Mechanical Springs

ME 305 Mechanical Engineering Design 2

1
 Topics to be Covered

„ Stresses in Helical Springs

„ Th Curvature
The C t Effect
Eff t
„ Deflection of Helical Springs
„ Compression Springs
„ Stability
„ Spring Materials
„ Helical Compression Spring Design for static Service
„ Critical Frequency of Helical Springs
„ Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Spring
„ H li l Compression
Helical C i Spring
S i Design
D i forf Fatigue
F ti Loading
L di
„ Extension Springs
„ Helical Coil Torsion Springs

2
Mechanical Springs
„ Produce a pull, a push, or a twist (torque)
force when displaced.

„ St
Store or absorb
b b energy.

„ May be made of round or rectangular wire

bent into a suitable form such as a coil, or
made of flat stock loaded as a beam.

3
 Types of Spring

Mechanical Springs

4
Push Function
„ Push function is provided by helical compression
springs, spring washers, volute springs, and beam
springs.
i Th
These are shown
h iin th
the previous
i page.
„ Helical Compression Springs: Used in applications
involving large deflections, such as shock absorbers
in automobiles or to hold batteries in consumer
products. Used in valve-return springs in engine, die
springs etc
springs, etc.
„ Conical Springs: Spring rate is nonlinear. By varying coil
pitch, a nearly
p y constant spring
p g rate can be obtained.
Advantage is the ability to close to a height as small as
one wire diameter if the coils nest.

5
Push Function – Cont’d
„ Barrel/Hourglass/Variable Pitch Springs: Can be thought of a two
conical springs back to back, also having a nonlinear spring rate.
Barrel hourglass,
Barrel, hourglass and variable pitch springs are used to minimize
resonant surging and vibration.
„ Spring Washers: Used for small deflections associated with motion
along a bolt or other guide
guide. Used to load something axially,
axially such
as to take up endplay on a bearing.
„ Volute Springs: Can be used for damping and also to resist buckling.
Very expensive.
expensive Shear cutter for trimming
trimming, and has significant
friction and hysteresis (significant energy loss)
„ Beam Springs: Can be used to push or pull. Examples are diving
boards Spring rate and stress distribution can be controlled with
boards.
changes in beam width or depth along its length. Loads can be high
but deflections are limited.

6
Pull Function

„ Pull function is provided by helical extension springs

and constant force springs.

„ Helical Extension Springs: Capable of large deflection.

Used in door closers and counterbalances,
counterbalances automobile
wiper blades, children’s car seats and car hoods. Hooks
more highly stressed than coils and usually fail first.
first
When hook fails this spring becomes unsafe.

7
Twisting Function
„ Twisting function is provided by helical torsion springs
and spiral springs (coils in the same plane).
„ Helical Torsion Springs: Used for garage-door counter-
balancers and counterbalancing of such things as doors
which
hich rotate abo
aboutt a hori
horizontal
ontal edge
edge. Clothespins,
Clothespins
mousetraps and finger exercisers are examples.
„ Spiral Springs:
„ • Hairsprings are used in instruments and mechanical
clocks and watches. One of their characteristics is low
hysteresis (small energy loss).
„ • Brush Springs: Hold motor and generator brushes
against their commutators.
8
Twisting Function – Cont’d
„ Motor, Clock or Power Springs: Used to supply
i l energy and
rotational d used
d iin windup
i d clocks
l k and
d
mechanical toys.
„ Prestressed Power Springs: Has large energy storage
capacity. Used in seatbelt retractors.
„ Constant-Torque Spring Motor: Used to provide level
torque.
„ Drawbar Springs: Unlike helical extension spring, it will
support the load safely when it fails.

9
 Spring Rate
„ Every spring configuration has a spring rate, k, defined as
slope of its force-deflection curve.
If slope is constant, it is a linear spring, and F
„ k=
y

Where: F is applied force, and y is deflection.

„ When spring rate varies with deflection, it is called a

nonlinear spring
spring.
„ We often want a linear spring to control loading.

„ Many spring configurations have constant spring rates and

few have zero rates (constant force).

10
Spring Rate – Cont’d
„ When multiple springs are combined, resulting spring
p
rate depends on whether theyy are combined in series or
parallel.
„ Springs in series have same force passing through them,
as each contributes
contrib tes to total deflection .
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... +
k total k1 k 2 k 3 kn

11
Spring Rate – Cont’d
„ Springs in parallel have same deflection, and total force
p among
is split g them . For springs
p g in p parallel,, individual
spring rates add directly.
ktotal = k1 + k2 + k3 + …. + kn

12
 10.1 Stresses in Helical Springs
Tr F „ A round-wire helical compression
τ max = + spring is loaded by the axial force F.
J A
„ Replace
R l T = FD/2,
FD/2 r =d/2,
d/2
J = πd 4/32, A= πd 2/4, τmax=τ :
8 FD 4 F (10 1)
(10-1)
τ= +
πd 3
πd 2
D
Define the spring index as: C =
d„ .
For most springs the range for C is: 6 ≤ C ≤ 12.
12
‰ The mean coil diameter D
8 FD The wire diameter d.
τ = KS ‰

πd 3
2C + 1 Where KS is a shear-stress correction factor
KS = 13
2C
10.2 The Curvature Effect
8 FD
„ τ = KS is based on the wire being straight.
πd 3
„ In fatigue load: It is important to include the curvature stress.
„ To include the curvature effect, the factor KS needs to be
modified.
modified
„ The curvature of the wire increases the stress on the inside of
the spring but decreases it only slightly on the outside.
„ I static
In i load:
l d these
h stresses can normally
ll be
b neglected
l d because
b
it will be relieved by local yielding with first application of a
load. 4C − 1 0.615
„ Wahl factor: KW = +
4C − 4 C
„ Bergstrasser factor: K B =
4C + 2
4C − 3
14
„ The curvature correction factor can now be obtained byy
canceling out the effect of the direct shear form KB, thus

