15a2b3.
Solution:
_
5a4b _ 10a3b2 + 15a2b3 The GCF is 5a2b.
However, in this case
we will factor out
the opposite of the GCF, _5a2b
_
5a2b(a2) + _5a2b(2ab) + _5a2b(_3b2) Write each term as the product of and
another factor.
_
5a2b(a2 + 2ab _ 3b2) Factor out by using the distributive
property.

Example 4 Factor the polynomial _3x2 + 12x _ 18 in two ways.

(a) Factor out a 3. (b) Factor out a _3

Solution
(a) By factoring out the common monomial factor of 3, you obtain
_
3x2 + 12x _ 18 = 3(_x2) + 3(4x) + 3(_6) Factor each term.
_ 2 _
= 3( x + 4x 6) Factored form
(b) By factoring out the common monomial factor of you obtain
_
3x2 + 12x _ 18 = _3(x2) +_3(_ 4x)+ -3(_6) Factor each term.
_
-3(x2 4x + 6) Factored form

17
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

3. Factoring Out a Binomial Factor

The distributive property may also be used to factor out a common factor that
consists of more than one term. This is shown in Example 4.

Example 5 Factor out the greatest common factor.

x3(x + 2) _ x(x + 2) _ 9(x + 2)
Solution:
x3(x + 2) _ x(x + 2) _ 9(x + 2) The GCF is the quantity(x + 2)
(x + 2)( x3) _ (x + 2) ( x) _ (x + 2)( 9) Write each term as the product
of(x + 2) and another factor.
(x + 2) ( x3 _ x _ 9) Factor out by using the
distributive property.

Example 4 Factor the polynomial 5x2(6x _ 5) _ 2(6x _ 5).

Solution
Each of the terms of this polynomial has a binomial factor of Factoring
this binomial out of each term produces
5x2(6x _ 5) _ 2(6x _ 5)= (6x _ 5) (5x2 _ 2)

2.2. Factoring by Grouping

When two binomials are multiplied, the product before simplifying contains
four
terms. For example:

(3a + 2) (2b _ 7) = (3a + 2) (2b) _ (3a + 2) (_7)

=(3a) (2b) + 2(2b) +(3a) (_7) + ( 2) (_7)
= 6ab + 4b - 21a _ 14
In Example 5, we learn how to reverse this process. That is, given a four-term
polynomial, we will factor it as a product of two binomials. The process is
called
factoring by grouping.
Steps to Factor by Grouping
To factor a four-term polynomial by grouping:
1. Identify and factor out the GCF from all four terms.
2. Factor out the GCF from the first pair of terms. Factor out the GCF from the
second pair of terms. (Sometimes it is necessary to factor out the opposite of
the
GCF.)
3. If the two terms share a common binomial factor, factor out the binomial
factor.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 5 Factor by grouping. 6ab - 21a + 4b – 14

Solution:
6ab - 21a + 4b – 14 Step 1: Identify and factor out the GCF from all four
terms. In this case the GCF is 1.
6ab - 21a + 4b – 14 Group the first pair of terms and the second pair of
terms.

3a(2b _ 7) +2(2b _ 7) Step 2: Factor out the GCF from each pair of terms.
Note: The two terms now share
a common binomial factor of (2b _ 7).

(2b _ 7) (3a _ 2) Step 3: Factor out the common binomial factor.

Check: (2b _ 7) (3a _ 2) = 2b(3a) +2b(2) _ 7(3a) _ 7(2)

= 6ab +4b _ 21a _ 14✔
Example 5 Factor by grouping. x3 + 3x2 - 3x – 9

x3 + 3x2 - 3x – 9 Step 1: Identify and factor out the GCF from all four
terms. In this case the GCF is 1.
x3 + 3x2 - 3x – 9 Group the first pair of terms and the second pair of terms.

= x2(x + 3) – 3(x + 3) Step 2: Factor out x2 from the first pair of terms.
Factor out - 3 from the second pair of terms (this
causes the signs to change in the second
parentheses).
The terms now contain a common binomial factor.
2
=(x + 3) ( x – 3) Step 3: Factor out the common binomial (x + 3).

Example 7 Factor by grouping. 24p2q2 - 18p2q + 60pq2 - 45pq

Solution:
24p2q2 - 18p2q + 60pq2 - 45pq
3pq(8pq - 6p + 20q - 15) Step 1: Remove the GCF 3pq from all four
terms.
3pq(8pq - 6p + 20q - 15) Group the first pair of terms and the
second
pair of terms.
3pq[2p(4q – 3) + 5(4q - 3)] Step 2: Factor out the GCF from each pair of
terms.
The terms share the binomial factor (4q -
3).

3pq(4q – 3) (2p+ 5) Step 3: Factor out the common binomial l(4q -

3).

Notice that in step 3 of factoring by grouping, a common binomial is factored

from the two terms. These binomials must be exactly the same in each term. If
the two binomial factors differ, try rearranging the original four terms.
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 7 Factor the polynomial. 4x + 6pa - 8a - 3px

Solution:
4x + 6pa - 8a - 3px Step 1: Identify and factor out the
GCF from all four terms.
In this case the GCF is 1.
4x + 6pa - 8a - 3px
= 2(2x + 3pa) – 1(8a + 3px) Step 2: The binomial factors in each term
are different.
=4x - 8a - 3px + 6pa Try rearranging the original four terms
in such a
way that the first pair of coefficients is in the
same
ratio as the second pair of coefficients. Notice
that
the ratio 4 to 8 is the same as the ratio 3 to
6.
= 4(x - 2a) - 3p(x - 2a) Step 2: Factor
out 4 from the first pair of terms.
Factor out _3p from the second pair of
terms.

= (x - 2a) (4- 3p) Step 3: Factor out the common binomial

factor.
2.3. Factoring Trinomials
In Section 2.1 and 2.2 , we learned how to factor out the greatest common factor
from a polynomial and how to factor a four-term polynomial by grouping. In
this section we present two methods to factor trinomials. The first method is
called the
ac-method. The second method is called the trial-and-error method.
The product of two binomials results in a four-term expression that can
sometimes
be simplified to a trinomial. To factor the trinomial, we want to reverse the
process.
Multiply: (2x + 3) (x + 2) = Multiply the binomials 2x2 +4x + 3x + 6

= Add the middle terms. 2x2 + 7x +

6
Factor: 2x2 + 7x + 6= Rewrite the middle term as 2x2 +4x + 3x + 6
a sum or difference of terms.

= Factor by grouping. (2x + 3) (x

+ 2)

To factor a trinomial ax2 + bx + c by the ac-method, we rewrite the middle

term bx as a sum or difference of terms. The goal is to produce a four-term
polynomial that can be factored by grouping. The process is outlined as follows.

20
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

The AC-Method to Factor ax2 + bx + c (a ≠ 0)

1. Multiply the coefficients of the first and last terms, ac.
2. Find two integers whose product is ac and whose sum is b. (If no pair of
integers can be found, then the trinomial cannot be factored further and
is called a prime polynomial.)
3. Rewrite the middle term bx as the sum of two terms whose coefficients
are the integers found in step 2.
4. Factor by grouping.
The ac-method for factoring trinomials is illustrated in Example 1. Before we
begin, however, keep these two important guidelines in mind.
• For any factoring problem you encounter, always factor out the GCF from all
terms first.
• To factor a trinomial, write the trinomial in the form ax2 + bx + c
Example 1 Factor. 12x2 - 5x – 2
Solution:
12x2 - 5x – 2 The GCF is 1.
a = 12 b = -5 c = -2 Step 1: The expression is written in the form
ax2 + bx + c. Find the productac = (12)(- 2) =
-24
Factors of –24 Factors of –24 Step 2:List all the factors of _24, and
(1) (-24) (-1) (24) find the pair whose sum equals -5.
(2) (-12) (-2) (12) The numbers 3 and -8 produce a product of -24
(3) (-8) (-3) (8) a sum of - 5.
(4) (-6) (-4) (6)

12x2 - 5x – 2 Step 3: Write the middle term of the

trinomial as two terms whose
coefficients are the selected numbers 3 and -8.
12x2+ 3x - 8x– 2

12x2+ 3x - 8x– 2 Step 4: Factor by grouping.

3x(4x + 1) - 2(4x + 1)
(4x + 1) (3x - 2) The check is left for the reader.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Factoring the Sum or Difference of Two Cubes

The last type of special factoring discussed in this section is factoring of the
sum or difference of two cubes. The patterns for these two special forms are
summarized below. In these patterns, pay particular attention to the signs of the
terms.

Sum or Difference of Two Cubes

Let a and b be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions. Then the
expressions a3 + b3 and a3 - b3 can be factored as follows.
Like Signs Like Signs

.
a3 + b3= ( a + b) ( a2 - ab + b2 ) a3 - b3= ( a - b) ( a2 + ab + b2 )

Unlike Signs Unlike Signs

Example 9 . Factoring Sums and Differences of Cubes

Factor each polynomial

22
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Exercises
VOCABULARY CHECK: Fill in the blanks.
1. The ________ of a group of expressions is the product of the common prime
factors.
2. In the expression 5x2 +10x, 5x is the ________.
3. The process of writing a polynomial as a product is called ________.
4. A polynomial of the form a3 - b3 is called a ________ of ________.
5. A polynomial of the form a3 + b3 is called a ________ of ________.
6. A polynomial is considered ________ if each of its factors cannot be factored
further using integer coefficients.

In Exercises 1–12, find the greatest common factor of the expressions.

In Exercises 13–34, factor out the greatest common monomial factor. Some of
the polynomals have no common monomial factor other than 1 or _1.)

23
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

In Exercises 35–42, factor a negative real number from the

polynomial and then write the polynomial factor in standard
form.

In Exercises 43–46, fill in the missing factor.

24
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Polynomials 2
Objectives
 Use long division to divide polynomials.
 Use synthetic division to divide polynomials.
 Evaluate a polynomial using the Remainder Theorem.
 Use the Factor Theorem to solve a polynomial equation.
Long Division of Polynomials and the Division Algorithm
The procedure for Dividing two polynomials is similar to the procedure for dividing two
numbers using long division.
Example 1 Divide 842 by 15
Solution

2
Therefore 56 Check; 15  56  2  842
5

Division Statement
In any division, divisor  quotient+ remainder = dividend
25
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Keep the division statement in mind when dividing polynomials.

We begin by looking at division by a polynomial containing more than one term, such as
x  3 x +10 x+21 . 2

Divisor has two terms The polynomial dividend has

and is a binomial. three terms and is a trinomial..
When a divisor has more than one term, the four steps used to divide whole
numbers—divide, multiply, subtract, bring down the next term—form the repetitive
procedure for polynomial long division.

EXAMPLE 2
Divide x2 + 10 x + 21 by x + 3.

Solution The following steps illustrate how polynomial division is very similar to numerical
division.
Arrange the terms of the dividend (x2 + 10x + 21) and
the divisor (x + 3) in descending powers of x.
x  3 x 2 + 10 x + 21

x
x  3 x 2 + 10 x + 21
Divide x2 (the first term in the dividend) by x(the first
term in the divisor): x2 |x = x. Align like terms.

x(x + 3) = x2 + 3x
x
x  3 x 2 + 10 x + 21
x2 + 3 x
Multiply each term in the divisor (x + 3) by x
aligning terms of the product under like terms in
the dividend.
x

.
x  3 x 2 + 10 x + 21
 
x2 + 3 x
7x
x

Subtract from x 2 + 3 x By x 2 + 10 x changing

x  3 x 2 + 10 x + 21

Change signs of the

x  3x
2

7 x  21

Bring down 21 from the original dividend

polynomial being and
the add
sign of each term in the lower expression and
subtracted algebraically to form a new dividend. adding.

x7
x  3 x 2 + 10 x + 21
x2  3 x
7 x  21

Find the second term of the quotient. Divide the first termof 7x + 21
by x, the first term of the divisor: 7x\x =7.

x7
x  3 x 2 + 10 x + 21
x2  3 x
7 x  21
7 x  21

26
0

remainder
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

7(x + 3) = 7x + 21
Multiply the divisor x+3 by 7, aligning under like terms in
the new dividend. Then subtractto obtain the remainder of 0.

The quotient x + 7. is Because the remainder is 0, we can conclude that is x + 3 a

factor of x2 + 10x + 21 and
x 2 + 10 x + 21
 x7
x3

Before considering additional examples, let’s summarize the steps for dividing one
polynomial by another.

STEPS FOR LONG DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS

1. Arrange the terms of both the dividend and the divisor in descending powers of any
variable.
2. Divide the first term in the dividend by the first term in the divisor. The result is the first
term of the quotient.
3. Multiply every term in the divisor by the first term in the quotient. Write the resulting
product beneath the dividend with like terms lined up.
4. Subtract the product from the dividend.
5. Bring down the next term in the original dividend and write it next to the remainder to
form
a new dividend.
6. Use this new expression as the dividend and repeat this process until the remainder can no
longer be divided. This will occur when the degree of the
remainder (the highest exponent on a variable in the remainder) is less than
the degree of the divisor.

EXAMPLE 3 Divide x2 + 3x- 28 by x + 5.

Solution

x2
Think x
x

 2x
Think  2 .
x
x2
x  5 x 2 + 3x- 28
x 2 + 5x
 2 x  28
 2 x  10
 18

Check: (x + 5)(x - 2) - 18 = x2 + 3x - 10 - 18
= x2 + 3x – 28
Subtract (x)(x 5) and bring down 28.
In this example, the divisor does not divide evenly into the dividend, and the remainder is -18.
A polynomial divides evenly when the remainder is 0.
The process of division ends when the Subtract
remainder(-2)(x
is 0, or+ if5).the degree of the remainder is lower than
the degree of the divisor.
27
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

EXAMPLE 4 Divide x3 - 7x - 6 by x + 1.
Solution
Rewrite the question as a long division. Ensure that the powers are in descending order in
both the divisor and the dividend. Include any missing powers by using a coefficient of 0. In
this example, there is no x2-term in the dividend, so add 0x2 to the dividend.
x2  x 6
x  1 x 3  0x 2 - 7x - 6
x3  x 2
 x2  7x
 x2  x
 6x  6
 6x  6
0

Check: (x +1)(x2 - x - 6) + 0 = x3 - x2 -6x + x2 - x - 6

= x3 - 7x (x2)(x
Subtract – 6 + 1) and bring down -7x.

The last subtraction results in 0. When the remainder is 0, the divisor divides evenly into the
dividend. Both the divisor and quotient
Subtract are1)
(x)(x factors of thedown
and bring dividend.
6. In this case,
x + 1 and x2 - x - 6 are factors of x3 -7x- 6.
Therefore, x3 -7x - 6 = (x + 1)(x2 - x - 6).
Subtract (6)(x 1).
Synthetic division
Synthetic division is a short form technique used to divide polynomials. This method
provides a quotient more quickly than long division. Synthetic division is an efficient
way to divide a polynomial by a binomial of the form x - c, where c is the value that
makes the binomial in the divisor equal to 0.
Steps for synthetic division
to divide polynomial P(x) by x - c:
1. Arrange the polynomial in descending powers, with a 0
coefficient for any missing term.
2. Write for the divisor x - c., To the right, write the coefficients of
the dividend.
3. Write the leading coefficient of the dividend on the bottom row.
4. Multiply (in this case, 3) times the value just written on the
bottom row. Write the product in the next column in the second
row.
5. Add the values in this new column, writing the sum in the
bottom row.
6. Repeat this series of multiplications and additions until all
columns are filled in.
7. Use the numbers in the last row to write the quotient, plus the
remainder above the divisor. The degree of the first term of
the quotient is one less than the degree of the first
term of the dividend. The final value in this row is the
remainder.

EXAMPLE 5 Use synthetic division to divide (3x4 − 8x3 + 4x + 5) ÷ (x − 2) .

List the coefficients of the dividend, 3, -8, 4, and 5. Bring down the first coefficient of the
quotient, which is 3. Multiply by the c-value, which is 2. Add the product to the next
coefficient of the dividend: -8 +6 = -2. This result, -2, is the next coefficient of the quotient.
Repeat these steps until there are no more coefficients in the dividend.

Coefficients of the dividend

28
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

                   
3 -8 0 4 5
2
6 -4 -8 -8
33 2 - 2 - 2 2 - 4 - 4 2 - 4 - 4 2 -3

we get that the quotient is q(x) = 3x3 − 2x2 − 4x − 4 , and the remainder is r = −3.
Note in the array, which I call “the synthetic array of numbers” below
EXAMPLE 5 Use synthetic division to divide x4 – 10x2 – 2x + 4 by x + 3.
Solution

You should set up the array as follows. Note that a zero is included for the missing x3-
term in the dividend.

Then, use the synthetic division pattern by

adding terms in columns and multiplying the
results by –3.

Divisor x+3 Dividend x4 – 10x2 – 2x + 4 by x + 3

                    
1 0 - 10 -2 4
3 -3 9 3 -3
1   - 3     - 1
      1      1 Remainder :1
Quotient x 3 3 x2  x1
So, you have
x 4 - 10 x 2 - 2 x + 4 by x + 3 1
 x 3  3x 2  x  1 
x3 x3

THE DIVISION ALGORITHM

If f(x)and d(x) are polynomials, with d ( x)  0 and the degree of d(x) is less than or equal to
the degree of f(x) then there exist unique polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that
f(x) = d(x) . q(x) + r(x)

dividend divisorr Quotientr Remainderr

The remainder r(x) , equals 0 or it is of degree less than the degree of d(x), If r(x) = 0 we say
that d(x) divides evenly into f(x) and that d(x) and q(x) are factors of f(x).

Example Divide f (x) = x3 + 4x2 + x − 6 by x − 1.

1 4 1 -6
1 5 6
1
1    5      6       0 Remainder : 0
Quotient x 2 5 x 6
29
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

So f (x) = (x − 1)(x2 + 5x + 6), with no remainder

Therefore, x − 1 is a factor of f (x).

The Remainder Theorem

Let’s consider the Division Algorithm when the dividend, f(x), is divided by x - c.
In this case, the remainder must be a constant because its degree is less than one, the
degree of x – c.
f(x) = (x -c) q(x) + r

dividend divisor Remainder

Quotient
Now let’s evaluate f at c
F(c) = (c – c) q(c) + r Find f(c) x= c by letting in f(x) = (x – c)q(x) + r. This will give an
expression for r and
f(c) = 0 . q(c) + r c-c=0
f(c) = r 0 . q(c) = 0 and 0 + r = r.

What does this last equation mean? If a polynomial is divided by x - c, the remainder
is the value of the polynomial at c. This result is called the Remainder Theorem.

The Remainder Theorem

If the polynomial f(x) is divided by x - c, then the remainder is f(c).

Find the Remainder if f(x) = x3 - 4x2 + 5x + 3 is divided by x - 2,

By the Remainder Theorem, if f(x) is divided by x - 2,t hen the

remainder is f(2).
f(2) = 23 - 4 22 + 5 2 + 3 = 8 - 16 + 10 + 3 = 5.
Also let us use synthetic division to divide.
1 -4 5 3
2 2 -4 2
1 -2 1 5
Remainder

Example 4
Find the remainder when f(x) = x4 – 3x3 + x² – 4 is divided by
i. x – 2
ii. x + 1
Solution
i. By the remainder theorem the remainder is f(2)
f(2) = 24 – 3x2³ + 2² - 4 = 16 – 24 + 4 – 4 = -8
Remainder = -8
ii. By the remainder theorem the remainder is f(-1)
f(-1) = (-1)4 – 3(-1)³ + (-1)² – 4 = 1 + 3 + 1 – 4 = 1
Remainder = 1
The Factor Theorem
Let’s look again at the Division Algorithm when the divisor is of the form x -
c.
30
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

f(x) = (x -c) q(x) + r

dividend divisor Remainder

Quotient
By the Remainder Theorem, the remainder is so we can substitute for
f(x) = (x - c)q(x)
f(c) = 0,
f(x) = (x - c)q(x)+ f(c).
Notice that if f(c) = 0, then
f(x) = (x - c)q(x)
so that is x – c a factor of f(x). This means that for the polynomial function f(x). if f(c) = 0,
then x – c is a factor of f(x).
Let’s reverse directions and see what happens if x – c is a factor of f(x). This means that
f(x) = (x - c)q(x)

If we replace x in f(x) = (x - c)q(x) with c we obtain

F(c) = (c - c)q(c) = 0 . q(c) = 0.
Thus, if x - c is a factor of f(x) then f(c)=0
We have proved a result known as the Factor Theorem.

The Factor Theorem

Let f(x) be a polynomial.
a. If f(c) =0 then x-c is a factor of f(x)
b. If x - c is a factor of f(x), then f(c) = 0.
Use synthetic division to determine the quotient when g(x) = x3 − 3x2 − 50 is
divided by x − 5.

1 -3 0 - 50
5 5 10 50
1 2 10 0
2
So g(x) = (x − 5)(x + 2x + 10).
x2 + 2x + 10 is not factorable, so g(x) is fully factored.
Example
Show that (x − 2) and (x − 3) are factors of P(x) = x3 − 19x + 30, and hence solve
x3 − 19x + 30 = 0.
Solution
P(2) = 8 − 38 + 30 = 0
and P(3) = 27 − 57 + 30 = 0
so (x − 2) and (x − 3) are both factors of P(x) and (x − 2)(x − 3) = x2 − 5x + 6 is also a factor
of P(x). Long division of P(x) by x2 − 5x + 6 gives a quotient of (x + 5).
So, P(x) = x3 − 19x+30 = (x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 5).
Solving P(x) = 0 we get (x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 5) = 0.
That is, x = 2 or x = 3 or x = −5.
Instead of using long division we could have used the facts that
i. the polynomial cannot have more than three real zeros;
ii. the product of the zeros must be equal to −30.
Let α be the unknown root.
Then 2 ・ 3 ・ α = −30, so that α = −5. Therefore the solution of P(x) = x3 −19x+30 = 0
is x = 2 or x = 3 or x = −5.
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Factoring a Polynomial Using the Factor Theorem

Example Factor x3 +2x2 - 11x -12.

Solution

Use the factor theorem to find a binomial factor of the form x - k. Systematically
substitute various values of k into the polynomial until a substitution results in
0. Use values for k that are factors of the constant term, -12. In this case, the
factors of -12 are ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, and ±12.
When k = 1, When k = - 1,
3 2
f (1) = (1) + 2(1) - 11(1) - 1 – 12 f (- 1) = (-1)3 + 2(-1)2 - 11(-1) - 12
=1 +2 -11 -1-12 = - 1 + 2 + 11 - 12
= - 20 =0
∴ x -1 is not a factor. ∴ x + 1 is a factor.
Use synthetic division or long division to divide x3 + 2x2 - 11x - 12 by x +1 to
determine another factor.
-1 1 2 –11 –12
–1 –1 12
1 1 –12 0

Therefore,
x3 + 2x2 - 11x - 12 = (x + 1)(x2 + x - 12) Factor the remaining trinomial.
= (x + 1)(x + 4)(x - 3)

In any polynomial that can be factored, the linear factors are of the form (x - k)
or ( jx - k). As a result, only a rational number of the form p/q , where p is a
factor
of the constant term and q is a factor of the leading coefficient, is a zero of the
polynomial.

The Rational Zero Test

In the polynomial P(x) = anxn + a n -1 x n - 1 +… + aA1xremainder
+a0, all of
coefficients
0 must are
integers. Every rational zero of P(x) is of the form p/q otherwise
occur, , where pthe is a factor of
the constant term a0 and q is a factor of the leading coefficient
initial an.
factor is incorrect.

Sketching the Graph of a Polynomial Function in Standard Form

Example
(a) Graph f (x) =3x3 + x2 - 22x - 24.
(b) Describe the shape of the graph.
Solution
(a) Begin by determining the zeros of f (x). Express the function in factored
form. Numbers that could make f (x) = 0 are of the form p/q , where p is a

32
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

factor of _24 and q is a factor of 3.

p ∈ {±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±8, ±12, ±24}, q ∈{±1, ±3}, and
p/q∈ {±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±8, ±12, ±24, ±1/3, ±2/3, ±4/3, ±8/3}
Systematically substitute the numbers for p/q into f (x) until one number
produces a value of 0.
f (1) = 3(1)3 + (1)2 – 22(1) – 24 f (-1) = 3(-1)3 + (-1)2 - 22(-1) – 24
= -42 =-4
∴ x -1 is not a factor. ∴ x +1 is not a factor.
f (2) = 3(2) + (2) – 22(2) – 24 f (–2) = 3(–2)3 + (–2)2 – 22(–2) – 24
3 2

= – 40 =0
x –2 is not a factor. ∴ x +2 is a factor.
Use synthetic division to determine a second factor.
–2 3 1 –22 –24
–6 10 24
3 –5 –12 0
3 2
f (x) =3x + x – 22x – 24
= (x +2)(3x2 – 5x – 12) Factor the trinomial.
= (x +2)(3x + 4)(x – 3)Therefore, f (x) has zeros
4
–2,  3 , and 3. Find additional points using a table, and determine the end behaviour of the
function.

x –3 –1 0 1 2 4
f(x) –30 –4 –24 –42 –40 96

Example 2
i. Solve the equation x³ + 2x² - 5x - 6 = 0
ii. Sketch the graph of y = x³ + 2x² - 5x – 6
Solution
The first step is to find one solution by trial and
error. If there is an integer solution x = a, then by
the factor theorem (x - a) must be a factor of
x³ + 2x² - 5x – 6. So a must be a factor of 6. a
could therefore be 1, -1,
2, -2, 3, -3, 6 or -6.
i. Let f(x) = x³ + 2x² - 5x – 6
f(1) = 1 + 2 – 5 – 6 = -8
f(-1) = -1 + 2 + 5 – 6 = 0 You need to find a
value of x for which f(x) = 0.
f(-1) = 0 so by the factor theorem x + 1 is a factor of f(x).
Use synthetic division to determine a second factor.
–1 1 2 –5 –6
–1 –1 6
1 1 –6 0
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

f(x) = x³ + 2x² - 5x – 6
= (x +2)(x2 +x – 6) Factor the trinomial.
= (x +2)(x + 3)(x – 2)Therefore, f (x) has zeros

2,–2, and 3. Find additional points using a table

ii. Part i. shows that the graph of y = x³ + 2x² - 5x - 6 crosses the x-axis at
(-3, 0), (-1, 0) and (2, 0). By putting x = 0 you can see that it crosses the yaxis
at (0, -6).
This information allows you to sketch the graph.

Another method
i. Let f(x) = x³ + 2x² - 5x – 6
f(1) = 1 + 2 – 5 – 6 = -8
f(-1) = -1 + 2 + 5 – 6 = 0 You need to find a value of x for which f(x) = 0.
f(-1) = 0 so by the factor theorem x + 1 is a factor of f(x).
x³ + 2x² – 5x – 6 = (x + 1) x quadratic factor.
Let the quadratic factor be ax² + b x + c. The next step is to factorize f(x) into
the
linear factor x + 1 and a quadratic
factor.
x³ + 2x² - 5x – 6 = (x+ 1)( ax² + b x + c)
= ax³ + b x² + c x+ ax²+bx+ c Multiply out the brackets
= ax³ + (b + a) x² +(c +b) x+ c
Equating coefficients of x³  a = 1
Equating constant term  c = -6
Equating coefficients of x²  a + b = 2  b = 1
Check coefficient of x: b + c = 1 – 6 = -5
x³ 2x² - 5x -6= (x+1)(x²+x - 6)
= (x +2)(x + 3)(x – 2) Factorize the quadratic factor
The solutions of the equation are x = -1, x = 2 and x = -3.
ii. Part i. shows that the graph of y = x³ + 2x² - 5x - 6 crosses the x-axis at (-3, 0), (-
1, 0)
and (2, 0). By putting x = 0 you can see that it crosses the yaxis at (0, -6).
This information allows you to sketch the graph.

