A History of Sweden PDF

105914
A HISTORY
of
SWEDEN CARL GRIMBERG
translated and ^4dapted for the ^4m eric an

ty and
C. W. FOSS
AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN

ROCK ISLAND, ILLINOIS
COPYRIGHT 1935
BY
AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN
izOJGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN

Printers and Binders
ROCK ISLAND, ILLINOIS
PREFACE
At the request of the late Professor Jules Mauritz-
son, Head of the Department of Swedish in Augusta-
na College, this publication was undertaken by the
Augustana Book Concern. The publishers secured from
the author, Doctor Carl Grimberg, of Djursholm, Swe-
den, permission to publish an English edition of his
work, "Sveriges Historia," and also engaged the pres-
ent writer to render the same into English.
The present volume is not a translation of any par-
ticular edition of the author's work, but of selections
from different editions. Nor is it only a translation, it
is also an adaptation to the American student and
reader. Hence, a
few omissions have been made of
matters important, more especially, to students in Swe-
den, and conversely, a few additions have been made
of matters which are of special interest to students
and readers in America. The latter point applies es-
pecially to the last section of the book, the account
of
New Sweden and the mission among the Swedes on the
Delaware, which is wholly original matter. Genealogi-
cal tables of ruling families, a brief bibliography, and
a series of maps have also been added.
The work is designed for use as a textbook in high
schools and colleges where courses in Swedish history
are given, and also as a general reader for those who
are interested in the history of the Scandinavian North.
In the division of the work into chapters and sec-
tions, a common practice in the make-up of
American
IV Preface
textbooks has been followed. In translating the work

I have not always aimed at a literal rendering of the
original, but have rather sought to reproduce in Eng-

lish,as far as possible, the thoughts and sentiments so
well expressed in the choice and simple language of the
author.
In the second chapter, which deals largely with Norse
mythology, I have purposely aimed at retaining an
ancient and rhythmic style, which may at first seem
strange to the reader. The object has been to breathe
into the text the mythic atmosphere of that distant
age. In Havamal and other ancient poems rhyme was

not used, but instead a system of alliteration of which
I have given one or two illustrations. Many of the
author's quotations from these ancient poems have
necessarily been omitted.
Special thanks are due to Doctor Grimberg for the

use of a large number of the cuts from the original
work; and to my wife, who has carefully read the
manuscript and made many valuable suggestions.
Finally I would venture to hope that I may have suc-
ceeded in some measure in my efforts to present to the
American reader and student the author's connected
and charming picture of the land, the people, the reli-
gion, and the culture of the North during the long
period of its development.
C. W. Foss.
Rock Island, Illinois, January, 1935.
NOTE This was the last work of Doctor Foss, completed

shortly before his death, which occurred February 8, 1935.
CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER I. PREHISTORIC TIMES 1
A. The Stone Age.
B. The Bronze Age.
C. The Iron Age.
CHAPTER II. THE NORTH DURING THE NINTH CEN-
TURY 19
A. Geographical Divisions.
B. Life in the North.
C. Ancient Northern Myths.
D. Religion of the Ancient Northmen.
E. Characteristics and Customs of the Northmen.
F. Rise of the Three Northern Kingdoms.
CHAPTER III. PERIOD OF THE VIKINGS AND INTRO-
DUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY 32
A. The Viking Expeditions A Northern Migration.
B. Introduction of Christianity.
C. Legendary Tales.
D. Internal Struggles.
CHAPTER IV. THE EARLY CATHOLIC PERIOD IN
SWEDEN 57
A. The Church, Its Cult and Customs.
B. The Crusades.
CHAPTER V. LATER CATHOLIC PERIOD IN SWEDEN 65
A. The Regency of Birger Jarl.
B. The Reign of Magnus Ladulas.
C. Knighthood, or Chivalry.
D. Administration of Torgils Knutsson.
E. Sverre, One of Norway's Greatest Kings.
F. Reign of Magnus Ericsson.
G. Saint Birgitta.
H. Reign of Albert of Mecklenburg.
CHAPTER VI. PERIOD OF THE UNION, 1389-1531.... 87
A. Margaret Atterdag and Eric of Pomerania.
B. Karl Knutsson and Christian I.
C. Sten Sture'the Elder.
D. Sten Sture the Younger and Christian II.
E. Gustavus Vasa and the War of Liberation.
F. Change of Reign Also in Denmark.
G. Life in the Cities.
VI Contents
PAGE
CHAPTER VII. REIGN OF GUSAVUS VASA, 3523-1560 108
A. The Administration^
B. The Dacke Insurrection.
C. Vesteras Succession Act.
D. Gustavus Vasa, His Family and Old Age.
CHAPTER VIII. REIGNS OF THE SONS OF GUSTAVUS
VASA, 1560-1611 127
A. Reign of Eric XIV.
B. Reign of John III.
C. Reign of Sigismund.
D. Regency and Reign of Charles IX.
E. Wars with Neighboring Countries during the Period.
CHAPTER IX. REIGN OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS,

1611-1632 145
A. Introduction.
B. The Early Wars.
C. Gustavus Adolphus and the Thirty Years' War.
D. Domestic Development.
CHAPTER X. REIGN OF CHRISTINA, 1632-1654 170
A. The Regency under Axel Oxenstiern.
B. Personal Rule of Christina.
CHAPTER XL REIGN OF CHARLES X GUSTAVUS,

1654-1660 186
A. Introduction.
B. The Period of the Polish War.
C. First War with Denmark.
D. Second War with Denmark
CHAPTER XII. REIGN OF CHARLES XI, 1660-1697 195

A. Period of the Regency.
B. Personal Rule of Charles XI.
C. Culture of the Period.
CHAPTER XIII. REIGN OF CHARLES XII, 1697-1718. . . 217

A. Introduction.
B. Opening of the Great Northern War.
C. War with Russia.
D. War with Augustus II.
E. War with Russia Continued.
F. MagnusStenbock's Campaign in Sk&nc.
G. Charles XII in Turkey.
H. Conditions in Sweden after Charles' Return.
I. War in Norway.
Contents vii-
PAGE
CHAPTER XIV. REIGN OF ULRICA ELEONORA AND
FREDERICK I, 1719-1751 240
A. Introduction.
B. Peace^ Treaties.
C. Constitutional and Legislative Reforms.
D. Administration of Arvid Horn.
E. War with Russia.
F. Recovery and Services of the Hat Party.
G. Industrial and Cultural Development.
CHAPTER XV. REIGN OF ADOLPH FREDERICK,

1751-1771 268
A. Attempted Coup d'Etat by the Court.
B. Sweden's Participation in the Seven Years' War.
C. The Fall of the Hat Party.
D. Administration of the Younger Cap Party.
CHAPTER XVI. REIGN OF GUSTAVUS III 279

A. The Coup d'Etat of 1772.
B. Gustavus Averts the Vengeance of the Neighbors.
C. Reforms of Gustavus III.
D. Culture during the Period.
E. The King's Reverses.
F. The Russian War First Part.
G. The Riksdag of 1789. New Revolution.
H. The Russian War Second Part.
I. The Death of Gustavus III.
CHAPTER XVII. REIGN OF GUSTAVUS IV ADOLPHUS,
1792-1809 300
A. Introduction.
B. The French Revolution and Napoleon Bonaparte.
C. The Finnish War.
D. Deposition of Gustavus IV Adolphus.
CHAPTER XVIII. REIGN OF CHALES XIII, 1809-1818. 312
A. The New Constitution.
B. The Election of a Crown Prince.
C. Administration of Charles John as Crown Prince.
CHAPTER XIX. REIGNS OF THE BERNADOTTE

FAMILY, Since 1818 324
A. Reign of Charles XIV John.
B. Reign of Oscar I.
C. Reign of Charles XV.

D. Reign of Oscar II.
E. Reign of Gustavus V.
viii Contents
PAGE
CHAPTER XX. ECONOMIC PROGRESS DURING THE
BERNADOTTE PERIOD 335
A. In Agriculture.
B. Live Stock and Dairy Products.
C. Forestry.
D. The Mining Industry!
E. Manufactures.
F. Trade and Transportation.
CHAPTER XXL POLITICAL AND SOCIAL PROGRESS. . 343

A. Establishment of a Riksdag of Two Chambers.
B. Three Great Political Questions.
C. Three Great Social Questions.
CHAPTER XXII. EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 35G

A. The Schools.
B. Museums.
CHAPTER XXIII. LITERATURE 360

A. The New Romanticism.
B. The Gothic School.
C. The Finnish School.
D. A New Brilliant Period in Literature, 1860.
E. Realism and Idealism after 1880.
CHAPTER XXIV. ART, SCIENCE, INVENTION, AND

DISCOVERY 376
A. Painting.
B. Sculpture and Architecture.
C. Science, Invention, and Discovery.
CHAPTER XXV. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 387

A. The Union of Sweden and Norway and Its Disso-
lution.
B. Foreign Relations before and after the World War.
CHAPTER XXVI. EPILOGUE 390
A. Swedes Outside of Sweden.
B. The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware.
GENEALOGICAL TABLES OP SWEDISH RULERS 404

LEADING EVENTS IN SWEDISH HISTORY 409
BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY 414
INDEX
A HISTORY OF SWEDEN
CHAPTER I
THE PEEHISTORIC TIMES

A. THE STONE AGE
The Glacial Period. It is not definitely known how
long Sweden has been inhabited, but it is fairly well
known how long it has been habitable. There was a time
when a thick covering of ice spread over all northern
and central Europe, such as we still find in Greenland.
This time is known in geology as the Ice Age or the
Glacial Period.
Sweden's First Inhabitants. This ice covering grad-
ually melted away so that today only a few remains of
this perpetual ice may be seen on the highest mountain
tops in Sweden. Some 15,000 years ago this ice cover-
ing had disappeared from the southern part of the
Scandinavian peninsula, making it fit for human habi-
tation, and some time after this we find the first traces
of human life there. As evidence of this, roughly
wrought flint implements have been found in the soil
of Skane. Earlier remains of hoes of reindeer's horns
have been found in certain parts of Denmark. The
layers of earth in which these remains were imbedded
were formed shortly after the passing of the ice age
as proved by geological research. These finds indicate
that the earliest inhabitants of Sweden came by way
of Denmark. For a long time after the end of the ice
A History of Sweden
age the Scandinavian peninsula and the Danish islands

formed a continuous land mass with the peninsula of
Jutland, making the Baltic Sea a fresh water lake.
The Sweden were most likely
earliest inhabitants of
of a race different from that of the Swedes of today,
whose earliest ancestors seem to have arrived at a later
date.* Thanks to ar-
chaeological research
we know tolerably
well how these ancient
ancestors lived.
Let us take a look at
the country as it ap-
peared four thousand
or more years ago.
Nearly its whole sur-
face was then covered
with dense forests,
teeming wildwith
animals of the chase.
Lakes and rivers were
then larger and more
Flint Ax from the Old Stone Aw, a<oti from
numerous than now. two hhh'H. Found in Ski'ini'. One-half si/c.
Inlets of the sea ex-

tended farther into the land. Large stretches of its
present fertile lands were then sea bottoms or sandy
wastes. The cultivated spots were small, and it re-
quired many days to go from one village to another.

r
The Dwellings of the Stone-age People. The best
known village site from the early stone-age days lies
*
According to the opinion of the bent anthropolotfiHtu of lodny the modern
Swedes are the descendants of the earliest inhabitants of their land.
The Stone Age 3
in a near Alvastra, which at that time was a shal-

field
low arm of a lake. Here have been found remains of

a large raft of logs, and brushwood, which people more
than four thousand years ago pushed out some three
hundred feet into the marsh. On this artificial island
they found protection against enemies and wild beasts.
For whoever attempted to approach the place would
sink helplessly into the mire, and the water was too
shallow for the use of boats. Only on footbridges could
any one reach the huts. Such bridges could readily be
taken up at night, or upon the approach of an enemy.
Remains of such bridges have actually been found near
Alvastra.
In the layers archaeologists have also found re-
same
mains of utensils, tools, and weapons of stone as well
as offals or leavings from meals. From the latter, one
may learn what sort of animals, tame and wild, the
stone-age people lived on and hunted. Thus have been
found the bones of four kinds of wild animals, now
extinct in Sweden the wild boar, the aurochs, the wild
:
cat, and the beaver. From the hard and tough

bones of
the wild cat excellent bodkins were formed, and the
long and sharp tusks of the beaver furnished splendid
chisels.
Onthis artificial island, then, the people erected
their huts, made of a framework of poles intertwined
with twigs or reeds and plastered with mud or covered
with sod. Near the shores of many of the lakes in
central Europe remains of similar villages have been
found. The huts have, however, been built, not on
rafts, but on piles driven into the bottom
of the shal-
low waters.
A History of Sweden
Generally, however, the stone-age people erected

their dwellings on solid ground. For protection against
attack, they constructed as an entrance a long, low,
covered passageway, through which one had to crawl
to get in. Such an entrance to the hut was a valuable
invention. It served as a protection against wintry
winds as well as against attack. Should an enemy come
crawling through the dark passage he would not be in
position to use his weapons to advantage and would
be met by fierce dogs, the faithful family guard.
Let us make an imaginary visit to these huts. The
most important piece of furniture in the hut is a stone
used for a seat and which may also serve for a table.
Bundles of fine twigs also serve for seats and at night
for beds. The glowing fire on the stone hearth gives
the place a cheerful, homelike appearance. At the one
end of the hearth is a deep depression to rake the ashes
and coals into.
Fire was kindled by the stone-age people in various
ways: by striking flint and iron pyrites together and
collecting the sparks in tinder or dry leaves and blow-
ing them into a flame, or by rubbing rapidly and pa-
tiently two dry pieces of wood against each other, or
by using a stick as a drill against a dry piece of wood
and whirling it rapidly between the hands or by means
of a cord.
Food, Clothing, and Occupation. The village huts