KB 2C (4C + 2)
KC = = (10-7)
K S (4C − 3)(2C + 1)
„ T predict
To di t the
th largest
l t shear
h stress
t we will
ill use the
th equation:
ti

8FD
8 FD
τ = KB
πd 3

15
10.3 Deflection of Helical Springs
„ Using the strain energy method to include both the torsional
and shear components,
p , thus

T 2l F 2l
U= +
2GJ 2 AG
„ Substituting T = FD/2, l =πDN, J=πd 4/32,
A d 2/4,
A=πd /4 in
i the
h previous
i equation
i we have:
h
2 3 2
4 F D N 2 F DN
U= 4
+
d G d 2G
Where
W e eNN=N
Na=number
u be of
o active
act ve coils
co s

16
„ The total deflection y can now be calculated by:
∂U 8 FD 3 N 4 FDN
y= = + 2
∂F 4
d G d G
„ Since, C = D/d, the deflection y becomes:

8 FD 3 N
y≅ (10-8)
d 4G

„ The spring rate can be calculated by

F d 4G
k= = (10-9)
y 8D 3 N

17
10.4 Compression Springs
„ There are four standard types of ends in helical compression
springs.
p g Theyy are pplain end,, squared
q end,, pplain-ground
g end,,
and squared-ground end.

18
„ A spring with plain ends has a noninterrupted helicoids; the
ends are the same as if a long spring had been cut into
sections.

„ A spring with plain ends that are squared or closed is obtained

by deforming the ends to a zero-degree helix angle.
angle

„ Springs should always be both squared and ground for

important applications,
applications because a better transfer of the load is
obtained.

„ A spring
i with ith squaredd andd groundd ends
d compressedd between
b t
rigid plates can be considered to have fixed ends.

19
„ The type of end used affects the number of active coils Na and
the solid height
g of the spring.
p g

„ Square ends effectively decrease the number of total coils Nt

by approximately two: Nt = Na+2

•Forys
y ggives an expression
p for calculatingg the solid length
g of
squared and ground ends
Ls=(Nt - a)d

Where a varies, with an average of 0.75 which means in this case

that the entry dNt in table 10-1 may be overstated.
The way to check these variations is to take a spring and count the
wire diameters in the solid stack

20
„ Table 10-1 shows how the type of end used affects the number
of coils and the spring length.

Types of Springs Ends

Plain and Squared or Squared and

Term Plain
ground Closed Ground

End coils, Ne 0 1 2 2

Total coils, Nt Na Na+1 Na+2 Na+2

Free length, L0 pNa+d p(Na+1) pNa+3d pNa+2d

Solid length, Ls d(Nt+1) dNt d(Nt+1) dNt

Pitch, p (L0-d)/ Na L0/ (Na+1) (L0-3d)/ Na (L0-2d)/ Na

21
Set removal or presetting:

22
Set removal or presetting:

„ A process used to
induce useful residual
stresses.
„ It is done by making
the spring longer than
needed and then
compressing it to its
solid
lid height
h i h Ls.

23
„ This operation
p sets the spring
p g to the required
q final free length
g
L0 and, since the torsional yield strength has been exceeded, it
induces residual stresses opposite in the direction to those
induced in service.
service
„ Set removal increases the strength of the spring and so is
especially useful when the spring is used for energy-storage
purposes. But, set removal should not be used when springs
are subjects to fatigue.

24
10.5 Stability
„ Compression coil springs may buckle when the deflection
becomes too large.
„ The critical deflection is given by the equation:

⎡ ⎛ C ' ⎞
1/ 2
⎤
y cr = L0 C1' ⎢1 − ⎜1 − 22 ⎥ (10 10)
(10-10)
⎢ ⎜⎝ λeff ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Where
ycr is the deflection corresponding to the onset of instability
λeff is the effective slenderness ratio and is given by:
αL0
λeff =
D (10-11)
α the end condition constant

25
„ C1' & C 2' are elastic constants defined by the equations:

C1 =
' E
; C2 =
' 2π 2
( E − G)
2(E − G ) 2G + E
„ The end condition constant α depends upon how the ends of
the spring are support.

End condition Constant α

Spring ssupported
pported bet
between
een flat parallel surfaces
s rfaces (fixed
(fi ed ends) 05
0.5

One end supported by flat surface perpendicular to spring axis (fixed); 0.707
other end pivoted (hinged)

Both ends pivoted (hinged) 1

One end clamped; other end free 2

26
„ Absolute stabilityy occurs when the term C2' / λ2eff
in equation (10-10) is greater than unity. Thus, for stability we
have:
πD ⎡ 2(E − G )⎤ (10-12)
1/ 2

L0 <
α ⎢⎣ 2G + E ⎥⎦
„ For steels,
F t l equation
ti 10-12
10 12 becomes:
b
L0 < 2.63D/α
„ For squared and ground ends

α =0.5 and L0 < 5.26D

27
 Spring Materials
„ Limited number of materials and alloys are suitable for use
as springs.
i

„ Ideal spring material would have high ultimate strength,

high yield point, and low modulus of elasticity in order to
provide maximum energy
p g ((area under elastic pportion
gy storage
of stress-strain curve).

„ F dynamically
For d namicall loaded springs,
i fatig e strength properties
fatigue
of material are of primary importance.