34
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 3
f(x) = 2x³ + px² + 5x – 6 has a factor x - 2.
Find the value of p and hence factorise f(x) as far as possible.
Solution
x - 2 is a factor of f(x)  f(2) = 0
f(2) = 16 + 4p + 10 – 6 = 20 + 4p
20 + 4p = 0 p = -5
f(x) = 2x³ - 5x² + 5x – 6

35
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

SOLVING SIMPLE EQUATION

INTRODUCTION
Unit 2
Recall that: An equation is a statement that contains an equal sign.
Consider the simple equation
x=5
Solving an equation means to find the value of a pronumeral that makes a statement true.

In the preceding section, we observed that:

An equation behaves like a pair of balanced scales. The scales remain balanced as long as we
do the same thing to both scales.
This suggests that to solve an equation, we can do the same thing to both sides of an
equation. That is:
Rule 1 An equal quantity may be added to both sides of an equation.
Rule 2 An equal quantity may be subtracted from both sides of an equation.
Rule 3 An equal quantity may multiply both sides of an equation.
Rule 4 An equal, non-zero quantity may divide both sides of an equation.
Example 1 Solve the equations
x
(a) 3x − 8 = x + 10 , (b) = 6 .
2
Solution
(a) By Rule 1 we may add 8 to both sides:
3x − 8 + 8 = x + 10 + 8 i.e. 3x = x + 18 .
By Rule 2 we may subtract x from both sides:
3x − x = x + 18 − x i.e. 2x = 18 .
Finally, by Rule 4 we may divide both sides by 2 giving x = 9.
(b) By Rule 3 we may multiply both sides by 2,
2 x
   =(2)  (6) = i.e. x = −12 .
1 2
It is always good to check that the solution is correct by substituting
the value into both sides of the equation. In Example 1 (a), by
substituting x = 9 into the left hand side of the equation we see that
3x − 8 = 3 × 9 − 8 = 19 .
Substituting x = 9 into the right hand side of the equation gives
x + 10 = 9 + 10 = 19 .
Since both sides of the equation are equal when x = 9, it is a correct
solution. In this case it is the only solution to the equation but it is
important to note that some equations have more than one solution.
Example 2 Solve the equation x + 6 = 14.
Solution:
x + 6 = 14
x + 6−6 = 14−6 (Subtract 6 from both sides)
x =8
Equations Containing Brackets
To solve the equations containing brackets, we may proceed as follows:
 Remove the brackets by using the Distributive law.
 Collect the pronumeral terms on the left-hand side of the equation and the numerical
terms on the right-hand side of the equation by doing the same thing to both sides of
the equation.
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 3 solve 2( p  1)  18 for p

Solution:
2( p  1)  18 (Use distributive Law)
2 p  2  18 (Subtract 2 from both sides)
2 p  2  2  18  2
2 p  16 (Divide both sides by 2)
2 p 16

2 2
p8
Example 4: Solve 3(c  6)  2(c  3) for c
Solution:
3(c  6)  2(c  3) (Use distributive Law)
3c  18  2c  6
3c  18  18  2c  6  18 (Subtract 18 from both sides)
3c  2c  24 (Subtract 2c from both sides)
3c  2c  2c  24  2c
c  24
Example 5: Find the solution to the equation
5(x − 3) − 7(6 − x) = 24 − 3(8 − x) − 3
Solution
Removing the brackets from both sides first and then simplifying:
5(x − 3) − 7(6 − x) = 24 − 3(8 − x) − 3
5x − 15 − 42 + 7x = 24 − 24 + 3x − 3
5x + 7x − 15 − 42 = 3x − 3
12x − 57 = 3x − 3 .
Adding 57 to both sides:
12x = 3x − 3 + 57 = 3x + 54
Subtracting 3x from both sides:
12x − 3x = 54 or 9x = 54 giving x = 6 .
Equations Containing Fractions
Clear the fractions by multiplying both sides of the equation by the lowest common multiple
of the denominators. Then solve the equation for the unknown by performing the same
operation on both sides of it.
3x
Example 6: Solve  6 for x
4
Solution:
3x
6
4
3x 6

4 1
Lowest common multiple of 4 and 1 is 4. So, we multiply both sides by 4 to obtain:
3x
4  4 6
4
3 x  24 (Divide both sides by 3)

3x 24

3 3
x8

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

5x 9
Example 7: Solve: (a) 
7 14
Solution
Lowest common multiple of 7 and 14 is 14. So, we multiply both sides by 14 to obtain:
5x 9
14   14 
7 14
10 x  9
10 x 9

10 10
x  0.9
x2 7
Example 8 : Solve 
10 15
Solution:
x2 7

10 15
Lowest common multiple of 10 and 15 is 30. So, we multiply both sides by 30 to obtain:
 x  2 7
30   30  (simplify)
 10  15
3 x  2   14 (Remove brackets)
3 x  6  14 (subtract 6 from both sides)
3 x  6  6  14  6
3x  8 Divide both side by 3
3x 8

3 3
8 2
x 2
3 3
f 2 f 1
Example 9 : Solve   for f
4 3 4
Solution:
f 2 f 1
 
4 3 4
Lowest common multiple of 4 and 3 is 12. So, we multiply both sides by 12 to obtain:
f 2 f  1
12   12   12 
4  3  4
3 f  4( 2  f )  3 (Remove the bracket)
3f 8 4 f  3 (collect like terms)
7f 8  3 (add 8 to both sides)
7f 88  38
7f  11 (Divide both sides by 7)
7f 11

7 7
11 4
f  1
7 7

38
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Problem Solving

Linear equations are often used to solve practical problems that have an unknown quantity. We use a
suitable pronumeral to represent the unknown quantity(i.e. letter);, translate the information given in
the problem into an equation, and then solve the equation using the skills acquired earlier in this
section.
.
Example 10
If a number is increased by 8, the result is 25. Find the number.
Solution:

Example 11
If a number is decreased by 4, the result is 29. Find the number.
Solution:

Example 12
If twice a number is equal to 68, find the number.
Solution:

Example 13
If a number is divided by 9, the result is 12. Find the number.
Solution:

39
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 14
If three times a number decreased by 5 equals 82, find the number.
Solution:

Example 15
If one-half of a certain number is added to one-third of the same number, the result is 10.
Find the number.
Solution:

So, the number is 12.

40
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 16
A rectangular paddock is twice as long as it is wide. If it has a perimeter of 570 m, find its
dimensions.
Solution:

Note:

Example 17
If one-third of a certain number is added to one-half of the same number, the result is 15.
Find the number.
Solution:
Let x be the number.
We are given that:

The lowest common denominator of 3, 2 and 1 is 6. So, we multiply both sides by 6 to obtain

41
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

So, the number is 18.

Exercise 1. Solve each of the following equations.

(a) 3x = 18, (b) 7x = −14 (c) −2x = −10 (d) 28x = 35
x
(e) 5x − 3x − 12x = 29 − 2 − 7 (f)  = 3
5

Which of the following is the solution to the equation

8x + 5x − 3x = 17 − 9 + 22 ?
(a) 2 (b) −2 (c) 3 (d) −3
Which of the following is the solution to the equation
x − 13x = 3x − 6 ?
2 1 1 6
(a) (b)  (c) ( d) 
5 5 3 17
Exercise 2. Find the solution to each of the following equations.
(a) 2x + 3 = 16 − (2x − 3) (b) 8(x − 1) + 17(x − 3) = 4(4x − 9) + 4
(c) 15(x − 1) + 4(x + 3) = 2(7 + x)
Which of the following is the solution to the equation
5x − (4x − 7)(3x − 5) = 6 − 3(4x − 9)(x − 1) ?
(a) −2 (b) −1 (c) 2 (d) 4

Example 1. Solve for x:

1 1 1
+ =
2x x−1 2(x − 1)

Solution. The LCM is 2x(x −1).

Here is the cleared equation:

x − 1 + 2x = x.

Each numerator has been multiplied by those factors of the LCM that are missing from its
denominator. The solution follows:

2x =1

1
x =
2
Again, when solving an equation with fractions, the very next statement you write -- the next line --
should have no fractions.
Problem 9. Solve for x:
42
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

_9_ _1_ 4
+ =
3x − 5 x+2 x−2

The LCM is the product of the three denominators. Here is the cleared equation and its
solution:

9(x + 2)(x − 2) + (3x − 5)(x − 2) = 4(3x − 5)(x + 2)

9(x² − 4) + 3x² − 11x + 10 = 4(3x² + x − 10)

9x² − 36 + 3x² − 11x + 10 = 12x² + 4x − 40

12x² + − 11x − 26 = 12x² + 4x − 40

−11x − 4x = −40 + 26

−15x = −14

14
x =
15
The original equation is immediately transformed into an equation without fractions. Each succesive
statement -- each line -- follows from the previous line. The transformations are a logical sequence of
statements, as in Lesson 9.
Problem 10. Solve for x:

1 1 1 _1_
+ = +
x x−1 8x 8(x − 1)

The LCM is 8x(x − 1). Here is the cleared equation and the logical sequence that
leads to the solution:

8(x − 1) + 8x = x−1+x

8x − 8 + 8x = 2x − 1

16x − 2x = −1 + 8

14x = 7

1
x =
2
Problem 11. Factor the denominators, clear of fractions, and solve for x:
_1_ _8_ _4_
− =
x² − 2x 3x² − 5x − 2 3x² + x

_4_
_1_ _8_
− = x(3x + 1)
x(x − 2) (3x + 1)(x − 2)
The LCM is x(x − 2)(3x + 1). Here is the cleared equation and its solution:
3x + 1 − 8x = 4(x − 2)

1 − 5x = 4x − 8

−5x − 4x = −8 − 1

−9x= −9
43
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

x= 1

44
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Problem 12. Factor the denominators, clear of fractions, and solve for x:
x+6 x−9 _2x − 1_
+ =
x² − 9 x² − 4x + 3 x² + 2 x − 3

_2x − 1_
__x + 6__ x−9
+ = (x + 3)(x − 1)
(x + 3)(x − 3) (x − 1)(x − 3)
The LCM is (x + 3)(x − 3)(x − 1). Here is the cleared equation and its solution:
(x + 6)(x − 1) + (x − 9)(x + 3)= (2x − 1)(x − 3)

x² + 5x − 6 + x² − 6x − 27= 2x² − 7x + 3

2x² − x − 33= 2x² − 7x + 3

−x + 7x= 3 + 33

6x= 36
x= 6

SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

OBJECTIVES:
45
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

1. Determine where an ordered pair is a solution of a system of linear equations.

2. Solve systems of linear equations by graphing.
3. solve system of linear equations by substitution
4. Select the most efficient method for solving a system of linear equations
5. Identify systems that do not have exactly one ordered – pair solution.
Women now attain higher levels of education than ever before and a majority of
women choose careers in the labor force rather than homemaking. One of the
most important developments in the work force has
been the dramatic increase in the number of women, at
approximately ~% per year. By contrast, the percentage
of men is decreasing by ~% per year. These changes are
illustrated in Figure 3.1. If current trends continue, the
graphs will intersect. The intersection point reveals
when the percentage of women and men in the labor
force will be equal.
Projections frequently involve graphs that intersect. In
this section, you will learn three methods for finding
intersection points. With these methods, you can use
mathematical models to determine when variable quantities, such as the
percentage of women and men in the work force, will be equal.
A system of linear equations can have exactly one solution, no solution, or
infinitely many solutions. We begin with systems with exactly one solution.

Thus, (3, 4) satisfies both equations and is a solution of the system. The solution
can be described by saying that x = 3 and y = 4. The solution can also be
described using set notation. The solution set ofthe system is {(3, 4)}-that is, the
set consisting ofthe ordered pair (3,4).

Systems of Linear Equations and Their Solutions We have seen that all equations in
the form Ax + By = C are straight lines when graphed. Two such equations are
called a system of linear equations. A solution of a system of linear equations is
an ordered pair that satisfies all equations in the system. For example, (3, 4)
satisfies the system
x+y= 7 (3 + 4 is. indeed 7.)
X - Y = -1. (3 – 4 is. indeed -1.)

46
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example1:
Determine whether an ordered Pair is a solution of a system
Determine whether (-5, -6) is a solution of the system
2x – y = -4

Determine whether (-2, -3) is a solution of the system

Determine whether (-2, -3) is a solution of the system

3x - 5y = 15.
Solution:
Because -5 is the x-coordinate and -6 is the y-coordinate of (-5, -6), we
replace x with -5 and y with -6.

2x - y = -4 3x - 5y = 15

2(-5) - (-6) Jo -4 3( -5) - 5( -6) = 15

- 10 + 6 = - 4 -15 + 30 = 15
-4 = -4, true 15 = 15, true

The pair (-5, -6) satisfies both equations: It makes each equation true. Thus, (-
5, -6) is a solution of the system.
Check point 1:
Determine whether (-2, -3) is a solution of the system
2x - 4y = 8
2x – y = -1.
Solving Linear Systems by Graphing The solution of a system of two linear
equations in two variables can be found by graphing both of the equations in
the same rectangular coordinate system. For a system with one solution, the
coordinates of the point of intersection give the system's solution.

47
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

SOLVING SYSTEM OF TWO LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TOW VARIABLES X AND Y, BY GRAPHING.

1. Graph the first equation.

2. Graph the second equation on the same set of axes.
3. If the lines representing the two graphs intersect at a point, determine
the coordinates of this point of intersection. The ordered pair is the
solution to the system.
4. Check the solution in both equations.
Example 2: solving linear system by graphing.

y = -x - 1

4x - 3y = 24.

Solution:

Sep 1. Graph the first equation. We use the y-intercept

and slope to graph

y = -x -1 The graph of y= -x -1

Y = -x – 1 The graph of 4x -3y=24

The slope is -1 . the y – intercept is -1

Sep2: Graph the second equation on the same axes. We use intercepts to
graph

4x - 3y = 24.

Graph the second equation on the same axes. We use intercepts to graph

x- intercept (Set y = 0.) y-intercept (Set x = 0.)

4x – 3.0 = 24 4· 0 - 3y = 24
-3y = 24
4x = 24
y = -8
48
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

x=6

The x-intercept is 6, so the line passes through (6,0). The y-intercept is -8, so
the line passes through (0, -8). The graph of 4x - 3y = 24 is shown as a red line
in Figure 3.2.

Sep3:

Determine the coordinates of the intersection point. This ordered pair is the
system's solution. Using Figure 3.2, it appears that the lines intersect at (3, -4).
The "apparent" solution of the system is (3, -4).

Sep4: Check the solution in both equations.

Check (3, -4) in Check (3, -4) in

y = -x – 1 4x - 3y = 24:

-4 = -3 – 1 4(3) -3 (-4) = 24

-4 = -4 true 12+12 = 24

24 = 24 True

Because both equations are satisfied, (3, -4) is the solution and {(3, -4)} is the
solution set.

Check point 2 solve graphing:

y = -2x + 6

2x - y = -2.

Eliminating a Variable Using the Substitution Method Finding the solution to a

linear system by graphing equations may not be easy to do. For example, a
2 157
solution of ( , ) would be difficult to "see" as an intersection point on a
3 29
graph.

Let's consider a method that does not depend on finding a system's solution
visually: the substitution method. This method involves converting the system
to one equation in one variable by an appropriate substitution

49
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example3: solving System by Substitution

Solve by the substitution method:

y = -2x + 4

7x - 2y = 3.

Solution:

Step1. Solve either of the equations for one variable in tenus of the other. This
step has already been done for us. The first equation, y = -2x + 4, has y solved
in terms of x.

Sep2 Substitute the expression from step 1 into the other equation. We
substitute the expression -2x + 4 for y in the other equation:

Y = -2x + 4 7x – 2 y = 3 substitute -2x + 4 for y.

This gives us an equation in one variable, namely 7x - 2(-2x + 4) = 3.

The variable y has been eliminated.

Sep3. Solve the resulting equation containing one variable.

This is the equation containing one
7 x - 2( - 2x + 4) = 3 variable.

7x + 4x - 8 = 3 Apply the distributive property.

11x - 8 = 3 Combine like terms.

11x = 11 Add 8 to both sides.

x= 1
Divide both sides by 11
Sep4. Back-substitute the obtained value into one of the original equations.
We now know that the x-coordinate of the solution is 1. To find the y-
coordinate, we back substitute the x-value into either original equation. We
will use

y = -2x + 4.

Substitute 1 for x.

y = -2 .1 + 4 = -2 + 4 = 2

With x = 1 and y = 2, the proposed solu tion is (1, 2).

50
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Sep5. Check the proposed solution in both of the system's given equations.
Replace x with 1 and y with 2.

y = - 2x + 4 7x-2y= 3

2 = -2. 1 + 4 7(1) - 2(2) = 3

2 = -2 + 4 7-4=3

2 = 2, true 3 = 3, true

The pair (1,2) satisfies both equations. The solution is (1,2) and the system's
solution set is{(l, 2)}.

Check point: solve the substitution method.

y = 3x – 7

5x - 2y = 8.

Before considering additional examples, let's summarize the steps used in the
substitution method.

SOLVING LINEAR SYSTEMS BY SUBSTITUTION

1. Solve either of the equations for one variable in terms of the other. (If
one of the equations is already in this form, you can skip this step.)
2. Substitute the expression found in step 1 into the other equation. This
will result in an equation in one variable.
3. Solve the equation containing one variable.
4. Back-substitute the value found in step 3 into one of the original
equations. Simplify and find the value of the remaining variable.
5. Check the proposed solution in both of the system's given equations.

51
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

EXAMPLE 4: solving a system by substitution

Solve by the substitution method:

5x + 2y = 1

x - 3y = 7.

Solution:

Sep 1. Solve either of the equations for one variable in terms of the other. We
begin by isolating one of the variables in either of the equations. By solving for x
in the second equation, which has a coefficient of 1, we can avoid fractions.
This is the second equation in
x - 3y = 7 the given system.

Solve for x by adding 3y to both

x = 3y + 7 sides.

Sep2 Substitute the expression from step 1 into the other equation. We substitute
3y + 7 for x in the first equation.

X = 3y + 7 5x+2y = 1

This gives us an equation in one variable, namely

5(3y + 7) + 2y = 1.

The variable x has been eliminated.

Sep3. Solve the resulting equation containing one variable.

5(3y + 7) + 2y = 1
This the equation containing
one variable
15y + 35 + 2y = 1
Apply the distributive property.

17y + 35 = 1 Combine like terms

Subtract 35 from both sides.

17y = -34
Divide both sides by 17.
y = -2

52
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Step 4: Back-substitute the obtained value into one of the original equations. We
back-substitute -2 for y into one of the original equations to find x. Let's use
both equations to show that we obtain the same value for x in either case.
Using the fist equation: using the second equation:
5x + 2y = 1 x - 3y = 7

5x + 2(-2) = 1 x - 3(-2) = 7 x+6=7

5x - 4 = 1 x= 1

5x = 5

x= 1
With x = 1 and y = -2, the proposed solution is (1, -2).
Check. Take a moment to show that (1, -2) satisfies both given equations. The
solution is (1, -2) and the solution set is {(I, -2)}.

Check point:
Solve by the substitution method:

3x + 2y = 4
2x+ y=1
Eliminating a Variable Using the Addition Method The substitution method is
most useful if one of the given equations has an isolated variable. A third
method for solving a linear system is the addition method. Like the substitution
method, the addition method involves eliminating a variable and ultimately
solving an equation containing only one variable. However, this time we
eliminate a variable by adding the equations.
For example, consider the following equations:
3x - 4y = 11
-3x + 2y = -7.
When we add these two equations, the x-terms are eliminated. This occurs
because the coefficients of the x-terms, 3 and -3, are opposites (additive
inverses) of each other:
3x - 4y = 11
-3x + 2y= -7

Add: Ox - 2y = 4

53
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

-2y =4 y = -2.

Now we can back-substitute -2 for y into one of the original equations to find
x. It does not matter which equation you use; you will obtain the same value
for x in either case. If we use either equation, we can show that x = 1 and the
solution (1, -2) satisfies both equations in the system.

When we use the addition method, we want to obtain two equations whose
sum is an equation containing only one variable. The key step is to obtain, for
one of the variables, coefficients that differ only in sign. To do this, we may
need to multiply one or both equations by some nonzero number so that the
coefficients of one of the variables, x or y, become opposites. Then when the
two equations are added, this variable is eliminated.

Example 5: solving System by the addition method

Solve by the addition method:

3x + 4y = -10 divide both sides by -2 and solve for y.

5x - 2y = 18.

SOLUTION:

We must rewrite one or both equations in equivalent forms so that the

coefficients of the same variable (either x or y) are opposites of each other.
Consider the terms in y in each equation, that is, 4y and -2y. To eliminate y, we
can multiply each term of the second equation by 2 and then add equations.

3x +4y = -10 No change 3x + 4y = -10

5x -2y = 18 Multiply by2. 10x – 4y = 36

Add: 13x + 0y= 26

13x = 26 Divide both sides by 13 and

solve for x.
X=2
54
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Thus, x = 2. We back-substitute this value into either one of the given

equations. We'll use the first one.
3x+4y=-10
3(2) + 4y = -10
4y = -16
Y = -4
We see that x = 2 and y = -4. The ordered pair (2, -4) can be shown to
satisfy both equations in the system. Consequently, the solution is (2, -4) and
the solution set is
{(2, -4)}.

Solving linear systems by addition

1. If necessary, rewrite both equations in the form Ax + By = C.
2. If necessary, multiply either equation or both equations by appropriate
nonzero numbers so that the sum of the x-coefficients or the sum of the y-
coefficients is O.
3. Add the equations in step 2. The sum is an equation in one variable.
4. Solve the equation in one variable.
5. Back-substitute the value obtained in step 4 into either of the given
equations and solve for the other variable.
6. Check the solution in both of the original equations.
Check point: Solve by the addition method:
4x - 7y = -16
2x + 5y = 9.

Example 6: Solving system by the addition method.

Solve by the addition method:

7x = 5 - 2y
3y= 16 - 2x.
Step1. Rewrite both equations in the form Ax + By = C. We first arrange the
system so that variable terms appear on the left and constants appear on the
right. We obtain

7x + 2y = 5 Add 3y to both sides of the first equation.

2x + 3y = 16. Add 2x to both sides of the second equation.

55
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Sep2 If necessary, multiply either equation or both equations by appropriate

numbers so that the sum of the x-coefficients or the sum of the y-coefficients is
O. We can eliminate x or y. Let's eliminate y by multiplying the first equation by
3 and the second equation by -2.

7x + 2y = 5 Multiply by 3. 2Ix + 6y = 15

2x + 3y = 16 Multiply by -2. -4x - 6y= -32

Add: 17x+Oy=-17

17x=-17

Sep4. Solve the equation in one variable. We solve 17x = -17 by dividing
both sides by 17.
17 x  17
17

17
Divide both sides by 17.

x=-1 simplify
Back-substitute and find the value for the other variable. We can back-
substitute -1 for x into either one of the given equations. We'll use the second
one.
3y = 16 - 2x This is the second equation in the given
system.
3y=I6-2(-I)
3y = 16 + 2 Substitute -1 for x

3y = 18 Multiply.

y=6 Add.

With x = -1 and y = 6, the proposed solution is (-1,6).

Sep6. Check. Take a moment to show that (-1,6) satisfies both given equations.
The solution is (-1,6) and the solution set is {( -1, 6)}.
Check point 6.
Solve by the addition method:
3x = 2 - 4y

5y = -1 - 2x.
Some linear systems have solutions that are not integers. If the value of one
variable turns out to be a "messy" fraction, back-substitution might lead to
cumbersome arithmetic. If this happens, you can return to the original system
and use addition to find the value of the other variable.

56
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 7: solving system by the addition method

Solve by the addition method:

x
 5 y  32
2

3x
 7 y  45.
2

Solution:

Sep 1. Rewrite both equations in the form Ax + By = C. Although each equation

is already in this form, the coefficients of x are not integers. There is less

Chance for error if the coefficients for x and y in Ax + By = C are integers.

Consequently, we begin by clearing fractions. Multiply both sides of each equation by
2.

x
 5 y  32 Multiply by2. x – 10 = 64
2

3x
 7 y  45 Multiply by2. 3x – 14 = 90
2

Sep2: If necessary, multiply either equation or both equations by appropriate num-

bers so that the sum of

the x-coefficients or the sum of the y-coefficients is O. We will eliminate x. Multiply

the first equation with integral coefficients by -3 and leave the second equation
unchanged.

X – 10 y = 64 Multiply by -3 -3 + 30y = 192

3x – 14y = 90 No change 3x – 14y = 90

Add: 0x + 16y = -102

16y= - 102

Sep4. Solve the equation in one variable. We solve 16y = -102 by dividing both
sides by 16.

16 y  102
 Divide both sides by 16.
16 16

102 51
Y=  Simplify
16 8

57
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Sep5. Back-substitute and find the value of the other variable. Back-substitution of

51
 for y into either of the given equations results in cumbersome arithmetic.
8

Instead, let's use the addition method on the system with integral coefficients to find
the value of x. Thus, we eliminate y by multiplying the first equation by -7 and the
second equation by 5.

X – 10 y = 64 Multiply by -7 -7x + 70y = -448

3x – 14y = 90 No change 15x – 70y = 450

Add: 8x = 2

2 1
X= 
8 4

1  51 1  51
With x = and y = , the proposed solution ( , )
4 8 4 8

1  51 

Sep6. Check. For this system, a calculator is helpful in showing that  , 
4 8 


1 51 
satisfies both of the original equations of the system. The solution is (  ,  )
4 8 

 1 51 
And the solution set is  ,  
4 8 

Check point 7: solve by the addition method.

3x 5
-2y =
2 2

5y 3
X- =
2 2

58
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Comparing the Three Solution Methods The following chart compares the
graphing, substitution, and addition methods for solving systems of linear
equations in two variables. With increased practice, you will find it easier to
select the best method for solving a particular linear system.
Comparing Solution Methods

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Graphing You can see the solutions. If the solutions do not involve
integers or are too large to be
seen on the graph, it's impossi-
ble to tell exactly what the
solutions are.
Substitution Gives exact solutions. Solutions cannot be seen.
Easy to use if a variable is Introduces extensive work
on one side by itself. with fractions when no
variable has a coefficient
of I or -1.
Addition Gives exact solutions. Solutions cannot be seen.
Easy to use ifno variable
has a coefficient of I or -1.

Linear Systems Having No Solution or Infinitely Many Solutions We have seen that a
system of linear equations in two variables represents a pair of lines. The lines
either intersect at one point, are parallel, or are identical. Thus, there are
three possibilities for the number of solutions to a system of two linear
equations.
THE NUMBER OF SOLUTIONS TO SYSTEM OF TWO LINEAR EQUATIONS
The number of solutions to a system of two linear equations in two variables is
given by one of the following. (See Figure 3.3.)

Number of solutions What this Means Graphically

Exactly one ordered-pair solution The two lines intersect at one point.
No solution The two lines are parallel.
Infinitely many solutions The two lines are identical.

Exactly one solution No solution (parallel lines) Infinitely many solutions (Lines
coincide.)
59
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

A linear system with no solution is called an inconsistent system. If you attempt

to solve such a system by substitution or addition, you will eliminate both
variables. A false statement, such as 0 = 6, will be the result.
Example 8: A system with No Solution

Solve the system:

3x - 2y = 6
6x - 4y = 18.
Solution Because no variable is isolated, we will use the addition method. To
obtain coefficients of x that differ only in sign, we multiply the first equation by
-2.
3x – 2y = 6 Multiply by -2 -6x + 4y = -12
6x –4y = 18 No change 6x –4y = 18
Add: 0 = 6
The false statement 0 = 6 indicates that the system is inconsistent and has no
solution. The solution set is the empty set, 0.
The lines corresponding to the two equations in Example 8 are shown III
Figure 3.4. The lines are parallel and have no point of intersection.