'
are now empty. It is the time of late summer. Most

of the men are out on a hunt. Others have just re-
turned with some fine fish, caught in the lake with bone
hooks. Near the shore we see a few cows of stunted
growth grazing, and near by a flock of sheep and goats
The Stone Age
feeding. In the adjoining woods a herd of grunting

swine are feasting on a rich supply of fallen acorns.
A few small, shaggy horses also add to the wealth of
the village. On the small cultivated clear-
ings we see the ripening barley waving in
the breeze. On other clearings the wheat
has been harvested. A woman is busy
grinding meal by crushing the grain in a
stone mortar.
As evidence that the early stone-age
people in Sweden practiced agriculture,
there have been found on their village
sites charred grains of the small variety
of barley still cultivated in the most north-
Bone Fishhook ern parts of Lapland. Remarkable, too,
from the Stone
Age. Found in
are the charred pieces of crab apples that
Skane. One- have been found in various places. The
half size.
apples were gathered in the fall, cut in
sections, dried, and kept for winter use. Another of
their means of sustenance during the long winters were
hazelnuts. Large masses of shells found bear testi-
Stone Mortar. Found in West Gothland. One-eighth size.
mony to this fact. There has also been found a stone

with a hollow in it in which the people evidently
A History of Sweden
cracked the nuts with smaller stones, which have like-

wise been found in the same place.
In another part of the village we see a group of
women making garments of skins, or pelts. With bod-
kins made of the tough bones of
the wild cat, they pierce holes
near the edges of the skins and
bind them together with fine
threads or thongs of sinews, or
tendons. This is their way of
sewing. There is also another
workshop in the village where
an elderly man is engaged in
Piece of Charred Apple
Found in Alvnstra.
making flint tools and weapons
Actual .size. for war and the chase. Other
kinds of stone he has shaped into
axes. Some sharpened and polished by rub-
tools are
bing them against other stones and applying sand and
water. So excellent are these stone implements that
men today have been able with their
use to fell trees and build a cabin with
considerable ease.
Most of the flint used by the people
came from Skane and
of these villages
Halland, where it was quite plentiful.
In Skane many people were engaged in
hacking loose with picks made of deer's
horn clear lumps of flint from the large
chalk beds found there. From these two
provinces large quantities of flint were
carried to the northernmost part of the lint Arrowhead.
^
Pound in Sk&nc.
, i ,
A i_ **
known
-i
peninsula by a system of traffic Actual 8ize>

The Stone Age
as barter, or the exchange of goods, for money had not

yet come into use.
Suddenly there is a stir in the village. Some hunters
have returned with a valuable catch.
The object of the chase had not now, as
ordinarily, been the deer or the wild
boar of the neighborhood. The quest
had been the powerful and stately au-
rochs. In the meantime, however, the
hunters had encountered a pair of bears,
and a life and death struggle ensued.
To sustain life they were compelled to
risk The hunters
life.
triumphed and brought

home two fine bearskins
and a large supply of
meat. The women now
bestir themselves to kin-
dle fire in the huts and
prepare the feast. The
meat cooked in a large
is
Flint Ax with
earthen kettle suspended
wooden handle.
Found in a peat over the fire. The kettle
bog in Denmark.
appears to us coarse and
Size one-ninth.
clumsy, but not so to the
village people, who have even tried to
ornament it by attempts at engraving
and by various zigzag lines. Members
of the family sit around in an expectant
mood. When cooked, the meat
cut up is Polished stone
into smaller pieces with flint knives. Ax - Pound on
n * * * i
For forks, fingers are used.
Gothland. One-
third size.
A History of Sweden
Race Connections. The people thus described were

the ancestors of the modern Swedes. They belonged
to the great Teutonic race, which in the course of time
has differentiated and developed
into the German, Dutch, Eng-
lish, Swedish, Norwegian, and
Danish nations. By way of Den-
mark they entered Sweden and
settled along the coast and along
rivers and lakes for there travel
;
was easier than over the track-

less land stretches, besides the
fishing along the water routes

furnished an abundant supply of
food. Such travel was done by
means of canoes, or boats, made
of logs hollowed out by burning
and hewing with stone axes.
Reasons for the Name Stone
Age. The period thus described
has been called the Stone Age,
Polished Stone Ax. Found
as the most important tools and in Skii.no. One-half size.
weapons used by the people

then were made of stone. Other materials such as
bone, horn, and wood were also used, but as they are
perishable only a few specimens of them remain to the
present age. Practically all people of the world have
lived through such a period. Among some wild tribes
the Stone Age still exists.
Sources of Knowledge of These Early Times. No

written records from these distant times exist. But
there have been found in the soil of all northern lands
The Stone Age
large masses of tools, utensils, and weapons, such as

have already been described. Most of the Swedish finds
are preserved in the National Historical' Museum in
Stockholm. No other stone-age people have left speci-
mens showing as fine workmanship as the Scandina-
vian.
Tombs from the Stone Age. There are also many

stone tomb-structures, showing how the dwellings of
that day looked. For the stone-age people, here as in
other lands, believed that life after death resembled
life on earth. Hence, it was a custom among them to
build habitations for the dead like those of the living,
but of more durable material. For the same reason
they also supplied the dead with food and raiment,
utensils, and weapons.
In Sweden such tombs are sacred. No one is allowed
to disturb them. Other ancient remains belong to the
finder, but if the article is of gold, silver, copper, or
bronze it must be offered to the state, which pays an
eighth more for it than the value of the metal.
In peat beds, once lake bottoms, there have been
found also articles of wood from the stone age, as for
instance canoes of hollowed-out oak logs. Peat has a
wonderful quality for preserving from decay.
These many remains suggest to us a remarkable
story of development. The record of this development
effected by the Swedish people through toil and strug-
gle, generation after generation, step by step,
from
the Stone Age to the Age of Steam and Electricity is
the History of Sweden. The challenge to the present
generation is through its efforts to continue this
story.
A History of Sweden. 2.
10 A History of Sweden
B. THE BRONZE AGE

(About 2000 to 600 B.C.)
The Introduction of Bronze. About four thousand

years ago reports from the South reached the stone-
age people in the North, of a wonderful "stone," which
could be melted by heat and formed into strong tools,
sharp weapons, and beautiful ornaments that glowed
like fire in the sunlight. This was bronze, that is, cop-
per made harder and more fusible by being alloyed

with Gradually by the process of barter one bronze
tin.
article after another found its way to the North. Little

by little the stone-age people learned the art of work-
ing the bronze, and thus it came into general use. The
Bronze Age had begun.
Nearly all of the many bronze articles found in Swed-
en were made there, and the best of them surpass in
tastefulness those of most of the other European lands.
Naturally the use of stone implements and weapons
did not end with the coming of the Bronze Age. The
metals composing the bronze had to be imported from
other lands, for tin has not been found in Scandinavia,
and copper was not mined in Sweden till hundreds of
years after the end of the Bronze Age. Bronze was,
therefore, expensive, and poor people had to continue
the use of stone, especially for heavier tools and for
arrowheads and other weapons subject to frequent
loss.
The Importation of Bronze. Bronze was imported
chiefly from the regions of the Danube and carried
northward on the great German rivers. Waterways
furnished the best means of transportation in the early
days, when scarcely any highways were found any-
The Bronze Age 11
where, and so they continued to be for thousands of

years. Even today, in the age of railroads, heavy and
bulky articles are usually shipped by wa-
ter. In exchange for bronze the northern
people offered furs and more especially

amber, a petrified resin from a species of
fir now Amber was then found in
extinct.
large quantities along the southern shores
of the Baltic and the
North Sea, where it may
still be found. It has a
rich yellow color and
takes a fine polish. It
was in great demand for
necklaces and other orna-
ments. Many articles of
amber have been found
in ancient tombs in both
Italy and Greece.
Rock Inscriptions.
Even merchants and sail-
ors from the North took
part in this traffic. Rock
Bronze Sword. inscriptions, especially in
Found West
in
Bohuslan, are evidences
Gothland. Size
one-sixth. of this fact. There in-
scriptions reveal to us
much of the life, both in war and
and
peace, of these prehistoric times,
much more would we know if
could fully understand the meaning

of these mysterious inscriptions. 6i an a. one-third size.
They often indicate considerable artistic taste and

skill. What life, what what
joy, action do the dancing
men with their trumpets show in the accompanying
figure! Their dance and music are in all probability

performed in honor of some god, perhaps the sun god.
The sun's disk is often pictured in these inscriptions,
as for instance in the next picture, where it is found
in two places. The object of this worship of the sun
god was most likely to invoke the sun to shine and pro-
Rock Inscription at Lyckc in Kohusliln.
duce rich crops. The pictures of boats may also repre-

sent the sun as the sun god was believed to sail across
the heavens in a boat.
But should a drought prevail, the pictures of axes
are inscribed to rain and thunder. The ax was
solicit
even in the stone age a symbol of thunder. Later its
emblem became the god Thor with his stone ax. Thus
these inscriptions had most likely a religious signifi-
cance, intended to secure favorable weather and rich
harvests. This interpretation seems the more likely
since .the inscriptions are in close proximity to the most
The Bronze Age 13
For success with herds and

fertile agricultural lands.
flocks the bronze-age people inscribed pictures of do-
mestic animals, and with wild animals for the success
of the hunter.
The Tombs.
The burial places
from the later
bronze age con-
'tain remains of
burnt bones, as
'the practice of
'cremation spread
over the greater
part of Europe.
This would indi-
cate that the peo-
ple now
believed
that the soul
could exist with-
out the body.
This custom pre-
vailed in the
^North for about
2,000 years. An
Arabian traveler
'Writes that he Roc k Inscription. Pound in BohuslSn.
>once witnessed in
Russia the burning of the dead body of a northern
sailor in his ship. When he exclaimed his surprise at
this he was answered by one who participated in the
obsequies: "You Arabs are a stupid people, you take
the body of a loved one and place it in the ground,
where worms and crawling things consume it. We on

the other hand burnit and instantly release the soul
for admission to paradise."
C. THE IRON AGE

(From about 600 B.C.)
The Introduction of Iron. After its use in the North

for nearly 1500 years bronze was replaced with iron,
and the Iron Age began. With iron tools the forests
could more easily be cleared and the soil cultivated.
Thus want would not immediately follow the failure
of the chase.
The Sources of Iron.The first articles of iron, like
those of bronze, came from the South. But the Swedes
soon learned the value of their rich supply of bog iron
ore, rust-colored masses of ore deposited in lakes and
marshes. By a simple melting process this ore was
readily reduced to iron, which could then be shaped
into tools and weapons. Up to the thirteenth century
of our era this was the only iron ore worked in Swed-
en, and in distant parts of the country this ore is still
worked.
Sepulchral Monuments. During the Iron Age graves

were generally marked with mounds, or barrows.
Such burial mounds from the Iron Age are the three
immense mounds at Old Uppsala known as "Kungs-
hogarna" (Kings' Mounds). At the opening of the
third century the practice began of erecting rune
stones to the memory of departed relatives and friends,
that is, stones inscribed with runes, letters of the old-
est Teutonic alphabet.
The Iron Age 15
The Art of Writing. This wonderful art, enabling

one to communicate with people at great distances and
to perpetuate truth and knowledge, is one of the many
gifts that Europe owes to the East. On wild or savage
people it often gives the impression of witchcraft.
What amount of thought and effort must have been
given by numbers of men to invent this art, which
even a child can now learn in a short time Along the
!
eastern shores of the Mediterranean a thousand years
Kings' Mounds, Old Uppsala.
before Christ the symbols were invented from which

our alphabet is derived. Other Oriental peoples had
in earlier days used a symbol for each word or syllable,
and to be able to read and write they had to have a
knowledge of thousands of signs. The new method
(Syrian) used a sign for each elementary sound, and,
hence, only some twenty signs were required. These
could be combined to form any word in the language.
This simplified method of writing was introduced
to the European peoples by the Phoenicians, the world's
earliest traders, who also acquainted the West with
many other Oriental arts and inventions. This alpha-
bet first reached the Greeks, and from them it passed
to the Romans.
At the time of Christ the Romans were the masters

of a very large part of the known world. In Europe
they extended their sway to the Danube and the Rhine,
and came in contact with many of the Teutonic tribes.
With them they carried on a brisk trade, which ex-
tended even into Sweden, carrying with it large quan-
tities of coins, utensils of bronze, glassware, weapons,
and ornaments. In recent times large numbers of such
articles have been dug up from Swedish soil. With this
traffic came also the knowledge of the alphabet.
The older Runic alphabet in use in early times by
all the Teutonic tribes numbered twenty-four letters.
After the Scandinavian people had differentiated from

the other Teutons in language only sixteen letters were
needed. These are known as the Younger Runes and
were used only in the North. They were the following :
r h > * fc K :* -M * h :
t fc h Y ,k
futhork hnias tblmr
The Runic inscriptions are usually short, only stat-
ing to whose memory and by whom the stone had been
erected. The good qualities of the departed are often
named. "A good "A very good man" are
peasant,"
common expressions. Sometimes whole verses are in-
scribed on the stones, as for instance :
Torsten had
this stone erected
to himself and
son of his, Hefne.
Gone to England
had the youth,
died thus, at home
to much sorrow.
The Iron Age 17
The Great Migration. is perishable.