28
Spring Materials – Cont’d
„ High strength and high yield points are attainable from
medium to high-carbon
medium-to high carbon and alloy steels,
steels and these are most
common spring materials, despite their high modulus of
elasticity. Few stainless-steel alloys are suitable for springs, as
are beryllium copper and phosphor bronze, among copper
alloys.

„ Springs
p g are manufactured byy hot-or cold-workingg pprocess.
Winding springs induces residual stresses through bending.
These stresses are relieved through mild heat treatment.
treatment

29
30
Spring Wire

„ It is common to use round wire as spring material.

material It is
available in selection of alloys and wide range of sizes.

„ Rectangular wire is available only in limited sizes.

31
Tensile Strength
„ Tensile Strength
„ Relationship between wire size and tensile strength is
shown
h b
below.
l C ld d
Cold-drawn process usedd iin reducing
d i wire
i
diameter is responsible for hardening and strengthening
material at expense of much of its ductility.

32
Tensile Strength

„ Empirical
p equation
q resultingg from fitting
g exponential
p
function through data for five of materials, is:
A
S ut = m
d
„ Where A and m are defined in Table 10-4
10 4 for these
wires materials.

33
34
Shear Strength

„ A veryy rough
g estimate of the torsional yyield strength
g can be
obtained by assuming that the tensile yield strength is between
60 and 90 percent of the tensile strength.

0.6 S ut < S y < 0.9 S ut

„ Distortion-energy theory can be applied to obtain torsional
yield strength: Sys= 0.577Sy.
„ Therefore, for steel:
0.577 (0.6) S ut < S ys < 0.577 (0.9) S ut

0.35 S ut < S ys < 0.52 S ut

35
„ For wires listed in table 10-5, the maximum allowable shear
stress in a spring can be seen in column 3.

„ Joerres uses the maximum allowable torsional stress for static

applications and it is given in table 10-6

„ Samonov shows that Ssy=τall = 0.56Sut for high-tensile spring

steels, which is close to the value given by Joerres for
hardened alloy steels.

36
37
38
Example
„ A helical compression spring is made of hard drawn carbon
A227 steel has a wire diameter of 0.94 mm. The outside
diameter of the spring is 11.11mm. The ends are squared and
there are 12.5 total turns.
a) Estimate the torsional yield strength of the wire.
b) Estimate the static load corresponding to the yield strength.
c) Estimate the scale of the spring (the spring constant).
d) Estimate the deflection that would be caused by the load in part b
e) Estimate the solid length of the spring
f) What length should the spring be to ensure that when it is
compressed solid and then released, there will be no permanent
change in the free length?
g) Given the length found in part (f), is buckling a possibility?
h) What is the pitch of the body coil?
39
Solution

a. The torsional yyield strength

g of the wire:
d = 0.94mm
From table 10-4, A=1783MPa.mmm and m = 0.19
From equation 10-14:
Sut = A/dm = 1783/(0.94)0.19 =1804 MPa
From table 10-6: Ssy = 0.50Sut = 902 MPa

40
b. The static load corresponding to the yield strength:
Th main
The i spring
i coilil diameter
di t isi D = Dout - d = 11.11-
11 11
0.94=10.17mm
Thus, the spring index is: C = D /d = 10.17/0.94 = 10.82
Therefore, from equation 10-3 replacing Ks and τ with KB
and Ssy respectively, Thus:

8 FD
τ = S sy = K B
πd 3
πd 3 S sy 4C + 2 4(10.82) + 2
⇒F= ; KB = = = 1.124
8K B D 4C − 3 4(10.82) − 3
⇒ F = 25.734 N

41
c. The scale/rate of the spring:
4
d G
k=
8D 3 N a
From Table 10-5, d = 0.94 mm = 0.037in ⇒ G = 80GPa
Na for both ends squared:
q
Nt = Na +2 ⇒ Na = 12.5-2=10.5 turns

d 4G
k= 3
= 707 N / m
8D N a

42
d. The deflection that would be caused by the load in part (b):
F 25.734
y= = = 0.0364 m = 36.4mm
k 707

e
e. The solid length of the spring,
spring from table 10
10-1:
1:

Ls = d ( N t + 1) = 0.94(12.5 + 1) = 12.69mm

f. The free length of the spring suppose to have to be sure

when it is compressed and then released, there will be no
permanent change in its free length:
L0 = Ls + y = 12.69 + 36.4 = 49.09mm
43
g. To Check if buckling is possible:
For steel and squared ground:

L0 < 5.26D ⇒ L0 < 53.94mm,

since L0 = 49.9mm, therefore: there will be no buckling.

h. The pitch of the body coil is:

(L0 − 3d ) (49.09 − 3(0.94)

p= = = 4.41
Na 10.5

44
 10.7 Helical Compression Spring Design
f Static
for S i SService
i
„ The design of a new spring involves the following
considerations:
‰ Space into which the spring must fit and operate

‰ Values of working forces and deflections

‰ Accuracy and reliability needed

‰ Tolerances and permissible variations in specifications

‰ Environmental conditions such as temperature and presence

of a corrosive atmosphere
‰ Cost
C t andd quantities
titi needed
d d
„ Designers use these factors to select a material and specify
suitable values for wire size, the number of turns, the diameter
and free length, the type of ends, and the spring rate needed to
satisfy the working force-deflection requirements. 45
„ Some important limits:
‰ The range index is:

4 ≤ C ≤ 12 (10-18)
Lower indexes being more difficult to form (because of the
danger of surface cracking).
Higher indexes tending to tangle (knot) often enough to require
individual packing.
packing

