UNIT-I

TECHNOLOGY OF WATER

3.1 TECHNOLOGY OF WATER

INTRODUCTION
Water is the most essential compound for all living matter on the earth.
It plays an important role in human living, industrial and agricultural purposes.
So there is no life in the earth without water.
Sources of water
The two important sources of water are (1) surface water and (2)
underground water.
Surface water
The water available on the earth’s surface is called as surface water.
Surface water includes rainwater, river water, lake water and seawater.
Underground water
Underground water includes water present between the rocks in the
earth crust, spring water, well water etc.
Reason for Depletion of underground water
The decrease in the quantum of underground water is depletion of
water. Depletion of water is mainly caused by,
1. Modernization, industrialization and population growth
2. Global warming causing excess evaporation of surface water
3. Deforestation
4. Decrease in rainfall caused by seasonal changes and
5. Effluents from the industries spoiling the ground water source.
To meet out this depletion of ground water sources, it is essential to
find alternate plans using water management techniques to recharge the
ground water sources. One of the techniques adopted is rainwater harvesting.
Rain water Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a technique of capturing and storing of
rainwater (tanks, slums, lake) for useful purposes and recharging the excess
water into the ground.
The methods employed are
1. Roof top harvesting
2. Open space harvesting
Roof top harvesting
Rainwater is directly used for recharging open wells and bore wells by
directing them into it. It can also be stored in sumps or overhead tanks and
used directly.

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Open space Harvesting
Open spaces around the buildings are used for rainwater harvesting as
follows
1. With percolation/recharge pits
2. Recharge trenches
3. Recharge wells

The recharge method used depends on the soil condition.

Advantages of rain water harvesting
1. RHW increases the ground water level.
2. It avoids the depletion of underground water.
3. Soil erosion is prevented.
4. It also prevents flooding in urban areas during rainy season.
5. It ensures the availability of water for our future generation.
Types of impurities present in water
There are three types of impurities present in water. They are
(i) Suspended and colloidal impurities.
(ii) Dissolved salts.
(iii) Microorganisms.
Types of water
There are two types of water.
They are (i) soft water and (ii) hard water.
I. Soft water readily gives lather with soap.
II. Hard water does not give lather with soap.
Hardness of water
There are two types of hardness in water. They are:
(i) Temporary Hardness: (Carbonate hardness)
It is due to the presence of calcium bicarbonate [Ca(HCO3)2] and
magnesium bicarbonate [Mg(HCO3)2].
Temporary Hardness can be removed by boiling.
(ii) Permanent Hardness: (Non-Carbonate hardness)
It is due to the presence of chloride and sulphate salts of calcium and
Magnesium. (CaCl2, CaSO4, MgCl2, MgSO4).Hence it is called as
permanent hard water.

43
Methods of expressing the Hardness.
The hardness of water can be expressed by any one of the following two
methods.
Units for measuring hardness
1. mg/litre of CaCO3
It is the number of mg CaCO3 of present in one litre of water or mg/lit
2. part per million of CaCO3
It is the number of parts by weight of CaCO3 present in million parts of
water or ppm.
1mg / litre = 1 ppm
Usually, the hardness of water is expressed in terms of calcium carbonate
equivalents.
The formula used to convert the mass of hardness producing salt to the
mass of CaCO3 equivalent is given below.
Calcium
Carbonate = Mass of salt x Molecular mass of CaCO3
Equivalents Molecular mass of salt

To prove the relation between mg/litre and ppm

Let us consider a water sample whose hardness is ‘x’ mg/litre of CaCO3.
Therefore, Mass of CaCO3 present in 1000ml of water =Y mg i.e. Mass of
CaCO3 present in 1000g of water = Y  103g
Therefore,
Mass of CaCO3 present in 106g of water = Y  103g  106

= Yx1000g.
Hence hardness of water is = Y ppm.
Therefore, 1 mg / litre = 1 ppm. Hence it is proved.
Even though CaCO3 is not a hardness producing salt and is insoluble
in water, it is used as the standard to express the hardness of water. Since
the hardness producing salts are present in traces, mass of CaCO3 equivalent
to hardness producing salt is calculated to express the hardness of a water
sample.
The formula used to convert the mass of hardness producing salt to
mass of CaCO3 is given as follows.
One molecular mass of  one molecular mass of
Hardness producing salt CaCO3
Note: Molecular masses of hardness producing salts are given below.

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Hardness producing salt Molecular Mass
CaSO4 136
MgSO4 120
CaCl2 111
MgCl2 95
Ca (HCO3)2 162
Mg (HCO3)2 146

1. A water sample contains 48 mg of MgSO4 per 200ml of water. Calculate

the hardness in terms of CaCO3 equivalent in mg/litre of CaCO3.
One molecular mass of MgSO4 = one molecular mass of CaCO3

i.e. 120 mass of Mg SO4 = 100 mass of CaCO3

Therefore mass of 48mg of MgSO4 = 48 x 100 = 40mg of CaCO3

120
Mass of CaCO3 present in 200 ml of water = 40mg
Therefore,
Mass of CaCO3 present in 1000ml of water = 200mg
Hardness of water = 200mg/litre of CaCO3
Disadvantages of a hard water sample
 Hard water cannot be used for drinking, as it does not quench thirst.
 It cannot be used for cooking purposes.
 It cannot be used for bathing and washing purposes as it does not give
lather with soap.
 Hard water cannot be used in laboratories as it gives unwanted chemical
reactions.
 Hard water cannot be used in boilers in steam raising.
 It cannot be used in sugar and paper industries.
 Hard water cannot be used in textile and leather industries.

ESTIMATION OF HARDNESS OF WATER -EDTA METHOD

EDTA method is used to determine the hardness of a sample of water.
EDTA refers to Ethylene-diamine tetra acetic acid. This method is also called
Modern method.

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PRINCIPLE:
This is a volumetric method based on the principle of formation of
complexes. Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (E.D.T.A.) forms colorless
complexes with Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions present in water. Similarly Eriochrome
Black-T, another dye, also forms wine red coloured complexes with Ca2+ and
Mg2+ ions. Pure Eriochrome Black-T is blue in colour. At the pH range of 9 to
10, the Eriochrome complexes are less stable when compared to E.D.T.A.
complexes. Thus when E.D.T.A. solution is added to Eriochrome-Ca2+ or
Mg2+ complexes it displaces pure Eriochrome to form E.D.T.A-Ca2+ or Mg2+
complexes. Thus at the end point E.D.T.A. frees the total Eriochrome Black-T
to change the colour of the solution from wine red to steel blue.
Eriochrome-Ca2+ + E.D.T.A---- E.D.T.A-Ca2+ + Eriochrome Black-T
Wine Red Steel Blue
PROCEDURE:
The burette is filled with the standard E.D.T.A. solution. A 50-ml
pipette is washed with distilled water and rinsed with the sample of hard-
water. Exactly 50 ml of hard-water is pipetted out into a conical flask and 5 ml
of NH4Cl - NH4OH buffer solution is added. A pinch of Eriochrome Black-T
indicator is added. The colour of the conical flask solution changes into wine
red. The water sample is titrated against the E.D.T.A.Solution taken in the
burette. The colour changes from wine red to steel blue. This is the end point
of the titration. The burette reading is noted. Titrations are repeated until two
consecutive values agree. From the volume of E.D.T.A. the hardness of the
sample of water is calculated.
Note: In the estimation of hardness of water, a standard already established
formula is used. This gives a standard data relating the mass of CaCO3 and
volume of 0.01M EDTA solution. The formula is
1ml of 0.01M EDTA solution ≡ 1mg of CaCO3
HARD WATER Vs EDTA
Burette Volume of
Sl. Volume of Reading EDTA Indicator
No. Hard water
Initial Final (ml)
1 20 0
Eriochrome
2 20 0
Black-T
3 20 0

CALCULATION:
Let V ml be the volume of E.D.T.A. Hard water.
1 ml of 0.01 M E.D.T.A. ≡ 1 mg of CaCO3
Therefore V ml of 0.01 M E.D.T.A. = V mg of CaCO3
50 ml of Hard water contains V mg of CaCO3

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Therefore Weight of CaCO3 present In 1000 ml of Hard water
V X 1000
= ------------- mg
50
= 20 V mg

HARDNESS OF WATER = 20V mg /litre of CaCO3

(Note: In the estimation of hardness, 0.01M EDTA solution is prepared by
dissolving 3.72 g of Disodium salt of EDTA in 1000 ml of distilled water.
NH3 - NH4Cl buffer solution is prepared by dissolving 67.5 g of ammonium
chloride (AR) in 200ml of water and by adding 570ml of Liquor ammonia (AR)
with specific gravity 0.92 and the total volume is made up to one litre.)
Worked out Example
1. A sample of 100 ml of hard water consumes 25 ml of 0.01M EDTA
solution. Calculate the hardness of the sample of water.
Formula
1ml of 0.01M EDTA solution ≡ 1mg of CaCO3
Therefore, 25ml of 0.01M EDTA solution ≡ 25 mg of CaCO3
By titration, 25ml of 0.01M EDTA solution ≡100 ml of hard water
Therefore
Mass of CaCO3 present in 100 ml of hard water = 25 mg
Therefore
Mass of CaCO3 present in 1000ml of hard water = 250mg
Hence hardness of water = 250mg/litre of CaCO3
To give in ppm
Mass of CaCO3 present in 100 ml of hard water = 25 mg
Mass of CaCO3 present in 100g of hard water = 25×10-3g
Therefore
Mass of CaCO3 present in 106g of hard water = 25×10-3g×106
100
= 250g
Hence hardness of water = 250 ppm of CaCO3
2. A sample of 100 ml of water consumed 12.5 ml of 0.01 M EDTA solution. In
another titration 100 ml of the same sample, after boiling for half an hour
consumed 8.2 ml of the same EDTA solution. Calculate the carbonate and
non-carbonate hardness of the sample of water.
(NOTE: In the given problem, volume of EDTA consumed in the first titration
is equivalent to total hardness of water which includes both carbonate and