Discover for your self

Show that the graphs of 3x - 2y = 6 and 6x - 4y = 18 must be parallel lines by
solving each equation for y. What is the slope and y-intercept for each line? What
does this mean? If a linear system is inconsistent, what must be true about the
slopes and y-intercepts for the system's graphs?
Check point: Solve the system:

5x - 2y = 4

-10x + 4y = 7
A linear system that has at least one solution is called a consistent system. Lines
that intersect and lines that coincide both represent consistent systems. If the
lines coincide, then the consistent system has infinitely many solutions,
represented by every point on the coinciding lines.

60
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

The equations in a linear system with infinitely many solutions are called
dependent. If you attempt to solve such a system by substitution or addition,
you will eliminate both variables. However, a true statement, such as 10 = 10,
will be the result.
Example 9: A system with infinitely Many Solutions
Solve the system:

y = 3x – 2
l5x - 5y = 10.
y= 3x – 2 15x – 5y = 10
15x – 5(3x -2) = 10
15x – 15x + 10= 10
10 = 10
Solution: Because the variable y is isolated in y = 3x - 2, the first equation, we
can use the substitution method. We substitute the expression for y into the
second equation.
In our final step, both variables have been eliminated and the resulting
statement,
lO = lO, is true. This true statement indicates that the system has infinitely
many solutions. The solution set consists of all points (x, y) lying on either of the
coinciding lines, y = 3x - 2 or 15x - 5y = lO, as shown in Figure 3.5.
We express the solution set for the system in one of two equivalent ways:

{(x,y) y = 3x - 2} or {(x, y) 15x - 5y = 1O}.

The Set of all ordered pairs (x,y) The Set of all ordered pairs (x,y)
such that y = 3x – 2 such that 15x -5y = 10

Check point:
Solve the system.

x= 4y – 8
5x – 20y = - 40

61
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

LINEAR INEQUALITIES
One important property of real numbers is that they can be ordered. If a and b are real
numbers, a is less than b if b  a is positive. This order is denoted by the
inequality
a  b.

The statement “b is greater than a” is equivalent to saying that a is less than b. When
three real numbers a, b, and c are ordered such that a  b and b  c. we say that b
is between a and c and a  b  c.

Geometrically, a  b if and only if a lies to the left of b on the real line (see Figure 1). For
example, 1  2 because 1 lies to the left of 2 on the real line. The following properties are
used in working with inequalities. Similar properties
are obtained if < is replaced by  and > is replaced by  (The symbols and  and 
mean less than or equal to and greater than or equal to, respectively.)

Properties of Inequalities
Let a, b, c, d, and k be real numbers.
1. If a < b and b < c then a < c. Transitive Property
2. If a < b and c < d, then a + c < b + d. Add inequalities.
3. If a < b, then a + k < b + k. Add a constant.
4. If a < b, and k > 0, then, ak < bk. Multiply by a positive constant.
5. If a < b and k < 0, then ak > bk. Multiply by a negative constant.

NOTE Note that you reverse the inequality

when you multiply by a negative number. For
example, if x < 3 then - 4x >12. This also
applies to division by a negative number. Thus,
if - 2x >4, then x < -2.

EXAMPLE 1 Solve 2 x  5  7
Solution
2x  5  7 Original
inequality
2x  5  5  7  5 Add 5 to both
sides.
2 x  12 Simplify.
1 1
( 2 x)  12 Multiply both
2 2
sides by
x 6 Simplify.

The solution set is (,6).

62
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

EXAMPLE 2 Solve the following inequalities and

show their solution sets on the real line.
(a) 2 x  1  x + 3 (b)
x 6
  2x + 1 (c)  5
3 x 1

Solution
(a) 2 x  1  x + 3
2 x  x + 3  1 Add 1 to both sides.
2 x  x +  4 Subtract x from both sides
x 4
The solution set is the open interval (,4) (Figure
2.1a).
Solution
x
(b)   2x + 1
3
 x  6x + 3 Multiply both sides by 3.
0  7x + 3 Add x to both sides.
 3  7x Subtract 3 from both sides.
3
 x Divide by 7
7
 3 
The solution set is the open interval   ,   (Figure
 7 
2.1b).
6
(c) The inequality  5 can hold only if x  1 ,
x 1
because otherwise is undefined or negative.
Therefore, x  1 is positive and the inequality will be preserved if we multiply both
sides by x  1 , and we have
6
 5
x 1
6  5x  5 Multiply both sides by ( x  1)

11  5 x Add 5 to both sides.

11 11
 x Or x 
5 5
 11 
The solution set is the half-open interval 1, 5  (Figure
 
2.1c).

63
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

EXAMPLE 3
Solve  3  2  5 x  12
Solution
 3  2  5 x  12 Original
inequality
Subtract 2.
 3  2  2  5 x  2  12  2
 5  5 x  10 Simplify
 5  5x 10
  Divide by -5 reverse both inequalities
5 5 5
1  x  2 Simplify
The solution set is [2 ,1] as shown in Figure 4
5  2x x
EXAMPLE 4 Solve  5
3 6
Solution We have
5  2x x
 5 Original inequality
3 6
2(5  2 x)  x  30. Multiply both sides by 6
10  4 x  x  30. Simplify
10  4 x  x  x  30  x. Subtract x.
10  5 x  30. Simplify
10  5 x  10  30  10. Subtract 10.
 5 x  40. Simplify
 5 x  40
 . Divide by -5
5 5
reverse the inequality
x8 Simplify
The solutions set is [8,) as shown in Figure 5.

Solve the inequalities in Exercises 5 to 16 for real x.

7  2x
EXAMPLE 5 Solve the inequalities  3  4
3
Solution
7  2x
3 4 Multiply by 3
3
 9  7  2 x  12 Subtract 7(add  7 )
1
 16  2 x  5 Multiply  (which reverses the inequalities)
2
5  5 
8 x or x   , 8 
2  2 

64
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

.
65
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY
Unit 3
Geometry is branch of mathematics. The word geometry in the Greek language translates the
words for "Earth" and "Measure". original1y developed. as a means of surveying land areas.
The approach to Geometry developed by the Ancient Greeks has been used for over 2000
years as the basis of geometry.
In its simplest form, it is a study of figures that can be drawn on a perfectly smooth flat
surface, or plane.

The Egyptians were one of the first civilizations to use geometry. The Egyptians used right
triangles to measure and survey land. In our modern times, geometry is used to in fields such
as engineering, architecture, medicine, drafting, astronomy, and geology.

To begin, there are some basic concepts and terminology that you must understand at an
intuitive
level. These are such basic ideas that it is difficult (perhaps impossible) to come up with a
clear definition in words.
A point has no dimension. It is usually represented by a small dot. A line extends in one
dimension. It is usually represented by a straight line with two arrowheads to indicate that the
line extends without end in two directions. In this book, lines are always straight lines.

A plane extends in two dimensions. It is usually represented by a shape that looks like a
tabletop or wall. You must imagine that the plane extends without end, even though the
drawing of a plane appears to have edges.

A few basic concepts in geometry must also be commonly understood without

being defined. One such concept is the idea that a point lies on a line or a plane.
Collinear points are points that lie on the same line.
Coplanar points are points that lie on the same plane.
66
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

EXAMPLE 1
a. Name three points that are collinear.
b. Name four points that are coplanar.
c. Name three points that are not collinear.
SOLUTION
a. Points D, E, and F lie on the same line, so they are collinear.
b. Points D, E, F, and G lie on the same plane, so they are coplanar. Also, D, E, F, and H are
coplanar, although the plane containing them is not drawn.
c. There are many correct answers. For instance, points H, E, and G do not lie on the same
line.

Another undefined concept in geometry is the idea that a point on a line is between two other
points on the line. You can use this idea to define other important terms in geometry.

Consider the line AB (symbolized by AB ).

The line segment or segment AB (symbolized by AB )

consists of the endpoints A and B, and all points on AB

that are between A and B.

The ray AB (symbolized by AB ) consists of the initial pointA and all points

on AB that lie on the same side of A as point B.

Note that AB is the same as BA , and AB is the

same as BA . However, AB and BA are not the same.
They have different initial points and extend in different directions.

If C is between A and B, then CA and CB are opposite rays.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Like points, segments and rays are collinear if they lie on the same line. So, any
two opposite rays are collinear. Segments, rays, and lines are coplanar if they lie
on the same plane.

Angles and Their Measures

An angle consists of two different rays that
have the same initial point. The rays are the
sides of the angle. The initial point is the
vertex
of the angle.

The angle that has sides AB and AC is

denoted
by BAC , CAB , or A . The point A is
the
vertex of the angle.
Naming Angles
EXAMPLE 1 Name the angles in the figure.
SOLUTION
There are three different angles.
•  PQS or  SQP
•  SQR or  RQS
•  PQR or  RQP

You should not name any of these

angles as  Q because all three angles
have Q
as their vertex. The name  Q would
not distinguish one angle from the others.
..........
The measure of  A is denoted by
m  A. The measure of an angle can be
approximated with a protractor, using
units called degrees (°). For instance,
 BAC has a measure of 50°, which can
be written as
m  BAC = 50°.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Angles that have the same measure are called congruent angles.For instance,
 BAC and  DEF each have a measure of 50°, so they are congruent.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

MEASURES ARE EQUAL. ANGLES ARE CONGRUENT.

m  BAC = m  DEF  BAC   DEF
“is equal to”
“is congruent to”

CLASSIFYING ANGLES
Angles are classified as acute, right,
obtuse, straight and Reflex
according to their measures. Angles
have measures greater than 0° and
less than or equal to 180°.

An ACUTE ANGLE is an angle

between 0° and 90° (0° < m
 A < 90°.

A RIGHT ANGLE is an angle of

90°( m  A = 90°).

An OBTUSE ANGLE is an angle between

90° and 180°
(90° < m  A < 180°).

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

90° < m  A < 180°).

A STRAIGHT ANGLE is an angle of 180°(m  A = 180°).

A REFLEX ANGLE is an angle between 180° and 360°°(180° < m  A <

360°)

revolution one complet revolution is 360°

vertical angles.
Two intersecting lines form two pairs of angles called vertical angles.

vertical angleshave equal measures

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Complementary angles:
A pair of angles is complementary
if the sum of their measures is 90°.

Supplementary angles:
Two angles having an angle sumof 180° are supplementary angles.

Angles on a straight line add to 1800

x + 55 = 180 Angles on a straight line
x = 1250

Angles at a point add to 3600

y + 920 + 1510 = 3600 Angles at a
point
y + 2430 = 3600
y = 1170

Parallel Lines:
Definition: We say that two lines (on the same plane) are parallel to each other
if they never intersect each other, ragardless of how far they are extended on
either side. Pictorially, parallel lines run along each other like the tracks of a
train.

Lines AB and CD are parallel to each other. We use the symbol \\ to represent
two lines being parallel. We write AB \\ CD to denote AB is parallel to CD.
We use little arrows on the two lines to indicate that they are parallel to each
other.

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A transversal of two (or more) lines is another line that intersects the two
lines.

In the figure above, line EF is a transversal of lines AB and CD . It intersects

the two lines and forms 8 angles with the two lines. We name the relationship
of the angle pairs based on their position with respect to each other and to the
lines AB and CD

The angles 1 , 2 , 7 , 8 are exterior angles because they are on the

outside
of lines AB and CD .

The angles 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 are interior angles because they are on the

inside of
lines AB and CD .
Corresponding Angles are angles that are on the same side of the transversal
and on the same side of each intersected line. In the following figures ,

There are four pairs of corresponding angles, or F-angles.

2 and 6 are corresponding angles.

3 and 7 are corresponding angles.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

1 and 5 are corresponding angles.

4 and 8 are corresponding angles.

Alternate Interior Angles are interial angles on opposite sides of the transversal.
 3 and  5 are alternate interior angles.
 4 and  6 are alternate interior angles.
Alternate Exterior Angles are exterior angles on opposite sides of the
transversal.
 2 and  8 are alternate exterior angles.
 1 and  7 are alternate exterior angles.
Same-Side Interior Angles are interior angles on the same side of the
transversal.
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

 4 and  5 are same-side interior angles.

 3 and  7 are same-side interior angles.
Same-Side Exterior Angles are exterior angles on the
same side of the transversal.
 2 and  7 are same-side exterior angles.
 1 and  8 are same-side exterior angles.
Theorem: Corresponding Angles: If two lines are cut by a
transversal
that makes a pair of corresponding angles congruent, then the
two lines are parallel.

Postulates
1. Corresponding Angles
If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the pairs of corresponding
angles are congruent. Ex. ∠1 =∠5 and ∠4=∠8
2. Converse of Corresponding Angles Postulate:
If two lines are cut by a transversal so that the corresponding angles are
congruent then the lines are parallel. Ex. Assume that ∠3=36and∠7=36 .
Since∠3=∠7 then l is parallel to m.
Alternate Interior Angles
Alternate Interior Angles Theorem: If two parallel lines are cut by a
transversal, then the pairs of alternate interior angles are congruent.

Example
In the diagram, transversal t intersects parallel lines m and n. If m∠1=750, find
the measures of the other numbered angles.

Solution
m∠5 =75o, because ∠ and ∠5 are corresponding angles.
m∠4 = 75 o, because ∠4 and ∠5 are alternate interior angles.
m∠8 = 75 o, because ∠1 and ∠8 are alternate exterior angles.
m∠2 = 105 o, because ∠1 and ∠2 are supplementary angles.
m∠6 =105 o, because ∠2 and ∠6 are corresponding angles.
m∠3 =105 o, because ∠3 and ∠6 are alternate interior angles.
m∠7 = 105 o, because ∠2 and ∠7 are alternate exterior angles.

Checkpoint
Find the measures of the numbered angles in the diagram.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Find the value of x that makes lines m and n parallel

Solution
The labeled angles in the diagram are
corresponding angles. Lines m and n are
parallel when the measures are equal.
(5x + 18)o = 63 o Set measures equal.
5x =45 Subtract 18 from each side.
x=9 Divide each side by 5.

Exercise
1. Find the size of the angle marked with a letter in
each diagram

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

2. By considering each diagram. Write down an equation and find the value of x

POLYGONS
The word polygon comes from Greek: poly- many, gons- angle.
A polygon is a closed figure that is the union of line segments in a plane.
A polygon has three or more sides. A polygon has the same number of angles
as sides.Some examples of polygons are shown below.

The following figure is not a polygon as it is not a closed figure.

A circle is not a polygon as it does not have straight sides

Polygons are named according to the number of sides. The names of the most common
polygons are given below:

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Listed below are some of the more commonly used polygons.

(Do not assume that the diagrams under the "Graphic" column are "regular"
polygons. Do not assume any specific details about the diagrams such as the length of
the sides or measures of the angles.)

Polygon Parts
Side - one of the line segments that make up the polygon.
Vertex - point where two sides meet. Two or more of these points are called vertices.
Diagonal - a line connecting two vertices that isn't a side.
Interior Angle - Angle formed by two adjacent sides inside the polygon.
Exterior Angle - Angle formed by two adjacent sides outside the polygon.

Classification of Polygons
0Polygons can be classified as either convex or concave.
Concave Polygon
 If a polygon has a reflex angle, then it is said to be a concave polygon.
An example of concave polygon is shown below.

 Concave polygons "cave-in" to their interiors, creating at least one interior angle

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

greater than 180 degrees (a reflex angle). Unless otherwise stated, we will be
discussing convex polygons.

Convex Polygon
 If a polygon has no reflex angle, then it is said to be a convex polygon. Examples of the convex
polygons are shown below.

A polygon is convex if no line that contains a side of the polygon contains a point in the interior
of the polygon. In a convex polygon, each interior angle measures less than 180 degrees.

Regular Polygon
A regular polygon's sides are all of the same length and its angles are the same
size.For example, a square is a regular polygon.

Examples of regular polygons are shown below.

Irregular Polygon
If a polygon is not a regular polygon, then it is said to be an
irregular polygon.
For example, the quadrilateral shown below is an irregular polygon.

A polygon is equilateral if all of its sides are of the same length.

A polygon is equiangular if all of its angles are of equal measure.
A regular polygon is a polygon that is both equilateral and equiangular.

Sum of Interior Angles of a Polygon

Consider the angle sum of a quadrilateral.

Clearly, the diagonal AC divides the quadrilateral into 2 triangles.

 Angle sum of a quadrilateral  2  1800  3600  Angle sum of a triangle  1800 
Consider the angle sum of a pentagon.
Clearly, the diagonals AC and AD divides the pentagon into 3 triangles.

 Angle sum of a pentagon  3  1800  5400  Angle sum of a triangle  1800 
Consider the angle sum of a hexagon.
Clearly, the diagonals AC, AD, and AE divides the hexagon into 4 triangles.

 Angle sum of a hexagon  4  1800  7200  Angle sum of a triangle  1800 
From the above discussion, we observed that:
In general:

 Angle sum of a polyogon of n sides  (n  2 )  1800

 2(n  2 )  right angles
 ( 2n  4 )  right angle 79
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Note that a polygon of n sides is called an n-gon.

Example 1: Find the number of degrees in the sum of the interior angles of an octagon.
An octagon has 8 sides. So n = 8. Using the formula from above,
180(n - 2) = 180(8 - 2) = 180(6) = 1080 degrees.
Example 2: How many sides does a polygon have if the sum of its interior angles is 720°?
Since, the number of degrees is given, set the formula above equal to 720°, and solve for n.
180(n - 2) = 720 Set the formula = 720°
n-2=4 Divide both sides by 180
n=6 Add 2 to both sides
Each Interior Angle of a Regular Polygon
A polygon is called a REGULAR polygon when all of its sides are of the same length and all of its angles are of
the same measure. A regular polygon is both equilateral and equiangular.

Let's investigate the regular pentagon seen above.

To find the sum of its interior angles, substitute n = 5 into the formula 180(n - 2) and get
180(5 - 2) = 180(3) = 540°
Since the pentagon is a regular pentagon, the measure of each interior angle will be the same.
To find the size of each angle, divide the sum, 540º, by the number of angles in the pentagon. (which is the same
as the number of sides).

540° 5 = 108°
There are 108° in each interior angle of a regular pentagon.
This process can be generalized into a formula for finding each interior angle of a REGULAR polygon ...

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

180(n  2)
Each interior angle of a "regular" polygon =
n
where n = the number of sides in the polygon.

Be careful!!! If a polygon is NOT REGULAR (such as the one seen at the right), you cannot use this formula.
If the angles of a polygon DO NOT all have the same measure, then you cannot find the measure of any one of
them just by knowing their sum.
NOT REGULAR = DO NOT USE FORMULA!!
Examples
Read these questions carefully! If the word "EACH" appears in the
question, you will most likely need the formula for "each interior angle"
to solve the problem.
1. Find the number of degrees in each interior angle of a regular
dodecagon.
It is a regular polygon, so we can use the formula.
In a dodecagon, n = 12.
180(12  2) 180(10)
  1500
12 12
2. Each interior angle of a regular polygon measures 135°. How many sides does the polygon have ?
180(n  2)
 First, set the formula (for each interior angle) equal to  135
n
180(n  2) 135
the number of degrees given. 
n 1
 Cross multiply. 135n  180(n  2)
 Multiply 180 by (n - 2). 135n  180n  360
 Subtract 135n from both sides of the equation.
360  180n  135n  54n
 Divide both sides of the equation by 45. n8

Sum of Exterior Angles of a Polygons

Let the exterior angles of a triangle be rearranged so that they have the same vertex as shown above.
Then a  b  c  3600 (Angle sum at a point)

Let us now consider the external angle sum of a rectangle.

Let the exterior angles of a rectangle be rearranged so that they have the same vertex as shown above.
Then a  b  c  d  3600 (Angle sum at a point)

In general:

The external angle sum of a polygon is 360 0.

If you are working with a regular polygon, you can determine the size of EACH exterior angle by simply
dividing the sum, 360, by the number of angles. Remember, the formula below will ONLY work in a regular
polygon.

3600
Each exterior angle (regular polygon) =
n
Example 1
Calculate the exterior and interior angle of a regular pentagon.

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Solution:
A regular pentagon has five equal angles.
Sum of 5 exterior angles  360 0
3600
 Each exterior angle   720
5
Let the interior angle be xº.
 x 0  72  180 0 (Supplementary adjacent angles)
x  72  72  180
0 0 0 0

x 0  1080
So, each interior angle is 108º.
Example 2.
Find the measure of each exterior angle of a regular hexagon.
A hexagon has 6 sides, so n = 6 Substitute in the formula.
3600
 Each exterior angle   600
6
Example 3.
The measure of each exterior angle of a regular polygon is 45°. How many
sides does the polygon have ?
Set the formula equal to 450.Cross multiply and solve for n.
3600
 450
n
450 n  3600
3600
n 8
450
the polygon have 8 sides(Octagon)

Triangles
CLASSIFYING TRIANGLES
Atriangle is a figure formed by three segments joining three noncollinear
points. A triangle can be classified by its sides and by its angles, as shown in the
definitions below.
Classification by Sides
EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE ISOSCELES TRIANGLE SCALENE TRIANGLE

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

has 3 equal sides has At least 2 equal sides No equal sides

Classification by Angles

ACUTE TRIANGLE EQUIANGULARTRIANGLE RIGHTTRIANGLE OBTUS TRIANGLE

3 acute angles 3 congruent angles 1 right angle 1 obtuse angle

EXAMPLE 1 Classify the following Triangles

When you classify a triangle, you need to be as specific as possible.

a.  ABC has three acute angles and b.  DEF has one obtuse angle and
no congruent sides. It is an acute two congruent sides. It is an obtuse
scalene triangle. (  ABC is read isosceles triangle.
as “triangle ABC.”)

Each of the three points joining the sides

of a triangle is a vertex. (The plural of
vertex is vertices.) For example, in ¤ABC,
points A, B, and C are vertices.

In a

triangle, two sides sharing a common

vertex are adjacent sides. In  ABC,
CA and BA Aare adjacent sides. The third
side, BC A, is the side opposite <A.
RIGHT AND ISOSCELES TRIANGLES The sides of right triangles and isosceles
triangles have special names. In a right triangle, the sides that form the right
angle are the legs of the right triangle. The side opposite the right angle is the hypotenuse
of the triangle.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

An isosceles triangle can have three congruent sides, in which case it is

equilateral. When an isosceles triangle has only two congruent sides,
then these two sides are Legs the of the isosceles triangle. The third side
is the base of the isosceles triangle.

USING ANGLE MEASURES OF TRIANGLES

When the sides of a triangle are extended, other angles are formed. The
three
original angles are interior angles the The angles that are adjacent to the
interior angles are exterior angles. the Each vertex has a pair of congruent
exterior angles. It is common to show only one exterior angle at each vertex.

THEOREM 4.1 Triangle Sum Theorem

The sum of the measures of the
interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
m< A + m<B + m<C = 180°

THEOREM 4.2 Exterior Angle Theorem

The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle
is equal to the sum of the measures of the
two nonadjacent interior angles.
m<1 = m<A + m<B

EXAMPLE 3
find the measure of the exterior angle
shown.
First write and solve an equation to
find the value of x:
x° + 65° = (2x + 10)° Apply the Exterior Angles Theorem.
55 = x Solve for x.
So, the measure of the exterior angle is (2 • 55 + 10)°, or 120°.
A corollary to a theoremis a statement that can be proved easily using the
theorem. The corollary below follows from the Triangle Sum Theorem.
COROLLARY TO THE TRIANGLE SUM THEOREM
The acute angles of a right triangle are
complementary.
m<A + m<B = 90°

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EXAMPLE 4 The measure of one acute angle of a right triangle is two times the measure of
the
other acute angle. Find the measure of each acute angle.
SOLUTION
Make a sketch. Let x° = m<A.
Then m<B = 2x°.
x° + 2x° = 90° The acute angles of a right triangle are complementary.
x = 30 Solve for x.
So, m<A = 30° and m<B = 2(30°) = 60°.
MATCHING TRIANGLES
In Exercises 1 –7, match the triangle description with the most specific name.

1. Side lengths: 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm A. Equilateral

2. Side lengths: 3 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm B. Scalene
3. Side lengths: 4 cm, 4 cm, 4 cm C. Obtuse
4. Angle measures: 60°, 60°, 60° D. Equiangular
6. Angle measures: 30°, 60°, 90° E. Isosceles
7. Angle measures: 20°, 145°, 15° F. Right
CLASSIFYING TRIANGLES Classify the triangle by its angles and by its sides.

Find the measure of the exterior angle shown.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Congruence of Triangles
Objective
At the end of the lesson student should be able to :
Identify congruent figures and corresponding parts.
Prove that two triangles are congruent.

Two geometric figures are congruent if

they have exactly the same size and shape. Each of figures 1 is congruent to the other
figures1. None of the figures 2 is congruent to another figure 2.
When two figures are there is a correspondence between their angles and sides such that are
congruent and are congruent. For the triangles below, you can write.ABC  PQR, which is
read “triangle ABC is congruent to triangle PQR.” The notation shows the congruence and the
correspondence.
Corresponding angles Corresponding sides
A  P AB  PQ
B  Q BC  QR
C  R CA  RP

There is more than one way to write a congruence statement, but it is important to list the
corresponding angles in the same order. For example, you can also write.  BCA  .  QRP.

EXAMPLE 1 Naming Congruent Parts

The congruent triangles represent the triangles in the photo above. Write a congruence
statement. Identify all pairs of congruent corresponding parts.
SOLUTION
The diagram indicates that  DEF   RST.
The congruent angles and sides are as follows.
Angles:  D   R,  E   S,  F   T
Sides: DE DE  RS , EF  ST , FD  TR

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

EXAMPLE 2 Decide whether the triangles are congruent. Justify your reasoning.

SOLUTION
From the diagram, you are given that all three pairs of corresponding sides are congruent.
A RP  MN , PQ  NO , and QR  QM

Because  P and  N have the same measure,  P   N. By the Vertical Angles

Theorem, you know that  PQR   NQM. By the Third Angles Theorem,
 R   M.
So, all three pairs of corresponding sides and all three pairs of corresponding
angles are congruent. By the definition of congruent triangles,  PQR   NQM.

THEOREMS OF CONGRUENT TRIANGLES

We have learned that if all six pairs of corresponding parts (sides and angles) are congruent,
then the triangles are congruent. Now the question is How much do you need to know about two
triangles to prove that they are congruent?
If Sides are congruent and Angles are congruent then Triangles are congruent

the
n 87
.
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

if Sides are congruent Angles are congruent Triangles

arecongruent
1. AB  DE 4. A  D  ABC   DEF. then

2. BC  EF 5.  B   E
3. AC  DF 6.  C   F

In this lesson and the next, you will learn that you do not need all six of the
pieces of information above to prove that the triangles are congruent. For
example, if all three pairs of corresponding sides are congruent, then the SSS
Congruence Theorem guarantees that the triangles are congruent.

Theorem 1 Side-Side-Side (SSS) Congruence Postulate

If three sides of one triangle are congruent to three sides of a second triangle, then
the two triangles are congruent.
If Side QR MN  QR
Side NP  RS and
Side PM  SQ ,
then  MNP   QRS.

Theorem 1 Side-Side-Side (SSS) Congruence Postulate

EXAMPLE 3 Prove that  PQW   TSW.
Proof The marks on the diagram
show that PQ  TS , PW  TW , and QW  SW .

So, by the SSS Congruence Theorem, We get that

 PQW   TSW.

Theorem 2 Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Congruence Postulate

If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are congruent to two sides and the
included angle of a second triangle, then the two triangles are congruent
If Side PQ  WX
Angle  A   D
Side QS  XY

EXAMPLE 3 Prove that .  AEB   .DEC.