‰ The recommended range g of active turns is:

3 ≤ Na ≤ 15 (10-19)
‰ The designer confines (limits) the spring’s operating point
to the central 75% of the curve between no load F = 0 and
closure (end) F = FS, thus 7
p
The maximum operating g force Fmax ≤ FS
8

46
Maximum Operating Force

47
 Defining the fractional overrun to closure as ξ, where
FS
FS = (1 + ξ )Fmax
7 (10-17)
(10 17)
≤ FS
1+ ξ 8
1
ξ ≥ == 0.15
7
‰The factor of safety at closure (solid height) : ns ≥ 1.2

‰ Figure of merit:
The cost of wire from which the spring is wound (coiled)
h l in
helps i making
ki theh decision
d i i for
f theh optimali l spring
i design.
d i
Formula:
γπ 2 d 2 N t D
fom = −(RMC ) ((10-22))
4

Where RMC is the relative material cost.

cost

48
„ Spring design is an open-ended process with many decisions
to be made,
made and many possible solution paths as well as
solutions.
„ One possible approach for design spring coil is:
‰ Make a priori decisions, with hard-drawn steel wire the first

choice (relative material cost =1)

‰ Choose
Ch a wire
i size
i d
‰ generate a column of parameters:

d D,
d, D OD or IDID, Na, Ls, Lo, (Lo)cr, ns, and fom

‰ Byy incrementingg wire sizes available,, a table of pparameters

will be generated. Then, the design recommendation
conditions are applied to choose the good design.

49
‰After wire sizes are eliminated,
eliminated the spring design with the
highest figure of merit will be chosen.

‰This will give the optimal design despite the presence of a

discrete design variable d and aggregation of equality and
inequality constraints.

50
51
52
53
54
Example

„ An A228 wire helical compression

p spring
p g is needed to support
pp
a 20-Ibf (100 N) load after being compressed 2 in (50 mm).
Because of assembly considerations the solid height cannot
exceed 1 in (25 mm) and the free length cannot be more than 4
in (100 mm). Design the spring.

55
Solution
„ For A228 wire helical spring: From Table, A=201 kpsi-inm and
m=0.145
0 145
„ From Table 10-5, E = 28.5Mpsi, G =11.75Mpsi (choosing d >
0.064 in)
„ Ends squared and ground
„ Function: Fmax= 20 Ibf, ymax= 2 in
„ Safety:
Sa ety: use design
des g factor
acto at solid
so d height
e g t of
o (ns)d =1.2
.
„ Select robust linearity: ξ = 0.15
„ Use as wound spring, Ssy= 0.45Sut from table 10-6

56
„ Decision variable: d =0.08 in,, from figure
g 10-3 and table 10-6:
A
S sy = 0.45 m = 130.46kpsi
d
S sy
α= = 108.713kpsi
ns
8(1 + ξ )Fmax
β= = 9.15kpsi
πd 2

1/ 2
2α − β ⎛⎜ ⎛ 2α − β 3α ⎞⎟
2
⎞
C= + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − = 10.53
4β ⎜ ⎝ 4β ⎠ 4 β ⎠⎟
⎝

57
D = Cd = 0.8424
K B = (4C + 2) /( 4C − 3) = 1.128
τ s = K B 8(1 + ξ ) Fmax D /(πd 3 ) = 108.7 kpsi
n s = S sy / τ s = 1.2
OD = D + d = 0.923in
N a = Gd 4 y max /(8 D 3 Fmax ) = 10.05turns
N t = 10.05 + 2 = 12.05turns
Ls = dN t = 0.964in
Lo = Ls + y s = Ls + (1 + ξ ) y max = 3.264in
(Lo )cr = 2.63D / α = 4.43in
fom = −2.6π 2 d 2 N t D / 4 = −0.4177

58
„ Repeat
p the above analysis y for other diameters and form a table
to select the best spring design:
d 0.063 0.067 0.071 0.075 0.08 0.085 0.09 0.095
D 0.391 0.479 0.578 0.688 0.843 1.017 1.211 1.427
C 6.205 7.153 8.143 9.178 10.53 11.96 13.46 15.02
OD 0.454 0.546 0.649 0.763 0.923 1.102 1.301 1.522
Na 39.1 26.9 19.3 14.2 10.1 7.3 5.4 4.1
Ls 2.587 1.936 1.513 1.219 0.964 0.790 0.668 0.581
Lo 4.887 4.236 3.813 3.519 3.264 3.090 2.968 2.881
(Lo)cr 2.06 2.52 3.04 3.62 4.43 5.35 6.37 7.51
ns 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
fom -0.409 -0.399 -0.398 -0.404 -0.417 -0.438 -0.467 -0.505

59
„ Examine the table and perform the adequacy assessment.
‰ The constraint 3≤ Na ≤ 15 cancel wire diameters less than 0.08 in
‰ The t i t 4≤ C ≤ 12 cancell diameters
Th constraint di t larger
l than
th 0.085
0 085 in.
i
‰ The constraint Ls < 1 in cancel diameters less than 0.080 in

‰ The constraint Lo < 4 in cancel diameters less than 0.071 in

‰ The buckling criterion cancel free length longer than (Lo)cr, which cancel
diameters less than0.075in.
‰ The result is that there are only two springs in the feasible domain.
‰ The figure of merit decides that the wire diameter is 0.08 in.