Everything
The Roman Empire had day. The wealth of the
its
Orient flowed thither, and the temperate and sturdy
Rune Stone in Ryda, Uppland.
Romans became effeminate pleasure seekers. Then

came the strong and hardy Teutonic tribes from the
North, seeking more fertile lands and lured on by the
IS A History of Sweden
sight or report of the glories and wealth of Rome. They

soon learned the weakness of the great Empire and
began to invade, to plunder, and to conquer most of
the western provinces. In these they gradually founded
new states, some of which formed the beginning of
several European nations of today. This occurred
mainly during the century of our era. This inva-
fifth
sion of the Roman Empire by the Teutonic tribes is
known as the "Great Migration/' or the "Wandering
of the Nations/'
Some of the most powerful of these Teutonic in-
vaders traced their origin to the Scandinavian penin-
sula. And
even after they had penetrated into the
Empire they maintained a close connection with their
kindred in the old homeland. Trade between Scandi-
navia and more southern lands now became more
active than before. Immense quantities of plunder
from the Empire, in gold and ornaments, reached
Sweden, and the Italians adorned themselves- with fine
furs from the North.
Still more of the wealth in gold plundered by the
invaders reached Sweden as pay to soldiers from the

North, who joined the invading armies in the South.
From the North to the South there was a constant
stream of adventurers eager to seek their fortunes.
"Like bees from the hive they swarmed out/' says a
historian of that day. But as a rule those who were
not killed returned home after completing their
service.
In the National Historical Museum, in Stockholm,
there is preserved an astonishing wealth of gold treas-
ures from this period, which have been found imbedded
Divisions of the Country 19
in the soil.* Some of the ornaments were undoubtedly

made in Sweden and bear testimony to the fine artistic
skill of the Swedish goldsmiths of that day.
CHAPTER II
THE NORTH DURING THE NINTH CENTURY

A. GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS
Growthof Villages. The population of Sweden had
greatly increased during the thousands of years of
development we have now been following. Owing to
their improved tools the people had been enabled to
make life pleasanter and more comfortable. The small
villages along the waterways had grown into wide dis-
tricts with fields and meadows, bounded by mountains
and forests where wild beasts and robbers made travel
unsafe. Hence, people, as far as possible, traveled by
water on lakes and rivers.
Larger Divisions of the Country. A difficult boun-
dary to cross was formed by two immense forests,
Tiveden and Kolmarden, separating the land of the
South (Sunnanskog) from that of the North (Ovan-
skog). The former was the land of the Goths, the
latter that of the Sveas. The most important region
of the Goths was West Gothland with Dal along Lake
Vanern. The land on the east side of Lake Vattern
was known as East Gothland. The many small districts
*
Many of these gold finds weigh between two and three pounds troy. The
largest of these treasures was found in 1774 near Trosa. It consisted of gold
ornaments with an aggregate weight of nearly 33V pounds troy, with a metal
value of over $8,000.
to the south of Lake Vattern were collectively called

Smaland. The coast of Kalmar Sound and the islands
of Gland and Gothland were also settled in early days.
The chief territory of the Sveas was known as Upp-
land. The land to the south of it was called Soderman-
land and that to the west, Westmanland. "Land' was
the name given to a larger community of villages, and
it corresponds to the present "Landskap" (Shire or
County). Very early, perhaps even during the Stone
Age, these people of the North extended their settle-
ments to the Aland Islands and the southern and south-
western coasts of Finland.
The Norwegians and Danes. The Norwegians seem
around the coasts of Bohuslan and
to have settled first
the fjords about Christiania and Trondhjem; the
Danes along the Belts and oresund. From Skane they
spread to the regions of Halland and Blekinge.
Petty Kingdoms. In each "Landskap," or the greater
part of it, the ablest man became leader in war and
chief in time of peace, and was accorded the title of
King (Fylkeskonung). Hence, the Scandinavian lands
at this time contained a large number of petty king-
doms.
B. MODE OP LIFE
At a Peasant's Homestead. Let us visit a wealthy
peasant'shome on a winter evening during this period.
The homestead is composed of several buildings with
but one room in each one building is the kitchen, an-
:
other the bedroom, a third the pantry, etc. We enter

the largest of them, a long hall, where all thefnembers
of the family are assembled. On long benches fixed to
Mode of Life
the wall the men are engaged in some handicrafts. The

women are spinning and sewing, while singing at their
work. At the middle of one of the long walls the house-
father has his seat of honor between two pillars richly
carved with images of the gods. High and mighty he
sits there, lording it over all in his house. He it is who
decides whether a newborn babe shall be allowed to
live orbe exposed in the wilds to perish. It was, how-
ever.considered a disgrace for any one not In want to
leflTstrong and shapely child perish.
But the wife, too, held an influential and responsible
place in the house. Many instances are handed down
from this time to show that a true devotion often ex-
isted between man and wife. A respected peasant was
once burned to death in his own house. The enemies
offered escape to the wife, but she replied, "When young
I was joined to my husband. I promised then that our
fate should be one." So she shared her husband's pain-
ful death.
In the center of the room, on an open hearth of flat
stones, a fire is burning. The smoke curls as it rises
and finds an outlet in an opening in the ridge of the
roof. The house resembles the primitive cabins that
may still be seen in out-of-the-way places. In the day-
time the house is moderately lighted through openings
in the walls or roof. But now the flames from the
hearth light up the room and give a glow to the pol-
ished shields, battle-axes, and swords, hanging on the
wall ready to be seized at a moment's warning, for
the times are fierce and bloody.
At any moment an attack may be expected. For a
few days ago a son of this family engaged in an angry
quarrel with a man of another family, and in the fight

which ensued he slew his antagonist. Now it became
a sacred duty of the kin of the slain to exact a blood
feud of the slayer, or some member of his family or
kin. To exact the blood feud, or revenge, was the duty
of all the men of the family of the slain and even of
Early Northern Guest Room.
related families. This might set one group of families

in arms against another for generations. The
young
only bided the time when they might be old enough to
avenge their fallen kinsmen. Thus the slaying of one
man might result in the mutual destruction of whole
families.
Northern Hospitality. The door opens. But he who

entersis a welcome guest, an aged
wandering singer
Ancient Northern Myths 23
and scald. He is hospitably received, for much has he

seen of the world, and much does he know, and is
therefore highly revered:
"No 6etter fcurden

Bears one on his way
Than wisdom mickle;
More than 0oods and gold
It Drives the stranger
Affords the strayed a shield."
So says Havamal (Song of the high one, that is, Oden's

song), a didactic poem of practical wisdom.
The guest is conducted to a seat of honor and is in-
vited to share in the evening meal, which is now served
on long tables placed before the benches. After the
repast, he is handed a drinking-horn filled with froth-
ing mead. Then he begins to recite the many things
he has seen and heard in the world without.
C. ANCIENT NORTHERN MYTHS

Thor, Oden, Frey, Njord, and Heimdatt. Then he
begins to sing of gods and of heroes of mighty Thor,
;
who drives with his span of goats till the heavens re-
sound with rumble and roar, and with the lightning
strokes of his huge battle-ax crushes the giants, off-
spring of evil. Then of Oden he sings, the All-father,
who rides to battle on Sleipner, his eight-footed steed,
accompanied by his ravens twain, who acquaint him
with all that occurs in the world. One of his eyes has
Oden pawned to Mimer, the guardian of wisdom's
spring, for the privilege of drinking its water. The
scald sings, too, of Frey, the ruler of rain and of sun-
shine; and of Njord, the god of the air and the winds.
Of Heimdall he sings, the warder of gods, who from

his rainbow bridge in the sky can see for a hundred
leagues in every direction and hear how the grass
grows.
Balder and Loke. Reverently all give ear to the song
of Balder the gentle, who suffered death through the
wiles of the treacherous Loke. A shudder there passed
through the hall as Ijhe singer
recited how as for pun-
ishment Loke was bound to a rock with his own son's
intestines, and how a venomous serpent, dripping with
poison, was placed right over the culprit. But, so the
singer continued, his faithful spouse stood beside him,
and in a bowl collected the poison, and when she turned
to empty the bowl, straight into the face of Loke the
dripping poison descended. Loke then writhes and
twists in his pain till all the earth trembles. This is
what people now call an earthquake.
Life in Asgard, the Home of the Gods. Silent the
old man Thoughtful silence prevails 'mong the
sits.
hearers. But by and by they request the scald to con-

tinue. More they desire to hear, to hear of the life of
the gods, the Asas, in Asgard, where Frigg, Oden's
spouse, is foremost 'mong women, where Freya, god-
dess of love and of beauty, resides, and Iduyi, who gives
to gods and to goddesses apples to eat, apples of youth
everlasting.
The Song of Creation. Then followed the song, long
hoary with age, the song of creation: In the begin-
ning of time there existed one world of fire, and an-
other of frost, and between them a gulf known as
Ginungagap. Into this gulf fell sparks from the fire-
world on ice from the frost-world. Thus arose Ymer,
Ancient Northern Myths 25
the mighty sire of the giants; likewise arose the cow

Odhumla, from whom the Asas of Asgard trace their
descent :
"Twas the source of the ages,

When Fmer builded.
No sand was, nor sea,
Nor soothing billows.
Nota^th /teaved itself up,
Nor /leaven above.
Gaping gulf there was,
But grass was not."
The gods slew Ymer, and of his flesh the earth they
made, of his bones the mountains they built; from his
hair the forests arose, the sea from his blood, his skull
was the sky. The Asas then formed the first human
pair from two trees, Ask and Embla (Ash and Elm).
But change and decay prevail in the world the Asas
created. Transitory, too, is the power of the Asas.
Subject are they to the Fates, to the Norns, the god-
desses three, who sit at the roots of the Yggdrasil ash
ever verdant, whose roots and whose branches encom-
pass the world.
A time will come when Ragnarok, the end of the
world, approaches. In nature ominous signs will ap-
pear, foreboding the end: the moon disappears, the
sun turns to darkness, and stars from the heavens are
hurled. Terrible storms arise, and all evil powers are
loosened.
Loud Blows Heimdall his watchman's horn, calling
the gods to the last, the decisive fight with the powers
of evil. And last of all Surt, god of fire, throws out
his consuming flames o'er the earth.
But out of the tumult behold a new world arise, with

verdure renewed, where fields unplanted yield fruits,
where all evil is changed, and Balder returns. A hall,
too, behold, with gold all bedecked, and fairer than sun-
shine, where virtuous throngs of good people dwell in
joy everlasting. Then comes the Mighty One, whose
name no one dares mention, to judge and to rule over
all, and justice and peace to establish, to ordain and
declare what shall ever be sacred.
All these myths as well as songs of ancient heroes
were gathered during the Middle Ages, in
in Iceland,
a collection known as the Elder or Poetic Edda.
D. THE ANCIENT RELIGION OP THE NORTH

The Worship of the Gods. The gods were worshiped
by sacrifices of animals, especially horses, or of human
beings, which was the highest With the blood
sacrifice.
of the sacrificial victims the images of the gods were
overspread. The flesh of the sacrificed animal was
eaten at the sacrificial feast. Such feasts were noisy
and immoderate in both food and drink. In Havamal
we read :
"Not near so good,

As good they say,
Is ale for humankind :
The more you drink,

The less you know
Whither your sense has fled."
The was conducted by the housefather. No

sacrifice
special priests were found. The chief feast was at

midwinter, or yuletide. A hog was then sacrificed to
Frey, the god of sunshine and rain. If any one in-
tended to carry out some enterprise during the year,
Ancient Religion 27
he would lay his hand on the victim, make his vow, and
drain the votive cup.
A Warlike Religion was the old Asa-faith. Oden was

not only the sun god, he was also the god of war. When
battle raged, his war maidens, the Valkyries, riding on
fiery steeds, came forth to conduct the fallen heroes to
Oden's colossal abode, Valhall (the fallen warriors'
hall). Here they lived a life which to the ancient
Northmen was the height of happiness. Every morn-
ing they went forth to battle, and in the evening all
wounds were healed; and reconciled, the combatants
rode back to Valhall. There they were regaled with
flesh of a hog butchered each night, but restored to
life each morning; and with frothing mead served by
the maidens of Oden, the Valkyries. But cowards came

to the dismal underground abode of pale-faced Hela,
the grim goddess of death. Death was terrifying only
to those who feared it.
"The cowardly knave

Hopes death to escape,
If combat he shuns,
But old age will not grant
Any peace unto him,
Though the spear may have spared him."
So says Havamal. To die of old age was not consid-

ered glorious. It is recorded of men who did not meet
death in battle that in their old days they would cut
their arteries with a spear and bleed to death or throw
themselves over a precipice.
E. CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS OF THE NORTHMEN

Courage and Endurance. Children were early made
acquainted with dangers and conflicts. They were
trained in labors and sports that required courage and
presence of mind. The boy had to learn to help him-
self. In many places playgrounds were found, where
the youth gathered for athletic contests, such as ball

games, jumping, wrestling, etc.
Accustomed to bloodshed, the men became hard and

cruel. But they could also endure torture without a
word of complaint. A story is told of a man named
Gunnar, who was attacked one evening at his home.
From his window he hurled a spear into the waist of
the man sent to spy out if he were home. The wounded
man tottered to the hiding place of his comrades. 'Is
Gunnar at home?" they asked. "Look for yourselves;
7
I have indeed found out that his spear was at home/
replied the man as he fell dead. And think of Ragnar
Lodbrok who in the snake pit sang, "Smiling shall I
die/ *
7
Havamal gives the following picture of a first-
class warrior:
*
The close of Rngnar Lodbrok's swan song as rendered into English by
Herbert reads thus:
"Cease, my strain ! I hear a voice

From realms where martial souls rejoice.
I hear the maids of slaughter call,
Who bid me hence to Oden's hall.
High-seated in their blest abodes,

I soon shall quaff the drink of gods.
The hours of life have glided by;

T fall, but smiling I shall die."
Characteristics and Customs 29
"Wise and reserved

Be the king's son
And brave in battle,
Glad and mirthful
E'er among men,
While his bane he bideth."
Skill in Battle. The skilled warrior Gunnar, already

referred to, is pictured in an ancient story, when he
alone fought a whole band of enemies. One hurled his
a
spear against him, but he caught it in his shield. In
moment he freed himself from the useless shield, which
with a mighty thrust he planted upright in the ground.
Then seizing his sword, with a motion no eye could
follow, he struck the man's hand above the wrist,
off
and it fell to the ground. Another of the foe rushed at

him from behind with battle-ax aloft, but quick as
ax
thought Gunnar turned and knocked the upraised
out of the enemy's hand and sent it whizzing into the
river below. Then with another stroke of his ax
he
felled the enemy to the ground. A spear came whizzing
and hurled it
against him. He caught it in its flight
back at the foe with such force that it passed clean
with
through the man. Another antagonist was aiming
his sword to cut off his leg below the knee, but
Gunnar
and the stroke missed. In another
leaped into the air
moment Gunnar with his spear-ax thrust him through.
His brother then came to his assistance
and a com-
plete victory was achieved.