47
non-carbonate hardness. But the volume of EDTA consumed by the water
after boiling is equivalent to non-carbonate hardness as carbonate hardness
in water can be removed by boiling water.)
Total hardness
1ml of 0.01M EDTA solution ≡ 1mg of CaCO3
Therefore,
12.5ml of 0.01M EDTA solution ≡ 12.5 mg of CaCO3
By titration,
12.5ml of 0.01M EDTA solution ≡100 ml of hard water
Therefore
Mass of CaCO3 present in 100 ml of hard water = 12.5 mg
Therefore mass of CaCO3 present in 1000ml of Hard water =
125mg
Hence Total hardness of water = 125 mg/litre of CaCO3

Non-carbonate Hardness

1ml of 0.01M EDTA solution ≡ 1mg of CaCO3

Therefore,
8.2ml of 0.01M EDTA solution ≡ 8.2 mg of CaCO3
By titration,
8.2ml of 0.01M EDTA solution ≡100 ml of hard water
Therefore
Mass of CaCO3 present in 100 ml of hard water = 8.2 mg
Therefore
Mass of CaCO3 present in 1000ml of hard water = 82 mg
Hence
Non-carbonate hardness of water =82 mg/litre of CaCO3
Therefore
Carbonate Hardness = Total hardness – Non-carbonate hardness
= (125 – 82) = 43 mg/litre of CaCO3
SOFTENING OF HARD WATER
The method of converting the hard water into soft water is called softening of
hard water. Two important methods of softening the hard water are 1. Ion-
Exchange method 2.Reverse Osmosis method.

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Ion Exchange method
(Demineralization Method or de-ionization method)
In this method the hard water is first passed through an acidic resin
having replaceable hydrogen ion (RH2) to remove the cations [Ca2+, Mg2+] and
then it is passed through a basic resin [R’(OH) 2] having replaceable hydroxyl
ion to remove the anion. Thus both types of ions are totally removed.
Acid resin is represented by RH2.
Base resin is represented by R’(OH) 2.
Softening Process:
When the hard water sample is passed through the acid resin, calcium and
magnesium ions are removed.
2RH +Ca2+ ---------- R2Ca + 2H+
Acidic resin
2RH +Mg2+ ---------- R2Mg + 2H+
Acidic resin
When this water is passed through the base resin, chloride, bicarbonate and
sulphate ions are removed.

R’OH + Cl-- ---------- R’Cl + OH¯

2R’OH + SO42– ---------- R’2SO4 + 2 OH¯
Basic resin

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Thus both types of ions are removed from water. The H+ and OH ¯ ions
combine together to form water.
H+ + OH – ---------- H2O
The quality of water obtained by this method is equivalent to distilled water.
Regeneration of Acidic Resin and Basic Resin:
After a long use, the acidic resin can be regenerated by washing it with strong
solution of Hydrochloric acid.
R2Ca + 2HCl ----------- 2RH +CaCl2
The basic resin after a long use can be regenerated by washing it with a
strong solution of NaOH.
R’Cl + NaOH ----------- R’OH + NaCl
R’2SO4 + 2NaOH ---------- 2R’OH + Na2SO4
Advantages
1) In this method, both types of hardness are removed.
2) The quality of water obtained is equivalent to distilled water.
3) There is no wastage of water.
Reverse Osmosis Method
Osmosis
When two solutions of different concentrations are separated by a
semi-permeable membrane, solvent molecules move from the region of low
concentrated side to the region of high concentrated side until the two
concentrations become equal. This process is called osmosis. The pressure
gradient produced due to osmosis is called osmotic pressure.
Reverse Osmosis
When a hydrostatic pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is
applied on the high concentration region, solvent molecules move from high
concentration region to the low concentration region across the semi
permeable membrane. This is called reverse osmosis. This principle is used
in Reverse Osmosis plants to soften hard water.
Method
 In this method hard water and soft water are taken in two different
chambers separated by semi permeable membrane.
 When a hydrostatic pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is applied
on the hard waterside, the water molecules move from hard waterside to
soft waterside leaving the impurities on the membrane due to reverse
osmosis.
Thus hard water is converted to soft water by Super filtration or hyper
filtration

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Diagram

 The semi permeable membrane is made of polysulphone or cellulose

acetate or polyamide.
Advantages
1) In this method ionic, non-ionic, colloidal, and organic particles are removed
from water.
2) The semipermeable membrane can be replaced and reused.
3) There is no wastage of water.

MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY

WATER FOR DRINKING PURPOSE (Potable water)
Water used for drinking should be
1. Colourless and odourless
2. Free from colloidal and suspended impurities and
3. Free from microorganisms and bacteria.
The three stages involved in purifying a water sample for drinking purpose are
1. SEDIMENTATION
2. FILTRATION
3. STERILISATION
SEDIMENTATION
Water from river or lake is taken in the big tank called sedimentation
tank. Here the insoluble matter settles down at the bottom of the tank as
sediments. In this tank, the colloidal impurities are converted into precipitate
by adding Alum. The clear water from the top layer is sent to the next tank
called Filtration tank.

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FILTRATION TANK
In filtration tank, the suspended impurities and the microorganisms are
removed. In all types of filtration, the filter bed used is constructed as follows.
The filter bed consists of a layer of fine sand followed by the layer of
coarse sand, which is then followed, by a layer of gravel. There is a drain at
the bottom to remove the filtered water. The layer of fine sand acts as the
filtering unit and the other two beds support the fine sand layer. Generally
filtration is done due to the gravitational force. The filtered water is then taken
to the sterilization tank.

(Note: In drinking water supply schemes, generally gravity filters are used.
However, in industrial areas where large amount of drinking water is required
in short period, pressure filters are used in which water is sent through filter
beds using external pressure. In gravity filtration, there are two types namely
slow sand filtration and rapid sand filtration. The difference between these two
methods is mainly in the recovery of filter beds used.)
STERILIZATION
Sterilization is the process of killing the bacteria. It is done by
Chlorination.

Chlorination
Chlorination is addition of chlorine. Chlorine is added to water in the
acidic pH range of 6.5 to 7. When chlorine is added to water, it forms HCl and
HOCl. The hypochlorous acid molecule enters into the living cells of bacteria
and kills them.
H2O + Cl2 HCl + HOCl (Hypochlorous acid)

Other sterilizing agents used apart from chlorine are chloramines,

bleaching powder etc. The advantage of using chloramines is that it does not
evaporate out easily and can be carried over to a longer distance along with
the water.
Ultra-violet rays can also be used for sterilizing purpose.

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BOILER FEED WATER
Water is used in boilers, steam engines etc., to raise steam. When a
sample of hard water is used in boiler to prepare steam, the following
problems will occur.
1. Scale formation
2. Corrosion of boiler metal
3. Caustic Embrittlement and
4. Priming and foaming.
Boiler Scale Formation:
When hard water is used in boilers to get steam, the impurities that are
present in the hard water will settle down on the sides of the boiler. This
residue in due course will adhere to the boiler vessel surface in the form of a
sludge or scale. This is called as boiler scale. The following calcium salts are
responsible for the formation of boiler scale CaSO4, CaCO3,Ca (OH) 2, Mg
(OH) 2 etc.
Disadvantages of using hard water Boilers
1. The salt deposit formed is a poor conductor of heat. Therefore fuel is
wasted in raising the temperature of the boiler.
2. Due to the increase in the temperature, the plates may melt. This may lead
to explosion of boiler.
3. At higher temperature, more oxygen may be absorbed by the boiler metal,
which causes corrosion of boiler metal.
4. The sudden spalling of the boiler scale exposes the hot metal suddenly to
super-heated steam, which causes corrosion of boiler.

Methods employed to prevent scale formation are,

1. Internal conditioning method
2. External conditioning method.

1. Internal conditioning methods involve addition of complexing agents like

Calgon to boiler feed water. Another method of internal conditioning is
Phosphate conditioning. In this method, sodium phosphate is added to boiler
feed water which forms non-sticky Calcium and Magnesium Phosphate Which
can be removed by blow down operation.
2. In External conditioning methods water is purified either by Zeolite
process or by ion-exchange method before being fed into boilers.
Corrosion of Boiler metal:
Water containing the following impurities is responsible for the corrosion of
boiler metal. The impurities such as dissolved oxygen, dissolved Carbon
dioxide, mineral acids, dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium, organic
matter etc. are responsible for the corrosion of the boilers.
The dissolved matter undergoes hydrolysis and forms acids. The acid
slowly attacks the inner part of the boiler.
The dissolved oxygen attacks iron at high temperature. The CO2 and H2O
form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which slowly attacks the metal.