d 0.063 0.067 0.071 0.075 0.08 0.085 0.09 0.095

D 0.391 0.479 0.578 0.688 0.843 1.017 1.211 1.427
C 6 205
6.205 7 153
7.153 8 143
8.143 9 178
9.178 10 53
10.53 11 96
11.96 13 46
13.46 15 02
15.02
OD 0.454 0.546 0.649 0.763 0.923 1.102 1.301 1.522
Na 39.1 26.9 19.3 14.2 10.1 7.3 5.4 4.1
Ls 2.587 1.936 1.513 1.219 0.964 0.790 0.668 0.581
Lo 4.887 4.236 3.813 3.519 3.264 3.090 2.968 2.881
(Lo)cr 2.06 2.52 3.04 3.62 4.43 5.35 6.37 7.51
ns 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
fom -0.409 -0.399 -0.398 -0.404 -0.417 -0.438 -0.467 -0.505

60
10.8 Critical Frequency of Helical Springs
„ The natural frequency of the spring should not be close to the
frequency of the applied force; otherwise resonance may
occur, resulting in damaging stresses.

„ The ggoverningg equation

q for the translational vibration of a
spring is the wave equation:
∂ 2u W ∂ 2u (10-24)
=
∂x 2
kgl 2 ∂t 2
Where
k = spring
i ratet ; g = acceleration
l ti due
d to
t gravity
it
l = length of spring; W= weight of spring
x = coordinate along length of spring
u = motion of any particle at distance x
61
„ Equation (10-24) has a harmonic solution and it depends on:
‰ Given physical properties
‰ End conditions of the spring
„ The natural frequencies for a spring placed between two flat
and parallel plates:
kg
ω = nπ n = 1,2,3,...
W
1 kg
„ Since ω = 2πf, thus f = n = 1,2,3,,...
2 W
„ If n =1, it is called the fundamental frequency and it is equal to:

1 kg
f = (10-25)
2 W

62
„ For spring that has one end against a flat plate and other end
free, the frequency is
1 kg (10-26)
f =
4 W
„ W can be calculated as:
πd 2 1 2 2
W = ALγ = (πDN a )γ = π d DN a γ
4 4
Where γ is the specific weight ( weight per unit volume)

„ To avoid resonance with the harmonic it is required that the

fundamental critical frequency is 15
15~2020 ≥ the frequency of the
force or motion of the spring.
f
≥ 20
f op

63
10.9 Fatigue Loading of Helical
C
Compression
i SSprings
i
„ Helical springs
p g are never used as both compression p and
extension springs. This is because they are usually assembled
with a preload so that the working load is additional. Thus, the
spring application fall under the condition of fluctuating
loads.
„ Thus,

Fmax − Fmin
Fa =
2
Fmax + Fmin
Fm = = Fmin + Fa
2

64
„ Therefore, the amplitude and midrange shear stresses
respectively can be written as:
8 Fa D 8 Fm D
τa = KB ;τ m = K B
πd 3
πd 3

„ Endurance limits for infinite life were found to be for unpeened

andd peened
d springs
i (T i l endurance
(Torsional d strengthh components))
Unpeened: Ssa= 35.0 kpsi (241MPa) Ssm= 55.0kpsi (379MPa)
Peened: Ssa= 57.5 kpsi (398MPa) Ssm= 77.5kpsi (534MPa)
„ Then Sse can be calculated using Goodman theory: Torsional
endurance strength :
S sa
S se =
1 − (S sm / S su )
where Ssu=0.67Sut (Ssu is the ultimate torsional strength)

65
66
67
68
69
Example

„ A helical compression
p spring,
p g, made of A228 wire,, has a wire
size of 0.092 in (2.3 mm), an outside diameter of 0.5625 in
(14.6 mm), a free length of 4.125 in (35.9 mm), 21 active
coils and both ends squared and ground.
coils, ground The spring is to be
assembled with a preload of 5 lb (22.27 N) and will operate
to a maximum load of 35 lb (160 N) during use. Knowing
that the spring is unpeened type.
1. Find the factor of safety guarding against a fatigue failure.
2 Find the critical operating frequency
2.

70
Solution
„ Given OD = 0.5625 in, d = 0.092 in, Na = 21
„ A228 spring type material, G = 11.75 Gpsi
„ Fmax= 35 lb, Fmin= 5 lb
„ Both ends squared and ground, and unpeened.
1. The
Th ffatigue
i ffactor off safety:
f
D = OD − d = 0.4705in; C = D / d = 5.11
K B = (4C + 2) /( 4C − 3) = 1.287
Fa = (35 − 5) / 2 = 15lb; Fm = (35 + 5) / 2 = 20lb
8 Fa D 8 Fm D
τ a = KB = 29.7 kpsi;τ m = K B = 33.8kpsi
πd 3
πd 3

71
 „ From table 10-4, A = 201 kpsi-inm, m = 0.145, therefore
A
S ut = m = 284.1kpsi
d
S su = 0.67 S ut = 190.347 kpsi

„ For unpeened spring:

S sa = 35kpsi S sm = 55kpsi
S sa
S se = = 49.22kpsi
1 − (S sm / S su )
„ The factor of safety guarding against failure to be
τa τm 1 S se S su
+ = ⇒ nf = = 1.28
S se S su nf τ a S su + τ m S se

72
2. The critical frequency:

d 4G
k= 3
= 48.1lb / in
8D N a
1 2 2
W = π d DN a γ ; γ = 0.284lb / in 3
4
∴ W = 0.0586lbf
1 kg 1 48.1(386)
f = = = 281Hz
2 W 2 0.586
„ Check for operating frequency:
„ For ggood design
g
f f
≥ 20 ⇒ f op ≤ ⇒ f op ≤ 14.1
f op 20

73
10.10 Helical Compression Spring Design
f Fatigue
for i Loading
di
„ Examplep
A helical compression spring, made of A228 wire, with
infinite life is needed to resist a dynamic load that varies from
5 to
t 20 lbf att 5 Hz
H while
hil the
th endd deflection
d fl ti varies
i from
f 0 5 to
0.5 t 2
in. Because of assembly considerations, the solid height cannot
exceed 1.2 in and the free length cannot be more than 4 in. The
springmaker has the following wire sizes in stock: 0.069,
0.071, 0.080, 0.085, 0.090, 0.095, 0.105, and 0.112 in.