But in the
Slavery. Such was the freeman's
life.
North there were also slaves. They consisted prin-

cipally of captives
taken in war and their descendants.
But it also at times that poor people volun-
happened
tarily surrendered themselves as slaves to secure a

living. The master had the right to treat his slaves as
he pleased. They were bought and sold as cattle. But
the sagas also tell of good and capable slaves, who were
well treated, intrusted with the master's stewardship,
and finally rewarded with freedom.
F. RISE OF THE THREE NORTHERN KINGDOMS

Siveden. In the course of time, the adjacent prov-
inces, or petty kingdoms, were consolidated under the
most powerful of the petty kings. In this way were
formed the three northern kingdoms. In Sweden this
work was accomplished by the Uppsala king. Tradition
relates that Ingjald Illrade by cunning and violence
subdued one petty kingdom after another. The king-
dom of Sweden was then smaller than now. The Island
of Gothland remained for some time practically an
independent kingdom. It was a long time, however,
before the different Swedish provinces coalesced into
a real kingdom.
Denmark. Like Sweden, Denmark was consolidated

into a kingdom during the ninth century. It was com-
posed of the peninsula of Jutland, the Danish islands,
and two provinces in southern Sweden: Skltne and
Halland. Later the province of Blekinge was also in-
cluded in Denmark.
Norway. The last of the Scandinavian kingdoms to

consolidate was Norway. This was accomplished by
one of its petty kings named Harold Fairhair. He had
vowed not to cut or comb his hair until he had secured
the lordship of all Norway. One petty king after an-
Rise of Three Northern Kingdoms 31
other was subdued. Hefinally won a great victory in a

bloody naval battle near Stavanger, probably in the
year 872. All Norway was now his. The Swedish prov-
inces of Bohuslan, Herjedalen, and Jemtland fell to
Norway. Harold then cut his long hair and combed it,
and was ever afterwards known as Harold Fairhair.
Iceland and Greenland. But there were many sturdy
chieftainswho would not recognize the new ruler or
pay taxes to him on their estates. They emigrated to
Iceland, then Two years after Har-
newly discovered.
old'sgreat victory the first colonists arrived. Hither
came year after year the most vigorous of Norway's
leading families, who would rather leave home than
submit to Harold. But the memories from home they
faithfully preserved, and it is to the Icelanders that we
are indebted for the preservation of the noble Edda
songs. Much of what is known of the earliest history
of theNorth is derived from records made in Iceland.
The most noted of Icelandic historians is Snorre Stur-
lason, who has written many tales of northern kings.
He died during the thirteenth century.
An Icelander on a voyage of adventure discovered
Greenland. This, too, was colonized by Northmen. One
of them, Leif Ericsson, on a voyage, about 1000 A.D.,
was driven off his course toward the southwest and
reached a land of great forests and plains, where grain
and grapes grew wild. The Northmen called it Vin-
land. It was the east coast ofNorth America, In the
course of time this discovery was forgotten, and when
Columbus made his celebrated voyage to America in
1492, no one seemed to know anything about this ear-
lier discovery.
CHAPTER III
PERIOD OF THE VIKINGS AND THE INTRODUC-

TION OF CHRISTIANITY
A. THE VIKING EXPEDITIONS A NORTHERN

MIGRATION
Viking Expeditions in General. We imagine a spring

day, about the year 800 a ship is anchored in one of
;
Uppland's inlets
ready The men have just
to set sail.
loaded a cargo of furs and other goods for trade in
foreign lands. But where there is wealth, and oppor-
tunity offers, they expect to take by force what they
want. For at this time trade is coupled with plunder.
This was regarded as a legitimate means of livelihood,
just like hunting and fishing, and it might afford the
brave a much richer reward than the daily toil at home.
The northern lands were poor and but little cultivated.
Agriculture was carried on in a primitive way, the soil
was rarely fertilized and was but poorly worked. Fam-
ines were, therefore, frequent, and the people were led
to rob and plunder richer lands.
They are adventurous men who engage in these en-

terprises. One of the haughty chiefs who will not yield
obedience to the Uppsala king conducts the voyage out
over the free and open sea, to win renown and become
a mighty sea-king. Such piratical voyages were known
as Viking Expeditions. The word viking is believed to
be derived from vik, an inlet of the sea, in which the
piratical crafts hid themselves behind the bordering
Viking Expeditions 33
cliffs until a favorable opportunity offered

itself, when
the whole crew would rush forth with wild war cries
to plunder and to slay the terrified
inhabitants, and
then as suddenly disappear with their booty.
Twenty pairs of 'oars
are now raised, moving
with perfect time and
pushing the chief's ship
out upon the smooth,
glassy waters of the
bay so that the spray
dashes about the high
bow of the ship. At
the lofty stern of the
vessel stands the helms-
man. The rudder is a
broad oar fastened
astern on the right side
of the ship, which is,
hence, called the star-
board to this day (steer
board) .Now comes a
slant of wind from the
Viking Chieftain from the 6th century.
land. A square-sail is
hoisted, the oars are laid down, and with good speed
the viking ship scuds over the sea on its adventurous
course. Proudly at the prow rises the gilded dragon's
head with blood-red jaws, and the bulwarks shine with
a row of painted shields. The other ships follow in
close array.
From about the beginning of the ninth to the elev-

enth century viking expeditions poured forth from the
North in an almost continuous stream to the East, to

the South, and to the West.
The Swedish Viking Expeditions. The Swedish ex-
peditions were directed mostly against the southern
and eastern shores of the Baltic and the countries be-
yond. This was altogether natural as their own coun-
try bordered on this sea. These expeditions were
A Viking Ship.
known as "Eastway" (ostervag). The most common

route for these expeditions was by way of the Gulf of
Finland, up the River Neva, and across Lake Ladoga,
thence by another river course south to Lake Ilmen.
There the Northmen founded among the conquered
Slavs a kingdom whose capital they called Holmg&rd,
later known as Novgorod.
But throngs of Northmen pursued voyages on rivers
farther toward the south. By carrying their light ves-
sels over land on rollers they reached the Volga and

the Dnieper. On the latter they sailed down to the
Black Sea. On the way they founded new states on the
Slavic plains. Among the Slavs these Swedes were
known as Rus or Eos, because most of them had come
from Roslagejk a name given to the Swedish shores of
the Baltic. These shores were so named because they
were divided into sections, each one of which was to
furnish in time of war a certain number of ships with
rowers (roddskarlar) The land which these Rus set-
.
tled and governed became known as Rusland, hence,

Russia. Thus these Swedish vikings laid the founda-
tion of the Russian State.
For more than a century there was a lively inter-

course between these Northmen and their country-
men in Sweden and Finland. From the old homeland
there flowed a constant stream of its rapidly increas-
ing population to join with their kinsmen in Russia
in their expeditions to the Greek Empire at the outlet
of the Black Sea. This sea swarmed with viking ships,
whose goal was Constantinople, the luxurious capital
of the Empire. Its treasures excited their admiration
and tempted their greed, just as Rome in former days
had tempted their Teutonic kinsmen. On account of
its greatness they called it Miklagard (Great Strong-
hold).
But the Swedes in Russia were too few to continue

for any great length of time as a dominant race. They
were submerged in the immense Slavic masses. Long,
however, adventurous young men continued to go forth
to Miklagird to enter the Emperor's bodyguard under
the name of Varangians, i. e. confederates (from va,r,

a pledge) They were greatly sought after on account
.
of their great strength and trustworthiness.
Marble Lion with Runic Inscriptions. Now in Venice.
In Venice is a marble lion brought there from Greece.
On found a runic inscription, now almost obliter-

it is
ated, which in all probability was made by a Varangian

in memory of a comrade who had fallen in his master's
service. They who cut the runes were from "Rodrs-

land" i. e. Roslagen.
From the Black Sea these Northmen at times took
another route. They sailed up the Don, dragged their
ships to the bend in the Volga, and sailed down to the
Caspian Sea. Its southern shores were then held by the
Arabs, or Saracens, on whom the sturdy men of the
North made a powerful impression. "Never have I
seen taller people/' writes an Arabian author of that
day. "They are tall as palm trees and have red cheeks
and light hair." The Northmen entered into an active
trade with the Saracens and brought home to the North
Oriental products of fruits, fine fabrics, splendid weap-
ons,and precious metals. In Swedish soil, especially in
the Island of Gothland, have been found thousands of
Saracen coins and Oriental jewelry, showing how con-
siderable the traffic was across Russia between Sweden
and the Saracen lands. The masses of precious metals,
which even today, after a thousand years, are dug up
in Sweden, are but a slight indication of the wealth the
viking expeditions must have brought to the- North.
Many runic inscriptions found in Sweden tell of men
who have been "Eastway." One runic inscription, for
instance, is made in memory of a man "who in Greece
was the commander of the army." Not a few runic
inscriptions also tell of vikings who sailed "Westway."
Otherwise it was mostly Norwegians and Danes who
sailed westward to the lands bordering on their waters,
the North Sea and the Atlantic.
The Norwegian Expeditions. The Norwegians steered
preferably to the groups of islands north of Scotland,
as they lay nearest to them. These islands became a
station from which they extended their plundering ex-

peditions to Scotland, England, and Ireland, where
they also founded powerful states. Their discovery of
Iceland, Greenland, and America has already been re-
lated.
The Danish Expeditions. The Danish vikings plun-

dered the coasts of England, Germany, and France
Separate bands even entered the Mediterranean and
plundered its coasts.
England was finally conquered by the Danish king

Sweyn Forkbeard (Sven Tveskagg). His son Knut,
who on account of his wisdom and power has been
given the titleGreat, gave the exhausted land peace
and order. His dominion is said to have been the larg-
est ever ruled-by any northern king. It embraced not
only England and Denmark but also Norway. A few
years after his death, however, the Danish dominion
in England was forever ended, 1042.
In France the Danish vikings dared to attack even

the capital, the strongly fortified Paris. But the Frank-
ish king hit upon an effective plan to secure his land
from further viking attacks. He gave the lands on both
sides of the lower Seine as a duchy to the powerful
viking chieftain Gange-Rolf (Rollo) . He is said to have
been so heavy that no horse could carry him, so he had
to walk. Hence the appellation G&nge, meaning walk-
ing. He and his successors defended the country against
other vikings so powerfully that France thenceforth
enjoyed quiet. His duchy was named Normandy and its
people Normans after the Northmen. The Normans

were long known for their strength and love of adven-
ture and were dreaded in war. Under William the Con-

queror, a descendant of Gange-Rolf, they conquered
England and established there a strong centralized
kingdom, 1066.
Results of the Viking Expeditions. The Northmen
thus proved that they could not only ravage and plun-
der, but also establish states where law and order pre-
vailed. A Northman might at this time travel along
the coast of Europe, across the plains of Russia along
her great rivers, and on the borders of the Black Sea,
and nearly everywhere hear his own language spoken.
The Northmen were masters of the sea. Many useful
arts were introduced into the North by the vikings
from the new and wonderful world they had visited
and seen. The chieftain who had gone forth to foreign
lands, had fought under the walls of Paris or at Con-
stantinople, or had engaged in trade with Saracen mer-
chants, was a different person from him who had all
his life sat at home under the sooty ridge of his dwell-
ing. The age was a period of greatness for the North-
men, but it was also a period of terror and suffering
for other peoples.
B. INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY
St. Ansgar. The people of the far North, hardly

known had now become a terrible scourge to
before,
the people of central, southern, and western Europe.
The unhappy people on bended knees in their churches
prayed : "From the fury of the Northmen, good Lord,
deliver us/' The ancestors of these very people had in
earlier days overthrown and partitioned the Roman
Introduction of Christianity 41
Empire in the West, buthad also received from the