53
Prevention of Boiler Corrosion:
1. By using proper water treatment procedures.
2. By degasification to remove the dissolved gases like oxygen, CO2 etc.,
3. The dissolved CO2 can be removed by the addition of limewater.
4. Adding calculated amount of base could neutralize the mineral acids.
Caustic Embrittlement:
Sometimes cracks appear inside the boiler parts, particularly at the
places, which are under stress. Metal becomes brittle at these places. It is
due to the high concentration of caustic soda (NaOH) and a little amount of
silica in water. This is called as caustic embrittlement.
Caustic soda is formed by the hydrolysis of Na2CO3.
Na2CO3 + H2O 2NaOH + CO2
Removal of Na2CO3 present in water can prevent caustic embrittlement.
This can be done by the following methods.
1. By adding sulphuric acid.
2. By adding CaSO4 and CaCl2 to boiler water
3. By adding Na2SO4.
4. By adding trisodium phosphate. etc.
Foaming and Priming
Foaming
Foaming is nothing but the formation of foam. Bubbles of water will
enter the surface of water inside the boilers and results in the formation of
foam. Foam comes out of the boiler along with the steam. Hence the steam
becomes wet and the heat content of the steam is reduced considerably. This
type of wet steam spoils the machine parts where it is used.
The main cause for foaming is the presence of dissolved salts in water.
Hence soft water should be used in boilers to avoid foaming.
Priming
Priming is violent and rapid boiling of water inside the boiler. Due to
priming, the water particles mix up with the steam when it comes out of the
boiler. Like foaming, priming also reduces the heat content of the steam and
reduces the efficiency of the steam.
Main reasons for Priming:
a) Defective design of the boiler.
b) Presence of large quantities of dissolved salts, oily matter, alkaline and
suspended matter.
Control
1. Priming can be controlled by proper design of the boiler
2. By uniformly heating the water in the boiler.
3. By using a better sample of water.

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Summary

Students have learnt about rain water harvesting, estimation of hardness,

methods of softening and bad effects of hard water in boilers.

QUESTIONS
PART – A
1. Define hard and soft waters.
2. List the salts that cause Carbonate and non-carbonate hardness in a
water sample.
3. What is rain water harvesting?
4. Mention any two problems caused by using hard water sample.
5. List any two methods of softening of hard water.
6. What is osmosis?
7. What is osmotic pressure?
8. Explain reverse osmosis.
9. Name the membranes used in R.O.method of softening of hard water
10. What is ppm?
11. What is sedimentation?
12. What is sterilization of water?
13. Explain the reaction that takes place when chlorine is added to water.
14. What are boiler scales?
15. What is caustic embrittlement?
16. What is priming?
17. What is foaming?
18. Give any one problem caused by boiler scale.
PART – B
1. List the problems caused by hard water?
2. What is rainwater harvesting? What are its goals?
PART-C
1. Explain Ion Exchange method of softening a hard water sample.
2. What is regeneration of Ion-exchange plant? How is it carried out?
3. Explain Reverse Osmosis method of softening a hard water sample.
4. Explain EDTA method of estimating hardness of a sample of water.
5. Describe the method used in water supply schemes to get potable water.
6. What are boiler scales? List the problems caused by boiler scale. How to
overcome this problem.
7. Explain caustic embrittlement, priming and foaming in boilers during the
production of steam.

55
 UNIT II
FUELS
INTRODUCTION
In this present age of rapid industrial development, the power
requirement is increasing day-by-day. Heat energy is the main source of
power. Burning of carbon, an exothermic reaction produces heat energy.
Hence, the carbon compounds have been used as the main source of heat
energy.
Fuel
A fuel is a substance, which on proper burning gives large amount of heat
energy on combustion. It is used for domestic and industrial purposes. They
contain carbon as a main constituent.
Fossil fuel
The main sources of fuels are coal and petroleum oils available in
earth’s crust and they are called fossil fuels.
The other sources of fuels are
(i) Radioactive elements and
(ii) Sunlight
Calorific value of a fuel
Calorific value of a fuel is the total quantity of heat liberated when a unit
mass or volume of the fuel is completely burnt.
Unit of heat
Heat energy is measured in terms of calorie or kilocalorie.
Calorie is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water through 1° Centigrade (1 kcal = 1000 calories)
Gross calorific value
Gross calorific value of a fuel is defined as the total quantity of heat
liberated when a unit mass of the fuel is completely burnt and the combustion
products are cooled to room temperature
Gross calorific value = Heat of reaction + Latent heat of steam produced +
Sensible heat obtained by cooling the combustion
Products to room temperature
Net calorific value
The net calorific value of a fuel is the actual amount of heat available
when unit mass of the fuel is completely burnt and combustion products are
permitted to escape.
Net Calorific Value = Gross calorific value – Latent heat of water vapour
formed.

160
Classification of fuels
Fuels are classified into natural or primary fuels and artificial or
secondary fuels. Each type is further subdivided into solid, liquid and
gaseous fuels.
Sl. State of fuel Natural Artificial
No.
1 Solid Wood, peat, lignite, Wood charcoal, coke
coal
2 Liquid Crude petroleum Kerosene, petrol, diesel,
alcohol
3 Gaseous Natural gas Water gas, producer gas,
biogas, coal gas, LPG

Solid fuels
Wood
It is a low-grade fuel. Freshly cut wood contains 25-50% moisture.
Moisture may be reduced to 25% on air-drying. The composition of moisture
free wood is C = 55%; H2 = 6%; O2 = 43% and ash = 1%. The calorific value
of dried wood is 3500 to 4500 kcal/kg. It burns with a long and non-smoky
flame. It is used as a domestic fuel.
Coal
Coal is a natural fuel formed by the slow carbonization of vegetable
matter buried under the earth some thousands of years ago. It is classified
into four kinds based on the carbon content and the calorific value.
1. Peat
2. Lignite
3. Bituminous coal
4. Anthracite coal
1. Peat
It is the first stage of formation of coal from wood. It is brown, fibrous
jelly-like mass. It contains 80-90% moisture. The composition of peat is C =
57%; H2 = 6%; O2 = 35% and ash = 2.5%. The calorific value of peat is 5400
kcal/kg. It is a low-grade fuel due to high water content.
Uses
1. It is used as fertilizer.
2. It is used as packing material.
2. Lignite
Lignite is immature form of coal. It contains 20-60% moisture. Air-
dried lignite contains C = 60-70% and O2 = 20%. It burns with a long smoky
flame. The calorific value of lignite is 6500-7100 kcal/kg.
Uses
1. It is used as a domestic fuel.
2. It is used as a boiler fuel for steam production.

161
3. It is used in the manufacture of producer gas.

3. Bituminous coal
It is a high quality fuel. Its moisture content is 4%. Its composition is
C = 83%; O2 = 10%; H2 = 5% and N2 = 2%. Its calorific value is 8500 kcal/kg.
Uses
1. It is used in metallurgy.
2. It is used in steam production.
3. It is used for making coal gas.
4. It is also used for domestic heating.

4. Anthracite coal
It is the superior form of coal. It contains C = 92-98%; O2 = 3%; H2 =
3% and N2 = 0.7%. It burns without smoke. Its calorific value is 8700 kcal/kg.
Uses:
1. It is used for steam production and house hold purposes.
2. It is used for direct burning in boilers and in metallurgy.
3. It is used in thermal power plant.
4. It is used in coal tar distillation.
5. It is used in glass furnaces.

Liquid fuels

a. Petroleum
Petroleum (Crude oil) is a naturally available liquid fuel. It is a dark
greenish-brown viscous oil found deep in earth’s crust. It is composed of
various hydrocarbons with small amount of other organic compounds as
impurities.

Refining of petroleum
The process of purification and separation of various fractions present
in petroleum by fractional distillation is called refining of petroleum. Refining
is carried out in oil refineries.

Fractional distillation
It is the process of separation of various components of a liquid mixture
based on the difference in their boiling points by repeated evaporation and
condensation.

Refining of petroleum – Process

The crude oil is treated with copper oxide to remove sulphur impurities.
Then it is repeatedly washed with sulphuric acid to remove basic impurities. It
is then washed with sodium hydroxide to remove acidic impurities. Then it is

162
subjected to fractional distillation and various fractions are collected. The
various fractions obtained and their uses are given in the table below.

Products of fractional distillation of petroleum and their uses:

SL. Fractions Temperature Uses

No.
1 Gases Below 30°C Used as industrial and
domestic fuel
2 Petroleum ether 30°C to 80°C Used as a solvent
3 Gasoline or petrol 40°C to 180°C Used as a solvent, fuel and in
dry cleaning
4 Kerosene oil 180°Cto 250°C Used as illuminant and fuel
5 Diesel oil or gas oil 250°C to 320°C Used as fuel for diesel engine
6 Heavy oil or 320°Cto 400°C Used for lubrication, cosmetics
lubricating oil and in medicines
7 Residue or asphalt Above 400°C Used for road making and
or pitch water proofing of roofs

Cracking
Cracking is a process by which the hydrocarbons of high molecular
mass are decomposed into hydrocarbons of low molecular mass by
heating in the presence or absence of a catalyst. Generally aluminum
silicates are used as catalyst.

b. Liquid hydrogen as a fuel

Hydrogen is a colourless and odourless gas composed of diatomic molecules.
It holds greater role as fuel in future.
Liquid hydrogen is a favourable rocket fuel. On combustion, it produces more
heat per gram than any other fuel. Further, it produces only water on
combustion whereas the fossil fuels produce gases like SO2, NO2 and CO2
causing environmental pollution. Hence, hydrogen as a fuel has more
advantages than any other fossil fuels.
2 H2 + O 2 2 H2O
Hydrogen is not a primary fuel. It is obtained from other sources of energy. It
can be obtained directly from water by decomposing with some energy
source. Solar photovoltaic collectors are used to decompose water by
electrolysis.
Hydrogen can be liquefied below its temperature of 33.1K. It is a colourless,
odourless liquid below 20.2 K. When allowed to expand, it gets heated up
above 22 K.

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Gaseous fuels
Examples: Producer gas, water gas, CNG and LPG

Producer gas
Producer gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and nitrogen. It also contains
traces of hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
The average composition of producer gas is CO = 22-30%; H2 = 8-12%; N2 =
52-55% and CO2 = 3%.Its calorific value is about 1300 kcal/m3.
Preparation
Producer gas is prepared by passing air over a red hot coke at about 1100°C
in a reactor called gas producer.
C + O2 CO2
CO2 + C 2 CO

The reactor consists of a steel vessel lined inside with refractory bricks. At
the top, it is provided with cup and cone arrangement and an exit for producer
gas. At the bottom, it has an inlet for passing air. There is an exit for the ash
at the base.
Uses
1. It is used as a fuel in the extraction of metal.
2. It is used in the manufacture of glass.
3. It is used as a reducing agent in metallurgy.
Water gas
Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. It also
contains traces of carbon dioxide and nitrogen.