Proof
1. AE  ED AE, BE  CE Given
2.  1   2 Vertical Angles Theorem
3.  AEB   DEC SAS Congruence Theorem

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

4, TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that combines arithmetic, algebra and
geometry. The word ‘trigonometry’ is derived from Greek and means triangle
measurement. The study of trigonometry enables us to compare similar triangles so
that lengths that are difficult or impossible to measure directly can be calculated.
Greek, Persian and Hindu astronomers first developed trigonometry around 200
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

BC. Hipparchus is credited with being the originator of the science at that time. Today
trigonometry is used by astronomers, architects, surveyors, engineers and navigators
of both planes and ships.
Pythagoras’ Theorem
Pythagoras' Theorem gives a relationship between the lengths of the sides of a right
angled triangle.
Pythagoras' Theorem states that:

In any right angled triangle, the area of the square on the hypotenuse (the side
opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the
other two sides (the two sides that meet at the right angle).

For the triangle shown opossite,

a2 = b2+ c2

Note
The longest side of a right angled triangle is called the hypotenuse.

Proof
Draw a square of side b c , as shown opposite.
Join up the points PQ, QR, RS, SP as shown, to give a
quadrilateral, PQRS.
In fact, PQRS is a square as each side is equal
to a (as the four triangles are congruent) and
at the point P,
x angle SPQ y 180
But we know that x y 90, so
But we know that x y 90, so
Similarly for the other three angles in PQRS. Thus PQRS is a square, and equating areas,
1 
a2+4  bc  = (b+ c) 2
2 
a2 + 2bc = b2 + 2bc + c2

a2 = c2+ b2
EXAMPLE 1 Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the length of the hypotenuse in each
triangle.

ac2=a2+b2 bc2=a2+b2
x 2 = 72 + 10 2 p 2 = 7.12 + 9.42
= 149 p 2 = 138.77
x = 149 p = 138.77
= 12.2… cm = 11.78… cm
The hypotenuse is 12 cm correct The hypotenuse is 11.8 cm correct
to the nearest whole number. to 1 decimal place

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

EXAMPLE 2Calculate the value of the pronumeral and hence find the length of the
unknown side in each triangle.

aa2=c2−b2 ba2=c2−b2
x 2 = 132 − 82 = 105 t 2 = 23.22 − 17.82 = 221.4
x = 105 ≈ 10.2 cm t = 149 ≈ 14.9 m
The length of the unknown side is The length of the unknown side is
10.2 cm correct to 1 decimal place. 14.9 cm correct to 1 decimal place.

Example 1
Find the length of the hypotenuse of the triangle shown in the diagram. Give
your answer correct to
2 decimal places.

Solution
As this is a right angled triangle, Pythagoras' Theorem can be used. If the length
of the hypotenuse is a, then b 4 and c 6.
So a2 =b2 +c2
a2 = 42 + 62
a2 = 16 + 36
a2 = 52
a = 52 = 7 2 . cm (to one decimal place)

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

EXAMPLE 3 Which of the following triangles are right-angled?

a The longest side is 4 cm. b The longest side is 17

cm.
c 2 = 42 = 16 c 2 = 172 = 289
a 2 + b 2 = 32 + 22 = 13 a 2 + b 2 = 152 + 82 = 289
c2≠a2+b2 c2=a2+b2
∴ Triangle is not right-angled. ∴ Triangle is right-angled

Exercise
1. Find the hypotenuse of each triangle, correct to the nearest whole number.

2. Find the hypotenuse of each triangle, correct to 1 decimal place.

3. Calculate the length of the unknown side in each triangle.

4. Determine which of the following triangles are right-angled

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Trigonometric Ratios

Naming sides

For convenience, we give special names to the sides of a right-angled triangle.

• The side opposite the right angle is the hypotenuse. It is the longest side.
In this triangle the hypotenuse is AC.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

• The side CB is opposite angle A (marked θ).

• The side AB is adjacent or next to angle A (marked ϕ).

If we look at angle C (marked ϕ), AB is now the opposite side, and CB is the adjacent side.

Theta (θ) and phi (ϕ) are

Greek letters often used
Trigonometric Ratios
We begin our study of trigonometry by considering right triangles and acute
angles measured in degrees. An acute
angle is an angle with measure greater
than 00 and less than 900. Greek letters
such as  (alpha),  (beta),  (gamma),
 (theta), and  (phi) are often used to
denote an angle.
The six trigonometric ratios,are
sine (sin), cosecant (csc),
cosine (cos), secant (sec),
tangent (tan), cotangent (cot).

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Trigonometric ratios Values of an Acute Angle 

Let  be an acute angle of a right triangle. Then the six trigonometric
ratios of  are defined as follows:

length of side opposite

sin  length of hypotenuse
length of hypotenuse , csc 
length of side opposite

length of side adjacent to 

cos  ,
length of hypotenuse
length of hypotenuse
sec  
length of side adjacent to 
The llength of side opposite length of side adjacent to 
tanvalue
  of a trigonometric ratio depends
, only
cot on
 the measure of the
ength
acute angle, of side
not on o  triangle that is length
adjacent tright
the particular side opposite
used toofcompute
the value.
The trigonometric ratios can be remembered using a mnemonic.
SOH CAH
TOA
Sin A = Opp Cos θ = Adj Tans A = Opp
Hyp Hyp Adj

EXAMPLE 1 In the right triangle shown at left, find the six trigonometric function values of
(a)  and (b)  .
(a)
opp 12 hyp 13
sin   , csc  
hyp 13 opp 12
adj 5 hyp 13
cos   , sec  
hyp 13 adj 5
opp 12 adj 5
tan   , cot  
adj 5 opp 12

(b)
opp 5 hyp 13
sin   , csc  
hyp 13 opp 5
adj 12 hyp 13
cos   , sec  
hyp 13 adj 12
opp 5 adj 12
tan   , cot  
adj 12 opp 5
In Example 1(a), we note that the value of
opp 12 , , is the reciprocal of , the value of
sin  
hyp 13
hyp 13
csc   . Likewise, we see the same reciprocal relationship between the values of
opp 12
cos and sec and between the values of tan and cot . For any angle, the cosecant,
secant, and cotangent values are the reciprocals of the sine, cosine, and tangent function
values, respectively.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Reciprocal Functions

If we know the values of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions of an angle, we can use these
reciprocal relationships to find the values of the cosecant, secant, and cotangent functions of
that angle.

4 3 4
EXAMPLE 2 Given that sin  , cos  , tan  , find csc  ,sec  , and cot  .
5 5 3
Solution Using the reciprocal relationships, we have
1 1 4 1 1 5 1 1 3
csc    , sec    , and cot   ,
sin 4 5 cos 3 3 tan 4 4
5 5 3

Triangles are said to be similar if their corresponding angles have the same measure. In
similar triangles, the lengths of corresponding sides are in the same ratio. The right triangles
shown
below are similar. Note that the corresponding angles are equal and the length of each side of
the
second triangle is four times the length of the corresponding side of the first triangle.

Let’s observe the sine, cosine, and tangent values of in each triangle. Can we expect
corresponding function values to be the same?

FIRST TRIANGLE SECOND TRIANGLE

3 3
sin   sin  
5 5
4 4
cos   cos  
5 5
3 3
tan   tan  
4 4

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

For the two triangles, the corresponding values of sin  , cos  , and tan  are the same.
The lengths of the sides are proportional—thus the ratios are the same. This must be the
case
because in order for the sine, cosine, and tangent to be functions, there must be only one
output (the ratio) for each input (the angle  ).

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS FOR ANGLES Of 0OAND 90O

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS OF SOME SPECIAL ANGLES

These are listed in Table 1.

Example
Evaluate sin260o+cos260 o
Solution:
2
 3 2
   
1
sin 60 + cos 60  
2 o 2 o

 2  2
3 1
  1
4 4
Example
Evaluate sin2 60o + cos60o , tan45o

Solution:
2
 3 1 3 1 5
sin 2 60 o + cos60 o , tan45 o   
 +  1=  
 2  2 4 2 4

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example

1
Evaluate 3 cos 45 
o

3 sin 45 o

Solution:

1 1 1
3 cos 45 o  3 
2 3 1
o
3 sin 45
2
3 1
 
2 3
2
3 2
 
2 3
92

3 2
7

3 2

Example

tan 30 o  tan 45 o
Does tan 150 o  ?
1  tan 30 o tan 45 o

Since the left side does not equal right side the identity is false.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 1
Determine the exact value of sin45

Example Determine the exact value of sin 45 o cos 45 o  sin 60 o cos 30 o

Solution

1 1 3 3
sin 45o cos 45o  sin 60 o cos 30 o  . 
2 2 2 2
1 3
 
2 4
5 1
 or1
4 4

Example Find the exact value for each of the following cases.

tan 30 o
a) cos 45 o sin 30 o  cos 30 o tan 45 o b) cos 2 60 o 
tan 60 o

Solution

Determine the exact value of sin 45 o cos 45 o  cos 30 o cos 60 o

Solution

2 2 31
sin 45 o cos 45 o  cos 30 o cos 60 o   
2 2 2 2
2 3
 
4 4
2 3

4

1. Find the exact value of the following:

a) sin2 45o + 2sin 30 o sec30 o b) sin 30 o sin 45 o sin 60 o
c) sin2 30 o + cos2 30 o d) sin 30 o cos30 o + sin 60 o cos60 o
e) sin 60 o cos30 o + sin 30 cos 60 f) 2sin 30 o cos30 o
g) 5sec30 o tan 60 o h) cos2 60 o + 3sec2 30 o
i) 3sin2 45 + 4cos2 45 j) sin 60 o cos60 o tan 60 o
k) sec2 45 o csc2 45 o -1 l) sin 30 o + cos 60 o + sec60 o

Prove the following

a) sin2 30 o + cos2 30 o = sin2 60 o + cos2 60 o b) 1+ tan2 45 o = sec2 45 o
c) csc2 60 o =1+ cot2 60 o d) cos 60 o sec30 o = tan 30 o
ANSWERS

3 4 3 6 3 3 17 7 3
1. a) b) C) 1 d) e) 1 f) g) 10 h) i) j) k) 3
6 8 2 2 4 2 4
l) 3

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 1: Find the value of tan260o – sin230o.

1
Solution: We know that tan 60o = 3 and sin 30o = 2

 3
2
2 o 2 o 2 1 1 12  1 11
tan 60 – sin 30     3 
2 4 4

4
 

Example 2: Find the value of

cot230 o sec245o + cosec245 o cos 60 o
Solution: We know that

1
cot 30o = 3 , sec 45o = 2 , cosec 45o = 2 and cos 60o =
2

cot230 o sec245o + cosec245 o cos 60 o     2   2

2 2 2 1
3
2
1
 3 2  2 
2
 6 1
7
Example3: Evaluate : 2(cos2 45o + tan260o) – 6(sin245o – tan230o)

Solution: 2(cos2 45o + tan260o) – 6(sin245o – tan230o)

 1  2   1  2  1  2 
 2    3 2
  6     
 2    2   3  

1  1 1
 2  3   6  
2   2 3

 1 6  3  2

6

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 4: Verify that

tan 450 sec 60 0 5 sin 90 0

  0
csc 30 0 cot 45 0 2 cos 0 0

tan 450 sec 60 0 5 sin 90 0

0
 
Solution: L.H.S. = csc 30 cot 45 0 2 cos 0 0

1 2 5 1
  
2 1 2 1

1 5 1 4  5
 2   0 = R.H.S.
2 2 2

tan 45 0 sec 60 0 5 sin 90 0

0
  0
Hence, csc 30 cot 45 0 2 cos 0 0

4 4 10
Example 23.5: Show that cot 2 30 o  3 sin 2 60 o  2 csc 2 60 o  tan 2 30 o 
3 3 3

4 4
Solution: L.H.S.= cot 2 30 o  3 sin 2 60 o  2 csc 2 60 o  tan 2 30 o
3 3
2 2 2


4
3
 3 2  3
 3
2
  2

2  4 1 
  
3 3

   3 

4 3 4 4 1
  3  3  2   
3 4 3 3 4

9 8 1
 4  
4 3 4

48  27  32  3

12

40

12

10
 = R.H.S.
3
4 4 10
Hence, cot 2 30 o  3 sin 2 60 o  2 csc 2 60 o  tan 2 30 o 
3 3 3

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 6 : Verify that

4 cot 2 60 o  sec 2 30 o  2 sin 2 45 o 4


cos 2 30 o  cos 2 45o 3
2 2 2
 1   2   1 
4      2 
4 cot 60  sec 30  2 sin 45
2 o 2 o 2 o
 3  3  2
Solution: L.H.S. = 
cos 2 30 o  cos 2 45 o 2
 3  1 
2

   
 2   2
 

1 4 1
4  2
 3 3 2
3 1

4 2

8 5
1
 3  3
5 5
4 4

5 4 4
   = R.H.S.
3 5 3
4 cot 2 60 o  sec 2 30 o  2 sin 2 45 o 4
Hence, 
cos 2 30 o  cos 2 45 o 3

Example 23.7: If  = 30o, verfity that

2 tan 
tan 2 
1  tan 2 

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MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

1. Sets 1
1.1 Introduction ` 2
1.2 Sets and their Representations 2
1.3 The Empty Set 5
1.4 Finite and Infinite Sets 6
1.5 Equal Sets 6
1.6 Subsets 8
1.7 Power Set 10
1.8 Universal Set 10
1.9 Venn Diagrams 11
1.10 Operations on Sets 11
1.11 Complement of a Set 15
1.12 Practical Problems on Union and Intersection of Two Sets 21

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

SETS
1.1 Introduction
The concept of set serves as a fundamental part of the present day mathematics. Today
this concept is being used
in almost every branch of mathematics. Sets are used to define the concepts of
relations and functions. The study of
geometry, sequences, probability, etc. requires the knowledge of sets.

The theory of sets was developed by German mathematician Georg Cantor (1845-
1918). He first encountered sets while working on “problems on trigonometric series”.
In this Chapter, we discuss some basic definitions and operations involving sets.

1.2 Sets and their Representations

In everyday life, we often speak of collections of objects of a particular kind, such as,
a pack of cards, a crowd of people, a cricket team, etc. In mathematics also, we come
across collections, for example, of natural numbers, points, prime numbers, etc. More
specially, we examine the following collections:
(i) Odd natural numbers less than 10, i.e., 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
(ii) The rivers of Somalia
(iii) The vowels in the English alphabet, namely, a, e, i, o, u
(iv) Various kinds of triangles
(v) Prime factors of 210, namely, 2,3,5 and 7
(vi) The solution of the equation: x2 – 5x + 6 = 0, viz, 2 and 3.
We note that each of the above example is a well-defined collection of objects in the
sense that we can definitely decide whether a given particular object belongs to a
given collection or not. For example, we can say that the river Nile does not belong to
the collection of rivers of Somalia. On the other hand, the river Juba does belong to
this collection.
We give below a few more examples of sets used particularly in mathematics, viz.
N : the set of all natural numbers
Z : the set of all integers
Q : the set of all rational numbers
R : the set of real numbers
Z+ : the set of positive integers
Q+ : the set of positive rational numbers, and
R+ : the set of positive real numbers.
The symbols for the special sets given above will be referred to throughout this text.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Again the collection of five most renowned mathematicians of the world is not well-defined,
because the criterion for determining a mathematician as most renowned may vary from
person to person. Thus, it is not a well-defined collection.
We shall say that a set is a well-defined collection of objects.
The following points may be noted :
(i) Objects, elements and members of a set are synonymous terms.
(ii) Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, X, Y, Z, etc.
(iii) The elements of a set are represented by small letters a, b, c, x, y, z, etc.

If a is an element of a set A, we say that “ a belongs to A” the Greek symbol  (epsilon) is

used to denote the phrase ‘belongs to’. Thus, we write a  A. If ‘b’ is not an element of a set
A, we write b  A and read “b does not belong to A”.
Thus, in the set V of vowels in the English alphabet, a  V but b  V. In the set
P of prime factors of 30, 3  P but 15  P.

There are two methods of representing a set :

(i) Roster or tabular form(listing elements)
(ii) Set-builder form.

(i) In roster form, all the elements of a set are listed, the elements are being separated
by commas and are enclosed within braces { }. For example, the set of all even
positive integers less than 7 is described in roster form as {2, 4, 6}. Some more
examples of representing a set in roster form are given below :

(a) The set of all natural numbers which divide 42 is {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 42}.

Note In roster form, the order in which the elements are listed is immaterial.
Thus, the above set can also be represented as {1, 3, 7, 21, 2, 6, 14, 42}.
(b) The set of all vowels in the English alphabet is {a, e, i, o, u}.
(c) The set of odd natural numbers is represented by {1, 3, 5, . . .}. The dots
tell us that the list of odd numbers continue indefinitely.

Note It may be noted that while writing the set in roster form an element is not
generally repeated, i.e., all the elements are taken as distinct. For example, the set
of letters forming the word ‘SCHOOL’ is { S, C, H, O, L} or {H, O, L, C, S}. Here,
the order of listing elements has no relevance.

(ii) In set-builder form, all the elements of a set possess a single common property which is
not possessed by any element outside the set. For example, in the set {a, e, i, o, u}, all the
elements possess a common property, namely, each of them is a vowel in the English
alphabet, and no other letter possess this property. Denoting this set by V, we write
V = {x : x is a vowel in English alphabet}
It may be observed that we describe the element of the set by using a symbol x
(any other symbol like the letters y, z, etc. could be used) which is followed by a colon
“ : ”. After the sign of colon, we write the characteristic property possessed by the
elements of the set and then enclose the whole description within braces. The above
description of the set V is read as “the set of all x such that x is a vowel of the English
alphabet”. In this description the braces stand for “the set of all”, the colon stands for
“such that”. For example, the set
A = {x : x is a natural number and 3 < x < 10} is read as “the set of all x such that
x is a natural number and x lies between 3 and 10. Hence, the numbers 4, 5, 6, 7,
8 and 9 are the elements of the set A.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

If we denote the sets described in (a), (b) and (c) above in roster form by A, B,
C, respectively, then A, B, C can also be represented in set-builder form as follows:
A= {x : x is a natural number which divides 42}
B= {y : y is a vowel in the English alphabet}
C= {z : z is an odd natural number}

Example 1 Write the solution set of the equation x2 + x – 2 = 0 in roster form.

Solution The given equation can be written as(x – 1) (x + 2) = 0, i. e., x = 1, – 2
Therefore, the solution set of the given equation can be written in roster form as {1, – 2}.
Example 2 Write the set {x : x is a positive integer and x2 < 40} in the roster form.
Solution The required numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. So, the given set in the roster form
is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Example 3 Write the set A = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, . . . }in set-builder form.
Solution We may write the set A as
A = {x : x is the square of a natural number}
Alternatively, we can write
A = {x : x = n2, where n  N}
1 2 3 4 5 6 
Example 4 Write the set{ 1 2 3 4 5 6}  , , , , ,  in the set-builder form.
2 3 4 5 6 7
Solution We see that each member in the given set has the numerator one less than
the denominator. Also, the numerator begin from 1 and do not exceed 6. Hence, in the
set-builder form the given set is
 n 
x : x  , where is a natural number and 1  n  6
 n 1 
Example 5 Match each of the set on the left described in the roster form with the
same set on the right described in the set-builder form :
(i) {P, R, I, N, C, A, L} (a) { x : x is a positive integer and is a divisor of 18}
(ii) { 0 } (b) { x : x is an integer and x2 – 9 = 0}
(iii) {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18} (c) {x : x is an integer and x + 1= 1}
(iv) {3, –3} (d) {x : x is a letter of the word PRINCIPAL}
Solution Since in (d), there are 9 letters in the word PRINCIPAL and two letters P and I are
repeated, so (i) matches (d). Similarly, (ii) matches (c) as x + 1 = 1 implies
x = 0. Also, 1, 2 ,3, 6, 9, 18 are all divisors of 18 and so (iii) matches (a). Finally, x2 – 9 = 0
implies x = 3, –3 and so (iv) matches (b).
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Which of the following are sets ? Justify your answer.
(i) The collection of all the months of a year beginning with the letter J.
(ii) The collection of ten most talented writers of Somalia.
(iii) A team of eleven best-cricket batsmen of the world.
(iv) The collection of all boys in your class.
(v) The collection of all natural numbers less than 100.
(vi) A collection of novels written by the writer Nura-diin.
(vii) The collection of all even integers.
(viii) The collection of questions in this Chapter.
(ix) A collection of most dangerous animals of the world.
2. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Insert the appropriate symbol  or  in the blank spaces:
(i) 5. . .A (ii) 8 . . . A (iii) 0. . .A (iv) 4. . . A (v) 2. . .A (vi) 10. . .A
3. Write the following sets in roster form:

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

(i) A = {x : x is an integer and –3 < x < 7}

(ii) B = {x : x is a natural number less than 6}
(iii) C = {x : x is a two-digit natural number such that the sum of its digits is 8}
(iv) D = {x : x is a prime number which is divisor of 60}
(v) E = The set of all letters in the word TRIGONOMETRY
(vi) F = The set of all letters in the word BETTER

4. Write the following sets in the set-builder form :

(i) (3, 6, 9, 12} (ii) {2,4,8,16,32} (iii) {5, 25, 125, 625} (iv) {2, 4, 6, . . .} (v)
{1,4,9, . . .,100}
5. List all the elements of the following sets :
(i) A = {x : x is an odd natural number}
1 9
(ii) B = {x : x is an integer,  x }
2 2
(iii) C = {x : x is an integer, x2  4}
(iv) D = {x : x is a letter in the word “LOYAL”}
(v) E = {x : x is a month of a year not having 31 days}
(vi) F = {x : x is a consonant in the English alphabet which precedes k }.
6. Match each of the set on the left in the roster form with the same set on the right
described in set
builder form:
(i) {1, 2, 3, 6} (a) {x : x is a prime number and a divisor of 6}
(ii) {2, 3} (b) {x : x is an odd natural number less than 10}
(iii) {M,A,T,H,E,I,C,S} (c) {x : x is natural number and divisor of 6}
(iv) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} (d) {x : x is a letter of the word MATHEMATICS}.

1.3 The Empty Set

Consider the set
A = { x : x is a student of first year presently studying in a university }
We can go to the university and count the number of students presently studying in
first year in the University. Thus, the set A contains a finite number of elements.
We now write another set B as follows:

B = { x : x is a student presently studying in first year and Second year }

We observe that a student cannot study simultaneously in both first year and Second year.
Thus, the set B contains no element at all.

Definition 1 A set which does not contain any element is called the empty set or the null
set or the void
set. It can also be described In set-builder form, e.g. ∅ = {x : x x}.
According to this definition, B is an empty set while A is not an empty set. The empty set is
denoted by the symbol φ or { }.
We give below a few examples of empty sets.
(i) Let A = {x : 1 < x < 2, x is a natural number}. Then A is the empty set,because there is no
natural
number between 1 and 2.
(ii) B = {x : x2 – 2 = 0 and x is rational number}. Then B is the empty set because the
equation x2 – 2 = 0
is not satisfied by any rational value of x.
(iii) C = {x : x is an even prime number greater than 2}.Then C is the empty set, because 2 is
the only
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

even prime number.

(iv) D = { x : x2 = 4, x is odd }. Then D is the empty set, because the equation x2 = 4 is not
satisfied by
any odd value of x.

1.4 Finite and Infinite Sets

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {a, b, c, d, e, g}
and C = { men living presently in different parts of the world}
We observe that A contains 5 elements and B contains 6 elements. How many elements does
C contain? As it is, we do not know the number of elements in C, but it is some natural
number which may be quite a big number. By number of elements of a set S, we mean the
number of distinct elements of the set and we denote it by n (S). If n (S) is a natural number,
then S is non-empty finite set.
Consider the set of natural numbers. We see that the number of elements of this set is not
finite since there are infinite number of natural numbers. We say that the set of natural
numbers is an infinite set. The sets A, B and C given above are finite sets and n(A) = 5, n(B)
= 6 and n(C) = some finite number.
Definition 2 A set which is empty or consists of a definite number of elements is called
finite otherwise, the set is called infinite.
Consider some examples :
(i) Let W be the set of the days of the week. Then W is finite.
(ii) Let S be the set of solutions of the equation x2 –16 = 0. Then S is finite.
(iii) Let G be the set of points on a line. Then G is infinite.
When we represent a set in the roster form, we write all the elements of the set within braces
{ }. It is not possible to write all the elements of an infinite set within braces { } because the
numbers of elements of such a set is not finite. So, we represent some infinite set in the roster
form by writing a few elements which clearly indicate the structure of the set followed ( or
preceded ) by three dots.
For example, {1, 2, 3 . . .} is the set of natural numbers, {1, 3, 5, 7, . . .} is the set of odd
natural numbers, {. . .,–3, –2, –1, 0,1, 2 ,3, . . .} is the set of integers. All these sets are
infinite.
Note All infinite sets cannot be described in the roster form. For example, the set of real
numbers cannot
be described in this form, because the elements of this set do not follow any particular
pattern.
Example 6 State which of the following sets are finite or infinite :
(i) {x : x  N and (x – 1) (x –2) = 0}
(ii) {x : x  N and x2 = 4}
(iii) {x : x  N and 2x –1 = 0}
(iv) {x : x  N and x is prime}
(v) {x : x  N and x is odd}
Solution (i) Given set = {1, 2}. Hence, it is finite.
(ii) Given set = {2}. Hence, it is finite.
(iii) Given set = φ. Hence, it is finite.
(iv) The given set is the set of all prime numbers and since set of prime numbers is
infinite. Hence
the given set is infinite
(v) Since there are infinite number of odd numbers, hence, the given set is infinite.

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1.5 Equal Sets

Given two sets A and B, if every element of A is also an element of B and if every element of
B is also an element of A, then the sets A and B are said to be equal. Clearly, the two sets
have exactly the same elements.
Definition 3 Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements
and we write A = B. Otherwise, the sets are said to be unequal and we writeA ≠ B.
We consider the following examples :
(i) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 1, 4, 2}. Then A = B.
(ii) Let A be the set of prime numbers less than 6 and P the set of prime factors
of 30. Then A and P are equal, since 2, 3 and 5 are the only prime factors of
30 and also these are less than 6.
Note A set does not change if one or more elements of the set are repeated. For example, the
sets
A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 2, 1, 3, 3} are equal, since each element of A is in B and
vice-versa. That
is why we generally do not repeat any element in describing a set.
Example 7 Find the pairs of equal sets, if any, give reasons:
A = {0}, B = {x : x > 15 and x < 5},
C = {x : x – 5 = 0 }, D = {x: x2 = 25},
E = {x : x is an integral positive root of the equation x2 – 2x –15 = 0}.
Solution Since 0  A and 0 does not belong to any of the sets B, C, D and E, it follows that,
A ≠ B,
A ≠ C, A ≠ D, A ≠ E.
Since B = φ but none of the other sets are empty. Therefore B ≠ C, B ≠ D
and B ≠ E. Also C = {5} but –5  D, hence C ≠ D.
Since E = {5}, C = E. Further, D = {–5, 5} and E = {5}, we find that, D ≠ E.
Thus, the only pair of equal sets is C and E.
Example 8 Which of the following pairs of sets are equal? Justify your answer.
(i) X, the set of letters in “ALLOY” and B, the set of letters in “LOYAL”.
(ii) A = {n : n  Z and n2 ≤ 4} and B = {x : x  R and x2 – 3x + 2 = 0}.
Solution (i) We have, X = {A, L, L, O, Y}, B = {L, O, Y, A, L}. Then X and B are
equal sets as repetition of elements in a set do not change a set. Thus, X = {A, L,
O, Y} = B
(ii) A = {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2}, B = {1, 2}. Since 0  A and 0  B, A and B are not equal
sets.