Romans the Christian religion. They now cherished
the hope that the northern vikings would become less
fierce and more merciful if they might hear the Sav-
iour's gentle, loving words. There were men, too, who
would willingly offer their lives for the conversion of
the heathen. Such a man was St. Ansgar.
His Childhood and Youth. He was born in northern
France, was early left an orphan, and was taken to a
convent school to be brought up and educated. A medi-
eval legend relates the following about his childhood :
At first he was so intent upon play and wild pranks

that he made but little progress in his studies. One
night in a dream he saw a company of beautiful women,
dressed in white, walking about in a green meadow.
One of them, fairer than all the rest, wore a crown on
her head. He took her to be the Virgin Mary. Among
the others he recognized his mother. In his joy he
would rush up to her, but he found himself fast in the
mire, and the more he struggled to get out, the deeper
he sank into it. He began to cry. The Virgin Mary
then asked him, "Would you like to go to your moth-
er?" "Yes," sobbed the child. "Then," she said, "you
must give up all vanity and childish pranks, for those
who love such things can not be with us." From that
time Ansgar became a serious child. He gave up his
pranks and even his plays, he studied diligently and
prayed much. His playmates were astonished at the
change in him.
In the year 814 the great Emperor Charlemagne
died. The news of his death made a deep impression
on Ansgar. He had once seen the mighty Emperor,
A History of Sweden, 4.
whose scepter extended over Germany, France, Switz-

erland, Austria, and the greater part of Italy. To him
the Emperor had appeared to possess all power and all
wisdom. And now he was gone forever. He was im-
pressed more strongly than ever with the vanity of all
earthly power and glory. He thought of his own death
and was anxious about his soul's salvation.
Often he had wonderful dreams. Once he dreamed
that he was lying on his deathbed, and that he was
carried to a place of darkness and horror, where he
suffered agonies, but could not withdraw himself. It
was purgatory, which Christians at that time thought
that everybody must pass through to be cleansed from
sin. After tortures which seemed to last for thousands
of years, he was carried to heaven. Heavenly music
greeted his ears. Allwere singing songs of praise, with
faces turned toward the east, whence light, in beautiful
colors, streamed with brightness such as earth had
never seen, and yet so mild as not to dazzle the eye.
Ansgar felt that in that light the Lord dwelt, and he
heard his voice, so mild and yet so strong that it filled
all the world. "Go," said the voice, "and come back to
me when you have won the martyr's crown." From

that time forth Ansgar had a burning desire to die a
martyr's death for the gospel of Christ like other mis-
sionaries who had suffered death at the hands of the
heathen.
At the early age of thirteen he became a monk. He
put on the gown, shaved his crown, and promised to
devote his life to the service of God, and to renounce
the pleasures of this world. One day a great honor
came to him. He was summoned to the imperial court.
The Emperor at that time was the son of Charlemagne,

named Louis the Mild. He wished to work for the
spread of the gospel and to free his coasts from devas-
tation. He asked Ansgar if he would be willing to go
to the Northland and preach the gospel to the wild
Danes. Such a course was then regarded as leading
to certain death. But Ansgar was filled with unspeak-
able joy.
Ansgar As a Missionary. For several years he

preached the gospel of peace to these men of war.
There were many who put on the white garment, and
were baptized in the Name of the only true God.
In accordance with the Emperor's wish, Ansgar set
out for Sweden, about 830 A.D., to preach the gospel
there too. But off the coast of Sweden his vessel was
attacked by vikings. With great difficulty he succeeded
in escaping with his life. But all the gifts sent by the
Emperor to the Swedish king to secure his favor, and
all the precious books which he had taken along for
the public services, were lost.
This was Ansgar's first contact with the people he

wished to save from paganism. But Ansgar pushed
forward, and after many hardships reached the large
in Lake Malar,
city of Birka on Bjorko (Birch Island)
then Sweden's chief city. The place, however, was
destroyed nine centuries ago. In Birka was life

and
vessels not
activity. In its fine harbor were merchant
from different parts of Sweden, but also from
only
Norway, Denmark, Germany and Russia all engaged
in a busy traffic.
But the city might also expect other than friendly
visits. This was indicated by the wall surrounding
the
city and a wall of circumvallation on an adjoining

height. These fortifications were built for protection
against vikings from the other side of the Baltic.*
Ansgar was given a friendly reception from King
Bjorn, who after consultation with his council gave
him permission to preach. Unspeakable was the joy of
the Christian captives. Never had they even hoped to
engage again in Christian worship. And of the heathen
many were baptized, among them one of the king's
most trusted councilors.-
After a year and a half Ansgar returned to Germany
and brought with him to the Emperor a letter from
King Bjorn, written with runic characters. Ansgar
was now appointed by the pope archbishop of the three
Scandinavian lands, and chief leader in the work of
their conversion. His official seat was located in north-
ern Germany.
Ansgar's Second Visit to Sweden. But the heathen
population of Birka became enraged against the mis-
sionary who suceeded Ansgar and drove him out of the
country. Ansgar felt greatly concerned about the little
Christian congregation, thus left without a head, and
finally decided to go there himself. This was about the
year 850.
He found his friends up there anxious and hopeless.
They advised him to save himself by immediate flight.
But he answered, "1 am ready to endure all pain and
* About the
year 1000 the city was deserted either because it was destroyed
by vikings or the inhabitants were compelled to move away. The place is now
& fertile field. Out of the soil, which is black from the many fireplaces, there
have been dug up remains, from Sweden and neighboring lands, such as uten-
"
sils, ornaments, and coins. A part of the wall of circumvallation remains.

Outside oC the city limits there was a large graveyard, where 2,000 graves may
yet be seen.
even to suffer death for my Lord/' The king then

ruling was friendly, but he did not dare to let Ansgar
preach before he had consulted the wishes of the people.
When the people had assembled there was much
tumult and unrest among them. But an elderly and
respected man arose
and said: "Hear me,
king and people, many
of us know that the
Christians' God can
give great help to those
who put their trust in
him, for this has often
been witnessed in perils
at sea and other dan-
gers. Why then should
we reject what we
know to be useful?
When our own gods are
St. Ansgar.
unfavorable it is well to
From a wood carving of the Middle Ages.
have the favor of this In the Cathedral of Hamburg.
God, who is ever ready

to help those who call upon him." The people all
thought this wisely spoken, and decided that Chris-
tian preachers should be permitted to remain in the
country. The king gave a site for a church, and Ans-
gar appointed a priest. This done he returned to his
episcopal see. He never again saw Sweden, but to the
end of his life he labored for the spread of Christian-
ity in the North.
Ansgar's Life. His manner of life was extremely

simple. A few pieces of bread were his usual food, and
his drink was water. He was untiring in giving alms

and in helping the unfortunate. His greatest joy was
to purchase freedom for Christian slaves. Mild and
kindly as he ever was, his eyes could flash with holy
wrath so that even the mighty of earth would trem-
ble beneath his look, when he reproved them for their
misdeeds. But his own sins and shortcomings were ever
a torment to him; he often said he could weep over
them all his life. On his deathbed he lamented that he
was not permitted to die a martyr's death. But his
friends comforted him with the thought that all his
life had been a martyrdom.
He fell peacefully asleep with an appeal to those in

power to provide for the Christian work in the North.
But when the news of his death reached Birka the little
church out the people's deep sorrow

bell tolled and
rang the hope of a triumph over heathenism.
C. LEGENDARY TALES
Eric Segersall and Styrbjorn Starke. The old viking
spirit longremained unbroken. Especially dreaded was
an association of vikings having their stronghold in
Jomsborg, a strongly fortified place on the Island of
Wollin at the mouth of the River Oder. Within the
fortifications was a fine harbor with a capacity of 300
ships. Over the entrance, which was closed by heavy
iron gates, there rose a strong tower.
Here the Jomsvikings under

lived as foster brothers
the strictest rules. No
one was allowed within the
stronghold who was not fit for battle hence, no women
;
were allowed there, nor men under 18 or over 60 years

Legendary Tales 47
of age, nor men who fled before an enemy of equal

strength. Fear a Jomsviking must never show; no
complaint must ever pass his lips; absolute obedience
to the chief must be observed.
Once thirty of these vikings were taken captive. The

enemy placed them in stocks. Then one of the enemy
came forward with an ax and chopped off the head of
one after the other. But the vikings jested and sang
songs while waiting for the death stroke. After several
had thus been slain the one next in turn said, "We
have often discussed whether a person has any con-
sciousness after the head is removed. If I have any
consciousness after my head is off I will thrust this
knife in the ground." But when his head fell, the knife
fell out of his nerveless hand.
As long as these vikings lived up to their strict regu-
lations,they were regarded as the foremost champions
in the North. They were named with terror by all
peaceful inhabitants.
Near the close of the tenth century they received as
their chief the Swedish prince Styrbjorn Starke (Styr-
bjorn the Strong) . He was of a genuine viking nature,
as fierce as he was strong. At his father's death he
was only a small boy. His uncle Eric, who had before
ruled half the kingdom, now assumed the government
of the whole kingdom. When Styrbjorn attained the
age of twelve he demanded the half of the kingdom as
his inheritance. But Eric replied: "You are yet too
young to rule a kingdom, but when you are sixteen you
shall have your inheritance/'
With this reply the boy was greatly dissatisfied. Two
years in succession, at the time that men gathered for
viking expeditions, he sat, fierce to behold, on his fa-

ther's grave mound, that all passers-by might see that
he demanded his inheritance. At last he appeared be-
fore all the men assembled at the ting in Uppsala*
and asked them to help him secure his inheritance.
They answered in the same way as his uncle had done.
Then he became defiant and insolent and so irritated
the men that they drove him from the assembly.
When King Eric saw that
nephew would givehis
him no peace, he decided to send him out on a viking
expedition to tame him down. So he furnished him
with a well equipped viking fleet. With it he sailed
"Eastway" and won such fame through his victories
that he was finally made chief of the Jomsvikings. Now
he would carry out the great plans he had long brood-
ed over; he would make himself king of all Sweden.
So he sailed with his fleet into Lake Malar and landed
at Old Uppsala, which then lay on the coast, as the
lake then extended farther inland than does now. He
it
burned all his ships so that his men would have no

hope of saving themselves by flight. He declared that
he would never again leave Sweden he would now con- ;
quer or die.
King Eric had meantime called out a large

in the
army and assembled on the Fyris plain near Upp-

it
sala. And there a great battle was fought. It is said

that the king had coupled together a large number of
horses and bulls with yokes to which were fastened
long swords and spears. These animals crazed with
the din of battle were driven against the enemy and
wrought great slaughter.
*
Thing, or ting, is a Scandinavian name for a popular court and legislature.
Legendary Tales 49
The battle lasted three days. On the night before the

third day Styrbjorn sacrificed to Thor. The same night
there appeared in Styrbjorn's tent a man with a red
beard and fierce aspect who foretold his fall. Eric
sacrificed to Oden, promising himself to the god after
ten years if he might win the battle. There appeared
before him a tall one-eyed man with a blue cloak and a
large hat on his head. He gave the king a cane which
he was to throw at the enemy with the exclamation,
"Ye all belong to Oden now."
When the battle was joined, and Eric threw the cane,
a general dread possessed Styrbjorn's men. They fan-
cied that everywhere above their heads arrows flew
and blinded them. This rain of arrows they felt was
Oden's work. Finally the Jomsvikings lay in heaps on
the battle field. Styrbjorn then set up his standard
and shouted to his men "Better die with honor than,
:
flee with shame." Then he rushed with fury into the

midst of the enemy and fell together with the best of
his champions. Henceforth Eric was known as Eric
Segersall (Victorious) .
The Battle of the Three Kings at Svolder. In Nor-

way the spread of Christianity was effected by Olaf
Tryggvesson, a descendant of Harold Fairhair. Dur-
ing one of his many viking expeditions he had been
converted in England and then became as zealous a
Christian as he had before been a viking. When he
reached home he proceeded with an armed following,
accompanied by Christian teachers, from village to
to
village, and persuaded or compelled the people
accept the new faith. To those who resisted he meted
out severe punishment; some were exiled, others slain
or maimed. The violence of the viking spirit was with

him still. In such manner Olaf finally succeeded in
converting the coast provinces of Norway.
But power awakened alarm and envy in the
his
neighboring kings, Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark and
Olof Lapking (Skotkonung) of Sweden. According
to tradition the trouble was also fomented by a re-
vengeful woman. Olof Lapking's mother Sigrid, a
beautiful widow, had many suitors, but rejected them
all. For her pride and great power she was called
"Storrada" (Imperious) Two petty kings, whose suits
.
she had rejected again and again, she caused to be

burned to death, in order to be let alone. But an offer
of marriage from Olaf Tryggvesson she accepted, as it
was an offer worthy of her. Olaf then wanted her to
accept baptism, but she refused. "I will not," she said,
"give up my religion and that of my kindred before me,
but I will not object to your worshiping the god you
Then the king flared up and struck her
believe in."
face with his glove, saying,
"Why should I marry you,
a pagan dog?" "This may be your death," was her
reply. Soon after she married Sweyn Forkbeard.
Sigrid stirred up her husband, king of Denmark,
and her son, king of Sweden, and they formed an am-
bush against Olaf Tryggvesson, when he was return-
ing from an expedition against Pomerania. Off the
Island of Svolder, presumably near Riigen, they lay in
wait for him with a superior Swedish and Danish fleet.
Even Norwegian ships were along, for they had a Nor-
wegian jarl (earl) as an ally. The confederates kept
their fleet hid behind the island until Olaf himself
should appear. There stood the two kings and many
Legendary Tales 51
of their men on the island and saw one after another

of Olaf s ships sail by. They wished only to get sight
of his own ship, "Ormen L&nge" (Long Serpent) the ,
mightiest ship built in Norway. Many great hulks

passed by, and each time King Sweyn thought it must
be the king's ship. But the Norwegian jarl, who well
knew the king's ship, said, "This is not Ormen L&nge."
At last a powerful, gold-bedecked dragon appeared.
Then Sweyn arose and exclaimed: "High shall the
dragon carry me tonight, I will steer him." But that
dragon was called "Ormen Korte."
Finally a dragon ship hove in sight, so immense that
one had to wait a long while after seeing the bow be-
fore one could see the stern. From its richly orna-
mented prow there spread a shimmer of gold over the
billows. No one asked, all knew that there sailed Olaf
Tryggvesson. Itwas propelled by thirty-four pairs of
oars, and its crew numbered nearly one thousand men,
and they were select men, who were said to surpass
all others in courage and strength, even as Ormen
L&nge surpassed other ships.