164
The average composition of water gas is CO = 41%; H2 = 51%; N2 = 4% and
CO2 = 4%. Its calorific value is 2800 kcal/m3.
Preparation
Water gas is prepared by passing steam and little air alternatively over a red
hot coke at about 1000°C in a reactor. It is an endothermic reaction. So the
temperature of the system decreases.

C + H2O CO + H2 (Endothermic reaction)

(Coke) (Steam)
But, the reaction between carbon and air is exothermic and raises the
temperature to about 1000°C
C + O2 CO2 (Exothermic reaction)
Thus, the steam and air are sent in alternatively to maintain the temperature
at about 1000°C.

The reactor consists of a steel vessel lined inside with refractory bricks. At
the top, it has cup and cone feeder and an exit for water gas. At the base,
inlet pipes for steam and air are provided. At the bottom, out let for ash is
also available.
Uses
1. It is used as a source of hydrogen gas.
2. It is used as an illuminating gas.
3. It is used as a fuel in ceramic industries.

165
CNG (Compressed natural gas)
CNG is a good alternative fossil fuel. It mainly contains methane.
CNG is made by compressing natural gas which is found in oil deposits
landfills and waste water treatment plants to less than 1% of its volume, it
occupies at standard atmospheric pressure.
It is stored and distributed in hard containers at a pressure of 2900-3600 psi.
Advantages
1. It is cheaper than petrol or diesel.
2. It emits fewer pollutants like CO2, CO, etc. In New Delhi, it is used as a
fuel for entire city bus fleet, taxis and three wheelers.
3. It is safer than other fuels. In the event of a spill, it disperses quickly in air
because, it lighter than air.
LPG (Liquefied petroleum gas)
1. It is a mixture of propane and butane.
2. It is stored in steel cylinder under high pressure.
3. When the cylinder is opened, it comes out in the form of gas.
4. Commercially, it is supplied under various trade names.
5. Its calorific value is 27,800 kcal/m3.
Uses
1. It is mainly used as a domestic fuel.
2. It is used as a fuel in diesel engines.
3. It is used as a motor fuel.
Relative advantages of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels

Sl. Property Solid fuel Liquid fuel Gaseous fuel

No.
1 Calorific value Low Greater than Very high
solid fuel and
less than
gaseous fuel
2 Smoke High Low Nil
production
3 Ash formation Ash produced Very low Nil
4 Storage Large space Less space Minimum space
needed needed needed
5 Transportation More labour Much less labour Transported
involved involved easily through
pipelines
6 Ignition Difficult Easy Very easy
7 Flame control Difficult Easy Very easy

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Summary
In this lesson, different types of fuels, their composition and uses are
discussed. The manufacture, composition and uses of producer gas, water
gas and some details about CNG and LPG are also discussed.

QUESTIONS
PART – A
1. Define fuel.
2. Define fossil fuel.
3. Define calorific value of a fuel.
4. How are fuels classified?
5. Give two examples for solid fuels.
6. Give two examples for liquid fuels.
7. Give two examples for gaseous fuels.
8. What are the varieties of coal?
9. What is petroleum?
10. What is meant by cracking?
11. What is producer gas?
12. Give the composition of producer gas.
13. What is water gas?
14. Give the composition of water gas.
15. What are the components present in CNG?
16. Mention the uses of CNG.
17. What are the components present in LPG?
18. Mention the uses of LPG.
PART – B
1. What is refining of petroleum?
2. Write a note on liquid hydrogen as fuel.
3. Give the composition and uses of producer gas.
4. Give the composition and uses of water gas.
5. Give the composition and uses of CNG.
6. Give the composition and uses of LPG.

PART – C
1. Write a note on solid fuels.
2. Explain the fractional distillation of petroleum.
3. Describe the manufacture of producer gas. List its uses.
4. Describe the manufacture of water gas. List its uses.
5. Write a note on CNG.
6. Write a note on LPG.
7. Compare the relative advantages of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Think of how household waste can be utilized to produce gaseous fuel.

167
 2.2 COMBUSTION
INTRODUCTION
Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction accompanied by heat
and light. To ensure complete combustion, substance should be brought to its
ignition temperature. Most of the combustible substances are enriched with
carbon, hydrogen and sulphur. During combustion they undergo thermal
decomposition and oxidation to give products like CO2,H2O and SO2 etc.
Hence for an efficient combustion it is essential that the fuel must contact with
sufficient quantity of air. The air contains oxygen which is used for
combustion. But the non-combustible constituents like N2,CO2,and H2O do not
take any oxygen from air.
Incomplete combustion occurs only when there is too little air or oxygen is
supplied. During incomplete combustion the carbon monoxide is formed
instead of CO2.

Ignition temperature:
The minimum temperature at which a fuel catches fire and burns is called
ignition temperature.
Definition:
The chemical reaction of a fuel with oxygen(oxidising agent) which
produces heat and light energy is called combustion of a fuel.
Example: Combustion of carbon
C + O2 CO2(g) + 97 kcal
The gaseous products of combustion are mainly CO, CO2, N2, SO2, O2
and H2O which are known as flue gases. The main elements present in most
of the fuels are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) and sulphur (S).
Air contains 23% by mass of oxygen and 21% by volume of oxygen.

Combustion calculation by mass (for solids and liquids):

Stochiometric or minimum quantity of air required for the complete
combustion of solid and liquid fuels
Substances always combine in definite proportions which are
determined by the molecular masses of the substances involved and the
products formed.
1. Combustion of Carbon
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
12 32 44

12 kg of carbon requires32 kg of oxygen for complete combustion

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

2. Combustion of Hydrogen
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(l)
4 32 36
4 kg of hydrogen requires 32 kg of oxygen for complete combustion

Combined hydrogen in fuel present as moisture (H2O) does not undergo

combustion. The rest of hydrogen only takes part in the combustion reaction.

3. Combustion of Sulphur
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
32 32 64
32 kg of sulphur requires 32 kg of oxygen for complete combustion

= S kg
On combining the above three equations,
Let us assume that 1 Kg of fuel contains’ C’ Kg of carbon, H Kg of hydrogen
and S Kg of sulphur. Then the total mass of oxygen required for the complete
combustion of 1 Kg of fuel is given below:

169
 Minimum mass of oxygen is calculated on the basis of complete
combustion. Note. If the fuel already has some amount of oxygen, then
that amount of oxygen has to be deducted from the total mass
Minimum mass of oxygen required = Theoretical O2 required – O2 present in
fuel

Mass percentage of oxygen

The mass percentage of oxygen in air=23%
23% of Oxygen is supplied by 100 % Mass of air supply
That is to supply 23 Kg of oxygen = 100 kg of air required

Hence the mass of air that is required for combustion of 1 Kg of fuel is

Where C, H, O and S are the respective masses of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

and sulphur present in 1 kg of the fuel.
Examples:
Example 1

A fuel contains 90% carbon, 3.5% hydrogen, 3% oxygen and 0.5% sulphur
Determine stoichiometric mass of air required to completely burn 1 kg of this
fuel.
C= 90% = 0.9 kg
H= 3.5% = 0.035 kg
O= 03% = 0.03 kg
S= 0.5% = 0.005 kg

1. Combustion of carbon

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 For 0.9 kg of C requires oxygen for complete combustion

= 2.4 kg
2. Combustion of hydrogen

0.035 kg of hydrogen requires oxygen for complete combustion

=

= 8 x 0.35=0.28 kg
3. Combustion of Sulphur

32
0.005 kg of sulphur requires oxygen for complete combustion = x 0.005
32

= 0.005 kg

= 2.685 kg
Minimum mass of oxygen required = Theoretical O2 required – O2 present in
fuel

= 2.685 – 0.03

= 2.655 kg

= 11.54kg
Example 2:
Calculate the minimum mass of air required for complete combustion of 1 kg
of a fuel having the composition C = 92%, H2 = 4%, O2 = 2% and ash = 2%
by weight.

171
 C = 92% = 0.92 kg
H2 = 04% = 0.04 kg
O2 = 02% = 0.02 kg

1. Combustion of carbon

0.92 kg of C requires oxygen for complete combustion =

= 2.45 kg
2. Combustion of hydrogen

For 0.04 kg of hydrogen requires oxygen for complete combustion

= 0.32 kg

= 2.77 kg
Minimum mass of oxygen required = Theoretical O2 required – O2 present in
fuel
= 2.77 – 0.02
= 2.75 kg

= 11.96kg
Example 3:
Calculate the minimum amount of air by mass required for complete
combustion of 2 kg of coke assuming 100% carbon.

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Mass of O2 required for combustion of 2 kg of coke

= 5.33 kg

= 23.17 kg

Excess air
During combustion, there is an incomplete combustion, when
stoichiometric air is supplied. In practice, excess amount of air is supplied to
get complete combustion. To avoid cooling effect, about 25% to 50%
preheated air is supplied.
Total mass of air/kg of fuel = Stoichiometric mass of air + Excess mass of air

Example 4
Calculate the mass of air to be supplied for the combustion of 1 kg of a fuel
containing 75% carbon, 8% hydrogen and 3% oxygen, if 40% excess air is
supplied.
C = 75% = 0.75 kg
H = 8% = 0.08 kg
O = 3% = 0.03 kg

1. Combustion of carbon

0.75 kg of C requires oxygen for complete combustion

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 = 2 kg
2. Combustion of hydrogen

0.08 kg of hydrogen requires oxygen for complete combustion

=8x.08

= 0.64 kg

= 2.64 kg
Minimum mass of oxygen required = Theoretical O2 required – O2 present in
fuel
= 2.64 – 0.03
= 2.61 kg

= 11.35kg
Excess air supplied = 40%

= 15.89 kg
Combustion calculation by volume(for gaseous fuels):
Stochiometric or minimum volume of air required for the complete
combustion of 1 m3 gaseous fuels
The volume of air required for the combustion of gaseous fuels is calculated
mainly based on the balanced combustion equation.