EXERCISE 1.2
1. Which of the following are examples of the null set
(i) Set of odd natural numbers divisible by 2
(ii) Set of even prime numbers
(iii) { x : x is a natural numbers, x < 5 and x > 7 }
(iv) { y : y is a point common to any two parallel lines}
2. Which of the following sets are finite or infinite
(i) The set of months of a year
(ii) {1, 2, 3, . . .}
(iii) {1, 2, 3, . . .99, 100}
(iv) The set of positive integers greater than 100
(v) The set of prime numbers less than 99
3. State whether each of the following set is finite or infinite:
(i) The set of lines which are parallel to the x-axis
(ii) The set of letters in the English alphabet

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(iii) The set of numbers which are multiple of 5

(iv) The set of animals living on the earth
(v) The set of circles passing through the origin (0,0)
4. In the following, state whether A = B or not:
(i) A = { a, b, c, d } B = { d, c, b, a }
(ii) A = { 4, 8, 12, 16 } B = { 8, 4, 16, 18}
(iii) A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} B = { x : x is positive even integer and x ≤ 10}
(iv) A = { x : x is a multiple of 10}, B = { 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, . . . }
5. Are the following pair of sets equal ? Give reasons.
(i) A = {2, 3}, B = {x : x is solution of x2 + 5x + 6 = 0}
(ii) A = { x : x is a letter in the word FOLLOW}
B = { y : y is a letter in the word WOLF}
6. From the sets given below, select equal sets :
A = { 2, 4, 8, 12}, B = { 1, 2, 3, 4}, C = { 4, 8, 12, 14}, D = { 3, 1, 4, 2} E=
{–1, 1},
F = { 0, a}, G = {1, –1}, H = { 0, 1}
1.6 Subsets
Consider the sets : X = set of all students in your University, Y = set of all students in your class.
We note that every element of Y is also an element of X; we say that Y is a subset of X. The fact that
Y is subset of X is expressed in symbols as Y  X. The symbol  stands for ‘is a subset of’ or ‘is
contained in’.
Definition 4 A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if every element of A is also an
element of B.

In other words, A  B if whenever a  A, then a  B. It is often convenient to use the
symbol “  ” which means implies. Using this symbol, we can write the definition of subset
as follows:
A  B if a  A “  ” a  B .
We read the above statement as “A is a subset of B if a is an element of A implies that a is
also an element of B”. If A is not a subset of B, we write A  B.

We may note that for A to be a subset of B, all that is needed is that every element of A is in
B. It is possible that every element of B may or may not be in A. If it so happens that every
element of B is also in A, then we shall also have B  A. In this case, A and B are the same
sets so that we have A  B and B  A ⇔A = B, where
“  ” is a symbol for two way implications, and is usually read as if and only if
(brieflywritten as “iff”).
It follows from the above definition that every set A is a subset of itself, i.e., A  A. Since the
empty set  has no elements, we agree to say that  is a subset of every set. We now
consider some examples:
(i) The set Q of rational numbers is a subset of the set R of real numbes, and we write
Q  R.
(ii) If A is the set of all divisors of 56 and B the set of all prime divisors of 56, then B
is a subset of A and we write B  A.
(iii) Let A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {x : x is an odd natural number less than 6}. Then
A  B and B  A and hence A = B.
(iv) Let A = { a, e, i, o, u} and B = { a, b, c, d}. Then A is not a subset of B, also B is
not a subset
of A.
Let A and B be two sets. If A  B and A ≠ B , then A is called a proper subset of B
and B is called superset of A. For example,
A = {1, 2, 3} is a proper subset of B = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

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If a set A has only one element, we call it a singleton set. Thus,{ a } is a singleton set.

Example 9 Consider the sets

 , A = { 1, 3 }, B = {1, 5, 9}, C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
Insert the symbol  or  between each of the following pair of sets:
(i)  . . . B (ii) A . . . B (iii) A . . . C
(iv) B . . . C
Solution (i)   B as  is a subset of every set.
(ii) A  B as 3  A and 3  B
(iii) A  C as 1, 3  A also belongs to C
(iv) B  C as each element of B is also an element of C
Example 10 Let A = { a, e, i, o, u} and B = { a, b, c, d}. Is A a subset of B ? No. (Why?). Is
B a subset of
A? No.(Why?)
Example 11 Let A, B and C be three sets. If A  B and B  C, is it true that A  C?. If not,
give an example.
Solution No. Let A = {1}, B = {{1}, 2} and C = {{1}, 2, 3}. Here A  B as A = {1} and B
 C.
But A  C as 1  A and 1  C.
Note that an element of a set can never be a subset of itself.

1.6.1 Subsets of set of real numbers

As noted in Section 1.6, there are many important subsets of R. We give below the
names of some of these subsets.
The set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}
The set of integers Z = {. . ., –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
p
The set of rational numbers Q = { x : x = q , p, q  Z and q  0 }.
p
which is read “ Q is the set of all numbers x such that x equals the quotient q where p and q
5 5 1
are integers and q is not zero”. Members of Q include  , ,3
1 7 2
7 11
(which can be expressed as )and  .
2 3
The set of irrational numbers, denoted by T, is composed of all other real numbers.
Thus T = {x : x  R and x  Q} = R – Q., i.e., all real numbers that are not rational.
Members of T include 2 , 5 and π .
Some of the obvious relations among these subsets are:
N  Z  Q, Q  R, T  R, N  T.
1.6.2 Intervals as subsets of R Let a, b  R and a < b. Then the set of real numbers
{ y : a < y < b} is called an open interval and is denoted by (a, b). All the points
between a and b belong to the open interval (a, b) but a, b themselves do not belong to
this interval.
The interval which contains the end points also is called closed interval and is denoted by [ a,
b ]. Thus [ a, b ] = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b}
We can also have intervals closed at one end and open at the other, i.e.,
[ a, b ) = {x : a ≤ x < b} is an open interval from a to b, including a but excluding b.
( a, b ] = { x : a < x ≤ b } is an open interval from a to b including b but excluding a.
These notations provide an alternative way of designating the subsets of set of
real numbers. For example , if A = (–3, 5) and B = [–7, 9], then A  B. The set [ 0, ∞)
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defines the set of non-negative real numbers, while set ( – ∞, 0 ) defines the set of
negative real numbers. The set ( – ∞, ∞ ) describes the set of real numbers in relation
to a line extending from – ∞ to ∞.
On real number line, various types of intervals described above as subsets of R, are shown in
the Fig 1.1.
Interval Notation
Interval Description Picture Example
Closed [ a , b] Set of numbers x with a x b [0, 10]
(includes end points)
Open ( a , b) Set of numbers x with a < x < (-1, 5)
(excludes end points)
b
Half-Open ( a , b] Set of numbers x with a a < x (-3, 1]
b
[ a , b) Set of numbers x with a x < b [-4, -1)
Infinite [ a , + ) Set of numbers x with a x [0, + )
( a , + ) Set of numbers x with a <x (-3, + )
(- , b] Set of numbers x with x b (- , 0]
(- , b) Set of numbers x with x < b (- , 8)
(- , + ) Set of all real numbers (- , + )
Here, we note that an interval contains infinitely many points.

For example, the set {x : x  R, –5 < x ≤ 7}, written in set-builder form, can be
written in the form of interval as (–5, 7] and the interval [–3, 5) can be written in set builder
form as {x : –3 ≤ x < 5}.

The number (b – a) is called the length of any of the intervals (a, b), [a, b], [a, b) or (a, b].
1.7 Power Set
Consider the set {1, 2}. Let us write down all the subsets of the set {1, 2}. We know that φ is
a subset of every set . So, φ is a subset of {1, 2}. We see that {1} and { 2 }are also subsets of
{1, 2}. Also, we know that every set is a subset of itself. So, { 1, 2 } is a subset of {1, 2}.
Thus, the set { 1, 2 } has, in all, four subsets, viz. φ, { 1 }, { 2 } and { 1, 2 }. The set of all
these subsets is called the
power set of { 1, 2 }.
Definition 5 The collection of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A. It is
denoted by P(A). In P(A), every element is a set.
Thus, as in above, if A = { 1, 2 }, then
P( A ) = { φ,{ 1 }, { 2 }, { 1,2 }}
Also, note that n [ P (A) ] = 4 = 22
In general, if A is a set with n(A) = m, then it can be shown that n [ P(A)] = 2m.
1.8 Universal Set
Usually, in a particular context, we have to deal with the elements and subsets of a basic set
which is relevant to that particular context. For example, while studying the system of
numbers, we are interested in the set of natural numbers and its subsets such as the set of all
prime numbers, the set of all even numbers, and so forth. This basic set is called the
“Universal Set”. The universal set is usually denoted by U. and all its subsets by the letters A,
B, C, etc. For example, for the set of all integers, the universal set can be the set of rational
numbers or, for that matter, the set R of real numbers. For another example, in human
population studies, the universal set consists of all the people in the world.

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EXERCISE 1.3
1. Make correct statements by filling in the symbols  or  in the blank spaces :
(i) { 2, 3, 4 } . . . { 1, 2, 3, 4,5 } (ii) { a, b, c } . . . { b, c, d }
(iii) {x : x is a student of Class XI of your school}. . . {x : x student of your school}
(iv) {x : x is a circle in the plane} . . .{x : x is a circle in the same plane with radius 1
unit}
(v) {x : x is a triangle in a plane} . . . {x : x is a rectangle in the plane}
(vi) {x : x is an equilateral triangle in a plane} . . . {x : x is a triangle in the same
plane}
(vii) {x : x is an even natural number} . . . {x : x is an integer}

2. Examine whether the following statements are true or false:

(i) { a, b }  { b, c, a }
(ii) { a, e }  { x : x is a vowel in the English alphabet}
(iii) { 1, 2, 3 }  { 1, 3, 5 }
(iv) { a }  { a, b, c }
(v) { a }  { a, b, c }
(vi) { x : x is an even natural number less than 6} 
{ x : x is a natural number which divides 36}
3. Let A = { 1, 2, { 3, 4 }, 5 }. Which of the following
statements are incorrect and why?
(i) {3, 4}  A (ii) {3, 4}  A (iii)
 
{{3, 4}} A (iv) 1 A (v) 1 A 
(vi) {1, 2, 5}  A (vii) {1, 2, 5}  A (viii)
{1, 2, 3}  A (ix) φ  A
(x) φ  A (xi) {φ}  A

4. Write down all the subsets of the following sets

(i) {a} (ii) {a, b} (iii) {1, 2, 3} (iv) φ
5. How many elements has P(A), if A = φ?
6. Write the following as intervals :
(i) {x : x  R, – 4 < x  6} (ii) {x : x  R, – 12 < x < –10}
(iii) {x : x  R, 0  x < 7} (iv) {x : x  R, 3  x  4}
7. Write the following intervals in set-builder form :
(i) (– 3, 0) (ii) [6 , 12] (iii) (6, 12] (iv) [–23, 5)
8. What universal set(s) would you propose for each of the following :
(i) The set of right triangles. (ii) The set of isosceles triangles.
9. Given the sets A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6} and C = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}, which of the
following may be considered as universal set (s) for all the three sets A, B and C
(i) {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
(ii) 
(iii) {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
(iv) {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}

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1.9 Venn Diagrams

Most of the relationships between sets can be represented by means of diagrams which are
known as Venn diagrams. Venn diagrams are named after the English logician, John Venn
(1834-1883). These diagrams consist of rectangles and closed curves usually circles. The
universal set is represented usually by a rectangle and its subsets by circles. In Venn
diagrams, the elements of the sets are written in their respective circles (Figs 1.2 and 1.3)
Illustration 1 In Fig 1.2, U = {1,2,3, ..., 10} is the
universal set of which A = {2,4,6,8,10} is a subset.
Illustration 2 In Fig 1.3, U = {1,2,3, ..., 10} is the
universal set of whichA = {2,4,6,8,10} and B = {4, 6}
are subsets,and also B ⊂ A.
The reader will see an extensive use of the
Venn diagrams when we discuss the union, intersection and difference of sets.
1.10 Operations on Sets
In earlier classes, we have learnt how to perform the operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division on numbers. Each one of these
operations was performed on a pair of numbers to get another
number. For example, when we perform the operation of
addition on the pair of numbers 5 and 13, we get the number
18. Again, performing the operation of multiplication on the
pair of numbers 5 and 13, we get 65. Similarly, there are some
operations which when performed on two sets give rise to
another set. We will now define certain operations on sets and
examine their properties.
Henceforth, we will refer all our sets as subsets of some
universal set.
1.10.1 Union of sets Let A and B be any two sets. The union of A and B is the set
which consists of all the elements of A and all the
elements of B, the common elements
being taken only once. The symbol ‘  ’ is used to
denote the union. Symbolically, we
write A  B and usually read as ‘A union B’.
Example 12 Let A = { 2, 4, 6, 8} and B = { 6, 8, 10,
12}. Find A ∪ B.
Solution We have A ∪ B = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}
Note that the common elements 6 and 8 have been taken
only once while writing
A  B.
Example 13 Let A = { a, e, i, o, u } and B = { a, i, u }.
Show that A  B = A
Solution We have, A  B = { a, e, i, o, u } = A.
This example illustrates that union of sets A and its subset B is the set A
itself, i.e., if B  A, then A  B = A.
Example 14 Let X = {Raxmo, Geedi, Abu} be the set of students of Class XI, who are
in school football team. Let Y = {Geedi, Daud, Ashkir} be the set of students from
Class XI who are in the school basketball team. Find X  Y and interpret the set.
Solution We have, X  Y = { Raxmo, Geedi, Abu, Daud, Ashkir }. This is the set of
students from Class XI who are in the football team or the basketball team or both.

Thus, we can define the union of two sets as follows:

Definition 6 The union of two sets A and B is the set C which consists of all those
elements which are either in A or in B
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(including those which are in both). In symbols,

we write.
A  B = { x : x  A or x  B }
The union of two sets can be represented by a
Venn diagram as shown in Fig 1.4.
The shaded portion in Fig 1.4 represents A  B.

Some Properties of the Operation of Union

(i) A  B = B  A (Commutative law)
(ii) ( A  B )  C = A  ( B  C) (Associative law )
(iii) A  φ = A (Law of identity element, φ is the identity of  )
(iv) A  A = A (Idempotent law)
(v) U  A = U (Law of U)

1.10.2 Intersection of sets The intersection of sets A and B is

the set of all elements which are common to both A and B. The
symbol ‘  ’ is used to denote the intersection. The intersection of two sets A and B is the set
of all those elements which belong to both A and B. Symbolically, we write A  B = {x : x
 A and x  B}.
Example 15 Consider the sets A and B of Example 12. Find A  B.
Solution We see that 6, 8 are the only elements which are common to both A and B.
Hence A  B = { 6, 8 }.
Example 16 Consider the sets X and Y of Example 14. Find X ∩ Y.
Solution We see that element ‘Geedi’ is the only element common to both. Hence,
X ∩ Y = { Geedi }.
Example 17 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and
B = { 2, 3, 5, 7 }. Find A ∩ B and
hence show that A ∩ B = B.
Solution We have A ∩ B = { 2, 3, 5, 7 } = B. We note that B  A and that A ∩ B = B.
Definition 7 The intersection of two sets A and B
is the set of all those elements which belong to both
A and B. Symbolically, we write
A ∩ B = {x : x  A and x  B}
The shaded portion in Fig 1.5 indicates the interseciton of A and B.
If A and B are two sets such that A ∩ B =  , then
A and B are called disjoint sets.
For example, let A = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } and
B = { 1, 3, 5, 7 }. Then A and B are disjoint sets,
because there are no elements which are common to
A and B. The disjoint sets can be represented by
means of Venn diagram as shown in the Fig 1.6
In the above diagram, A and B are disjoint sets.

Some Properties of Operation of Intersection

(i) A ∩B = B ∩A (Commutative law).
(ii) ( A ∩B ) ∩C = A ∩( B ∩C ) (Associative law).
(iii)  ∩A =  , U ∩A = A (Law of  and U).
(iv) A ∩A = A (Idempotent law)
(v) A ∩( B  C ) = ( A ∩B )  ( A ∩C ) (Distributive law ) i. e., ∩distributes over  
This can be seen easily from the following venn diagrams [Figs 1.7 (i) to (v)].

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1.10.3 Difference of sets The difference of the sets A and B

in this order is the set of elements which belong to A but not to B. Symbolically, we write A –
B and read as “ A minus B”.

Example 18 Let A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 }. Find A – B and B – A.

Solution We have, A – B = { 1, 3, 5 }, since the elements 1, 3, 5 belong to A but
not to B and B – A = { 8 }, since the element 8 belongs to B and not to A. We note that A – B
≠ B – A.
Example 19 Let V = { a, e, i, o, u } and B = { a, i, k, u}. Find V – B and B – V
Solution We have, V – B = { e, o }, since the elements e, o belong to V but not to B and B –
V = { k }, since the element k belongs to B but not to V. We note that V – B ≠ B – V. Using
the set builder
notation, we can rewrite the definition of difference as
A – B = { x : x  A and x  B }
The difference of two sets A and B can be represented by Venn diagram as shown in Fig 1.8.
The shaded portion represents the difference of the two sets A and B.
Remark The sets A – B, A ∩ B and B – A are
mutually disjoint sets, i.e., the intersection of any of these two sets is the null set as shown in
Fig 1.9.

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EXERCISE 1.4
1. Find the union of each of the following pairs of sets :
(i) X = {1, 3, 5} Y = {1, 2, 3}
(ii) A = [ a, e, i, o, u} B = {a, b, c}
(iii) A = {x : x is a natural number and multiple of 3}
B = {x : x is a natural number less than 6}
(iv) A = {x : x is a natural number and 1 < x ≤ 6 }
B = {x : x is a natural number and 6 < x < 10 }
(v) A = {1, 2, 3}, B=φ
2. Let A = { a, b }, B = {a, b, c}. Is A  B ? What is A  B ?
3. If A and B are two sets such that A  B, then what is A  B ?
4. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6}, C = {5, 6, 7, 8 }and D = { 7, 8, 9, 10 }; find
(i) A  B (ii) A  C (iii) B  C (iv) B  D (v) A  B  C
(vi) A  B  D (vii) B  C  D
5. Find the intersection of each pair of sets of question 1 above.
6. If A = { 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 }, B = {7, 9, 11, 13}, C = {11, 13, 15}and D = {15, 17}; find
(i) A ∩ B (ii) B ∩ C (iii) A ∩ C ∩ D (iv) A ∩ C
(v) B ∩ D (vi) A ∩ (B  C) (vii) A ∩ D (viii) A ∩ (B  D)
(ix) ( A ∩ B ) ∩ ( B  C ) (x) ( A  D) ∩ ( B  C)
7. If A = {x : x is a natural number }, B = {x : x is an even natural number}
C = {x : x is an odd natural number}and D = {x : x is a prime number }, find
(i) A ∩ B (ii) A ∩ C (iii) A ∩ D (iv) B ∩ C (v) B ∩ D (vi) C ∩ D
8. Which of the following pairs of sets are disjoint
(i) {1, 2, 3, 4} and {x : x is a natural number and 4 ≤ x ≤ 6 }
(ii) { a, e, i, o, u } and { c, d, e, f }
(iii) {x : x is an even integer } and {x : x is an odd integer}
9. If A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21}, B = { 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 }, C = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 },
D = {5, 10, 15, 20 }; find
(i) A – B (ii) A – C (iii) A – D (iv) B – A (v) C – A (vi) D – A
(vii) B – C (viii) B – D (ix) C – B (x) D – B (xi) C – D (xii) D – C
10. If X= { a, b, c, d } and Y = { f, b, d, g}, find
(i) X – Y (ii) Y – X (iii) X ∩Y
11. If R is the set of real numbers and Q is the set of rational numbers, then what is R – Q?
12. State whether each of the following statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
(i) { 2, 3, 4, 5 } and { 3, 6} are disjoint sets.
(ii) { a, e, i, o, u } and { a, b, c, d }are disjoint sets.
(iii) { 2, 6, 10, 14 } and { 3, 7, 11, 15} are disjoint sets.
(iv) { 2, 6, 10 } and { 3, 7, 11} are disjoint sets.

1.11 Complement of a Set

Let U be the universal set which consists of all prime numbers and A be the subset of
U which consists of all those prime numbers that are not divisors of 42. Thus,
A = {x : x  U and x is not a divisor of 42 }. We see that 2  U but 2  A, because
2 is divisor of 42. Similarly, 3  U but 3  A, and 7  U but 7  A. Now 2, 3 and 7 are
the only elements of U which do not belong to A. The set of these three prime numbers,
i.e., the set {2, 3, 7} is called the Complement of A with respect to U, and is denoted by A .
So we have A = {2, 3, 7}. Thus, we see that A = {x : x  U and x  A }. This leads to
the following definition.

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Definition 8 Let U be the universal set and A a subset

of U. Then the complement of
A is the set of all elements of U which are not the
elements of A. Symbolically, we
write A′ to denote the complement of A with respect to
U. Thus,
A′ = {x : x  U and x  A }. Obviously A′ = U – A
We note that the complement of a set A can be looked
upon, alternatively, as the
difference between a universal set U and the set A.
Example 20 Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Find A′.
Solution We note that 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 are the only elements of U which do not belong to
A. Hence A′ = { 2, 4, 6, 8,10 }.
Example 21 Let U be universal set of all the students of first year of the University of a
coeducational and A be the set of all girls in first year of the University. Find A′.
Solution Since A is the set of all girls, A′ is clearly the set of all boys in the first year of the
University.

Note If A is a subset of the universal set U, then its complement A′is also a subset of U.
Again in Example 20 above, we have A′= { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 }
Hence (A′) ′= {x : x  U and x  A′} = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = A
It is clear from the definition of the complement that for any subset of the universal
set U, we have (A′) ′= A

Now, we want to find the results for ( A  B ) ′and A′  B′in the following example.
Example 22 Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A = {2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}.
Find A′, B′, A′  B′, A   B and hence show that ( A  B ) ′= A′  B′.
Solution Clearly A′= {1, 4, 5, 6}, B′= { 1, 2, 6 }. Hence A′  B′= { 1, 6 }
Also A   B = { 2, 3, 4, 5 }, so that (A  B ) ′= { 1, 6 }
( A  B ) ′= { 1, 6 } = A′  B′
It can be shown that the above result is true in general. If A and B are any two
subsets of the universal set U, then ( A  B ) ′= A′  B′. Similarly, ( A   B ) ′= A′  B′. These
two results are stated in words as follows :

The complement of the union of two sets is the intersection of their complements and the
complement of the intersection of two sets is the union of their complements. These are called
De Morgan’s laws. These are named after the mathematician De Morgan. The complement A′
of a set A can be represented by a Venn diagram as shown in Fig 1.10. The shaded portion
represents the complement of the set A.
Some Properties of Complement Sets
1. Complement laws: (i) A  A′ = U (ii) A ∩ A′ = φ
2. De Morgan’s law: (i) (A  B)´ = A′ ∩ B′ (ii) (A ∩ B )′ = A′  B′
3. Law of double complementation : (A′ )′ = A
4. Laws of empty set and universal set φ′ = U and U′ = φ.
These laws can be verified by using Venn diagrams.

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EXERCISE 1.5
1. Let U = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }, A = { 1, 2, 3, 4}, B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } and C = { 3, 4, 5,
6 }.
Find (i) A´ (ii) B´ (iii) (A  C) ´ (iv) (A  B) ´ (v) (A´ )´ (vi) (B – C) ´
2. If U = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}, find the complements of the following sets :
(i) A = {a, b, c} (ii) B = {d, e, f, g}
(iii) C = {a, c, e, g} (iv) D = { f, g, h, a}
2. Taking the set of natural numbers as the universal set, write down the complements of the
following
sets:
(i) {x : x is an even natural number} (ii) { x : x is an odd natural
number }
(iii) {x : x is a positive multiple of 3} (iv) { x : x is a prime number }
(v) {x : x is a natural number divisible by 3 and 5}
(vi) { x : x is a perfect square } (vii) { x : x is a perfect cube}
(viii) { x : x + 5 = 8 } (ix) { x : 2x + 5 = 9}
(x) { x : x ≥ 7 } (xi) { x : x  N and 2x + 1 > 10 }
4. If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }, A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = { 2, 3, 5, 7}. Verify that
(i) (A  B) ′ = A′ ∩ B′ (ii) (A ∩ B) ′ = A′  B′
5. Draw appropriate Venn diagram for each of the following :
(i) (A  B) ′, (ii) A′ ∩ B′, (iii) (A ∩ B) ′, (iv) A′  B′
6. Let U be the set of all triangles in a plane. If A is the set of all triangles with at least one
angle different
From 60°, what is A′?
7. Fill in the blanks to make each of the following a true statement :
(i) A  A′ = . . . (ii)   ∩ A = . . . (iii) A ∩ A′= . . . (iv) U′ ∩ A = . . .
1.12 Practical Problems on Union and
Intersection of Two Sets
In earlier Section, we have learnt union, intersection
and difference of two sets. In this Section, we will
go through some practical problems related to our
daily life.The formulae derived in this Section will
also be used in the Probability.
Let A and B be finite sets. If A ∩B =  , then
(i) n ( A  B ) = n ( A ) + n ( B ) ... ... ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... ... ... (1)
The elements in A  B are either in A or in B but not in both as A ∩B =  . So, (1)
follows immediately.
In general, if A and B are finite sets, then
(ii) n ( A  B ) = n ( A ) + n ( B ) – n ( A ∩B ) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. (2)

Note that the sets A – B, A ∩B and B – A are disjoint and their union is A  B
(Fig 1.11). Therefore

n ( A  B) = n ( A – B) + n ( A ∩B ) + n ( B – A )
= n ( A – B) + n ( A ∩B ) + n ( B – A ) + n ( A ∩B ) –
n ( A∩ B)
= n ( A ) + n ( B ) – n ( A ∩B), which verifies (2)
(iii) If A, B and C are finite sets, then
n ( A  B  C ) = n ( A ) + n ( B ) + n ( C ) – n ( A ∩B ) – n ( B ∩C)
– n ( A ∩C ) + n ( A ∩B ∩C ) ... (3)

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In fact, we have
n ( A  B  C ) = n (A) + n ( B  C ) – n [ A ∩( B  C ) ] [ by (2) ]
= n (A) + n ( B ) + n ( C ) – n ( B ∩C ) – n [ A ∩( B  C ) ] [ by (2) ]
Since A ∩( B  C ) = ( A ∩B )  ( A ∩C ), we get
n [ A ∩( B ∩C ) ] = n ( A ∩B ) + n ( A ∩C ) – n [ ( A ∩B ) ∩ (A ∩C)]
= n ( A ∩B ) + n ( A ∩C ) – n (A ∩B ∩C)
Therefore
n ( A  B  C ) = n (A) + n ( B ) + n ( C ) – n ( A ∩B ) – n ( B ∩C) – n ( A ∩C ) +
n ( A ∩B ∩C )
This proves (3).

Example 23
If X and Y are two sets such that X  Y has 50 elements, X has 28 elements
and Y has 32 elements, how many elements does X ∩ Y have ?
Solution Given that
n ( X  Y ) = 50, n ( X ) = 28, n ( Y ) = 32,
n (X ∩Y) = ?
By using the formula
n ( X  Y ) = n ( X ) + n ( Y ) – n ( X ∩Y ),
we find that
n ( X ∩Y ) = n ( X ) + n ( Y ) – n ( X  Y )
= 28 + 32 – 50 = 10
Alternatively, suppose n ( X ∩Y ) = k, then
n ( X – Y ) = 28 – k , n ( Y – X ) = 32 – k (by Venn diagram in Fig 1.12 )
This gives 50 = n ( X  Y ) = n (X – Y) + n (X ∩Y) + n ( Y – X)
= ( 28 – k ) + k + (32 – k )
Hence k = 10.