The whole hostile fleet then rushed out against
Olaf s fleet, which now numbered only eleven ships.
But Olaf would listen to no suggestion of flight. He
brought the ships up alongside and fastened them to-
gether with his own ship in the center. A fierce battle
ensued. Men fell thick and fast. Before long all the
ships were cleared of their crews, except the king's
ship. All of Olaf s men who were still able to
wield
arms gathered on his ship. Over them rained showers
of missiles so thick and fast that shields were inade-
quate for protection, as the hostile ships attacked
from all sides. Gradually Olaf's forces were thinned

out, and the enemy boarded his ship. The king stood
in the stern with his golden helmet on and fought by
turns with arrows and spears, always two at a time.
Finally his men were nearly all cut down. Then he
threw himself into the sea and was never seen again.
The last of his heroes followed his example. But a
shout of triumph arose from all the hostile hosts. This
occurred about the year 1000. Norway was then di-
vided between the victorious kings.
The Legend of Lawman Torgny. Norway's inde-
pendence was restored by Olaf Haroldsson, another
descendant of Harold Fairhair. He was of a stocky
build and inclined to fatness, hence, he was called Olaf
Digre (Olaf the Stout). On viking expeditions he, too,
had become an ardent Christian.
The two kings, Olof Lapking and Sweyn Forkbeard,
were naturally angry with Olaf for having taken from
them their parts of Norway. The proud Olof Lapking
could hardly bear to hear Olaf Haroldsson called king.
"The stout man" he should be called. The two kings
ravaged each other's lands their people attacked and
;
killedeach other wherever they met; trade between

the two countries was interrupted, causing much dam-
age and annoyance, especially to the peasants* of West
Gothland. They were accustomed to buy their salt and
herring from the neighboring province, Viken, around
the Christiania Fjord (now Bohuslan). Without these
necessaries they could not get along; and the people of
Viken on their part did not like to lose the income from
* The word
peasant is used throughout this work in the sense of freeholder.
Serfdom never existed in Sweden.
Legenda/ry Tales 53
this traffic. Finally the king's governor of West Goth-
land, Earl Ragnvald, undertook on his own account to

conclude a truce between his province and the Norwe-
gian king.
After envoys of Olaf Haroldsson departed to
this,
offer Olof Lapking peace on condition that the boun-
dary between the two kingdoms should be as of old.
Earl Ragnvald accompanied them. But as he feared
the king's wrath, he would first assure himself of the
aid of the most powerful great-peasant in Uppland,
as in this province a ting (assembly) was to be held
and measures adopted with regard to the overtures of
peace.
The man whose aid Ragnvald sought was the old
and wise Lawman Torgny. There was in each province
an official called "lagman," who presided over the peas-
ants when they assembled to hold a ting, or court, to
make laws, to settle suits, and decide other matters
of importance. It was his duty at the assembly each
year to publish, by word of mouth, the laws of the
province, for as yet they were not written. He had
them committed to memory and was a sort of living
law-book.
Lawman Torgny received Earl Ragnvald and the
Norwegian envoys sitting in his "high-seat." Such an
imposing man the envoys had never seen. His beard
was so long that reached down to his lap and covered
it
his bosom. When he had learned the mission of the

visitors he said to Earl Ragnvald "Wonderf ul men are
:
ye, who seek after titles, but know not how to help
yourselves when ye get into a difficulty. It seems to
me more honorable to bei reckoned among the peasants
and enjoy the freedom to speak one's mind even in the

presence of the king." He promised, however, to give
them his assistance in the assembly.
Large numbers gathered at the ting. First spoke

the leader of the Norwegian envoys, but in the midst
of his speech King Olof sprang from his chair, order-
ing the man to stop talking. Then Earl Ragnvald
arose to advocate the cause of peace. But the king
burst out in angry words against him because he had
concluded peace with "the stout man," and accused him
of treason. But now arose the imposing form of Law-
man Torgny. All the peasants, who Jiad been sitting,
arose on all sides and crowded up, eager to hear what
their spokesman was about to say. Much noise and
clamor of arms arose, but soon silence followed. Only
Torgny's powerful voice resounded over the plain :
"Different now is the temper of the Svea kings from

that of former days. Then they were willing to listen
to their subjects and be advised by them. But the pres-
ent king will hear nothing but what pleases him. He
obstinately seeks to reign over Norway, which no
former Svea king ever aspired to do. But now we
peasants demand that you, King Olof, conclude peace
with Norway's king. If you do not respect our wishes,
and do as we say, we will proceed against you and slay
you. So have our forefathers done with overbearing
kings. Tell us now which you will choose." With
clamor and din of arms the assembly expressed their
approval.
The king's tone changed. He promised to do as the
peasants wished. "So have all the Svea kings done,"

Internal Struggles 55
he said, "they have allowed the peasants to advise with

them." Then quiet reigned in the assembly.
Olaf Haroldsson fell in battle with usurpers. After
'
his death he was regarded as Norway's patron saint,

and was known as St. Olaf. His bones are preserved
in a silver casket at the cathedral of Trondhjem. They
ore long believed to possess a miraculous healing
power,
D. INTERNAL STRUGGLES AT THE CLOSE OF THE PERIOD

Contests between Christians and Pagans. It was a
long time after Ansgar's death before Sweden was
again visited by Christian teachers, and it was only by
slow degrees that Christianity triumphed. Olof Lap-
king was the first Christian king of Sweden. He is
said to have received baptism at Husaby Spring, in
West Gothland, in the year 1008. But his people were
still was not an easy task to change
largely pagan. It
the customs and modes of thought of a whole people.
It took a long time for the missionaries to convince the
adventurous Northmen that their viking expeditions
were theft and murder. It was also hard for the North-
men to refrain from taking vengeance on the slayer
of their kindred. Again Christian teaching did not per-
mit a man to take his own escape dying of old
life to
age or in bed. Nor were Christians permitted to par-

ticipate in sacrificial feasts, nor eat horse flesh.
The
horse was the chief sacrificial animal. The prejudice
against eating horse flesh still exists.
A German narrative from the latter half of the elev-
enth century says concerning Svealand and its people :
'They have a very celebrated temple called Uppsala

(now Old Uppsala). In this temple, which is richly
ornamented with gold, the people worship the images
of three gods Thor, the mightiest, has his seat in the
:
center of the hall to the right and left are seated Oden
;
and Frey. Every ninth year a general feast for all the
provinces is held in Uppsala. To this feast all must
contribute. Kings and people, allsend in their gifts to
Uppsala. Of the males of all creatures nine victims
are offered. With the blood of these victims the gods
are conciliated. The bodies are suspended in a sacred
grove near the temple/'
But in the provinces of West and East Gothland the
people were then Christians. The reason for this dif-
ference lay in the fact that these provinces were nearer
to the Christian lands in the South, with which they
had closer relations.
When the Uppsala dynasty came to an end with the
death of the sons of Olof Lapking (ca. 1060) and a new
king was to be chosen, the Goths desired a Christian
king, but the Sveas wanted one that offered to Thor
and Oden. The result was a long conflict between the
two sections.
Contests Regarding the Election to the Throne. In
the twelfth century the whole country became Chris-
tian,but the contests regarding the elections to the
throne continued, for West Gothland, East Gothland,
and Svealand, each wanted the honor of furnishing the
king to the people. Such conflicts were at the time not
so strange, for people of the different provinces still
regarded each other as foreigners. We are reminded

that each province had its own laws. The West Gothic
The Roman Catholic Church 57
law, put to writing during the first half of the thir-

teenth century, after having long lived on the lips of
"lawmen," is the oldest Swedish book now extant. In
it a man from another province is called a foreigner,
and if he were killed in West Gothland the fine would

be less than for a West Goth.
The conflict ended with
an agreement, sanctioned
by law, that the Sveas should have the right to choose
the king. The election was held on Mora Plain near
the Fyris River, where the king was acclaimed by
being lifted up on the Mora stone, or rock. But after-
wards the other provinces of the kingdom were to
approve the choice, hence, the king elect had to make
a tour of the land, attend the assemblies in the prov-
inces, and promise under oath to maintain their laws,
after which Tie received the homage of the people.
CHAPTER IV
THE EARLY CATHOLIC PERIOD IN SWEDEN

A. THE CHURCH : ITS CULT AND CUSTOMS
Doctrine and Worship. The Christian faith prevail-
ing at this time was that of the Roman Catholic
Church. The name Catholic, meaning universal, im-
plied that the Church should include all Christians it ;
is called Roman because its chief bishop the Pope re-
sides in Rome. The Catholic Church had in the course

of centuries added many new
doctrines to those taught
by Christ and His Apostles. Prayers were offered not
only to God, but also to the Virgin Mary, "The Mother

of God," and to such pious persons as after their death
had been declared saints by the Church. To repeat
many prayers was regarded as meritorious, hence, it
was customary to carry about one's person a rosary, or
string of beads, counting one bead for each prayer
repeated or said.
Before entering church one sprinkled one's self with

a few drops of holy water from a vessel at the church
door, and made the sign of the cross. When any one
was near death he received extreme unction, that is,
his hands and face were anointed with holy oil.
Through the intercessory prayers of priests and monks
for the dead (masses for the dead), it was believed
that the souls of the dead more quickly passed through
purgatory. Large sums were donated to the churches,
shrines, and monasteries that they might in return
perform such masses for the departed souls. Another
meritorious act was fasting. The physical body was
regarded as a prison for the soul, hence, it should be
weakened and subdued.
Monasteries and Convents. Many persons withdrew

from the world and its tumults and sought quiet within
the walls of convents and monasteries to engage in
prayer and pious meditation. Monks and nuns were
required to take the three vows implicit obedience to
:
the abbot or abbess of the monastery or convent and

to all the orders of the Church chastity, i. e., to lead
;
a pure life and to remain unmarried; and poverty,

which implied the renunciation of all individual prop-
erty.
The Roman Catholic Church 59
The first Swedish monasteries were founded about

the middle of the twelfth century. The most noted
were Alvastra in East Gothland and Varnhem in West
Gothland. The inmates of these institutions accom-
plished much good. They served as teachers and estab-
lished the first schools in the country. They encour-
aged the useful arts, agriculture, gardening, and fruit-
raising. They had a knowledge of medicinal herbs,
nursed the sick, sheltered the wayfarers, and dispensed
alms to the poor. In the secluded cloister cells diligent
monks were engaged in the copying of books, for print-
ing presses were yet unknown.
Papal Dominion. By this time most of the European

lands recognized the pope in Rome as their spiritual
head. The Holy Father, as he was called, was regarded
as the successor of St. Peter and vicegerent of Christ
on earth. Should any one, even though he were a prince
or king, venture to resist an order of the Church, the
pope would issue a bull of excommunication against
him, and woe to any one who fell under this ban. He
was thrust out from Christian society, no priest was
allowed to administer the Communion to him or to
bury his dead body. No one must shelter him or give
him food or drink. He was cursed in life and cursed
in death. He was a wanderer on earth, and if he died
under the ban his soul was held to be lost. It was a
terrible power exercised by the Church over the people
for punishment and subjection.
In the year 1152 Sweden placed herself under the
pope. A papal legate then held a church council in
Linkoping, where it was decided that the Swedes, as
other peoples, should pay an annual tribute to the pope,
known as Peter's pence. By this act Sweden had ac-

knowledged the pope as its highest authority in church
matters.
The Priesthood. In 1248 another' papal legate held a
church council in Skeninge. There it was ordered that
The Cathedral of Lund. Romanesque style.
the priests, like the monks, were to live unmarried.