1. Combustion of carbon monoxide

2CO + O2 2CO2
2 vol 1 vol 1vol
2m3 of CO needs 1m3 of oxygen
Therefore;

1 m3 of CO needs 0.5 m3 of O2 for combustion

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2. Combustion of hydrogen
2H2 + O2 2H2O
2 vol 1 vol 1vol
2m3 of Hydrogen needs 1m3 of oxygen
Hence;

1 m3 of H2 needs 0.5 m3 of O2 for combustion

3. Combustion of methane
CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
1 vol 2 vol 1 vol 2 vol
1 m3 of CH4 needs 2 m3 of O2 for combustion

4. Combustion of ethane
2C2H6 + 7O2 4 CO2 + 6 H2O
2 vol 7 vol 4 vol 6 vol
3 3
2m of ethane needs 7 m of oxygen
Hence;

1 m3 of C2H6 needs 3.5 m3 of O2 for combustion

5. Combustion of ethylene

C2H4 +3O2 2CO2 +2H2O

1 m3 of C2H4 needs 3m3 of O2 for combustion

Calculation of minimum volume of air required:

The minimum volume lf air required is calculated by multiplying the oxygen

required by 100/21 since the percentage volume of air is 21%.

Example 1

Determine the volume of air needed for complete combustion of one cubic
meter of producer gas having the following composition by volume.
H2 = 30%, CO = 12%, CH4 = 5% and N2 = 50%.
H2 = 30% = 0.3 m3
CO = 12% = 0.12 m3
CH4 = 05% = 0.05 m3

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1. Combustion of hydrogen

1 m3 of H2 needs 0.5 m3 of O2 for combustion

0. 5
0.3 m3 of H2 requires oxygen for complete combustion = x 0.3
1

= 0.15 m3

2. Combustion of carbon monoxide

1 m3 of CO needs 0.5 m3 of O2 for combustion

0. 5
0.12 m3 of CO requires oxygen for complete combustion = x 0.12
1

= 0.06 m3
3. Combustion of methane

1 m3 of CH4 needs 2 m3 of O2 for combustion

2

0.05 m3 of CH4 requires oxygen for complete combustion = x 0.05
1

= 0.1 m3

= 0.31 m3

= 1.48 m3

Example 2
A fuel contains 45% of H2, 40% CO, 12% CH4 and 3% O2 by volume.
Determine volume of air required to burn 1 m3 of this fuel.
H2 = 45% = 0.45 m3
CO = 40% = 0.4 m3
CH4 = 12% = 0.12 m3

176
O2 = 03% = 0.03 m3
1. Combustion of hydrogen

1 m3 of H2 needs 0.5 m3 of O2 for combustion

Hence;
0.5
0.45 m3 of H2 requires oxygen for complete combustion = x 0.45
1

= 0.225 m3
2. Combustion of carbon monoxide

1 m3 of CO needs 0.5 m3 of O2 for combustion

0. 5
0.4 m3 of CO requires oxygen for complete combustion = x 0.4
1

= 0.20 m3
3. Combustion of methane

1 m3 of CH4 needs 2 m3 of O2 for combustion

2
0.12 m3 of CH4 requires oxygen for complete combustion = x 0.12
1

= 0.24 m3

= 0.665 m3 O2

Minimum volume of oxygen required = Theoretical O2 required - O2 present

in fuel.

= 0.665 – 0.03

= 0.635 m3

= 3.023 m3 of air

177
Example 3
Volumetric analysis of producer gas supplied to a engine is,
H2 = 20%, CO = 22%, CH4 = 3%, CO2 = 8% and N2 = 47%
Excess air supplied is 50%. Estimate the volume of air required for
combustion of 1 m3 of gas.
H2 = 20% = 0.2 m3
CO = 22% = 0.22 m3
CH4 = 3% = 0.03 m3
1. Combustion of hydrogen

1 m3 of H2 needs 0.5 m3 of O2 for combustion

0. 5
0.2 m3 of H2 requires oxygen for complete combustion = x 0.2
1

= 0.1 m3

2. Combustion of carbon monoxide

1 m3 of CO needs 0.5 m3 of O2 for combustion

0. 5
0.22m3 of CO requires oxygen for complete combustion = x 0.22
1

= 0.11 m3
3. Combustion of methane

1 m3 of CH4 needs 2 m3 of O2 for combustion

2
0.03 m3 of CH4 requires oxygen for complete combustion = x 0.03
1
= 0.06 m3

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Excess air supplied = 50%

Problem:4

A gas has the following % composition by volume CH4=4%,

CO=22%.H2=14%.CO2=6% N2=52% and O2=3%.

H2 = 14% = 0.14 m3
CO = 22% = 0.22 m3
CH4 = 4% = 0.04 m3
1. Combustion of hydrogen

1 m3 of H2 needs 0.5 m3 of O2 for combustion

0.2 m3 of H2 requires oxygen for complete combustion

= 0.700 m3

2. Combustion of carbon monoxide

1 m3 of CO needs 0.5 m3 of O2 for combustion

0.22m3 of CO requires oxygen for complete combustion =

= 0.11 m3
3. Combustion of methane

1 m3 of CH4 needs 2 m3 of O2 for combustion

0.03 m3 of CH4 requires oxygen for complete combustion

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 = 0.08 m3

Oxygen already in the fuel =0.24

Total volume of oxygen required for the complete combustion is=0.26-0.02
=0.24 m3

Flue gas
Flue gas is a mixture of gases produced from the products of
combustion of a fuel. Its major constituents are CO, CO2, O2 and N2.
The efficiency of combustion can be understood by quantitative
analysis of flue gas. Usually, excess oxygen in the flue gas suggests that
excess of air is supplied for combustion. More carbon monoxide content,
suggests, incomplete combustion process. Based on flue gas analysis,
improvement in the design of internal combustion engines, combustion
chamber, furnace, etc., can be done.
Flue gas analysis by Orsat's apparatus
Mainly, the flue gases CO, CO2 and O2 are quantitatively analysed by
Orsat's apparatus.
The apparatus consists of a graduated burette (100 ml) surrounded by
water, for maintaining constant temperature. One end of burette is connected
to a levelling bottle through a rubber tube. The levelling bottles contain
saturated NaCl solution which does not absorb any flue gases. By raising and
lowering the levelling bottle, the volume of gases present in it are made to
overflow and have close contact with three absorption pipette solutions.
The absorption pipettes have solution for absorption of CO2, O2 and CO
respectively. The first pipette is filled upto the mark with standard KOH
solution to absorb CO2. The second pipette is filled with standard alkaline
pyrogallol solution. This solution absorbs CO2 and O2. The third pipette is
filled with standard ammoniacal cuprous chloride. This solution absorbs CO2,
O2 and CO. Hence, it is necessary to pass the flue gas first through standard
KOH solution and then through standard alkaline pyrogallol solution and
finally through standard ammoniacal CuCl2 solution.
To flush out the air in the apparatus, the three way stop clock is
opened to the flue gas supply after closing the entries of absorption pipettes.
By lowering the levelling bottle, the flue gas is admitted in the burette and the
three way stop clock is opened to the flue gas supply after closing the
absorption pipettes. Now, the levelling bottle is raised and the gas-air mixture

180
is pushed out into the atmosphere. The procedure is repeated until the pure
flue gas occupies the apparatus.

Then adjust the levelling bottle and exactly permit 100 ml of the flue gas as
noted in the burette and close the three way stop clock completely. First, the
stopper of the first absorption pipette having KOH solution is opened and the
flue gas in the burette is forced into pipette solution by raising the levelling
bottle. By repeatedly raising and lowering the levelling bottle, the gas is
brought into intimate contact with the pipette KOH solution which absorbs the
CO2 gas completely. Then, the residual gases are taken into the burette and
the levels of the KOH solution is made to stand in fixed mark. By adjusting
the levelling bottle, the volume of residual gases after the removal of CO2 by
the absorption pipette is measured in the burette. The decrease in volume
gives the volume of CO2 in 100 ml.of the sample flue gas.
The same procedure is then repeated with the alkaline pyrogallol solution.
After the absorption of O2 in the absorption pipette, the pipette level is fixed
and entry closed. After that the burette reading is noted by levelling with the
levelling bottle. The further decrease in volume gives the volume of O2 in 100
ml.of the flue gas.
Finally, the third absorption pipette is opened and by adjusting the
levelling bottle up and down, the remaining flue gas is forced to pass through
the ammoniacal cuprous chloride solution of the absorption pipette. This is
done to have complete absorption of the remaining CO gas in the absorption
pipette.

181
 After this, the level of pipette is made fixed and entry closed. The
residual gas finally present in the burette is then measured by using the
levelling bottle. The decrease in value from the last noted value gives the
volume of CO present in 100 ml. of the flue gas.
The percentage of nitrogen is obtained by the difference.

Summary
In this lesson, combustion, combustion calculations and flue gas
analysis are discussed.