Example 24: In a school there are 20 teachers who teach

mathematics or physics. Of these, 12 teach mathematics and
4 teach both physics and mathematics. How many teach
physics ?
Solution Let M denote the set of teachers who teach
mathematics and P denote the set of teachers who teach
physics. In the statement of the problem, the word ‘or’ gives
us a clue of union and the word ‘and’ gives us a clue of intersection. We, therefore,
have n ( M  P ) = 20 , n ( M ) = 12 and n ( M ∩ P ) = 4
We wish to determine n ( P ).
Using the result
n ( M  P ) = n ( M ) + n ( P ) – n ( M ∩ P ), we obtain
20 = 12 + n ( P ) – 4
Thus n ( P ) = 12
Hence 12 teachers teach physics.

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Example 25 In a class of 35 students, 24 like to play cricket and 16 like to play

football. Also, each student likes to play at least one of the two games. How many
students like to play both cricket and football ?
Solution Let X be the set of students who like to play cricket and Y be the set of
students who like to play football. Then X  Y is the set of students who like to play
at least one game, and X ∩ Y is the set of students who like to play both games.
Given n ( X) = 24, n ( Y ) = 16, n ( X  Y ) = 35, n (X ∩ Y) = ?
Using the formula n ( X  Y ) = n ( X ) + n ( Y ) – n ( X ∩ Y ), we get
35 = 24 + 16 – n (X ∩ Y)
Thus, n (X ∩ Y) = 5
i.e., 5 students like to play both games.
Example 26 In a survey of 400 students in a school, 100 were listed as taking apple
juice, 150 as taking orange juice and 75 were listed as taking both apple as well as
orange juice. Find how many students were taking neither apple juice nor orange
juice.
Solution Let U denote the set of surveyed students and A denote the set of students
taking apple juice and B denote the set of students taking orange juice. Then
n (U) = 400, n (A) = 100, n (B) = 150 and n (A ∩ B) = 75.
Now n (A′ ∩ B′) = n (A  B )′= n (U) – n (A  B)
= n (U) – n (A) – n (B) + n (A ∩ B)
= 400 – 100 – 150 + 75 = 225
Hence 225 students were taking neither apple juice nor orange juice.
Example 27 There are 200 individuals with a skin disorder, 120 had been exposed to
the chemical C1, 50 to chemical C2, and 30 to both the chemicals C1 and C2. Find the
number of individuals exposed to
(i) Chemical C1 but not chemical C2 (ii) Chemical C2 but not chemical C1
(iii) Chemical C1 or chemical C2
Solution Let U denote the universal set consisting of individuals suffering from the
skin disorder, A denote the set of individuals exposed to the chemical C1 and B denote
the set of individuals exposed to the chemical C2.
Here n ( U) = 200, n ( A ) = 120, n ( B ) = 50 and n ( A ∩ B ) = 30
(i) From the Venn diagram given in Fig 1.13, we have
A = ( A – B )  ( A ∩ B ).
n (A) = n( A – B ) + n( A ∩ B ) (Since A – B) and A ∩ B are
disjoint.)
or n ( A – B ) = n ( A ) – n ( A ∩ B ) = 120 –30 = 90
Hence, the number of individuals exposed to
chemical C1 but not to chemical C2 is 90.
(ii) From the Fig 1.13, we have
B = ( B – A)  ( A ∩ B).
and so, n (B) = n (B – A) + n ( A ∩ B)
(Since B – A and A ∩B are disjoint.)
or n ( B – A ) = n ( B ) – n ( A ∩ B )
= 50 – 30 = 20

Thus, the number of individuals exposed to chemical C2 and not to chemical C1 is 20.
(iii) The number of individuals exposed either to chemical C1 or to chemical C2, i.e.,
n ( A   B ) = n ( A ) + n ( B ) – n ( A ∩B ) = 120 + 50 – 30 = 140.

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EXERCISE 1.6

1. If X and Y are two sets such that n ( X ) = 17, n ( Y ) = 23 and n ( X  Y ) = 38,

find n ( X ∩ Y ).
2. If X and Y are two sets such that X  Y has 18 elements, X has 8 elements and
Y has 15 elements ; how many elements does X ∩Y have?
3. In a group of 400 people, 250 can speak Somali and 200 can speak Arabic. How
many people can speak both Somali and Arabic?
4. If S and T are two sets such that S has 21 elements, T has 32 elements, and S ∩T
has 11 elements, how many elements does S  T have?
5. If X and Y are two sets such that X has 40 elements, X  Y has 60 elements and X
∩Y has 10
elements, how many elements does Y have?
6. In a group of 70 people, 37 like coffee, 52 like tea and each person likes at least
one of the two drinks.
How many people like both coffee and tea?
7. In a group of 65 people, 40 like cricket, 10 like both cricket and tennis. How many
like tennis only and not cricket? How many like tennis?
8. In a committee, 50 people speak French, 20 speak Spanish and 10 speak both
Spanish and French. How many speak at least one of these two languages?
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
Example 28 Show that the set of letters needed to spell “ CATARACT ” and the
set of letters needed to spell “ TRACT” are equal.
Solution Let X be the set of letters in “CATARACT”. Then
X = { C, A, T, R }
Let Y be the set of letters in “ TRACT”. Then
Y = { T, R, A, C, T } = { T, R, A, C }
Since every element in X is in Y and every element in Y is in X. It follows that X = Y.
Example 29 List all the subsets of the set { –1, 0, 1 }.
Solution Let A = { –1, 0, 1 }. The subset of A having no element is the empty
set φ. The subsets of A having one element are { –1 }, { 0 }, { 1 }. The subsets of
A having two elements are {–1, 0}, {–1, 1} ,{0, 1}. The subset of A having three
elements of A is A itself. So, all the subsets of A are φ, {–1}, {0}, {1}, {–1, 0}, {–1, 1},
{0, 1} and {–1, 0, 1}.

Example 30 Show that A  B = A  B implies A = B

Solution Let a  A. Then a  A  B. Since A  B = A  B , a  A  B. So a
 B.
Therefore, A  B. Similarly, if b  B, then b  A  B. Since
A  B = A  B, b  A  B. So, b  A. Therefore, B  A. Thus, A = B

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Example 31 For any sets A and B, show that

P ( A  B ) = P ( A )  P ( B ).
Solution Let X  P ( A  B ). Then X  A  B. So, X  A and X  B. Therefore,
X  P ( A ) and X  P ( B ) which implies X  P ( A )  P ( B). This gives P ( A 
B)
 P ( A )  P ( B ). Let Y  P ( A )  P ( B ). Then Y  P ( A) and Y  P ( B ). So,
Y  A and Y  B. Therefore, Y  A  B, which implies Y  P ( A  B ). This
gives
P ( A )  P ( B )  P ( A  B)
Hence P ( A  B ) = P ( A )  P ( B ).

Example 32 A market research group conducted a survey of 1000 consumers and

reported that 720 consumers like product A and 450 consumers like product B, what is
the least number that must have liked both products?
Solution Let U be the set of consumers questioned, S be the set of consumers who
liked the product A and T be the set of consumers who like the product B. Given that
n ( U ) = 1000, n ( S ) = 720, n ( T ) = 450
So n ( S  T ) = n ( S ) + n ( T ) – n ( S ∩ T )
= 720 + 450 – n (S ∩ T) = 1170 – n ( S ∩ T )
Therefore, n ( S  T ) is maximum when n ( S ∩ T ) is least. But S  T  U implies
n ( S  T ) ≤ n ( U ) = 1000. So, maximum values of n ( S  T ) is 1000. Thus, the
least
value of n ( S ∩ T ) is 170. Hence, the least number of consumers who liked both
products

Example 33 Out of 500 car owners investigated,

400 owned car A and 200 owned
car B, 50 owned both A and B cars. Is this data
correct?
Solution Let U be the set of car owners
investigated, M be the set of persons who
owned car A and S be the set of persons who
owned car B.
Given that n ( U ) = 500, n (M ) = 400, n ( S ) =
200 and n ( S ∩ M ) = 50.
Then n ( S  M ) = n ( S ) + n ( M ) – n ( S ∩
M ) = 200 + 400 – 50 = 550
But S  M  U implies n ( S  M ) ≤ n ( U ).
This is a contradiction. So, the given data is incorrect.
Example 34 A college warded 38 medals in football, 15 in basketball and 20 in
cricket. If these medals went to a total of 58 men and only three men got medals in all
the three sports, how many received medals in exactly two of the three sports ?
Solution Let F, B and C denote the set of men who
received medals in football, basketball and cricket,
respectively.
Then n ( F ) = 38, n ( B ) = 15, n ( C ) = 20
n (F  B  C ) = 58 and n (F ∩ B ∩ C ) = 3
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Therefore, n (F  B  C ) = n ( F ) + n ( B )
+ n ( C ) – n (F ∩ B ) – n (F ∩ C ) – n (B ∩ C ) +
n ( F ∩ B ∩ C ),
gives n ( F ∩ B ) + n ( F ∩ C ) + n ( B ∩ C ) = 18
Consider the Venn diagram as given in Fig 1.14
Here, a denotes the number of men who got medals in football and basketball only, b
denotes the number of men who got medals in football and cricket only, c denotes the
number of men who got medals in basket ball and cricket only and d denotes the
number of men who got medal in all the three. Thus, d = n ( F ∩ B ∩ C ) = 3 and a +
d + b + d + c + d = 18
Therefore a + b + c = 9,
which is the number of people who got medals in exactly two of the three sports.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE ON CHAPTER 1

1. Decide, among the following sets, which sets are subsets of one and another:
A = { x : x  R and x satisfy x2 – 8x + 12 = 0 },
B = { 2, 4, 6 }, C = { 2, 4, 6, 8, . . . }, D = { 6 }.
2. In each of the following, determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is
true, prove it. If it is false, give an example.
(i) If x  A and A  B , then x  B
(ii) If A  B and B  C , then A  C
(iii) If A  B and B  C , then A  C
(iv) If A  B and B  C , then A  C
(v) If x  A and A  B , then x  B
(vi) If A  B and x  B , then x  A
3. Let A, B, and C be the sets such that A  B = A  C and A ∩ B = A ∩ C. Show that B =
C.
4. Show that the following four conditions are equivalent :
(i) A  B (ii) A – B = φ (iii) A  B = B (iv) A ∩ B = A
5. Show that if A B, then C – B  C – A.

6. Assume that P ( A ) = P ( B ). Show that A = B
7. Is it true that for any sets A and B, P ( A )  P ( B ) = P ( A  B )? Justify your answer.
8. Show that for any sets A and B,
A = ( A B ) ∩( A – B ) and A ∩( B – A ) = ( A ∩B )
9. Using properties of sets, show that
(i) A  ( A ∩B ) = A (ii) A ∩( A  B ) = A.
10. Show that A ∩B = A ∩C need not imply B = C.
11. Let A and B be sets. If A ∩X = B ∩X =  and A  X = B  X for some set X, show that A =
B.
(Hints A = A ∩ ( A  X ) , B = B  ( B ∩X ) and use Distributive law )
12. Find sets A, B and C such that A ∩ B, B ∩ C and A ∩ C are non-empty sets and A ∩ B ∩
C=  .
13. In a survey of 600 students in a school, 150 students were found to be taking tea and 225
taking
coffee, 100 were taking both tea and coffee. Find how many students were taking neither
tea nor
coffee?
14. In a group of students, 100 students know Hindi, 50 know English and 25 know both.
Each of the
students knows either Hindi or English. How many students are there in the group?

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

15. In a survey of 60 people, it was found that 25 people read newspaper H, 26 read
newspaper T, 26 read
newspaper I, 9 read both H and I, 11 read both H and T, 8 read both T and I, 3 read all
three
newspapers. Find:
(i) the number of people who read at least one of the newspapers.
(ii) the number of people who read exactly one newspaper.
16. In a survey it was found that 21 people liked product A, 26 liked product B and 29 liked
product C. If
14 people liked products A and B, 12 people liked products C and A, 14 people liked
products B and
C and 8 liked all the three products. Find how many liked product C only.

SUMMARY
This chapter deals with some basic definitions and operations involving sets. These are
summarised below:
�A set is a well-defined collection of objects.
�A set which does not contain any element is called empty set.
�A set which consists of a definite number of elements is called finite set, otherwise, the set
is called
infinite set.
�Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements.
�A set A is said to be subset of a set B, if every element of A is also an element of B.
Intervals are
subsets of R.
�A power set of a set A is collection of all subsets of A. It is denoted by P(A).

�The union of two sets A and B is the set of all those elements which are either in A or in B.
�The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all elements which are common. The difference of
two sets A
and B in this order is the set of elements which belong to A but not to B.
�The complement of a subset A of universal set U is the set of all elements of U which are not the
elements of A.
�For any two sets A and B, (A  B) ′ = A′  B′and ( A  B ) ′= A′  B′
�If A and B are finite sets such that A  B =  , then
n (A  B) = n (A) + n (B).
If A  B ∩  , then
n (A  B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A  B)

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
OBJECTIVES
Unit 6
At the end of this unit learners should be able to:
 Recognize a quadratic equation
 Solve a quadratic equation by factorization
 Solve a quadratic equation using a standard formula
 Solve a quadratic equation by completing the square
 Interpret the solution of a quadratic graphically

QUADRATIC EQUATION
A Quadratic Equation is an equation that can be written in the form
ax 2  bx  c  0
Where a, b, and c are real numbers. with a  0 .

The form ax 2  bx  c  0 is the standard form of quadratic equation. For example,

x 2  5 x  6  0 , 2a 2  5a  3 and y2  4
are all quadratic equation, but only x 2  5 x  6  0 is in standard form. Sometimes, a
quadratic equation is called a second-degree equation, because the left side is a
polynomial of degree 2. We shall discuss four algebraic ways of solving quadratic
equations: by factoring, by the square root method, by completing the square, and by
using the quadratic formula.
Up to now, we have factored expressions, including many quadratic expressions of
the form ax 2  bx  c . In this section, we see how we can use factored quadratic
expressions to solve quadratic equations.

Solving quadratic equations by factoring

you have learned The factoring techniques in the previous grade. In this we will how
to solve a quadratic equation by factoring. Using factoring to solve quadratic
equations requires the zero-product Theorem, which says

Zero-factor theorem
If a and b are real numbers and if a b = 0,then a = 0 or b = 0.

That is, if the product of two numbers is 0, then at least one of the number must
be 0. one number must be 0, but both may be 0.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Using the Zero - Factor theorem

Example 1 Solve each equation.

(a) (x+3) (2x-1) =0 (b) y( 3y- 4) =0
Solution
The product (x+3) (2x-1) is equal to 0. By the Zero - Factor theorem, the only way
that the product of these two factors can be 0 is if at least one of the factors equal 0.
Therefore either x+3=0 or 2x-1 =0. Solve each of these two linear equation as we have
learned.
x+3=0 or 2x - 1 = 0 Zero - Factor
theorem
x =-3 2x = 1
1
x
2
1
The given equation (x+3) (2x-1) =0 , has two solutions, - 3 and . Check these
2
solutions by substitute – 3 for x in the original equation (x+3) (2x-1) =0. Then start
1
over and substitute for x
2
1
If x = - 3, then If x 
2
(x+3) (2x-1) = 0 (x+3) (2x-1) =0
(x+3) (2(-3)-1) =0 (1\2+3) (2.1\2-1) =0
0(-7) = 0 True 7\2.0 = 0
1  1
Both – 3 and result in true equation, so the solution set is  3,  .
2  2
(b) y( 3y- 4) =0
y( 3y- 4) =0
y = 0 or 3y- 4 = 0 Zero - Factor theorem
3y=4
4
y
3
 4
Check these solutions by substituting each one in the original equation. the solution set is 0,  .
 3

NOTE The word or as used in example 1 means “ one or the other or both.”

In Ex ample 1, each equation to be solved was given with the trinomial in factored form. If
the trinomial in an equation is not already factored, first make sure that the equation is in
standard form. Then factor.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Solve Quadratic Equations factoring

Example 2 Solve each Equation.
(a)x2- 5x= - 6 (b) y2= y +20
First, rewrite the equation in standard form by adding 6 to each side.
x2- 5x= - 6
x2- 5x +6 = 0 Add 6
2
Now factor x - 5x +6 . Find two numbers whose product is 6 and whose sum is -5. These two
numbers are -2 and -3, so the equation becomes
( x - 2 )( x - 3) = 0 Factor
x – 2= 0 or x - 3= 0 Zero - Factor theorem
x = 2 or x = 3 Solve each Equation
Check: If x = 2,then If x = 2,then
x2- 5x= - 6 x2- 5x= - 6
22- 5(2)= - 6 32- 5(3)= - 6
4 - 10=-6 9 - 15=-6
-6=-6 True -6=- 6 True
Both Solutions Check, so the solution set is  2,3 .
(b) y2= y +20 rewrite the equation in standard form
y2 = y +20
y2 - y -20 = 0 Subtract y and 20.
( y - 5 )( y + 4) = 0 Factor
x – 5= 0 or y + 4= 0 Zero - Factor theorem
x = 5 or x = - 4 Solve each Equation
Check these solutions by substituting each one in the original equation. The solution set is
  4,5
In Summary, follow these steps to solve quadratic equations by factoring.

Solving a Quadratic Equation by Factoring

Step 1 Write the equation in standard form, that is, with all terms on one

Side of the equals sign in descending powers of the variable and 0 on the
other side.
Step 2 Factor completely.
Step 3 Use the Zero- factor theorem to set each factor with a variable equal to 0,
and solve the resulting equations.
Step 4 Check each solution in original equation.

Note: Always check your factoring by distribution.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

NOTE Not all quadratic equations can be solved by factoring. A more general method for solving
such equations is given in next section.

Solving a Quadratic Equation with a Common Factor

Solving a Quadratic Equation with Factoring difference of two squares

Example 3 Solve each equation
(a)16 m2- 25 = 0 (b) y2 =2 y (c ) k(2k +1) = 3

Solution
(a) Factor the left side of the equation as the difference of squares
(4 m - 5) (4 m+ 5) =0
4m- 5=0 or 4m+5=0
4m = 5 or 4m =- 5
5 5
m m
4 4
5 5 5 5
Check the two solutions and  , in the original equation. The solution set is  ,  .
4 4 4 4
(b) y2 =2 y
First write the equation in standard form.
y2 - 2 y =0 standard form
y (y - 2 )=0 factor
y=0 or y - 2=0 Zero-factor theorem
y=0 y=2
The solution set is  0,2 .
(c ) k(2k +1) = 3
write the equation in standard form.
k(2k +1) = 3
2k2 + k = 3 Distributive property
2
2k + k – 3=0 Subtract 3
(k – 1)( 2k+3) =0 Factor theorem
k – 1= 0 or 2k+3 =0 Zero- factor theorem
k =1 2k = -3
3  3
k  The solution set is 1, 
2  2
In Example4(c) we could not use the Zero-factor theorem to solve the equation k(2k +1) =
3 in its given from because of the 3 on the right. Remember that the zero factor theorem
applies only to a product that equals 0.
We can also use the Zero-factor theorem to solve equations that involve more than two factos
with variables, as in Example5. (These equations are not quadratic equations. Why not?
Solving Equations with More that Two variable factors
Example 4 Solve each equation.
(a) 6z3 - 6z =0
6z (z2 – 1) =0 Factor out 6z
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

6z (z + 1) (z – 1) =0 Factor z2 – 1
By an extension of the zero-factor theorem, this product can equal 0 only if at
least one of the factors is 0. Write and solve three equations, one for each factor
with a variable
6z=0 or z + 1=0 or z – 1 =0
Check by substituting, in turn ,0, -1 and 1 in the original equation. the solution
set is   1, 0, 1 .
(b) ( 3 x -1)(x2-9x+20) =0
( 3 x -1) (x -5) (x -4)=0 Factor x2-9x+20
3 x -1=0 or x -5=0 or x -4=0 zero-factor theorem
1
x x =5 x =4
3
1
the solution of the original equation are 3
,4 and 5 . Check each solution to
1 
verify that the solution set is  , 4, 5 .
3
 
Solving an Equation Requiring Multiplication Before Factoring
EXAMPLE 5 Solve (3x + 1)x = (x + 1)2 +5.
The zero-factor theorem requires the product of two or more factors to equal 0.
To write this equation in the required form, we must first multiply on both sides
and collect terms on one side.
(3x + 1)x = (x + 1)2 +5
3x 2 +x = x 2 + 2x +1 +5 Multiply.
3x 2 +x = x 2 + 2x +6 Combine like
terms.
2x 2 - x -6 =0 Standard form
(2x +3)(x – 2) = 0 Factor.
2x +3 =0 or x - 2 =0 Zero-factor
theorem
3
x x =2
2
 3 
Check that the solution set is  , 2 .
 2 

More examples Solving Quadratic Equations by factoring

Example 1: Solve the following quadratic equations by factoring.
a. t 2 = 16 b. 5 z 2= 2  9 z

SOLUTIONS:
a. t 2 = 16
 (t  4)(t  4)  0
 t 2  16  0
 t  4  0 or t  4  0
 t  4 or t  4

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Thus, the solution set is { -4,4}

b. 5 z 2= 2  9 z
 5 z 2  9 z  2= 0
 (5 z  1)( z  2)= 0
 5 z  1  0 or z  2= 0
 5 z  1  0 or z  2= 0
1
z or z=  2
5
1
Thus, the solution set is { ,-2}
5
EXERCISE 1.1

Solve the equations for x.

1. x 2  4 x  5  0 2. x 2  x  6 3.  x  1 x  5  7 3. 9 x 2  49  0
4. x 2  4 x  4  0 5. 3 x 2  x  4  0 6. 3 x 2  6 x  1  2 x 2  9
7. x 2  6 x  24  x 8. x 2  x  40  2 x  2 9. x2 +8x = 0
10. 3x 2  2 x  8  0 11.. 2 x 2  x  6 12.. x 2   x  2 2  100
4  7x
13.  4 x  1 x  2  3 x  2 14. x 2 
2
.
ANSWERS
7
1.x = 5 and x = -1 2. x  3 and x  2 . 3. x  and
3
7
x .
3
4
4. x = 2 5. x  1 and x  . 6. x = -4 and x = -2.
3
7. x  8, x  3 8. x  7, x  6 9. x = 0, x = -8;
4
10.. x   3 or x  2 11.. x  3 / 2 or x  2 12.. x  8 or x  6

13. x  2 or x  1 . 14. x = ½ x = -4

SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS BY THE SQUARE ROOT

PROPERTY
OBJECTIVES
o Solve equations of the form x2 =k, where k >0 .
o Solve equations of the the form (ax + b)2 = k, where k >0.
o Use formulas involving squared variables.
In previous section we solved quadratic equations by factoring. However,
since not all quadratic equations can easily be solved by factoring, it is
necessary to develop other methods..

SQUARE ROOT PROPERTY OF EQUATIONS

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Square Root Property of Equations

If k is a positive number and if x 2 = k, then
x k or x   k
and the solution set is  k , k 

NOTE When we solve an equation, we want to find all values of the variable
that satisfy the equation. Therefore, we want both the positive and negative
square roots of k.
EXAMPLE 1 Solving Quadratic Equations of the Form x 2 = k
Solve each equation. Write radicals in simplified form.
By the square root property, since x 2 = 16,
x  16  4 or x   16  4.

An abbreviation for "x = 4 or x = -4" is written x =  4 (read "positive or nega

tive
4"). Check each solution by substituting it for x in the original equation. The
solution set is _   4, 4 _.
(b) 5m2 - 40 = 0
5m 2 = 40 Add 40.
m2=8 Divide by 5.
m  8 or m  8. Square root property
m 2 2 or m  2 2 . Simplify 8

The solution set is  2 2 
(c) p 2 = - 4
Since - 4 is a negative number and since the square of a real number cannot be negative,
there is no real number solution for this equation. (The square root property cannot be used
because of the requirement that k must be positive.) The solution set is  .
(d) 3x 2 + 5 = 11
First solve the equation for x 2. 3x 2 _+ 5 =_ 11
3x 2 = 6 Subtract 5.
2
x =2 Divide by 3.
Now use the square root property to get the solution set  2 

OBJECTIVE 2 Solve equations of the form (ax + b)2 = k, where k > 0. In each
equation in Example 1, the exponent 2 appeared with a single variable as its base. We can
extend the square root property to solve equations where the base is a binomial, as shown in
the next example

EXAMPLE 2 Solving Quadratic Equations of the Form (x +b)2 = k

Solve each equation.
(a) _(x -_ 3)2 =16 (b) _(x -_ 1)2 = 6
Solution
(a) _(x -_ 3)2 =16

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Apply the square root property, using x - 3 as the base.

(x - 3) 2 = 16
x - 3 = 16 or x - 3 = 16
x-3=4 or x - 3 = - 4 16  4
x = 7 or x = - 1 Add 3
Check both answers in the original equation.
(x - 3) 2 = 16 (x - 3) = 16
(7 - 3) 2 = 16 ? let x = 7 (-1- 3) 2 = 16 ? let x = -1
42 = 16 ? (--4)2 = 16 ?
16 = 16 True 16 = 16 True
The solution set is  7,  1 .
(b) _(x -_ 1)2 = 6
By square root property,
(x - 1) 2 = 6
x-1= 6 or x - 1 =  6
x = 1+ 6 or x =1  6 16  4
x = 7 or x = - 1 Add 3
2 2
Check: (1+ 6 -1) =( 6 ) = 6
(1- 6 -1)2 =(- 6 )2 = 6.
The solution set is  1  6 , 1  6  .

NOTE The solution in example 2(b) may be written in abbreviated form as

1 6
If they are written this way , keep in mind that two solutions are indicated, one the + sign and
other the – sign.
EXAMPLE 3 Solving Quadratic Equations of the Form (ax +b) 2 = k
Solve (3r -2)2 = 27
3r -2 = 27 or 3r -2 =  27 square root property
3r -2 = 3 3 or 3r -2 =  3 3 27  9  3  3 3

3r = 2  3 3 or 3r = 2  3 3 Add 2
23 3 23 3
r= or r = Divide by 3
3 3
23 3
The solution set is .
3

CAUTION The solution in example 3 are fractions that cannot be simplified,

Since 3 is not a common factor in the numerator.
Example 4 Recognizing a Quadratic Equation with No real Solutions

Solve (x + 1)2 = - 9

Because the square root -9 is not a real number, the solution set is  .

More example on the use the square root property to solve the Quadratic
equations..
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 1 Use the square root property to solve the equations..

a. x2 = 4 b. x2 = 5 c. x2 = 0 d. x2 = -1
SOLUTION
a. x2 = 4 has two solutions: x =  4 that is x = +2 and x = -2.
b. x2 = 5 has two solutions: x =  5 i.e. x = 5 and x=  5 .
c. x2 = 0 has one solution: x = 0.
d. x2 = -1 has no real solution.
Rewriting Before Finding Square Roots
EXAMPLE2: Use the square root property to solve the
equation.
2(x + 3)2 −14 = 0
2(x + 3)2 = 14 (divide both sides by 2)
(x + 3)2 = 7 Isolate the square
(x + 3) 2  7 Take the square root of both sides
x + 3  7
x  -3 7

Exercise Solve each equation by taking square roots.