No concern for wife and children, no joy of family life,
should engage the thoughts of the priests. To the serv-
ice of the Church all their powers were to be devoted.
By these and other regulations churchmen were sep-

arated from the rest of the people as a distinct order
or estate. They were not under the jurisdiction of any
The Crusades 61
civil court.Later church property was exempted from

state taxation. For the support of the church and the
clergy the people paid a ten per cent tax on the yield
of the land, of live stock, and of hunting and fishing.
This tax is known as the tithe.*
B. THE CRUSADES
Crusades to the Holy Land. Near the close of the
eleventh century the Christian people of Europe were
seized with enthusiasm for the idea of rescuing the
Holy Land from the control of the Mohammedan Turks,
so that Christians might again worship at the Holy
Sepulchre and the places where the Lord Jesus had
suffered.
Hundreds of thousands of Christian warriors, high
and low, burning with zeal to rescue the Holy Sepul-
chre, moved in successive bands toward the East. Each
one carried a consecrated red cross on his shoulder,
hence, these expeditions were known as crusades.
Thousands upon thousands perished from heat, thirst,
and all sorts of privations, from plagues, and from the
arms of the Turks. But on they pressed, and after
miracles of heroic disregard of death, they finally se-
cured possession of Jerusalem.**
The Swedish Crusades. The Scandinavian peoples,
too, wished to go forth on crusades. The Swedes turned
* The
archbishop of Bremen had jurisdiction over the Church in the Scandi-
navian North until 1104, when the bishop of Lund was made archbishop of the
North. Later each of the three kingdoms was made a separate ecclesiastical
province. Sweden received her own archbishop at Uppsala in 1164.
** A Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem wss established in 1099, which lasted
88 years, when Jerusalem again fell under the Turks. The Crusades continued
for nearly two hundred years. The last of the crusaders withdrew in 1291,
leaving the Turks in control of the Holy Land.
against the pagan Finns, who were in the habit of

ravaging and plundering the Swedish coasts. There
were the same reasons for them to convert the Finns
as there had been for the people of southern and cen-
tral Europe to Christianize the northern vikings. They
sought to put an end to their ravages. A king named
Eric led a crusade to the southwestern part of Fin-
land. He exhorted the Finns to accept baptism, but
with loud shouts they refused. He then attacked them,
conquered them, and compelled the survivors to be bap-
tized. The crusades were a sort of Christian viking
expeditions. This occurred about the year 1160.
King Eric met a violent death. He was slain by a

Danish prince who sought by violence to win the Swed-
ish throne. Eric's tragic death led people to regard
him as a martyr for his country. Many anecdotes were
told of his pietyand miracles at his grave. The peo-
ple spoke of him as Eric the Saint. He was, however,
never canonized by the Church. His bones were de-
posited in a silver casket and placed in the Cathedral
of Uppsala. He was worshiped as the patron saint of
Sweden.
Other Finnish tribes continued the ravaging of the

Swedish coasts. Once they penetrated into Lake Malar,
plundered its fertile shores, and burned Sigtuna, which
had become a prosperous commercial city after the de-
struction of Birka. The Swedes now had to "lock up
Lake Malar/' This was done by building a fortress on
an island at the entrance, that was Stockholm.* Thus
*Hohn means island, and Stockholm may possibly be derived from the
"stockaded island."
The Crusades 63
a commercial town arose, which became the capital of

Sweden about the middle of the fourteenth century.
But the Swedes were not satisfied with mere defense.
They also proceeded with new attacks on the Finns.
King Eric's crusade was continued during the reign
of his great-grandson, Eric the Lisper and the Lame,
by the powerful Birger Jarl (Earl Birger), who be-
longed to the wealthy and eminent family of the Folk-
ungs. He was the king's highest official and the vir-
tual ruler of the kingdom. His crusade was against
the wild Tavastians in central Finland. All who ac-
cepted baptism were spared, those who refused were

slain. Here then Birger Jarl erected the fortress of
Tavastehus.
Denmark's Crusades and Period of Greatness. Den-
mark, too, was ravaged by pagan hordes from the
southern shores of the Baltic, after the Danes them-
selves had ceased from their viking expeditions. These
hordes were of the Slavic race, related to the Russians.
Such were the Wends of Pomerania. On account of
civil strife Denmark, like Sweden, lay defenseless.
royal scions contended for the throne, and

it
Many
seemed as if the kingdom would fall to pieces. But res-
cue came from Waldemar, called the Great. A

victory
over his rival made him king of all Denmark in 1157.
With great energy he set to work to strengthen and

build up his kingdom. In all his efforts he was ably
assisted by his friend, the wise and powerful Bishop
Absalon. First of all he must secure his land against
the attacks of the Wendish vikings. The king, and
more especially Absalon, visited the Wends with one
successful crusade after another.
With and quiet secured, the country soon began

rest
to experience the blessings of peace. At this time the
herring came in such shoals to Oresund that one could
literally scoop up the fish with the hands into the boats.
This region became the center of traffic in this food
supply, so important at that time, especially during the
long period of lent, when other flesh-food was forbid-
den. Every fall a great fair was held there, to which
came merchants not only from Denmark, but from
many other lands as well. This traffic made Denmark
prosperous. The people could now afford a higher
standard of living. Their purchasing power was in-
creased. Peasants were encouraged to cultivate their
lands better and to increase their crops and herds.
As agriculture became so profitable, the peasants
devoted themselves with greater zeal to this occupa-
tion, and their love for military enterprises waned.
Neither were they now as serviceable in war as for-
merly, since in southern and central Europe a change
was taking place in methods of warfare. Mounted sol-
diers equipped themselves and their steeds with iron
armor, and fought with long lances and heavy swords.
Such equipment was so expensive that most peasants
could not afford
it. King Waldemar entered into an
agreement with the chief peasants that they should
provide such forces in lieu of paying taxes or in return
for certain privileges. Thus was formed out of the chief
peasants a new military order, a tax-free nobility.
King Waldemar's military campaigns along the Bal-
ticwere continued by his immediate successors till Den-
mark at length possessed a continuous territory from
the North Sea, along the southern and eastern shores
Birger Jarl 65
of the Baltic, up to the Gulf of Finland. But suddenly

the subjugated peoples arose, and nearly all of Den-
mark's proud Baltic dominion was lost forever.
About the middle of the thirteenth century there be-

gan in Denmark a period of civil strife and misrule
extending over a hundred years, during which the
royal power was weakened, the spiritual and temporal
lords usurped the powers of the government, and a
serious oppression of the common people followed.
CHAPTER V
THE LATER CATHOLIC PERIOD IN SWEDEN

A. THE REGENCY OF BIRGER JARL
Development of Commerce. On the death of Eric
the Lisper and the Lame, the direct line of St. Eric
came to an end, and Waldemar, son of Birger Jarl, was
chosen king. His mother was the great-granddaughter
of St. Eric. His father, Birger Jarl, remained the ac-
tual ruler, however, for Waldemar was young and not
very strong.
As regent Birger rendered great service to the king-
dom. He labored especially- to increase the national in-
come by promoting the growth of commerce. He en-
tered into an agreement with Liibeck and Hamburg,
Germany's chief commercial cities along the Baltic
and the North Sea, that when their merchants came to
Sweden to traffic they should be exempt from all tolls
and tariffs. He wanted his people to learn the methods
of trade from the most successful merchants of the

day. Many Germans now settled in the Swedish cities
for purposes of trade. But as a matter of fact the plan
resulted in a greater benefit to the German than to the
Swedish trader. The Swedes were not so aggressive,
nor did they have as efficient an organization as their
German competitors.
Toward the end of the thirteenth century a large
number of German and Dutch cities formed a com-
mercial federation known as the Hanseatic League.
The federation maintained powerful fleets and armies.
Its head was the prosperous city of Liibeck. The league
prospered greatly and in the course of time largely

monopolized the trade of the northern kingdoms.
The Germans likewise became instructors
in the min-
ing industry in Sweden. The mention of Swedish
first
mines occurs in the reign of Magnus Ladulas (Barn-
lock), the son of Birger JarL* This was the Falun
copper mine. The first iron mining district was known
as Noraberg, or Norberg.
Birger's Legislation. Birger Jarl is best known as

a legislator. He issued the celebrated peace or security
laws of home, of church, of assembly, and of women.
The first three prohibited attacks on any one in his
home, in church, in the ting (assembly), or on the
way to or from the two latter places. By these laws
was greatly restricted.
the operation of the blood-feud
The law regarding women's security forbade any one
to attack or carry off a woman as a bride or wife. Be-
fore this it happened that a disappointed suitor with
* The mines were, however, worked prior to this time.

Magnus Ladulas 67
his followingwould lie in ambush to attack a wedding

procession and carry off the bride. Any one violating
these laws became an outlaw, and any one was at liber-
ty to put him to death.
In the interest of women, Birger enacted a new in-
heritance law. Hitherto a daughter inherited from her
parents only when there were no male heirs. Other-
wise the law was "It goes to the hat and away from
:
9
the hood' which meant that the male heirs took all.
It was, however, regarded as a duty for a brother to
support unmarried sisters. But Birger now enacted a

law that a daughter's share of inheritance should be
half the amount of a son's share. This law remained
in force until 1845, when sisters were given equal in-
heritance with their brothers.
The wisdom of Birger's legislation was further
shown by his abolition of the ordeal by fire. By this
ancient ordeal an accused person was required to carry
in his hands red hot irons or walk on white-heated
plowshares to prove his innocence. If he succeeded in
passing the ordeal unhurt it was held that God had
intervened to prove his innocence.
Birger was the first ruler of Sweden who deserves
thename of statesman. When he died "old and young
mourned/' and the women, whom he had helped and
befriended, prayed for his soul.
B. THE REIGN OP MAGNUS LADULAS

The Contest for the Throne. On the death of his
father, King Waldemar assumed the reigns of govern-
ment. His three brothers had received dukedoms from
the father, presumably to keep them from being jeal-
ous of their elder brother. But the plan had just the
opposite effect. After a short reign the feeble Walde-
mar was defeated and deposed by his younger brother
Magnus.
The Legislation of Magnus. Magnus reigned in the
spirit of his father and upheld the laws. A pernicious
practice had arisen among the nobles, or lords. On
their, travels through the country with their mounted
retainers, they would stop at peasant homes and com-
pel the peasants to provide them with food and fodder
without pay. In this way the rich lords could, as the
king declared, "in a short time consume what the poor
peasants had labored long and hard to obtain." Such
enforced hospitality he forbade under severe penalties.
Hence, the peasantry gave him the honorable name of
Ladulas (Barnlock), because he had, as it were, placed
a lock on the peasant's barn.
Establishment of a Cavalry. For the country's de-
fense Magnus adopted the same method as Waldemar
the Great of Denmark. About the year 1280, he issued
an order that all men who would render knight-service,
that is equip man and horse with full armor for the
defense of the kingdom, should be exempt from paying
taxes to the king. Thus arose a noble military class.
At the same time, too, the clergy had become fully or-
ganized and were freed from paying taxes to the king.
The Four Estates. In Sweden as in other lands the
people were now divided into political and social classes
known as Estates. The First Estate was that of the
Clergy the Second that of the Nobles the Third com-
; ;
prised the Burghers in the cities, devoted to trade and

manufactures the Fourth included all the free Peas-
;
Knighthood, or Chivalry 69
antry. In pagan days the freeman was both soldier,

priest, and tiller of the soil. Now each of these occupa-
tions formed a separate estate.
The King's Council. When important matters were
to be decided the king summoned the most important
members of the first two estates for consultation, as
he had to assure himself beforehand that he would not
have the mightiest men in the kingdom against him
when important matters were concerned. These great
lords formed the King's Council. They were lordly
men, and it required powerful kings, like Magnus La-
dulas, to keep them in check. When specially important
matters were to be decided, the king summoned all the
simply the foremost, to meetings which were
lords, not
known as Diets of Lords (Herredagar) .
C. KNIGHTHOOD, OR CHIVALRY
Training of a Knight. The foremost nobles were
the knights, mounted men-at-arms. The training for
knighthood began at the early age of seven. The lad
was sent to be educated at the castle of some renowned
lord. The future knight was first taught obedience and
service. There were daily exercises in knightly sports,
as shooting with the bow, handling the lance, the sword,
and the shield while managing his steed. Occasionally
a boy might be taught to play the lute and to sing, but
in general the knights were dreadfully ignorant. Many
could not even write their names.
Ceremony of Knighting. At the age of twenty-one
the youth who had successfully passed his period of
probation was solemnly dubbed a knight. He then
made the knightly vow: "I will with life and effects
defend the Christian faith, resist the wrong, protect

orphans, widows, and ladies, and be loyal to my king
and country. So help me God." To this day we ascribe
a knightly character to a man who walks uprightly,
scorns deceit, fights for
truth and justice, and suc-
cors the helpless. When
the had thus
candidate
given his vows, some re-
nowned knight adminis-
tered tohim the accolade
by striking him on the
shoulder with the flat of
his sword. Other knights
girded on his sword,
fastened the spurs to his
heels, and presented him
with the heavy armor.
The Castles. The knights
devoted their lives to war-
fare, but much of it was
civil strife. For security
in those turbulent times
they built; for their dwell-
ings strongly fortified cas-
tles, surrounded with
moats and walls bristling A Knight Templar.
with towers.
The Tournaments. The favorite amusement of
knighthood was the tournament, an expensive contest
between mounted knights. In shining armor, with
waving crests, and on fiery steeds the contestants en-
Torgils Knutsson 71
tered the lists. Their heads were all covered with hel-
mets with barred visors. Along one side of the lists

sat knights and noble ladies as spectators. The knights
then separated into two parties, the trumpets sounded,
the drums beat, and with couched wooden lances the
opposing parties rushed against each other. Many a
lance was splintered, many a knight unhorsed, and
some were mortally wounded. But the winners rode
forward to receive the rewards of victory from the
hands of the ladies.
D. TORGILS KNUTSSON AND THE STRIFE BETWEEN

THE SONS OP MAGNUS
Torgils Kmttsson's Administration. When Magnus
Ladul&s died, his sons were still too young to govern.
He therefore appointed his high official Torgils Knuts-
son to conduct the government as guardian of the
young princes. Of his time the Rhymed Chronicle,
an old narrative in verse from the fourteenth cen-
tury, says:
"Then Sweden prospered so,
Scarce better times she'll know."
He continued Earl Birger's crusades and converted the