74
„ Solution
From table 10-4 for A228: A=201 kpsi.inm, m = 0.145,
G =11.75Mpsi, relative cost of wire = 2.6
Surface treatment: unpeended
End treatment: squared and ground
Select robust linearity: ξ = 0.15 and fop = 5Hz
Fatigue safety: nf =1.5 using the Sines-Zimmerli fatigue-failure
criterion
Use as wound spring, Ssy= 0.45Sut from table 10-6
Fmin= 5lbf, Fmax= 20lbf, ymin= 0.5 in, ymax= 2 in, spring
operates free ( no rod or hole)
Decision variable: wire size d
„ The design strategy will be to set wire size d, build a
table, inspect the table, and choose the satisfactory
spring with the highest figure of merit.

75
Replace Ssy by Sse ,
ns by nf and
(1+ξ)Fmax by Fa

nf =Ssa/ τa

76
Design analysis based on d = 0.112 in

20 − 5 20 + 5
Fa = = 7.5lbf Fm = = 12.5lbf
2 2
Fmax 20
k= = = 10lbf/in
y max 2
201
S ut = 0.145
= 276.1kpsi
p
0.112
S su = 0.67 S ut = 185.0kpsi
S sy = 0.45S ut = 124.2kpsi
k i

77
„ For Unpeened
p spring,
p g, from equation
q (10-28):
( ) Ssa= 35.0 kpsi
p
Ssm= 55.0kpsi
„ In Sines failure criterion, the terms Ssm is ignored, thus

S sa 35
S se = = = 35kpsi
1 − (S sm / S su ) 1 − 0

78
„ To find
T fi d C,
C we replace
l Ssy by
b Sse , ns by
b nf , and (1 ξ)Fmax by
d (1+ξ)F b Fa
, thus: S se
α= = 23.333kpsi
nf
8 Fa
β = 2 = 1.523kpsi
πd
1/ 2
2α − β ⎛⎜ ⎛ 2α − β 3α ⎞⎟
2
⎞
C= + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − = 14.005
4β ⎜ ⎝ 4β ⎠ 4β ⎠
⎝
D = Cd = 1.569in
Fs = (1 + ξ )Fmax
ma = 23lbf

N a = Gd 4 /(8 D 3 k ) = 5.98turns
N t = 5.98 + 2 = 7.98turns

79
Ls = dN t = 0.894in
Lo = Ls + y s = Ls + (Fs / k ) = 3.194in
i
ID = D − d = 1.457in
OD = D + d = 1.681in
i
y s = Lo − Ls = 2.3in
(Lo )cr = 2.63D / α = 8.253in
π 2 d 2 DN a γ
W = = 0.0825lbf
4
386k
f n = 0 .5 = 108Hz
W

80
K B = (4C + 2) /(4C − 3) = 1.094
8Fa D
τ a = KB = 23.334kpsi
πd 3

8Fm D
τ m = KB = 38.89kpsi
πd 3

8Fs D
τ s = KB = 71.56kpsi
k i
πd 3

n f = S sa / τ a = 1.5
n s = S sy / τ s = 1.74
ffom = −2.6π 2 d 2 N t D / 4 = −1.01

81
Repeat the above analysis for other wire
di
diameters andd fform a table
bl to select
l theh b
best
spring design:
„ Knowingg that we have two types
yp of constrains
„ General Constraints:
The constraint 3 ≤ Na ≤ 15 cancel wire diameters less than
0 105 in
0.105
The constraint 4≤ C ≤ 12 cancel diameters larger than 0.105 in.
„ Problem Constraints:
The constraint Ls ≤ 1.2 in cancel diameters less than 0.1050 in
The constraint Lo ≤ 4 in cancel diameters less than 0.095 in
fn ≥ 20fop ⇒ fn ≥ 100Hz
100H cancell di
diameters
t less
l than
th 0.090
0 090 in
i
The buckling criterion cancel free length longer than (Lo)cr,
which cancel diameters less than0.075in.

82
Repeat the above analysis for other wire
di
diameters andd fform a table
bl to select
l the h b best
spring
d
design:
0.069 0.071 0.080 0.085 0.090 0.095 0.105 0.112
D 0.297 0.332 0.512 0.632 0.767 0.919 1.274 1.569
ID 0.228 0.261 0.432 0.547 0.677 0.824 1.169 1.457
OD 0.366 0.403 0.592 0.717 0.857 1.014 1.379 1.681
C 4.33 4.67 6.40 7.44 8.53 9.67 12.14 14.00
Na 127.2 102.4 44.8 30.5 21.3 15.4 8.63 6.0
Ls 8 916
8.916 7 414
7.414 3 74
3.74 2 75
2.75 2 10
2.10 1 655
1.655 1 116
1.116 0 895
0.895
Lo 11.216 9.714 6.040 5.05 4.40 3.955 3.416 3.195
(Lo)cr 1.562 1.744 2.964 3.325 4.036 4.833 6.703 8.25
nf 1 50
1.50 1 50
1.50 1 50
1.50 1 50
1.50 1 50
1.50 1 50
1.50 1 50
1.50 1 50
1.50
ns 1.86 1.85 1.82 1.81 1.79 1.78 1.75 1.74
fn 87.5 89.7 96.9 99.7 101.9 103.8 106.6 108
fom -1.17 -1.12 -0.983 -0.948 -0.930 -0.927 -0.958 -1.01