1)k2 = 16 2)x2 = 21 3)x2 + 8
= 28 4) 2n2 = −144 5) 7x2 = −21
6) −5x2 = −500
7 ) n2 − 5 = −4 8) n2 + 8 = 80 9)3 − 4x2
= −85
Answers Part I
1.{8.717, −8.717} 2. {4.582, −4.582} 3.{4.472,
−4.472} 4.No solution. 5.No solution
6. {10, −10}
7.{1, −1} 8.{8.485, −8.485} 9.{4.69,
−4.69}

SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

BYCOMPLETING THE SQUARE

In previous lessons, you solved quadratic equations by finding square roots and
by factoring.These methods work in some cases. A third method, completing the
square, works with every quadratic equation. Completing the square turns every
quadratic equation into the form m2 = n.
completing the square is The process of writing a quadratic equation so that
one side is a perfect square trinomial
Step by Step: Completing the Square
Step 1 Isolate the constant on the right side of the equation.
Step 2 Divide both sides of the equation by the coefficient of the x2 term if that
coefficient is not equal to 1.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Step 3 Add the square of one-half of the coefficient of the linear term to both
sides of the
equation. This will give a perfect-square trinomial on the left side of the
equation.
Step 4 Write the left side of the equation as the square of a binomial, and
simplify on the right side.
Step 5 Use the square root property, and then solve the resulting linear
equations.
Example 1: Solve by completing the square
x2  4x  1  7 Isolate the constant on the right side of the equation
x2  4x  6 Add the square of one-half of the coefficient of the linear term
to both
2
�4 �
sides of the equation to complete the square � �  2   4 .
2

�2 �
This will give a perfect-square trinomial on the left side of the equation.
x2  4x  4  6  4 simplify on the right side.
 x  2
2
 10 Solve by the square root property
x  2  � 10 solve the resulting linear equations.

x  2 � 10
Example 2: Solve by completing the square x 2  8 x  7  0
x 2  8x  7  0 Isolate the constant on the right side of the equation
x  8 x  7
2
Add the square of one-half of the coefficient of the linear term to both
sides of the
2
8
equation to complete the square    (4) 2  16 . This will give a perfect-
2
square
trinomial on the left side of the equation.
x 2  8 x  16  7  16 simplify on the right side.
x 2  8 x  16  9 simplify on the right side
( x  4) 2  9 Solve by the square root property
x4 9 solve the resulting linear equations.
x  3  4
x  3  4  1 , x  3  4  7

Example 3: Solve by completing the square 3 x 2  9 x  15  9

Solution:
3 x 2  9 x  15  9 Isolate the constant on the right side of the equation
3 x 2  9 x  6 Divide both sides of the equation by the coefficient of the x2
term if
that coefficient is not equal to 1.That is Divide by 3 both sides
x 2  3 x  2 Add the square of one-half of the coefficient of the linear term to
both sides of

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

2
 
3 9
the equation to complete the square     . This will give a
 2 4
perfect
square trinomial on the left side of the equation.
9 9
x 2  3 x   2  simplify on the right side.
4 4

2
 3 1
 x    Solve by the square root property
 2  4
2
� 3� 1
�x  � Solve by the square root property
� 2� 4
3 1
x  solve the resulting linear equations.
2 4

1 3
x 
2 2
1 3 1 3
x  or x 
2 2 2 2
Solutions are x  2 or x  1 x  1

Exercise
Solve each equation by completing the square.
1)x2 + 2x - 24 = 0 2)p2 + 12p - 54 = 0 3)x2 - 8x
+ 15 = 0
4)n2 = -14n - 37 5)5n2 - 20n + 6 = 0 6)3x2 - x
-3=0

Answers

Solving quadratic equations by the Quadratic Formula

OBJECTIVES
1.Identify the values of a,b, and c in a quadratic equation.
2.Use quadratic formula to solve quadratic equations.
3. Solve quadratic equations with only one solution.
4. solve quadratic equations with fractions.
We can solve quadratic equation by completing the square, but the method is
tedious. In this section we complete the square on the general quadratic
equation
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

to get the quadratic formula, a formula that gives the solution for
ax 2  bx  c  0
any quadratic equation. (note a ≠0,or we would have a linear, not quadratic
equation.)
Objective 1 Identify the values of a,b, and c in a quadratic equation. The first
step in solving a quadratic equation by this new method is to identify the values
of a,b, and c in the standard form of the quadratic equation.

Example 1
Match the coefficients of each quadratic equation with the letters a, b, and c of
the standard form quadratic equation.
ax 2  bx  c  0
a b c

(a) 2x2+ 3x -5=0

In this example a=2 b=3 and c= -5
(b)  x 2  2  6 x
First rewrite the equation with 0 on the right side to match the standard
form ax 2  bx  c  0 .
 x 2  2  6x
-x2 - 6x +2=0 subtract 6x
Here a=-1 b=-6 and c= 2. (Notice that coefficient of x2 is understood to
be – 1.)
(c) 5x2 - 12=0
The x- term is missing , so write the equation as
5x2 +0 x - 12=0
Then a=5 b= 0 and c= -12.

(d) (2x-7)(x+4)= - 23
Write the equation in standard form
(2x-7)(x+4) = - 23
2x2+x- 28 = - 23 use FOIL.
2
2x +x- 5= 0 Add 23.
Now identify the values a=2 b=1 and c= -5
Objective 2Use quadratic formula to solve quadratic equations . To develop the
quadratic formula, we follow the steps given in the previous section for
completing the square on ax 2  bx  c  0 .
Step 1Make the coefficient of the square term equal 1.
ax 2  bx  c  0
b c
x2  x   0 Divide by a
a a
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Step 2 Get the variable term alone on the left side.

b c c
x2  x Subtract
a a a
Step 3 Add the square of half the coefficient of x to both sides, factor the left
side, and combine terms on the right

b b2 c b2 b2
x2  x   Add .
a 4a 2 a 4a 2 4 a 2
 b  2 2
b  4ac
x  Factor; add on right.
 
 2a  4a 2
Step 3 Use the square root property to complete the solution.
b b 2  4ac
x 
2a 4a 2
b 2  4ac
x b 
2a 2a
b b 2  4ac
x 
2a 2a
 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
This is the final result is called Quadratic formula. It is a key result that should
be memorized. Notice that there are two values, one for + sign and one for the-
sign.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Quadratic Formula
The solution of the quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0 , a ≠ 0, are
 b  b 2  4ac and  b  b 2  4ac
x x
2a 2a
2
Or, in compact form x   b  b  4ac .
2a

CAUTION Notice that the fraction bar is under -b as well as the radical. When
using this formula, be sure to find the values of  b  b 2  4ac first, then
divide those results by the value 2a
Example 2 use the quadratic formula to solve 2 x 2  7 x  9  0
Match the coefficients of the variables with those of the standard quadratic
equation
ax 2  bx  c  0
Here,a=2, b = -7,and c = -9. Substitute these numbers into the quadratic
formula, and simplify the result.
 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
 (7)  (7) 2  4(2)(9)
x let a=2, b = -7,and c = -9.
2(2)
7  49  72
x
4
7  121
x
4
7 11
x 121  11
4
.2/6
Find the two solutions by first using the plus sign, and the using the minus sign
7  11 18 9 7  11 - 4
x   or x    -1
4 4 2 4 4
Check by substituting each solution into the original equation. The solution set

 9 
is -1, .

 2 

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 3 Solve x 2  2 x  1 using the Quadratic Formula

Find a, b ,and c by rewriting the equation x 2  2 x  1 in standard form with( 0 on
one side ) .Add  2 x  1 to each side of the equation to get
x 2  2x  1  0
Then a=1, b= -2 ,and c= -1. Substitute these values into the quadratic formula.
2
b b  4ac
x
2a
2
 ( 2)  ( 2)  4(1)(1)
x  let a=1, b= -2 ,and c=
2(1)
-1.
2 44
x
2
2 8
x
2
22 2
x 8 4 2 2 2
2
Write the solution in lowest terms 2  2 2 as 2(1  2 ) to get
2(1  2 )
x 1 2 factor, then divide out
2

The solution set is 1  2.
3. Solve quadratic equations with only one solution. In the quadratic formula the
quantity under the radical b 2  4ac , is called the discriminant. When the
discriminant equals 0, the equation has just one rational number solution. In this
case, the trinomial ax 2  bx  c  0 is a perfect square.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Exercise

DISCRIMINANT OF THE QUADRATIC EQUATION

Definition :The expression b2 − 4ac which appears in the quadratic formula is
called the discriminant of the quadratic equation. It gives us the following important
information:
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

• if b2 − 4ac < 0, ax2 + bx + c = 0 has no real solutions.

• if b2 − 4ac > 0, ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two real solutions.
• if b2 − 4ac = 0, ax2 + bx + c = 0 has one real solutions.

The discriminant tells us the nature of the solutions to any quadratic equation;
see the table below

If the discriminant is… …then there…

…positive and a perfect square …are two rational solutions

…positive and not a perfect square …are two irrational solutions

…zero …is one rational solution

…negative …are two complex solutions

Example Find the value of the discriminant for each quadratic equation. Then
describe the number and type of roots for the equation
a. 15x + 10x2 – 25 = 0 b. 7x2 + 14x + 7 = 0
2
c. 6x + 2x + 5 = 0 d. 11x2 – 10x – 2 = 0 e. x2 − x − 6 = 0
Solution
a. 15x + 10x2 – 25 = 0
a = 10, b = 15, c = –25
b2 – 4ac = 152 – 4(10)(–25)
= 225 + 1000
= 1225
The discriminant is 1225, which is a perfect square. Therefore, there are two rational roots.
b. 7x2 + 14x + 7 = 0
a = 7, b = 14, c = 7
b2 – 4ac = 196 – 4(7)(7) = 196 – 196 = 0
The discriminant is 0, so there is one rational root.
c. 6x2 + 2x + 5 = 0
a = 6, b = 2, c = 5
b2 – 4ac = 4 – 4(6)(5) = 4 – 120 = –116
The discriminant is negative, so there are two complex roots

d. 11x2 – 10x – 2 = 0
a = 11, b = –10, c = –2
b2 – 4ac = (–10)2 – 4(11)(–2) = 100 + 88=188
The discriminant is 188, which is not a perfect square. Therefore, there are two irrational
roots..

Example Solve
• We begin by computing the discriminant to find out if the equation has
solutions or not. Since a = 1, b = −1, and c = −6, we have
b2 − 4ac = (−1)2 − 4 (1) (−6)
= 1+24
= 25
So, The discriminant is 25, which is a perfect square. Therefore, there are two rational roots.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

SUM AND PRODUCT OF THE ROOTS OF A QUADRATIC

EQUATIONS

The quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0, a, b, c  R, a  0 has the roots

 b  b 2  4ac  b  b 2  4ac
r1  , r2 
2a 2a
Addition of the Roots
r1  r2 
b b 2  4ac

 b  b 2  4ac

 b  b 2  4ac   b  b 2  4ac  
2a 2a 2a
b b 2  4ac  b  b 2  4ac - 2b - b
r1  r2   
2a 2a a
Product of the Roots
  b  b 2  4ac    b  b 2  4ac 
r1 r2    
 2a  2a 
  

r1 r2 
 - b  - b   b    
b 2  4ac  b b 2  4ac  b 2  4ac  b 2  4ac 
 2a  2a 
 - b  - b    b2  4ac  b  4ac 
2
r1 r2 
 2a  2a 
b 2   b 2  4ac  b 2  b 2  4ac 4ac c
r1 r2    
 2a  2a  4a 2 4a 2 a

Thus, if r1 , r2 are the Roots of ax 2  bx  c  0, a  0

-b
 The sum r1  r2 is given by
a
c
 The product r1 r2 is given by
a

Also, if r1 and r2 are the roots of ax2 + bx+ c = 0, then this equation can be
written as (x - r1)(x - r2) = 0, which, when simplified, becomes
x2 - (r1 + r2)x + r1 r2 = 0. However, ax2 + bx + c = 0 can also be written as
b c
x2  x   0
a a
b c
Then x2 - (r1 + r2)x + r1 r2 = x  x   0 , and we can conclude that
2

a a
b b c
- (r1 + r2) = or (r1 + r2) =  and+ r1 r2 =
a a a

The sum of the roots of ax2 + bx +c = 0 is -b /a.

The product of the roots of ax2 + bx +c = 0 is a/c and
any quadratic equation can be written as
x2 _ (sum of the roots)x + (product of the roots) = 0.
Example1 If, r1 , r2 are the roots of the equation 3x2 – 5x + 9 = 0 find the value of:
(a) r1 + r2 (b) r1 r2
- b - (-5) 5 c 9
Solution: (a) r1 + r2= a =  (b) r1 r2= = 3
3 3 a 3
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example2 Without solving, find the sum and product of the roots
equation:
2x2 -3x -2 = 0
Solution:
Identify the coefficients:
a=2 b = -3 c = -2
now, subsitute these values into the formulas
Sum of roots -b/a = -(-3)/2 = 3/2
Product of roots c/a = -2/2 = -1

Example 3 Without solving, find the sum & product of the roots of the following equation:
-9x2 -8x = 15
Solution:
First, subtract 15 from both sides so that your equation is in the form
ax2 + bx + c = 0
rewritten equation: -9x2 -8x - 15 = 0
Identify the coefficients:
a = -9 b = -8 c = -15
now, subsitute these values into the formulas
Sum of roots
-b/a = -(-8)/-9 = -8/9
Product of roots
c/a = -15/9 = -5/3
1
Example 4 Find the quadratic equation whose roots are and 2.
2
Solution
1 5 1
The sum of the roots is +2= and the product of the roots is (2)=1.
2 2 2
The quadratic equation is x2 _ (sum of the roots) x + (product of the roots) = 0.
5
Therefore, the equation is x2 - x+1 = 0 or 2x2 - 5x + 2 = 0. It is customary
2
to express the equation with integral coefficients

EXAMPLE 5 If 4 is one root of the equation x2 - kx +24 = 0, determine the value of k.

Solution
Since 4 is a root, substitute x = 4.
42 - 4k +24 = 0
16 - 4k +24 = 0
4k = 8
k=2

Example 6: Calculate the sum and product of the roots to determine a quadratic equation
with roots x  5  7 .
Solution:
The roots are x  5  7 and x  5  7 .
Therefore, the sum of the roots is:
5 7 5 7  10
The product of the roots is:
(5  7 )(5  7 )  25  5 7  5 7  7  18

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Therefore, the quadratic equation is x 2  10 x  18  0 .

EXERCISE
In 1-4 Determine the product of the roots of each of the quadratic equations by
examining its coefficients
1.x2 +3x – 9= 0. 2. -2x2 + 3x + 8 = 0 3. 2x2 – 9x + 6 = 0 4. 2x2 – x – 2 = 0
In 5-10 Determine the Sum of the roots of each of the quadratic equations by examining
its
coefficients

5. 2x2 –3x + 4 = 0 6. 2x2 – 13x + 17 = 0 7. 2x2 + 6x– 7= 0? 8. 3x2 – 2x+ 5 = 0

9. 2x2 – 3x + 9 = 0 10. x2 + 7x – 8 = 0.
In 11-13 Determine the sum and product of the roots of each quadratic equation by
examining its coefficients
11. 2x2 – 4x + 1 = 0 12. 3x2 – 7x + 12 = 0 13. 5x2 + 11x – 3=0
In 14-22 work out
14. If the sum of the roots of x2 +3x – 5 is added to the product of its roots, the result is

15 If the sum of the roots of the equation 2x2 – 5x – 3 = 0 is added to the product of the roots,
the result
Is
16. In the equation x2 – 7x +2 = 0, the sum of the roots exceeds the product of the roots by
17. Write a quadratic equation whose roots are 3 and 7
3
18. Write a quadratic equation whose roots are and 4
2
1
19. Write a quadratic equation whose roots are and 2
2
20. Write a quadratic equation whose roots are 3+ 5 and3- 5
21. If one root of a quadratic equation x2 -3x+ c = 0 is 5, what is the other root?
22. If one root of x2 - 6x+ k = 0 is 4, find the other root.
3 13
1 ANS: – 9 2 ANS: –4 3 ANS:3 4 ANS: –1 5. ANS: 6 ANS: 7 ANS: –3
2 2
2 3 3 13
8 ANS: 9 ANS: 10 ANS: –7 11. S : – 2, P – 12 ANS:S   P–4
3 2 2 2
13 ANS: Sum - b/a 11/5 . Product c/a = -3/5 1 4 ANS: –8 15 ANS:1 16 ANS: 5
17 ANs x2+4x-21 18. AN 2x2+5x-12 19. AN 2x2+3x-2 20. AN x2-6x+4 21. AN -2 22.
AN 2

QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

DEFINITION

Quadratic inequalities in one variable are inequalities which can be written in one of
the following forms:
ax 2 + bx + c > 0 ,
ax 2 + bx + c < 0 ,
ax 2 + bx + c ≥ 0 or
ax 2 + bx + c ≤ 0 where a, b and c are real numbers.

Procedure solving Quadratic Inequalities

1. Move all terms to one side.

2. Simplify and factor the quadratic expression.
3. Find the roots of the corresponding quadratic equation.
4. Use the roots to divide the number line into regions.
5. Test each region using theinequality.

Example 1 Solve the inequality, x2 > x + 2 .

Solution
x2 > x + 2
x2 − x − 2 > 0
(x - 2)(x + 1) > 0
The corresponding equation is (x - 2)(x + 1) = 0 so…
x - 2 = 0 or x + 1 = 0
x = 2 x = -1
The numbers divide a number line into three intervals

Now we test one point in each region.

Region Test Point Inequality Status

I x = -2 (x - 2)(x + 1) = (-2 - 2)(-2 + 1) = 4 > 0 True
II x=0 (x - 2)(x + 1) = (0 - 2)(0 + 1) = -2 > 0 False
III x=3 (x - 2)(x + 1) = (3 - 2)(3 + 1) = 4 > 0 True

Example 2 Solve the inequality, (x + 3)2 ≥ 2(x2 + 7).

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Solution
(x + 3)2 ≥ 2(x2 + 7)
x2 + 6x + 9 ≥ 2x2 +14
− x2 + 6x − 5 ≥ 0
−(x2 − 6x + 5) ≥ 0

- (x 2 - 6x + 5) 0
−1 
-1 1
x2 − 6x + 5 ≤ 0
(x - 1)(x - 5) ≤ 0
The corresponding equation is (x - 1)(x - 5) = 0 so…
x - 1 = 0 or x - 5 = 0
x=1x=5
The numbers divide a number line into three intervals

Now we check one point in each region.

Region Test Inequality Status
Point
I x=0 (x - 1)(x - 5) = (0 - 1)(0 - 5) = 5 < 0 False
II x=2 (x - 1)(x - 5) = (2 - 1)(2 - 5) = -3 < True
0
III x=6 (x - 1)(x - 5) = (6 - 1)(6 - 5) = 5 < 0 False

So the solution to this inequality is 1 ≤ x ≤ 5.

Solve each quadratic inequality, and graph the solution on a number line.
1. y2 −17y + 70 < 0 2. x2 + 9x + 13 > −7 3. x(x + 1) >112 −
5x
4. a2 + 3a + 2 < −3(a + 2) 5. 2x2 ≤ 5x − 2 6. 10 − 9y ≥ −2y2
2
7. b(b + 3) ≥ −2 8. a ≤ 4(2a − 3) 9. y2 −17y + 70 <0
10. x2+ 9x + 13 > −7 11. x(x + 1) >112 − 5x 12. a2 + 25 <10a
13. 2d2 + 5d ≤ 12 14. a2 + 3a + 2 ≥ −3(a + 2) 15. 10 − 9y ≥ −2y2
16. 2x2 ≤ 5x – 2 17. c(c + 4) < 3 + 3(9 + c)
18. 2a(a + 6) > 5 − a(a + 2)

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

19. b(b + 3) > −2 20. a2 < 4(2a − 3) 21. (x + 3) 2 ≤ 6(x

+ 15)
22. 2x2 + 7 ≥ 9x 23. 7x2 ≥ 4(1+ 3x) 24. 3x2 + 7x ≤ −2
25. −8 < 4(x − x2) 26. x2− x − 2 > 0 27. 2k2+ 3k − 2 > 0
28. t2 + 2t − 3 < 0 29. 4x2 + 8 ≤ 33x 30. x2 ≥ 4(x − 5)
31. x2+ 4 ≥ 2x2 − 3x 32. 10 − 3x ≤ x2 33. 4 < 13x − 3x2
34. 6(x2 + 1) > −13 35. 6x − x2> 8 36. 20a2 <1 − a
37. 8x ≤ −3(1 − x 2) 38. y2 ≥ 25 39. t2+18 ≥ 11t
40. 3x(x + 1) ≤ x(x + 5) 41. x2< 8 42. x2+ 3x > 12
43. 2t 2 > 9t +18 44. 4x 2 − 9x + 2 < 0

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
1. 7 < y < 10 2. x < -5 or x > -4 3. x < -14 or x > 8
4. -4 < a < -2 5.12 ≤ x ≤ 2 6. y ≤ 2 or y ≥ 52
7. b ≤ -2 or b ≥ -1 8. 2 ≤ a ≤ 6 9. 7 < y < 10
10. x < -5 or x > - 5 11. x < -14 or x > 8 12. no solution
13. −4 ≤ d ≤ 32 14. x ≤ -4 or x ≥ -2 15. y ≤ 2 or y ≥ 52
16.12≤ x ≤ 2 17. -6 < c < 5 18. a < -5 or a > 13
19. b ≤ -2 or b ≥ -1 20. 2 < a < 6 21. -9 ≤ x ≤ 9
22. x < 1 or x ≥ 72 23. x ≤ − 27or x ≥ 2 24. −2 ≤ x ≤ − 13
25. -1 < x < 2 26. x < -1 or x > 2 27. k < -2 or k > 12
28. -3 < t < 1 29.14≤ x ≤ 8 30. all real numbers
31. -1 < x < 4 32. x ≤ -5 or x ≥ 2 33.13< x < 4
34. no real solutions 35. 2 < x < 4 36. − 14< x < 15
37. x ≤ − 13or x ≥ 3 38. x ≤ -5 or x ≥ 5 39. t ≤ 2 or t ≥ 9
40. 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 41. −2 2 < x <22
42. x <−3 – 572 or x > −3 + 572 43. t < − 32or t > 6 44.14< x < 2

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

INDICES AND SURDS Unit 7

A historical note

When a number x is multiplied 1 repeatedly, this can be expressed in sort

form called index form. Many such are called indices. Being able to express
t operations of multiplying numbers repeated! by itself this way, has
resulted m great achievement in mathematics over the centuries. the topic of
logarithms depends heavily on indices. Archimedes the great innovator, born
212 BC, was the first scientist to provide such sport hand expressions.
Those were the Centuries when there were very few sophisticated
computation tools like the calculators or even the tables that we use today five
can therefore see that the development of index laws must be fairly easy and
requires no Computation, tools. What we need is to fully understand
factorization of numbers, particularly prime factorization.
The short hand expression of x is x1, while that of x × x is dented by x2 and the one
of is denoted by x5. In jr' x is the base and 1 is the index. In x\ x is the base and 2
is the index. lnxm, x is the base and 100 is the index.
2 3 means 2x2x2,not 2x3.

Laws of indices
First law: product of indices

Since: x m = x× x×x …….. × x and m times,x n = x× x×x…×x, n times


 x x    x 
 x......  x x    x = 
 x......  x x    x
 x......
We have x m ×x n
m times n times m+n times

So for any number x, and integers m and n

xm × xn = xm+n
this is the first law of indices, which Archimedes developed in 212BC

EXAMPLE 5.1

Simplify and leave in index form

(a) 2loox250 (b) 5l95x556I°

Solution

(a) 2100 x 250 = 2100 + 5° — 2130

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

(b) 5195 x 55610 = 5W5 + 551() = 55805

Second law: quotients of indices

xm
Similarity , xn
= x m-n
Third law: zero index
If m=n, xm xm
xn
= xm
=1 x m - m =x 0 so, x 0 = 1

Example 5.2
simplify and leave in index form

x1
(a) x4
x1
(b) x4
Soluti on:

x 45
(a) x 19 c
= x 43 = x 24
x 31  x 15 x 31  x 15 x 46
(b) x 9  x 37
= x 9  x 37
= x 46
=x 0 =1
Fourth law: negative index

xm
If m is smaller than n,
xn
= x m-n where m –n is negati ve since n is
larger than m.
Suppose m – n = r. then m = (m-n)
xm 1 1 1
= -r = r. so, xn
= x -r = x nm = xr
or xr
= x -r
1 x0 1
Alternati vely, xr
= xr
= x 0- r which is means xr
= x -r

Example

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

3 1
1 3
Simplify (a)  2  (b)  4 

Soluti on:

1 1
3 3
1 1 1 1 8
  =  2  =  8  = 1 ÷ =1× =8
a) 2 8 1

1
1 1
3 1 3 4 1
  =  2  = 1÷  4  = 1× 3 = 1 3
b) 4

Fifth law: index of an index

(x m ) n =
            
x m  x m  x m  ....  x m  x m  m  m..... m =x mn
Six law: index of a product

m pairs m times

(xy) n =           
 xy    xy    xy   ....   xy 
           
x  y  x  y  x  y  .....  x  y.

We can collect the x, to one side and the y s to the other side to
get,

m times m times
      
x  x  x  .......  x
      
y  y  y  .......  y = xm×
ym
So, (xy)m = xm × ym
Example 5.4

Simplify by removing the brackets

a) (2x)2 b) (5a-2b)-3 c) (4y3z2)3

SOLUTION
152
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

a) (2x)2 = 22x2=4x2
1 1 a6
b) (5a-2b)-3 = 5-3 a-2× -3 b-3 = 53
a6 b3
= 125b 3

c) (4y3z2)3 = 43(y3)3(z2)3 = 64y9z6

Note: One of the mistakes to avoid in the sixth law is :
(2x)2 = 2x2. the correct thing is
(2x)2 = 2x2.
Seventh law: index of quotient

EXAMPLE 5.5

Simplify and leave your answer as a proper or mixed fraction

2 x 3
( 5y2
)-2 here we apply the laws of index of an index and index of quotient to
get

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Eighth law: fractional indices

If x and y are numbers so that x× x = y , we say x is the square root of y and

denote this in short hand as x = y . Of course we could also say that y is the
square of x.

= = x1 = x.
1 1 1 1
Since x2 × x2 x2

2

We see that x 2 × x 2 = x. so, =

1 1 1
x
x2

Example 5.4:

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MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

155
MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

156
MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

157
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Surds

If a rational number n can be expressed as n = x2 where x is also rational, we

say that n is a perfect square. If n = x3 where x and n are both rational we say
that n is a perfect cube.

If m is rational and m is not a perfect square then m is not rational. Any

square root of a non-perfect square rational number is called a surd.
Similarly if p is not a perfect cube then p is a surd. If we cannot find a
3

rational number s such that

In summary a surd w an irrational root of a rational number. Examples

of surds are:
 2 since 2 is not a perfect square
 3
2 Since 2 is not a perfect cube.

 4
2 since 2 is not expressible as s4
We shall concentrate on surds which are square roots as this is what the
syllabus requires. 3 , 5 , 8 , 6 , 12 are all surds.

4 , 9 are not surds since 4 = 22, 9 = 32 and so, 4 = 2, 9 =3

Operations on surds

Many surds are related to one basic surd.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

In order to perform operations such as addition and subtraction, one needs to

express the surds in their simplest forms. That is in terms of the basic surd
they are related to. A surd q is basic if q has no square factor.

6 is basic because in its prime factorization

6 = 2 x 3. It has no square factors.
15 is also basic since 15 = 3x5
45 is not basic because 45 = 3: x 5
45 = 32  5 = 3 5

54 is also not basic because 54 = 2 x 33 = 2 x 32x3

54 = 2  32  3 = 32  2  3 = 32 × 6 = 3 6

Addition and subtraction of surds

In order to add or subtract surds we need to first express each surd in question in
terms of its basic surd. We call this simplification of the surd.

EXAMPLE 5.7

Add the following surds and simplify as far as possible.