QUESTIONS
PART – A

1. Define combustion.
2. Write the complete equation for the combustion of methane present in a
fuel.
3. What is flue gas?
PART – B

1. Mention the use of flue gas analysis.

2. Name the reagents used for the absorption of CO2, O2 and CO in flue gas
analysis.
PART – C

1. Explain flue gas analysis by Orsat apparatus.

2. Calculate the mass of oxygen required for the combustion of 1 kg of a
carbon, hydrogen and sulphur.
3. A sample of hydrocarbon contains 18.18% hydrogen and 81.82% of
carbon by weight. Find the mass of air required for the complete
combustion of 1 kg of the fuel.
4. A sample of coal was found to have the following composition.
C = 75%, H2 = 5.2%, O2 = 12.1%, N2 = 3.2% and ash = 4.5% by mass.
i. Calculate the amount of air required for complete combustion of 1 kg of
coal.
ii. Calculate the amount of air required for complete combustion of 1 kg of
coal if 40% excess air is used.
5. A fuel is found to contain C = 90%, H = 6%, S = 2.5%, O2 = 1% and ash
= 0.2% by mass.
i. Calculate the amount of air required for complete combustion of 1 kg of
fuel.

182
 ii. Calculate the amount of air required for complete combustion of 1 kg of
fuel if 25% excess air is used.
6. A gaseous fuel has the following composition by volume.H2 = 15%, CO =
30%, CH4 = 3%, CO2= 5%, O2 = 2% and remaining N2.Calculate the
volume of air needed for complete combustion of 1 m3 of fuel.
7. The composition of gaseous fuel is Carbon monoxide = 22%, Hydrogen =
14%, Methane = 4%, Carbon dioxide = 6%, Nitrogen = 52% and Oxygen =
2% by volume. Calculate the volume of air required for the combustion of 1
m3 of the fuel.
8. A gaseous fuel has following composition by volume. Methane = 5%,
Hydrogen = 20%, CO = 25%, CO2 = 6% and the rest nitrogen. If 20%
excess air is used for combustion, calculate the volume of air supplied per
m3 of fuel.
9. A fuel contains 45% H2, 40% CO, 12% CH4 and 3% O2 by volume. Excess
air supplied is 50%. Determine the volume of air required to burn 1 m3 of
the fuel.
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING
1. How to distinguish between complete and incomplete combustion of coal.
2.How can you analyse the masses of CO2 and H2O produced during
combustion of a fuel?
3.Why a good fuel must have low ash content?

183
 UNIT III
LUBRICANTS
INTRODUCTION
Whenever a machine works, its moving, sliding or rolling parts
rub against each other with the result of that a friction is developed. This
friction causes a lot of wear and tear of the concerned surfaces. Further
due to friction, large amount of energy is dissipated in the form of heat
and thus causes loss in the efficiency of a machine. Moreover, the heat
produced due to friction causes damage to the moving parts.
The above ill effects can be minimized by applying a thin layer of
certain substances known as lubricant in between the moving parts.
The process of applying the lubricant in between the two moving
or sliding surfaces is called as lubrication.
Lubricant
Lubricant may be defined as the substance which reduces the
friction between the two moving surfaces or parts of a machine.

Characteristics of a lubricant
1. It should have enough viscosity and oiliness.
2. It should have flash and fire points higher than the operating temperature
of the machine.
3. It should be chemically inert.
4. It should not come out of the surface under pressure.
5. It should not evaporate easily.
6. It should stick on the surface.
7. It should leave low carbon residue.
8. It should not form emulsion with water.
9. It should have cloud and pour points lower than the operating temperature
of the machine.
10. The volatility of the lubricating oil should be low.
11. It should possess a higher resistance towards oxidation and corrosion.
Classification of lubricants
Lubricants may be broadly classified as follows.
1. Solid lubricants
2. Semi-solid lubricants
3. Liquid lubricants

209
Solid lubricants
The most widely used solid lubricants are graphite and molybdenum
sulphide.
Solid lubricants are used in the following areas.
(a) For heavy machinery working as a crude job at very high loads.
(b) When the operating temperature or load is very high.
(c) Where a liquid or semi-solid lubricant film cannot be maintained.
1. Graphite
Graphite is an allotrope of carbon. Graphite has a layered structure of
carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are joined together by strong covalent
bonds. The adjacent layers are held together by the weak Vanderwall’s force.
Thus, they form a network of hexagons. Graphite is soapy to touch, non-
inflammable and not oxidized in air below 375°C.It is used as a lubricant in the
form of powder or as suspension in oil or water. It fills the cavities and
prevents the friction. It is used for lubricating the joints or railways tracks.
Graphite can be used as a dry powder or as a colloidal dispersion.
A dispersion of graphite in water is called aqua dag and that in oil is called oil
dag.
Uses
It is used as a lubricant in IC engines, air compressors, lathes, food-
stuff industry, railway track joints, general machine job works, etc.
2. Molybdenum sulphide
Fine powder of molybdenum sulphide is used as lubricant. It has the
capacity to withstand very high temperature. It is stable in air upto 500°C.
Uses
It is used as lubricant in high-speed machines.
Semi-solid lubricant
Example: Grease and Vaseline
Grease
It is a mixture of mineral oil and soap. It is used for heavy load and
low speed machines. It is mainly used in bearing and gears. Grease is a semi-
solid lubricant obtained by thickening of lubricating oil by the addition of a
metallic soap. The thickener is usually sodium, calcium, and lithium or
aluminium soap.
Greases are manufactured by saponification of fats with alkali followed by
adding hot lubricant oil under severe agitation. Their properties depend on
both the base used for saponification and the fatty acid present in the oil.

210
Liquid lubricants
Vegetable oils
They are commonly used liquid lubricants.
Examples: Castor oil, coconut oil, etc.
They are classified as drying and semi-drying oils. They are easily oxidized by
atmosphere.
Animal oils
They are oils of animal origin. They are mainly animal fats.
Examples: Tallow oil, whale oil, lards oil, coconut oil and olive oil etc.,
They are very costly. Hence, they find little use as lubricants. They are
also easily oxidized by atmosphere.
Mineral oil
Hydrocarbons with higher molecular mass obtained by the fractional
distillation of petroleum are used as lubricants. They are obtained from the
paraffin residue.
Examples: Paraffin oil, lubricating oil, etc.
Blended oils
They are mixture of vegetable oils and petroleum products. They show
improved properties. Different oils are suitably mixed depending on the
requirement. They are synthetic lubricants.
Summary
In this lesson, lubricant, purpose of lubrication, properties and types of
lubricants are discussed.
QUESTIONS
PART – A
1. What is a lubricant?
2. How are lubricants classified?
3. Mention the uses of graphite.
4. Mention the uses of molybdenum sulphide.
PART – B
1. How are lubricants classified? Give examples.
2. Write a note on semi-solid lubricant.
PART – C
1. List the essential characteristics of lubricants.
2. Write a note on solid lubricants.
3. Write a note on liquid lubricants.
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING
1. What types of lubricants are used for transformers?
2. Why does graphite act as a good lubricant on the surface of the motion?

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 UNIT-IV

CORROSION, METHODS OF PREVENTION OF CORROSION,

ORGANIC COATINGS

CORROSION

INTRODUCTION
Corrosion is a ‘billion’ dollar thief’. Even though it is a natural phenomenon
in which the gases, moisture and other chemicals present in the atmosphere
react chemically with metals to convert them into their salts, it results in loss of
material and money. We know very well that metals have a strong crystalline
structure and when they are converted into their salts they lose the metallic
strength resulting in the damage to machineries in which they are used. Thus
corrosion causes damage to metals and thereby to the society. The estimate
of loss due to corrosion is approximately 2.5 billion dollars per annum all over
the world. Hence it is necessary to understand the mechanism of corrosion.
In this lesson we are going to study about the causes and the mechanism of
corrosion so that we can find ways to prevent this social enemy.
Corrosion is defined as the slow and continuous destruction of metal or
alloy by the environment.
Due to corrosion the useful properties of a metal like malleability,
ductility, electrical conductivity and also the surface appearance are lost.
The most familiar example of corrosion is rusting of iron when exposed
to atmospheric conditions.
Another example is the formation of green film or basic Carbonate
[CuCO3+Cu(OH)2] on the surface of copper when exposed to moist air
containing CO2 and oxygen.

Definition
Corrosion is defined as the slow and continuous destruction of metal
or alloy due to the chemical or electrochemical reaction with its
environment.
It may be due to chemical or electrochemical reaction of the metals with the
environment.
Example: Rusting of iron.

Causes of corrosion:
Metal occur in nature in two different forms. They are

1. Native state
2. Combined state.

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1.Native state:

The metals occur in native, free, uncombined states or pure metal are highly
stable and non-reactive with the environment. They do not combine with
other elements. They are noble metals exist as such in the earth crust. They
have very good corrosion resistance.
Ex. Au, Pt, Ag, Pd, Cu etc,

2.Combined state

Except noble metal, all other metals are reactive and form stable compounds
as their oxides, sulphides, chloride and carbonates. They exist in the form of
stable compounds called ores or mineral.
Ex.FeO2.ZnO, PbS,CaCO3 etc.,

Except noble metal, the other metals in the pure state are thermodynamically
unstable as they are considered in excited state ie., higher energy state.
Therefore, as soon as the metals are extracted from their ores, the reverse
process begins and form stable metallic compounds, which are
thermodynamically stable, i.e., lower energy state.

Corrosion(oxidation)
Metal (unstable) Metallic Compound (stable)

Higher energy Metallurgy(Reduction) lower energy state

The properties such as electrical conductivity, ductility, malleability etc., are
lost due to corrosion.

Types of Corrosion:

Corrosion is of two types.