83
10.11 Extension Springs

„ Most of the preceding discussion of compression springs

applied equally to helical extension springs
„ The natural frequency of a helical extension spring with both
ends fixed against axial deflection is the same as that for a
helical spring in compression
„ However:
‰ In extension spring, the coils are usually close wound so that there
is an initial tension or so termed preload F. Therefore, no
deflection occurs until the initial tension built into the spring is
overcome. That is: the applied load F becomes larger than initial
t i (F > Fi)
tension
‰ The load transfer can be done with: a threaded plug or a swivel
hook

84
Types of ends used on extension springs

85
„ In designing a spring
with a hook end,,
bending and torsion in
the hook must be
included in the
analysis.
„ The figure shows two
common used method
of designing the end.
„ c and d show an
improved design due
to a reduced coil
diameter.
86
„ The maximum tensile stress at A, due
to bendingg and axial loading,
g, is given
g
by:
⎡ 16D 4 ⎤
σ A = F ⎢(K ) A 3 + 2 ⎥
⎣ πd πd ⎦

„ Where (K)A is a bending stress

correction factor for curvature, given
by:
4C12 − C1 − 1 2r1
(K ) A = C1 =
4C1 (C1 − 1) d

87
„ The maximum torsional stress at
point B is given by:

8FD
τ B = (K )B
πd 3

„ Where (K)B is the stress correction

factor for curvature and it is given
by:
4C 2 − 1 2r2
(K ) B = C2 =
4C 2 − 4 d

88
 „ If coils in contact with one another, the springs is known as close-
close
wound.
„ The load-deflection relation can be written as:
F=Fi + ky
Where k is the spring rate

„ The free
Th f length
l th Lo off a spring
i measuredd inside
i id the
th endd loops
l or
hooks can be expressed as
Lo= 2(D-d)
( ) + ((Nb+1)d
) = ((2C-1+Nb))d
D mean coil diameter; Nb number of body coils; C the spring index
89
„ The equivalent number of
active helical turns Na for the
spring rate k is:
Na = Nb + G/E
„ Where G and E are the shear
the tensile modulus of
elasticity
„ The amount of initial tension
that a springmaker can
routinely incorporate is as
shown in the figure c

90
„ The preferred range can be expressed in terms of the uncorrected
torsional stress τi as:

33500 ⎛ C − 3⎞
τi = ± 1000⎜ 4 − ⎟ psi (10-41)
exp (0.105C ) ⎝ 6 .5 ⎠

„ The maximum allowable corrected stresses (i.e.; using KW or

KB) for static applications of extension springs are given in table
10 7
10-7
Percent of Tensile Strength
In Torsion In Bending
Materials body end end
Patented, cold-drawn or hardened and tempered carbon 45-50 40 75
and low-alloy steels
Austenitic stainless steel and nonferrous alloys 35 30 55

91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
Example

„ A hard drawn steel wire extension spring

p g has a wire diameter
of 0.035 in, an outside coil diameter of 0.248 in, hook radii of
r1= 0.106 in and r2 = 0.089in, and an initial tension of 1.19 lbf.
The number of body turns is 12.17. 12 17 From the given
information:
‰ Determine the physical parameters of the spring (D, C, KB,

Na, k, Lo, ymax)

‰ Check the initial preload stress conditions

‰ Find
Fi d the
h factors
f off safety
f under
d a static
i 5.25
5 25 lbf load.
l d

99
Solution
„ d = 0.035 in, OD = 0.248 in, r1= 0.106 in, r2 = 0.089 in, Nb =
12.17; Fi = 1.19 lbf, Fmax=5.25
„ HD steel ⇒ Form table 10-5,
10 5 with 0.033 0 063 ⇒ E =
0 033 < d < 0.063
28.7Mpsi, G=11.6Mpsi
„ From table 10-4, A =140kpsi-inm, m = 0.19
„ The physical parameters
D = OD − d = 0.248 − 0.035 = 0.213
4C + 2
C = D / d = 6.086; K B = = 1.234
4C − 3
N a = N b + G / E = 12.17 + 11.6 / 28.7 = 12.57 turns
d 4G
k= 3
= 17.76lbf/in
8D N a
Lo = (2C − 1 + N b )d = 0.817in
100
„ The deflection under the service load is:

(Fmax − Fi ) 5.25 − 1.19

y max = = = 0.229in
k 17.76

„ Therefore the maximum spring length is:

L = Lo + ymax =0.817 + 0.229 = 1.046 in

101
„ Initial preload stress condition:
„ The uncorrected initial stress is given by equation (10-3)
without the correction factor:

8 Fi D
(τ i )uncorr = = 15.1kpsi
πd 3

„ The preferred range is given by equation (10-41):

33500 ⎛ C − 3⎞
(τ i ) pref = ± 1000⎜ 4 − = 17681 ± 3525 = 14.2kpsi
k i or 21.2kpsi
k i
exp(0.105C ) ⎝ 6.5 ⎠

Thus, the initial tension of 15.1 kpsi is in the preferred range.