Example 5.8: Subtract the following surds:

159
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 5.9:
Simplify the following completely

160
MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

161
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

16. Rationalize the denominator and simplify the following,

162
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

SOLVING A RADICAL EQUATION

To solve a radical equation— an equation that contains radicals or rational exponents—
you need to eliminate the radicals or rational exponents and obtain a polynomial equation.
The key step is to raise each side of the equation to the same power.

if a= b, then an=bn. powers property of equality

Then solve the new equation using standard procedures. Before raising each side of
an equation to the same power, you should isolate the radical expression on one
side of the equation.

Example 1: SOLVING A SIMPLE RADICAL EQUATION

Solve 3
x -4=0
SOLUTION:

The solution is 64 check this in the original equation

Example 2: Solving equation with rational exponents

Solve 2x3/2=250

Solution:
3
Because x is raised to the 2
power, you should isolate the power and then
2 2 3
raised each side of the equation to the 3
power ( 3 is the reciprocal of 2 )

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

The solution is 25. Check this in the original equation

164
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

EXAMPLE 3: SOLVING AN EQUATION WITH ONE RADICAL

Some equations have two radical expressions. Before raising both sides to the same
power, you should rewrite the equation so that each side of the equation has only
one radical expression.

EXAMPLE 4: SOLVING AN EQUATION WITH TWO RADICAL

165
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

 The solution is 2
If you try to sol x = - 1 by squaring both sides, you get x = l .But x = 1 is not a
valid solution of the original equation. This is an example of an extraneous (or
false) solution. Raising both sides of an equation to the same power may
introduce extraneous solutions. So, when you use this procedure it is critical that
you check each solution in the original equation.

Example 5: an equation with an extraneous solution

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

 The only solution is 8

SOLVING RADICAL EQUATIONS IN REAL LIFE

EXAMPLE 6: USING A RADICAL MODEL

BEAUFORT WIND SCALE The Beaufort wind scale was devised to measure wind
speed. The Beaufort numbers 5, which range from 0 to 12, can. Be modelled by

B= 1.69 s  4.45 - 3.49 where s is the speed (in miles per hour) of the wind.
Find the wind speed that corresponds to the Beaufort number B=11.

Beaufort Wind Scale

Beaufort Force of wind Effects of wind
number

0 Calm Smoke rises vertically.

1 Light air Direction shown by smoke.

2 Light breeze Leaves rustle; wind felt on face,

3 Gentle breeze Leaves move; Hags extend.

4 Moderate breeze Small branches sway; paper blown about.

5 Fresh breeze Small trees sway.

6 Strong breeze Large branches .sway; umbrellas difficult to use.

7 Moderate gale Large trees sway; walking difficult.

8 Fresh gale Twigs break; walking hindered.

9 Strong gale Branches scattered about; slight damage to buildings.

10 Whole gale Trees uprooted; severe damage to buildings.

11 Storm Widespread damage.

12 Hurricane Devastation.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

 The wind speed is about 69 miles per hour.

 ALGEBRAIC CHECK substitute 69 for s into the

GUIDED PRACTICE
1. What is an extraneous solution?
2. Marcy began solving x2/3=5 by cubing each side. What will she have to do
next? What could .she have done to solve the equation in just one step?
3. Zach was asked to solve 5 x  2 - 7 x  4 His first step was to square each
side. While trying to isolate ,Y, he gave up in frustration. What could Zach
have done to avoid this situation?
Solve the rational exponent equation. Check or extraneous solutions.

Solve the radical equation. Check for extraneous solutions.

BEAUFORT WIND SCALE Use the information in Example 6 to determine the

wind speed that corresponds to the Beaufort number B = 2.

APPLICATIONS
Check solutions check whether the given x – valued is a solutions of the
equation

168
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Check rational exponent equations solve the equation. Check for extraneous
solutions.

Solving radical equations solve the equation. Check for extraneous solutions

SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH TWO RADICALS Solve the equation. Check

for extraneous solutions.

SOLVING EQUATIONS use the intersect feature on a graphing

calculator to solve the equation

169
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

LOGARITHMS

Key points:

1. In the number x = bn, the index n is known as the logarithm of x to

base b written as n=logbx
2. When b base (base) = bn is 10, then n is known as the common
logarithm of x. if the base is not indicated, as in log x = n, then the
base is always taken to be 10.
3. Log(a× b) = log a + log b – Multiplication law.
4. log (a ÷ b) = log a – log b – Division law.
5. log an = n log a – law of raising a number to power.
6. given that c = (xa)b, then log c= b log xa = ab log x.
1
7. Given b = n
a then log b = log n
a = n
log a.
Examples:
Example 2.4:

a) Write the following numbers in standard form

i. 9036000 ii) 0.0000745
b) Write the following as ordinary numbers (i.e not in standard) form
i. 1.78× 106
c) Work out the following.
i. 2.8159× 102 +3.187× 103 + 1.169× 104
ii. 867x 1O-3-3,481 x 10-4
iii. (6.843x 103)x(7.168x 102)
iv. (2.358x 103)+(5.197x 1O4)
Solution

(a) ft) 9036000 = 9.036x 106 (b) ft) 1.78 x 106= 1 780000

ii) 0.0000745=7.45x105 iti) 7.4× 105 = O.OOO074

(c) (i) 2.8159 x 1CP + 3.187x 1O3 + 1.169 x lOt may be worked out in vertical
format as follows:

0.028159 x 104

0.3187 x 104

+ 1.169 x 104

1.515859 x 104

(Alternatively, the number could be written in a form that includes other powers of 10
and the answer turned back to proper standarify form.)

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

(ii) 3.867x 10-3- 3.481 × 104 may be worked out as follows:

38.67 × 10-4

3.48× 10-4

35.189 × 10-4 = 3.5189× 10-3

ii) (6,843x lO3)×(7.168x 1O2) = 6.843x 7.168× 103x 102 =49.05x

I05(4s.f.)

= 4.905x 106

(iv) (2.358≈ 103)+(5.197x 1O4) =(2.358+ 5.197)x(102+ 104)

= 0.4537 xlO-2 = 4.537'x lO-2x 10-2 = 4.537 x 10-3

Example 2.5
Use logarithm tables to evaluate 765 344 x O.OOO25673

28.345

Solution

765344 = 7.65344× 105 ≈ 7.653× 1O5

0.00025673 = 2.5673 × 10-4 ≈ 2.567× 10-4

28.345 = 2.8345× 101 ≈ 2.835 x 1O1

Then proceed as follows

No Log

7.653 × 105 → 5.8839

2.567× I0-4 → - 4.4094

2.2933

2.835 ×l01→ 1.4526-

6.93x 100← 0.8407

765344 
Thus, ≈ 6.93 × 100 = 6.93
28.345

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 2.6
Without using tables simplify the following.
log 144
a) log 12 b) 2 log5+ log15 – log125 – log3.
Solution:
log 144 log 12 2
log 12 = log 12
2 log 12
= log 12

=2

b) 2 log 5 + log 15 -log 125 -log 3

= 2 log 5 + log (3 x 5) - log 5s -log 3
= 2 log 5 + log 3 + log 5- 3 log 5 -log 3
= 2 log 5 + log 5-3 log 5 + log 3 -log 3
= 3 log 5- 3 log 5 + log 3 - log 3
=0
Example 2.7
Solve the equation log (3x + 3) = log (x - 6) + 2 log 3
Solution

Log (3x + 3) = log (x - 6) + 2 log 3

= log (x - 6) + log 32
= log [32(x-6)]
3x + 3 =32(x-6)
Thus, 3x + 3 = 9(x-6)
3x + 3 = 9x-54
9x-3x = 54 + 3
6x = 57
57
x = 6

= 9.5
EXERCISE 2.2
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

1. Express each of the following numbers in standard form and obtain

its logarithm from tables.
(a) 78, 600, 000 (b) 0.000 000 687

2. Write each of the following as a sum or difference of two logarithmic

expressions.
1

a) Log (m 4  n 3 ) b) log (p
q -2
)
3. simplify
4 2
3
a) 8 3 + 8 – 2- (b) m2p3 × m-3p 3 c)
3m 2 n  4m 3 n 5
mn 2
1
3
d) 9 + 3 -9 -3 2
e)  27  3 f)
2  
 64 
1 1
 16  2  8  3
   
 81   27 

4. use logarithms to evaluate

573  2.12 0.143
a) 144
b) 2.67

3
5.31  0.073  3 144 1.42  0.83  0.361
c) 0.00542
d) 64  0.0136

5. Solve for x in each of the following cases.

(a) 25x=15625 (b) 23x= 512 (c) 32x= 243
(d) log (3x-2)-log(x+ 10) + log3 = 0 (e) 5.31x= 31.7.
6. Divide each of the following logarithms by 3 and find the number
whose logarithm is thus obtained.
(a) 2.7551 (b) 7.9824

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS

1. find the value of y in the equation

243  3 2 y
 81
729  3 y  3( 2 y 1)

Solution
243  3 2 y
= 81
729  3 y  3 ( 2 y 1)

35  3 2 y
36  3 y  3( 2 y 1)
= 34

35 2 y
3 6 y ( 2 y 1) 
= 34

3(5+2y) - ] 6+y-(2y – 1 )[ = 34
(5+2y) -  6  y  (2 y  1) =4

5 + 2y – 6 – y + 2y – 1 = 4
2y – y + 2y = 4 – 5 + 6 + 1
3y = 6
y = 2
2) find, without using Mathematical tables, the values of x which
satisfy the equation log2 (x2 – 9) =3 log2 2+1.
Solution
I0g2 (x2- 9) = 3 Iog2 2 + 1
I0g2 (x2-9)= Iog2 23 + I0g2 2
I0g2 (x2 - 9) = Iog2 (23 x 2)

x 2 – 9 = 23 × 2
x2 – 9 =16
x2 = 25

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

x =  5
1
3) Use logarithms to evaluate (3.256  3 
Solution:

No Log

→ 0.5127
0.0536 → 2.7292+

1.2419
 1  0.2419
1.2419 ÷ 3 = 3

 2  2  0.2419
= 3

 3  2.2419
= 3
= 1+ 0.7473 = 1.7473

 (3.256  3
1
= antilog 1.7473

= 10-1 x 5.599
= 0.5589
2 347  0.4666
4) Using logarithms to evaluate = 3
0.0924

Solution:

No Log

2347 → 3.3705

0.4666 → 1 . 6689+

3.0394 → 3.0394
2.9657  3  1.9657
3
0.0924 → 3

3
= 1.6553

2.422× 103 ← 3.3841

2347  0.4666
i.e. 3
0.0924
= 2422
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

5) Solve the equation Iog10 (6x- 2) -1 = Iog10 (x- 3).

Solution:

Iog10 (6x- 2) - 1 = log 10 (x - 3)

Iog10 (6xr- 2) - log 10 = log (x- 3)
6x  2
Log10 10
 log( x  3)

6x  2
10 =x–3
6x – 2 = 10x – 30
4x = 28
 x=7
1

6. Use logarithms to evaluate (0.0056) 2

1.38  27.42

Solution:

No Log
1
(0.0056) 2 → 3.7482÷ 2

 4  1.7482
= 2
= 2.841

1.38 → 0.1399 -
27.42 → 1.4381 + = 1.5780
1.977× 10-3 ← 3.2961
1

i.e. (0.0056) 2 = 0.001977

1.38  27.42

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

812 x  27 x
7. Solve for x in the equation  729.
9x

Solution:

812 x  27 x
 729
9x

(3 4 ) 2 x  (33 ) x
 36
(3 2 x )

38 x  3 3 x
 36
32 x

3 ( 8 x  3 x  2 x ) = 36

8x+3x – 2x = 6
9x = 6
2
x = 3

8. Solve for x in the equation 32 ( x 3)  8 ( x  4)  64  2 x .

Solution:
32 ( x 3)  8 ( x  4 ) = 64÷ 2x

25( x3)  23( x 4 ) = 26 ÷ 2x

2 2 x 15  23 x 12 = 26 – x
5x – 15 + 3x + 12 =6–x
9x =9
x = 1

9. Solve the equation log (x+24) -2 log3 = log (9 – 2x).

Solution

Log (x + 24) -2 log 3 = log (9 – 2x)

x  24
Log (
32
) = log (9 – 2x)

x  24
9
= 9 – 2x
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

x+24 = 81 – 18x
19x = 57
x = 3

Without using mathematical tables or a calculator, evaluate

6 log2 3
64 + 10 log3 5
243

= 61og24 + 101og3 3
= 61og2 22+ 101og33
= 6x2+10x1
= 12+10 = 22

Model examination questions

1. Without using a calculator or tables, evaluate.
2 1

 1
  9 
b) 2
a.  27 3 
  1 
   16 
1.56 3  3.47
2. Use logarithms to evaluate 5.67  0.036
0.435  1.42  0.83  0.0361
3. Evaluate 64  0.0136
using logarithms.
2

 8 
4. Simplify  
3
.
 27 
5. Evaluate 3.485× 103 5.732× 104, leaving your answer in standard
form.
log 2 128  log 2 32
6. Without using tables or calculators, evaluate log 2 8  log 2 32
1
7. Solve for x in the equation log5 x + log  2.
5 x
8. Given that 307.23x = 41.42, find the value of x correct to 2 s.f.
9. Given that 4log y+3 log x = 12, express y in terms of x in a form that
does not involve logarithms.
10. Given that log2(x+1) -2 log2 y -1 = 0 and log2 (4+x-5y) = 0, find the
values of x and y.
Solving Exponential and Logarithmic
Equations
GOAL ONE → SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

One way to solve exponential equations is to use the property that if two powers
with the same base are equal, then their exponents must be equal.

For b > 0 and b + 1, if // = by, then x = y.

Example 1: Solving by Equating Exponents

Solve 43x = 8X+1

Solution:
Write original equation.
43x = 8X+1
Rewrite each power with base 2.
2 3X 3 X+1
(2 ) = (2 ) Power of a power property

26X = 23X+3 Equate exponents.

6X = 3 X + 3
Solve for x.

X =1

The solution is 1.

CHECK Check the solution by substituting it into the original equation.

43.1 = 81+1 substitute 1 for x.

64 = 64 solution checks

When it is not convenient to write each side of an exponential equation using the
same base, you can solve the equation by taking a logarithm of each side.

Example 2: Taking a Logarithm of Each Side

Solve 2x = 7

Solution:

2x = 7 

Iog2 2x = Iog2 7 

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

x = Iog2 7 

log 7
x= log 2 ≈ 2.807 

the solution is about 2.807. check this in the original equation.

Example 3: Taking a Logarithm of Each Side

Solve 102x - 3 + 4 = 21.

Solution:

102x – 3 + 4 = 21 Write original equation.

Subtract 4 from each side.

102x – 3 = 17
Take common log of each side.

Log 102x – 3 = log 17 log 10"= x

Add 3 to each side.

2x – 3 = log17
1
Multiply each side by
2
2x = 3 +log17
Use a calculator.
1
x= 2
(3+log17)

x ≈ 2.115

The solution is about 2.115.

CHECK Check the solution algebraically by substituting into the original

equation. Or. Check it graphically by graphing both sides of the equation and
observing that the two graphs intersect at x ≈ 2.115.

Newton ',v law of cooling states that the temperature 7™ of a cooling substance at
time t (in minutes) can be modelled by the equation

T= (T0~TR)e~rt + TR

Where T0 is the initial temperature of the substance, TR is the room temperature,

and r is a constant that represents the cooling rate of the substance.
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Example 4: Using an Exponential Model

You are cooking aleecha, an Ethiopian stew. When you take it off the stove, its
temperature is 212°F. The room temperature is 70°F and the cooling rate of the stew is r
— 0.046. How long will it take to cool the stew to a serving temperature of 100 0F7?

Solution:

You can use Newton's law of cooling with T = 100, T0 = 212, TK = 70, and r =
Newton's law of cooling
0.046.
Substitute for £ T0, TR, and r.
T = (T0 - TR)e – rt + TR
Subtract 70 from each side.

100 = (212 - 70)e – 0.04t + 70 Divide each side by 142,

30 = 142e -0.046t Take natural log of each side.

– 0.046t
In ex — loge ex = x
0.211≈ e

In 0.211≈ in e – 0.046t

-1.556 ≈ - 0.046t 33.8≈ t you should wait about 34 minutes before serving
the stew.

SOLVING LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS

To solve a logarithmic equation, use this property for logarithms with the same
base: For positive numbers b, x, and y where b #1, log b, x = log b, y if and only if
x= y.

EXAMPLE 5: SOLVING LOGARITHMIC EQUATION.

Solve Iog3 (5x - 1) = Iog3 (x + 1).

Solution:

Log3(5x – 1)= log3 (x+7)

Write original equation.
5x – 1 = x+7
Use property stated above.
181
Add 1 to each side.
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

5x = x + 8

X=2

The solution is 2.

Check: check the solution by substituting it into the original equation.

Log3 (5-c — 1) = log3 (x + 7) Write original equation.

Iog3 (5 • 2 - 1) =Iog3 (2 + 7) Substitute 2 for x.

Iog3 9 = log3 9 √ Solution checks.

When it is not convenient to write both sides of an equation as logarithmic

expressions with the same base, you can exponentiate each side of the
equation.

For b > 0 and b ≠ I, if X= y, then bx = by.

Example 6: Exponentiating Each Side

Solve Iog5 (3.r + 1) = 2.

SOLUTION
Write original equation.
log5 (3x+ 1) = 2
Exponent ate each side using base 5.
5105 (3x + 1) = 52

3x + 1 = 25 Alogbx = x

x=8
 The solution is 8.
CHECK Check the solution by substituting it into the original equation.

Log5 (3x + 1) = 2 Write original equation,

Log5 (3 . 8 + 1)12 Substitute 8 for x.

Log5 25 = 2 Simplify.

2=2√ Solution checks.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Because the domain of a logarithmic function generally does not include all real
numbers, you should be sure to check for extraneous solutions of logarithmic
equations. You can do this algebraically or graphically.

Example 7: Checking for Extraneous Solutions

Solve log 5x + log (x — 1) = 2. Check for extraneous solutions.
SOLUTION

Log 5x+ log(x- 1) = 2 Write original equation,

log [5x(x - 1)] = 2 Product property of logarithms

10log (5x2 – 5x) = 102 Exponentiate each side using base 10,

5x2 – 5x = 100 Write in standard form.

Factor.
x2 – x – 20 = 0
Zero product property
(x – 5 )(x + 4) = 0
x = 5 or x = -4
The solutions appear to be 5 and – 4. However, when you check these in the
original equation or use a graphic check as shown at the right, you can see
that x = 5 is the only solution.
 The solution is 5.
Example8. Using a Logarithmic Model

equation or use a graphic check as shown at the right, you can see that x = 5
is the
SEISMOLOGY The moment magnitude M of an earthquake that releases
energy
E (in ergs) can be modeled by this equation:
M = 0.291 In E+ 1.17
Writetook
On May 22, 1960, a powerful earthquake model forinmoment
place Chile. Itmagnitude.
had a moment
magnitude of 9.5. How much energy did this earthquake release?
Substitute 9.5 for M.
Solution
M = 0.291 In E+ 1.17 Subtract 1.17 from each side.

9.5 = 0.291 In E+ 1.17 Divide each side by 0.291.

8.33 = 0.291 In E
Exponentiate each side using base e.
183
Einx = elogex = x
 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

28.625 - In E

e28.625 ≈ e inE
2.702× 1012 ≈ E
 The earthquake released about 2.7 trillion ergs of energy.

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

1. Give an example of an exponential equation and a logarithmic equation.

2. How is solving a logarithmic equation similar to solving an exponential

equation? How is it different?

3. Why do logarithmic equations sometimes have extraneous solutions?

Solve the equation.

4. 3x = 14 5. 5x = 8 6. 92x = 3x – 6

7. 103x – 4 = 0.1 8. 23x = 4x – 1 9.103x – 1 + 4 = 32

Solve the equation.

10. log x = 2.4 11. log x = 3 12. log3 (2x – 1)=3

13. 12 in x = 44 14. log2 (x + 2) = log2x2 15. log3x+log(x+2) =1



Check solutions tell whether the x – valued is a solution of the equation

19. In.. x = 27. . x = e27 20. 5 - Iog4 2x = 3, x = 8

1 5 1
21. In 5x = 4, x = 4
e 22. Iog5 2
x= 17, x = 2e17

23. 5ex = 15, x = In 3 24. ex + 2 = 18, x = Iog2 16

SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS Solve the equation.

25. 10x - 3 = 26. 25x - 1 = 1254x 27. 3x - 7 = 272x

29. 85x= 163x + 4 30. e-x = 6
1004x-5 32. 1.2e-5x + 2.6 = 3
28. 36x – 9 = 33. 4X- 5 = 3
35. 102x + 3 = 8
1
36. 0.25x - 0.5 = 2
62x 38. 4
(4) 2 x  1  5 39. 10-12x + 6 = 100
31. 2x = 15 41. 4 – 2ex = - 23 42. -16 + 0.2(10)x
-x
34. -5e + 9 = 6 = 35
1
37. 4
(4)2x +1=5

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

40. 4 - 2ex =- 23

SOLVING LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS SOLVE THE EQUATION, CHECK FOR EXTRANEOUS SOLUTIONS.

43. In (4x+1) = In. (2x + 5) 44. log2x = 1

45. 4 Iog3 x = 28 46. 16 In A = 30
1 48. 1 - 2 In X = -4
47. 2
log6 16x = 3
50. Iog5 (2x + 15) = log53x
49. 2 In (- X) + 7 = 14 52. In A + In (x + 3) = 1
51. Inx + In (x- 2) = I 54. 15 + 21og2x = 31
53. Iog8 (11 – 6x) = log 8 (l – X) 56. log (5 – 3x) = log (4x – 9)
55. -5 + 2 In 3x = 5 58. In (X+ 5) = In (X - 1) - In (x +1)
57. 6.5 log5 3x = 20 60. 10 in 100x - 3 = 117
59. In (5.6 – x ) = In (18.4 – 2.6x)
61. Writing Solve the equation 43x = 8x +1 in Example 1 by taking the common
logarithm of each side of the equation. Do you prefer this method to the method
shown in Example 1? Why or why not?

62. COOKING You are cooking chili. When you take it off the stove, it has a
temperature of 205"F. The room temperature is 68°F and the cooling rate of the
chili is

r = 0.03. How long will it take to cool to a serving temperature of 95°F?

63. FINANCE You deposit $2000 in an account that pays 2% annual interest
compounded quarterly. How long will it take for the balance to reach $2400?

64. RADIOACTIVE DECAY You have 20 grams of phosphorus-32 that decays

5% per day. How long will it take for half of the original amount to decay?

65. DOUBLING TIME You deposit $500 in an account that pays 2.5% annual
interest compounded continuously. How long will it take for the balance to double?

66. HISTORY CONNECTION The first permanent English colony in America

was established in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. From 1620 through 1780, the
population P of colonial America can be modeled by the equation

P = 8863 (1.04)t
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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Where t is the number of years since 1620. When was the population of colonial
America about 345,000?

67. OCEANOGRAPHY Oceanographers use the density d (in grams per

cubic centimeter) of seawater to obtain informa-tiyn about the circulation of
water masses and the rates at which waters of different densities mix. For
water with a salinity of 30%, the density is related to the water temperature T
(in degrees Celsius) by this equation:

D = 1.0245 – e 0.1266T – 7.828

Use the equation to find the temperature of each layer of water whose density
is given in the diagram.
Muon Decey A moon is an elementary particle that is similar to an electron,
but much heavier. Muons are unstable—they very quickly decay to form
electrons and other particles. In an experiment conducted in 1943, the
number m of muon decays (of an original 5000 muons) was related to the
time t (in microseconds) by this model:
m = e 6.331 – 0.403t

After how many microseconds were 204 decays recorded?

ASTRONOMY The relationship between a telescope's limiting magnitude

(the apparent magnitude of the dimmest star that can be seen with the
telescope) and the diameter of the telescope's objective lens or mirror can be
modelled by:

M = 5 log D + 2

Where M is the limiting magnitude and D is the diameter (in Millimeters) of

the lens or mirror. If a telescope can reveal stars with a magnitude of 12, what
is the diameter of its objective lens or mirror? Source:


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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

Altimeter: An altimeter is an instrument that finds the height above sea level by
measuring the air pressure. The height and the air pressure are related by the model

P
h= - 8005 In 101,300

where h is the height (in meters) above sea level and P is the air pressure (in
pascals). What is the air pressure when the height is 4000 meters above sea
level?

71. MULTI-STEP PROBLEM A simple

technique that biologists use to estimate the age of anfVfrican elephant is to

measure the length of the elephant's footprint and then calculate its age using
the equation

l = 45 – 25.7 e – 0.09a

Where is the length of the footprint (in centimeters) and a is the age (in
years). Source: Journal of Wildlife Management

a. Use the equation to II nd the ages of the elephants whose footprints are
shown.

b. Solve the equation for «, and use this equation to find the ages of the
elephants whose footprints are shown.

c. Writing: Compare the methods you used in parts (a) and (b). Which method do
you prefer? Explain.

SOLVING EQUATIONS solve the equation.

73.
72. 2x + 3 = 53x – 1 105x + 2 = 54 – x
74. Iog3 (x - 6) = Iog9 2x 75. Iog4,r = Iog8 4x

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

76. Writing: In Exercises 72-75 you solved exponential and logarithmic

equations with different bases. Describe general methods for solving such
equations.

MAKING SCATTER PLOTS Draw a scatter plot of the data. Then approximate an
equation of the best-fitting line. (Review 2.5 for 8.7)

X -2 -1 - 0.5 0 0.5 1 2 3 3.5 4

Y 12.5 1.5 1.5 2 1.75 2 2.5 2.5 2.75 3.25

X -4 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 0 1 1.5 2

Y 1.5 1.75 1.75 2.25 2 2.25 2.25 2.75 3 3.5

THE SUBSTITUTION METHOD Solve the linear system using the

substitution method. (Review 3.2 for 8.7)

79. 2x – y = 3 80. 2x + y = 4 81. x + 4y = - 24

82. x – 3y = - 3 83. 2x + y = -1 83. – x + 6y = - 32

2x + y = 8 -4y – 2y = - 5 7x – 2y = 24

Factoring factor the polynomial by grouping (Review 6.4)

85. 3x3 – 6x2 + 4x – 8 86. 2x3 – 5x2 + 16x – 40

87. 7x3 + 4x2 + 35x + 20 88. 4x3 – 3x2 + 8x – 6

Evaluate the expression without using a calculator. (Lesson 8.4)

1. Log28 2. Log5 625 3. Log8 512

4. Find the inverse of the function y = In (x+3) (Lesson 8.4)

Graph the function of logarithms to evaluate the expression. (Lesson 8.5)

5. y = 1+log4x 6. y = log4x(x + 3) 7. y = 2+log6(x - 2)

Use a property of logarithms to evaluate the expression. (Lesson 8.5)

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 MATHEMATICS GRADE 10

1
8. log3(3.27) 9. log2 2
10. In e2

11. expand the expression log4 x ½ y4. (Lesson 8.5)

12. Condenses the expression 2log4 14 +3log6 x – log6 7. (Lesson 8.5)

13. Use the change – of – base formula to evaluate the expression log422.
(Lesson 8.5)

Solve the equation. (Lesson 8.6)

14.3ex – 1 = 14 15. 3log2 x = 28 17. In (2x + 7) = In (x - 4)

17. EARTHQUAKES An earthquake that took place in Indonesia on February 1,

1938, had a moment magnitude of 8.5. Use the mode! M = 0.291 In E + 1.17,
where M is the moment magnitude and E is the energy (in ergs) of an earthquake,
to determine how much energy the Indonesian earthquake released. (Lesson 8.6)

190