1. Chemical Corrosion or Dry Corrosion
2. Electrochemical Corrosion or Wet Corrosion

1. Chemical Corrosion or Dry Corrosion

The direct chemical action of atmospheric gases like oxygen, halogens, H2S
etc., in a dry environment on metals is known as chemical Corrosion. Due to
this, a dry layer of the Corrosion product is formed on the surface of the metal.
Example:
When magnesium is exposed to atmosphere, magnesium oxide is formed
over the surface.
2Mg+O2 2MgO

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A solid film of the corrosion product is formed on the surface of the metal
which protects the metal from further corrosion. If a soluble or volatile
corrosion product is formed, then the metal is exposed to further attack.
For example, chlorine attack silver generating a protective film of silver halide
on the surface which prevents the further corrosion.
2Ag+Cl2 2AgCl
On the other hand, stannic chloride formed on tin is volatile and so corrosion
is not prevented.

2. Electro Chemical Corrosion or wet corrosion

Wet corrosion
Wet corrosion occurs due to the electrochemical action of moisture and
oxygen on metals. Corrosion of iron takes place due to electrochemical
attack.
There are two theories to explain the rusting of iron.
1. Galvanic cell formation theory
2. Differential aeration theory.
1. Galvanic cell formation theory
Definition
“When a metal with impurities (or two dissimilar metals (Fe and Cu) are
in contact with each other) is exposed to atmosphere in presence of an
electrolyte or moisture, a mini galvanic cell is formed. The more anodic metal
undergoes corrosion. This type of corrosion is known as galvanic corrosion”.
Example: Rusting of iron
Corrosion is an oxidation process. Oxidation is a process which involves loss
of electron. Oxidation takes place at anode.
When iron metal with small amount impurities (Cu) is placed in the
environment is exposed to the environment (moisture), it undergoes
corrosion. Hence it acts as anode and under goes Oxidation. Iron metal loses
its two electrons and becomes Fe+2ion. Hence the iron metal undergoes
oxidation when it is corroded.
The impurities present in the metal act as cathode and undergo reduction.
The electron released at anode is absorbed at cathode to form either
Hydrogen or water or hydroxide ion depending on the environment. The
moisture in the environment behaves like electrolyte. Hence a galvanic cell
is formed.
Rusting of iron is explained as below.
Anodic reaction (oxidation)
The metal at the anode is oxidised into ferrous ions.
Fe Fe2+ + 2e─ (oxidation-loss of electron)

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Fe2+ + 2OH- Fe (OH)2 Fe (OH)3 Fe2O3

-
Fe2+ ions combine with OH in the environment forming ferrous hydroxide Fe
(OH)2, which under goes further oxidation to give ferric hydroxide Fe (OH)3 .
the ferric hydroxide undergoes decomposition to give ferric oxide
Fe2O3(Rust).
Thus rust formed is explained based on the theory of Galvanic cell formation.

Electrolyte

The moisture (H2O) in the environment act as electrolyte. It dissociates to give

-
H+ and OH ions.

H2O H+ + OH─

Cathodic reaction (Reduction)

The electrons released at anode are taken up by the H+ ion in the

environment.
(i) In acidic medium(reduction-gain of electron)
2H+ + 2e─ H2 (gas)
(ii) In neutral solution with oxygen
½ O2 + H2O + 2e─ 2OH─
The ferric oxide formed (Fe2O3) over iron is called as Rusting of iron.
Examples:
1. Corrosion of soldered metal around copper wire.
2. Corrosion of steel shaft in bronze bearing.
3. Corrosion of steel pipe connected to copper plumbing.
Control
Galvanic corrosion can be avoided by selecting two dissimilar metals which
are very close in the electrochemical series.
It can also be avoided by connecting two dissimilar metals through insulating
material.
By making cathodic area smaller and anodic area larger.

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Differential aeration theory or concentration cell formation theory
According to this theory, when a metal is exposed to varying
concentrations of air (oxygen) or an electrolyte, concentration cell is formed.
The metallic area which is exposed to less amount of oxygen act as anode
undergoes corrosion.
The metallic area which is exposed to greater amount of oxygen act as
cathode. Corrosion of metal occurs due to difference in concentration of air or
electrolyte. Hence this theory is called as Differential aeration theory or
concentration cell formation theory.
Example:
1. Corrosion on wire fence
In an iron fence the point where wires cross is less exposed to oxygen and
becomes anode. Therefore corrosion takes place at the point of contact where
the wire crosses.
2. Metal partially immersed in water, the immersed portion is less exposed to
oxygen and becomes anode. Therefore corrosion takes place.
3. Metal area covered by drop of water, sand or dust.
The less oxygenated area acts as Anode (gets corroded)
The more oxygenated area acts as the Cathode (Protected from Corrosion).
Reaction At anode- (less oxygenated area)-oxidation-loss of electron-
corrosion takes place.

Fe Fe2+ + 2e─ (oxidation or corrosion)

At cathode (more oxygenated area)

½ o2 + H2o + 2e─ 2OH─ (Reduction)

Fe2+ + 2OH─ Fe (OH)2 .

Which is further oxidized to Fe (OH)3 .Since the anodic area is small and the
cathodic area is large, corrosion is more concentrated at the anode. Thus, a
small hole is formed on the surface of the metal. This type of intense localized
corrosion is called pitting.

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Factors influencing the rate of corrosion:
The factors that affect the rate of corrosion are

1) Nature of the metal and its surface

2) Nature of the atmosphere

3) Nature of the corrosion product.

Factors connected with the metal:

1) The position of the metal in the Electrochemical Series

The type of impurity present in it and its electropositive nature decides
the corrosion of a metal. For example, when iron has impurities like copper,
tin, etc. iron corrodes since iron is more electropositive than metals like
copper and tin. On the other hand when iron is coupled with zinc, zinc
corrodes since zinc is more electropositive than iron.
2) Purity of the metal.
Generally pure metal does not corrode, as there is no cathode spot available
to induce corrosion.
3) Surface of the metal.
A rough surface corrodes readily as it collects more dirt and provides more
cathode spot for corrosion. A polished surface does not corrode easily.
4) Stress corrosion.
Stress in a metal surface is produced by mechanical workings such as
quenching, pressing, bending, and riveting improper heat treatment etc.The
portion subjected to more stress acts as anode and other portion act as
cathode. This leads to the formation of stress corrosion. Stress corrosion is
noted in fabricated articles of certain alloys like high zinc brasses and nickel
brasses. Caustic embrittlement noted in boilers is a typical example for stress
corrosion, which is due the attack of alkali present in water on stressed boiler
metal.
5) Anode to cathode area ratio.
When a bigger cathode area covers a smaller anode area, severe corrosion is
noted in the anodes pot. This is called erosion. It is frequently encountered in
piping agitators, condenser tubes etc. where turbulent flow of gases and
vapors remove the coated surfaces resulting in differential cells. Removal of
surface coatings can also be caused by rubbing or striking activities of solids
on the coated surfaces.
6) Physical state of a metal.
The rate of corrosion is influenced by grain size, orientation of crystals, stress
etc.The smaller the grains size of the metal greater the rate of corrosion.

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Factors connected with the Nature of the atmosphere
1. Temperature of the atmosphere:
The rate corrosion increases with increase of temperature.
2. PH of the atmosphere :
Lower the PH greater is the corrosion.
3. Amount of moisture in the atmosphere:
Increase of moisture in the environment increases the rate of corrosion.
4. Amount of oxygen in the atmosphere:
In some cases oxygen enhance the corrosion and in another it
passivates the metal.
5. Amount of chemical fumes in the atmosphere:
:Industrial fumes like HCl,H2SO4 produces electrolytes which are acidic
in nature and increases the rate of corrosion.

Examples

1. Buried pipelines and cables passing from one type of soil to another
suffer corrosion due to differential aeration.
2. Lead pipe line passing through clay get corroded because it is less
aerated than sand.

Factors connected with the corrosion product

In some cases the corroded product sticks to the surface and absorbs more
moisture. This induces further corrosion. Examples:
a).In Rusting of iron, as rust formed over iron absorbs more moisture, rate of
rusting of iron increases.

b).In some cases the corroded product acts as the protective coating which
prevents further corrosion.

c). Aluminium oxide formed over the surface of aluminium prevents further
corrosion and act as a protective coating. This is the basic principle of
Anodization.

d).In some other cases the corroded product falls out of position exposing the
fresh metal surface for further corrosion.

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E.g. Magnesium Oxide formed over the surface of Magnesium falls out of
position exposing a fresh surface for further corrosion

SUMMARY

In this lesson various types of corrosion, theories explaining corrosion and

factors influencing corrosion are explained.

Questions:
Part A
1. What is corrosion?
2. What is dry corrosion?
3. What is wet Corrosion?
4. What type of corrosion takes place in a metal when anode is small `and
cathode is large? Why.
Part B
1. Write a note on galvanic cell formation theory.
2. Write a note on differential aeration theory.
3. What are the factors influencing the rate of corrosion?
PART-C
1. Explain the mechanism of Galvanic corrosion.
2. Explain the differential aeration theory with suitable examples.
.
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Why corrosion often takes place under metal washers.

2. Welded joints are better than riveted joints. Why?

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5.2 METHODS OF PREVENTION OF CORROSION

INTRODUCTION
Corrosion can be prevented by the following methods:
1. Control of environment
2. Alloying
3. Surface coating
4. Cathodic protection
Control of environment:
The corrosion rate can be reduced by modifying the environment. The
environment can be modified by the following:
1. Deaeration: Removal of dissolved oxygen and other gases in water
by mechanical agitation is called deaeration.The presence of
increased amounts of oxygen is harmful since it increases the
corrosion rate. Deaeration aims at the removal of dissolved oxygen.
Dissolved oxygen can be removed by deaeration or by adding some
chemical substance like Na2SO3.
2. Dehumidification: Removal of moisture content present in air is
called as dehumidification. This can be achieved by adding silica gel
which can absorb moisture preferentially on its surface.
3. Inhibitors: In this method, some chemical substance known as
inhibitors are added to the corrosive environment in small quantities.
These inhibitors substantially reduce the rate of corrosion.
Alloying:
Both corrosion resistance and strength of many metals can be
improved by alloying.eg.Stainless steels containing chromium produce a
coherent oxide film which protects the steel from further attack.
Surface Coating:
Surface coating the method of coating of one metal over the other
metal (metal to be protected from corrosion).Corrosion of metal surfaces is
a common phenomenon. To protect a metal surface from corrosion, the
contact between the metal and the corrosive environment (air, moisture.
corrosive gases, etc.) is to be cut off. This is done by coating the surface of
the metal with a continuous, non-porous material. Such a coating is referred
to as surface coating or protective coating. In addition to protective action,
such coatings also give a decorative effect and reduces wear and tear.
Objectives of Coating Surfaces
1. To prevent corrosion
2. To enhance wear and scratch resistance
3. To increase hardness
4. To insulate electrically
5. To insulate thermally

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 6. To impart decorative colour.