102
 The factor of safety under static load
„ We need to check three positions:
‰ The shear stress under the service load

‰ The
Th bending
b di att theth endd hook
h k which
hi h is
i represented
t d by
b point
i tA
‰ The torsion at the end hook which is represented by point B

1. F the
For th shear
h stress
t under
d the
th service
i load
l d
S sy 8 Fmax D
n= ; S sy = 0.45S ut & τ max = K B
τ max πd 3
A 140
S ut = m = 0.19
= 264.7 kpsi
d 0.035
8(5.25)(0.213)
τ max = 1.234 = 82kpsi
(
π 0.035 3
)
0.45(264.7 )
n= = 1.45
82
103
2. The bending at the end hook which is represented by point A
Sy
nA = ; S y = 0.75S ut = 0.75(264.7 ) = 198.5kpsi
σA
⎡ 16 D 4 ⎤ 4C12 − C1 − 1
σ A = Fmax ⎢(K ) A 3 + 2 ⎥ ; (K ) A = C1 = 2r1 / d = 6.057
⎣ πd πd ⎦ 4C1 (C1 − 1)
(K ) A = 1.14 ⇒ σ A = 156.9kpsi
198.5
nA = = 1.27
156.9

104
3. Th torsion
The i at the
h endd hook
h k which
hi h is
i representedd by
b point
i B

S syy
nB = ; S sy = 0.4 S ut = 0.4(264.7 ) = 105.88kpsi
k i
τB
8 Fmax D 4C 2 − 1
τ B = (K )B ; (K )B = C 2 = 2r2 / d = 5.086
πd 3
4C 2 − 4
(K )B = 1.18 ⇒ τ B = 78.4kpsi
105.88
nB = = 1.35
78.4

Note that Ssy=0

0.44 Sut from table 10
10-7
7 under torsion for the end part
part.
„ From all three calculations, the yield will first occur due to
the bending of the end hook.

105
Fatigue Example

„ The helical extension spring p g of the p pervious examplep is

subjected to a dynamic loading from 1.5 lbf to 5 lbf. Estimate
the factors of safety using Goodman failure criterion for
‰ The
Th nf coilil fatigue
f ti for
f the
th body
b d spring
i
‰ The ny coil yield for the body spring

‰ The (nf )A end hook bending fatigue at point A

‰ The (nf )B end hook torsion fatigue at point B

106
„ Solution
„ d = 0.035 in, D = 0.213 in, r1= 0.106 in, r2 = 0.089 in, Nb =
12.17
„ Fi = 1.19 lbf, Fmin=1.5,
1.5, Fmax=55

„ From the pervious example we have:

C=6.086, Lo=0.817, k = 17.76 lbf/in
KB=1.234, (K)A=1.14, (K)B=1.18, (τi)uncorr = 15.1 kpsi
Sut = 264.7kpsi,
264 7kpsi Ssu = 0.67S
0 67Sut= 177.3
177 3 kpsi,
kpsi Sy =198
198.5
5 kpsi,
kpsi Ssy
=119.1 kpsi (shear in body)

107
„ The fatigue in the body coil:
Fa = (5 − 1.5) / 2 = 1.75lbf, Fm = (5 + 1.5) / 2 = 3.25lbf
8 Fa D 8 Fm D
τ a = KB = 27.3kpsi, τ m = K B = 50.7 kpsi
πd 3
πd 3

„ For unpeened spring:

S sa = 35kpsi
k i S sm = 55kpsi
k i
S sa
S se = = 50.74kpsi
1 − (S sm / S su )
1−

The factor of safety guarding against failure to be

τa τm 1 S se S su
+ = ⇒ nf = = 1.214
S se S su nf τ a S su + τ m S se
108
„ Th coil
The il yield
i ld
S sa
ny =
τa
„ To find the values of Ssa:
Ssy
„ Thee load
o d line:
e:
τa (1) r
r=
τ m −τ i Ssa
S sa S sm
+ =1 (2)
S sy S sy
τi Ssm Ssy

„ The intersection between 1 &

2 gives:
S sa =
r
(S sy − τ i )
r +1

109
„ Therefore:

τi τa ⎛ Fi ⎞ ⎛ 1.19 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⇒ τ i = ⎜ ⎟τ a = ⎜ ⎟27.3 = 18.6kpsi
Fi Fa ⎝ Fa ⎠ ⎝ 1.75 ⎠
27.3
r= = 0.85
50.7 − 18.6
S sa = 46.2kpsi
Thus :
46.2
ny = = 1.69
27.3

110
„ The end hook bendingg fatigue
g at point
p A
n f = 1 / (σ a / S e + σ m / S ut ) ;
⎡ 16 D 4 ⎤
σ a = Fa ⎢(K ) A + 2 ⎥
= 52.3kpsi ;
⎣ πd 3
πd ⎦
⎛ Fm ⎞
σ m = ⎜⎜ σ a = 97.1kpsi
k i
⎝ Fa ⎠
S se
Se = = 67.1kpsi
p
0.577
⇒ (n f )A = 0.87

111
„ The end hook torsion fatigue
g at point
p B

n f = 1 / (τ sa / S se + τ sm / S su )
8 Fa D
(τ a )B = (K )B 3 = 26.1kpsi
πd
8 Fm D
(τ m )B = (K )B 3 = 48.5kpsi
πd
⇒ (n f )B = 1.27

112
Given A229 (OQ&T spring steel)
steel), squared and ground-
ground
ended helical compression spring, d = 3.4 mm, OD =
50.8 mm, Lo = 74,6 mm, Nt = 5.25.
I the
Is th spring
i solid
lid safe?
f ? If not,
t what
h t iis th
the llargestt ffree
length to which it can be wound using ns = 1.2?

113
Τs  < Ssyy

Τs = KB ( 8 Fs D/(π d3)

Fs = k ys

114
115
116