Metallic Coating:
Surfacing coatings made up of metals are known as metallic coatings.
These coatings separate the base metal from the corrosive environment and
also function as an effective barrier for the protection of base metals.
The metal which is coated upon is known as the base metal.
The metal applied as coating is referred to as coat metal.

The different methods used for metal coating are.

1. Hot dipping
(a) Galvanization
(b) Tinning
2. Metal spraying.
3. Cladding.
4. Cementation
(a) Sheardizing – Cementation with Zinc powder is called Shearding.
(b) Chromizing - Cementation with 55% Chromium powder & 45%
Alumina is called Chromizing.
(c) Calorizing – Cementaion with Aluminium and Alumina powder is
called Calorizing
5. Electroplating or electrodeposition.
Hot dipping.
In the process of hot dipping, the metal to be coated is dipped in the
molten bath of the coating metal. Such hot dip coatings are generally non-
uniform. The common examples of hot dip coatings are galvanizing and
tinning.
1. Galvanization: The process of coating a layer of zinc over iron is
called galvanization. The steel article is first pickled with dilute sulphuric acid
to remove traces of rust, dust, etc. at 60-900C for about 15 -20 minutes. Then
this metal is dipped in a molten zinc bath maintained at 4300C.
When zinc is coated over iron, zinc and iron forms a galvanic cell. The
electropositive zinc forms the anode and undergoes corrosion. Hence iron is
protected from corrosion by sacrificial protection method.
The surface of the bath is covered with ammonium chloride flux to prevent
oxide formation on the surface of molten zinc. The coated base metal is then
passed through rollers to correct the thickness of the film.
It is used to protect roofing sheets, wires, pipes, tanks, nails, screws, etc.

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2. Tinning:
The coating of tin over iron is called tin plating or tinning.
Tinning is done to protect iron, steel and copper from corrosion. It is also
called tinplating. Since tin is non-toxic, it is mainly used in food industry for
coating food containers. Tin-coated utensils are used for storing foodstuffs,
pickles, oils, etc.
Tin is nobler metal (more cathodic) than iron. It is more resistant to
atmospheric corrosion. Thus, uniform layer of tin protects iron from corrosion.
Tinning the base metal is first pickled with dilute sulphuric acid to remove
surface impurities. Then it is passed through molten tin covered with zinc
chloride flux. The tin coated article is passed through a series of rollers
immersed in a palm oil bath to remove the excess tin. Galvanizing is preferred
to tinning because tin is Cathodic to iron, whereas zinc is anodic to iron. So, if
the protective layer of the tin coating has any cracks, iron will corrode. If the
protective layer of the zinc coating has any cracks, iron being Cathodic and is
not corroded. The corrosion products fill up the cracks, thus preventing
corrosion.
Differences between Galvanizing and Tinning.

Galvanizing Tinning
1. A process of covering iron or steel A process of covering iron or steel
with a thin coat of ‘Zinc’ to prevent it with a thin coat of ‘Tin’ to prevent it
from rusting. from corrosion.
2. Zinc protects the iron sacrificially. Tin protects the base metal without
(Zinc undergo corrosion) undergo any corrosion (non
sacrificially)
3. Zinc continuously protects the base If any break, in coating causes rapid
metal even if broken at some places. corrosion of base metal.
4. Galvanized containers cannot be Tin is non-toxic in nature of any
used for storing acidic food stuffs as medium.
Zinc becomes toxic in acidic medium.

Electroplating (Refer Electrochemistry)

Electroplating is process in which the coat metal is deposited on the
base metal by passing a direct current through an electrolytic solution by
means of electrolysis.
Objectives of Electroplating:
1. To increase corrosion resistance.
2. To get better appearance.
3. To increase the hardness.
4. To change the surface properties of metals and non metals.

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Process
In electroplating, the cleaned base metal is made as the cathode and
the coat metal is taken as the anode. A solution of the coat metal salt is taken
as the electrolyte. The electrodes are connected to the battery and DC current
is passed. Now electrolysis takes place and the coat metal is deposited over
the base metal.
The nature of coating depends on 1) the current density 2) time 3)
temperature and 4) the concentration of the electrolyte.
For example, to electroplate a spoon made of copper with silver, the
copper spoon is taken as the cathode. A silver plate is taken as the anode.
Silver thiocyanate solution is the electrolyte. When the electrodes are
connected to a DC source of electricity, silver is deposited over the copper
spoon.
Electroplating Diagram

The following electrolytes are used for coating other metals.

Copper sulphate – Copper

Nickel sulphate – Nickel
Chromic acid – Chromium
Factors affecting electroplating
The following are the factors affecting electroplating:
1. Cleaning of the article is essential for a strong adherent electroplating.
2. Concentration of the electrolyte is a major factor in electroplating.
3. Low concentration of metal ions will produce uniform coherent metal
deposition.
4. Thickness of the deposit should be minimized in order to get a strong
adherent coating.

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 5. Additives such as glue and boric acid should be added to the
electrolytic bath to get a strong adherent and smooth coating.
6. The electrolyte selected should be highly soluble and should not
undergo any chemical reaction.
7. The pH of the electrolytic bath must be properly maintained to get the
deposition effectively.
INORGANIC COATING
Anodizing:
Anodizing is the process of coating aluminium oxide on the
surface of aluminium or its alloy.

This type of coating is produced on non ferrous metals like Al, Zn, Mg and
their alloys, by anodic oxidation process, by passing direct electric current
though a bath in which the metal is suspended from anode. Here the base
metal behaves as an anode. For anodizing 8% sulphuric acid is used as the
electrolyte. Since it is a good oxidising agent, it oxides aluminium (at the
anode) into aluminium oxide. The electrolytes are sulphonic, chromic,
phosphoric, oxalic or boric acid.
Anodized coatings have more corrosion resistance due to thicker
coating.
‘Aluminium oxide coatings” are formed by the oxidation taking place on
the aluminium surface at moderate temperatures (35 to 400C) and moderate
current densities. The formed oxide film is initially thin and gain thickness by
the continuous oxidation of aluminium anode. The surface of oxide film
contains pores, which may cause corrosion. The pores can be sealed by
exposing to boiling water, when the oxide is converted into monohydrate
(Al2O3.H2O). This process is called sealing process.
The anodized aluminium and its alloy are used in:1.aircrafts 2.window frames
3.machine parts 4.fancy article and 5.Refrigerator, etc.

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Cathodic Protection:
The principle involved in cathodic protection is to force the metal
behave like a cathode. Since there will not be any anodic area on the metal,
corrosion does not occur. There are two types of cathodic protection.
(a) Sacrificial anodic protection.
(b) Impressed current cathodic protection.
(a) Sacrificial Anodic Protection:
In this technique, a more active metal is connected to the metal
structure to be protected so that all the corrosion is concentrated at the more
active metal and thus saving the metal structure from corrosion. This method
is used for the protection of sea going vessels such as ships and boats.
Sheets of zinc or magnesium are hung around the hull of the ship. Zinc and
magnesium being anodic to iron get corroded. Since they are sacrificed in the
process of saving iron (anode), they are called sacrificial anodes. The
corroded sacrificial anode is replaced by a fresh one, when consumed
completely.
Important applications of sacrificial anodic protection are as follows:
(i) Protection from soil corrosion of underground cables and pipelines.
(ii) Magnesium sheets are inserted into domestic water boilers to prevent the
formation of rust.
(b)Impressed current cathodic protection:
In this method, an impresses current is applied in an opposite direction to
nullify the corrosion current and converting the corroding metal from anode to
cathode. This can be accomplished by applying sufficient amount of direct
current from a battery to an anode buried in the soil and connected to the
corroding metal structure which is to be protected.

FIGURE: IMPRESSED CATHODIC PROTECTION

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The anode is in a backfill (composed of gypsum) so as to increase the
electrical contact with the soil. Since in this method current from an external
source is impressed on the system, this is called impressed current method
This type of protection is given in the case of buried structures such as tanks
and pipelines.
SUMMARY:
In this lesson, prevention of corrosion, Control of environment, Alloying,
Surface coatings, Metal coatings, Electroplating, Galvanization and Tinning,
Inorganic coating, Anodizing, Cathodic Protection, Sacrificial Anode Method
and Impressed Voltage Method are discussed.

Question:
PART -A
1. What is Galvanization?
2. What is anoding?
3. What is base metal?
4. What is coat metal?
5. Galvanizing is preferred to tinning. Why?
6. What is Sherardizing?
PART -B
1. What is a sacrificial anode? How does it function?
2. Differentiate between galvanizing and tinning.
3. What is anodizing? How it is carried out? what are its applications?.
4. What is tinning? What are its merits & demerits?
PART-C
1. Explain the various methods of prevention of corrosion.
2. Explain briefly about cathodic protection.
3. Explain briefly about electroplating.
(TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING)
1. Why is moderate current density employed during electroplating?
2. Chromium anode is not used in chromium plating. Give Reason.

95