Carelians in southeastern Finland to Christianity.
Like his father, Magnus had given dukedoms to his
younger sons. In this group, too, the elder brother was
a weakling. His name was Birger. The second was
Duke Eric. He became an accomplished knight hand-
some in person, noble in bearing, and brave in danger.
But in his efforts to win power and glory he seemed
wholly devoid of conscience. With his younger brother
Waldemar he entered into an alliance against the elder

brother, King Birger. But as long as the young king
had the powerful support of Torgils Knutsson, they
could accomplish nothing.
Then the two brothers persuaded the weak king that
Torgils was the cause of their disagreements and in-
duced him to remove his powerful supporter. One day
the three brothers appeared at Torgils' home in West
Gothland. There King Birger arrested the man who
had been as a father to him so many years. "This will
be your shame, my Lord King, as long as you live/' ex-
claimed the aged man. He was placed on a horse and
carried all the way to Stockholm. There he was be-
headed in the year 1306. This was his reward for many
years of faithful service.
The Hatuna Game. But "Punishment follows the
footsteps of Crime." One day, later in the year, the
two dukes came unexpectedly to visit the king at his
estate Hatuna, near Sigtuna. They were well received,
but rewarded the hospitality by capturing the king and
his family during the night. This event came to be
called the Hatuna Game (Hatunaleken).
Birger was released after two years, but had to con-
tent himself with a third of the kingdom and to make
a solemn promise that all past differences should be
forgotten. Thus Sweden was divided among three
young princes, each of whom kept a prodigal court, to
the bitter cost of the peasants. Among the brothers,
Eric appeared the most magnificent. He married a
Norwegian princess, the sole heiress to her country's
throne, and began to revolve grand plans in his mind.
The Nykoping Banquet. At yuletide 1317, Birger in-
Torgils Knutsson 73
him at the castle of Nykop-

vited his brothers to visit
ing,where he was then holding court. The two princes
accepted the invitation and were received with every
mark of friendship. They were assigned a sleeping
apartment in the castle, but on the plea of lack of room,
their retainerswere to find quarters in the city. When
the last of them had left the castle, the bridges were
raised and the gates locked. The two princes were now
at the mercy of their brother. The door of their room
was burst open, and the king with an armed force en-
tered. The two princes were put in chains. The king
stared wildly at them and hissed, "Do you remember
Hatunaleken? This game will not be better for you."
He ordered them to be placed in the lowest dungeon
of the castle and to be chained to the wall. This out-
rage was called the Nykoping Banquet (Nykopings
gastabud) .
Birger's Flight and Death. When Birger had thus

carried out the plot he had brooded over for eleven
years, he clapped his hands in glee and shouted, "Now
I have Sweden in my hand." But, "Who ill contrives
at ill arrives." The adherents of Eric and Waldemar
gathered, and advanced against Nykoping. Birger fled
and finally took refuge in Denmark. But when the res-
cuers broke open the doors to the dungeon, they found
the prisoners dead, most likely from starvation. The
rescuers, in their rage, put to death Birger's young
son, Magnus, though he was wholly innocent of the
father's crime. "God knows," he exclaimed when in-
formed that he must die, "that it was against my will
that Duke Eric and Duke Waldemar should so lose
their lives. Now I am to die, but why? God grant
peace and happiness to my soul." He knelt down and

with a calm and noble bearing met his death. The sad
news crushed the exiled father and hastened his death.
But on Mora Plain men from all the provinces met
in 1319 and chose Magnus, the three-year-old son of
the unfortunate Eric, as king of Sweden. Through his
mother he was also heir to the throne of Norway.
E. SVERRE, ONE OF NORWAY'S GREATEST KINGS

His Struggles for the Throne. Norway, like Sweden
and Denmark, was long rent by civil strife. Here dur-
ing the twelfth century the descendants of Harold
Fairhair fought among themselves for the throne. The
royal power was weakened, and the country was on
the verge of breaking up into petty states as before
the days of Harold Fairhair. Then came Sverre, who
was regarded as one of Harold's descendants, and re-
stored unity to the kingdom.
He spent his boyhood on the Faroe Islands, and there
on fishing expeditions in the roaring surges of the sea,
and in scaling the steep and lofty cliffs of the islands,
he developed courage and presence of mind. Under
Bishop Roe of the Faroe Islands he was educated for
the church and was ordained a deacon. But at this
time his mother revealed to him a secret: He was a
descendant of Harold Fairhair. At once his decision
was made. One day he suddenly appeared in Norway
accompanied by a band of ragged adventurers and high-
waymen, who on account of their practice of wrapping
their legs and feet with birch bark were called Birch-
legs (Birkebeiner). They were men who endured ev-
erything and feared nothing. With this band of seven-
Sverre of Norway 75
ty men, Sverre would attempt to win a crown. This

occurred in the year 1177.
Horrible hardships the Birchlegs had to endure. At
times during the winter their only means of subsist-
ence were berries found under the snow. But Sverre
led them to victories, and their numbers increased.
Finally he won a decisive victory over his antagonist,
the king, and ascended Norway's throne.
His Services As King. He crushed the power of the
great families and strengthened that of the crown. His
aim for Norway was a strong royal power and a free
peasantry. Nearly his whole reign was a continuous
struggle to maintain this aim. The powerful bishops
made common cause with the old families. Twice was
Sverre placed under the papal ban. But he did not
yield. He was widely known for his wisdom and coun-
sel. He had a high estimate of himself in his seal was
;
the legend, "The Great King Sverre, fierce as a lion,

gentle as a lamb." Even his enemies admitted that it
would be long before Norway would have another king
like him. He is generally regarded as Norway's great-
est king. He died in the year 1202.
His descendants in successive reigns continued his
policies under more favorable circumstances. When
Sverre's last male descendant, King HSkan, died in
1319, the Norwegian crown passed to his daughter's
son, Magnus Ericsson of Sweden.
F. THE REIGN OP MAGNUS ERICSSON

The Union of Sweden and Norway. The three-year-
old Magnus Ericsson inherited the crown of Norway
through his mother, in 1319, and was elected king of
Sweden the same year. Thus the two kingdoms had

thesame king, and the first union between them oc-
curred. There was, however, no real union between
them, for during the king's minority each kingdom was
governed by its own council.
Abolition of Slavery. The young king's rule began

well. When he made his royal progress through the
kingdom (eriksgata), he issued this decree: 'To the
glory of God and the Virgin Mary, for the peace of
soul of our beloved father and uncles, we enact the law
that no one born of Christian parents shall ever be a
slave. For as God has freed us from heathenism, so
has he freed the slaves." This was a triumph for the
teaching of Christianity that all men are brethren and
equal before God. Most people, however, had already,
at least on their deathbeds, set free their slaves "for
Christ's sake."
Establishment of a National Law. Magnus Erics-

son's reignis noted also for other legislation. Brisk as
commerce and communication between different parts

of the kingdom had now become, it was most incon-
venient to have to regulate trade and traffic according
to local laws in the different provinces. Hence, about
the year 1350, learned jurists were authorized to unify
and compile the laws of the various provinces into a
national law for the rural districts of the whole king-
dom. There was also published at the same time a gen-
eral municipal law for all the cities of the kingdom.
Henceforth people were not to think of themselves as
West Goths or Uplanders, but as citizens of a common
country, as Swedes.
Magnus Ericsson 77
Insubordination of the Nobles. During Magnus

Ericsson's minority, the great lords, or nobles, became
more and more powerful and defied the law and later
the king. How was the king to curb these powerful
lords when the military power rested with them and
their numerous retinues of armed knights? They were
just as likely to turn against the king as to go with
him. But was there not the respect for the king's per-
son? The Folkung family, to which the king belonged,
was only one of the powerful noble families, the king
only a lord among other ambitious lords. Magnus com-
plained that he had tried with entreaties and threats
to root out the evil practices of the lords, but all in
vain. Instead the lords combined against him and over-
powered him.
The Dissolution of the Union. The first great mis-
fortune of King Magnus was the loss of Norway. The
Norwegians wished to have their own separate king.
They complained that the "union king" neglected their
land. They demanded of Magnus that his son H&kan
should be Norway's king. Magnus had to yield. Thus
was the weak union broken.
The Black Death. In the summer of 1349 some Nor-
wegian fishermen discovered a ship adrift near Bergen.
There was no crew on board, only some corpses, which
were cast into the sea. The fishermen steered the ship
into the harbor, happy over their good fortune, for the
ship carried a valuable cargo. Merchants came on
board, bought goods, and the unlading was soon ac-
complished. But the following day the new ship own-
ers took sick, and after them, all the rest that had come
in contact with the ship and its cargo. Black swellings,
or boils, appeared on the body, accompanied with fever

and cold sweats, and in a very short time death fol-
lowed.
The Oriental plague, usually known as the Black
Death, had entered southern Europe about two years
before, from there it spread into every European land.
It has been estimated that from one-third to one-half of
the population of Europe perished from it. It reached
Sweden in 1350. There was scarcely a home in the
country into which death had not entered. All human
power was helpless. With fervent prayers and earnest
practice of penance, people everyhere tried to ward off
the wrath of heaven. Priests hastened from deathbed
to deathbed to administer consolation until they, too,
fell victims to the plague. All minds were seized with
terror, and many were clouded with the madness of

despair.
It is believed that the great plague carried off one-
third of the people of Sweden. In some sections the
entire population perished. Houses and churches stood
empty, and the fields became forests. It is said that in
the whole mining district of Vermland only three per-
sons survived the ravages of the plague. Many years
afterwards a strange incident occurred in that prov-
ince. A hunter in a dense forest, having missed his
mark, went to recover his arrow, which had stuck in
the moss of a tall cliff, as he thought. But the cliff was
an old, forgotten, moss-covered church from the time
of the Black Death. The village or countryside in
which it had been the center was now a dense forest.
Ransom of
Seizure and Visby. In Denmark Walde-
mar Atterdag had ruled since 1340. His surname,
Magnus Ericsson 79
Atterdag, "again day," is said to have been given him

because with him day again arose over Denmark after
a long period of depression and weakness. He began
as king of only a small part of Jutland, for during the
long period of weakness one of the kings had pawned
nearly the whole ofDenmark to the Dukes of Holstein.
Waldemar made it his aim to regain and unite all Den-
mark again. He carefully concealed his plans, but
struck powerfully when opportunity offered. After
twenty years of hard struggle his goal was reached.
He had now become a great ruler. His determina-
tion was now to curb the proud Hanseatic League. A
Danish fleet set out to
conquer the Island of Gothland,
of old the central point of Baltic commerce. The island
at that time recognized the suzerainty of the king of
Sweden and paid tribute to him. Here was the Hanse
city of Visby, the Pearl of the Baltic. This city had for
a long time been the sole intermediary in the trade
between western Europe and Russia and the East. It
had thus become the wealthiest city in the North. The
city boasted of magnificent churches and numerous
massive residences, and within their strong city walls
the people felt secure. But a stronger came, and with
him came disaster. Waldemar triumphed, and the
Danes entered the city. The three largest ale casks
were set up in the market place to be filled with gold
and silver by the people of Visby. After having placed
Danish bailiffs in the island, Waldemar sailed home.
But one of the ships on which he had placed the booty
is said to have perished in the waves.
This pillage was a hard blow to Visby. But the city
was already on the decline, for it had met with com-
petitorsfrom the North German Hanse towns, espe-

ciallyfrom Liibeck. These competitors sailed past
Gothland and carried on direct trade with Russia.
Waldemar' s Punishment. But Waldemar was not to
go unpunished for plundering a city of the Hanseatic
League. The league was now at the height of its
power. Seventy-seven of its cities from the shores ol
the Netherlands to the Livonian coasts formed an
offensive league against Denmark and allied them-
selves with some German princes. Waldemar was help-
less, for the League controlled the sea, and dearly
bought was the peace that followed.

Deposition of Magnus Ericsson. The lords blamed
the poor king for all Sweden's disasters, even the Black
Death. This was held, forsooth, as a judgment of
Heaven for the sins of the king. They offered the crown
to a German prince, Albert of Mecklenburg. A long
civil war followed, which ended in 1371 with the rec-
ognition of Albert as king of Sweden. Magnus was

compelled to leave the kingdom. He spent his last
years with his son, King Hakan of Norway. They were
not many. He perished in a shipwreck. The last act
in the drama of the Folkungs was ended.
G. SAINT BIRGITTA
Her Early Life. On Finsta estate in eastern Uppland
there was born, about 1300, a child who was to be-
come the first person of European fame from Sweden,
St. Her father was a wise and powerful
Birgitta.
lord, lawman The mother belonged to the
of Uppland.
Folkung family. Both parents were deeply pious, and
she herself, even as a child, prayed fervently to Christ
Saint Birgitta 81
and the Holy Virgin.

She had them ever in
her mind and thoughts
until at last she fancied
she could see them and
converse with them.
One winter night,
when she could not go
to sleep, she lay staring
into the darkness until
it seemed to recede, and
she could see the
1
little
altar at the foot of the

bed and the crucifix
above it. Suddenly she
saw only the crucifix.
It grew larger, became
more real and lifelike.
She saw clearly the red
bruises from the scourg-
ing on the arms of the
Crucified. She saw the
drops of blood oozing
out under the crown
of thorns and trickling
down into His tearful
eyes. It was a sight so
piteous her heart
that
was ready to break with
sorrow and sympathy.
From a painting in
"0 my dear Master, who Saint Birgitta.
Salem Church, Sodermanland.
has done this to you?"
she involuntarily cried out, and her heart beat violent-

ly within her. Then the Crucified opened his lips and
in a sad voice answered softly: "All who forget me
and scorn my love."
Suddenly the light seemed to go out. She could
scarcely distinguish the crucifix from the altar. But
she could not go to sleep. She could hear the throbbing
of her heart in the stillness of the night, and it seemed
as if every beat drove nails into her soul. She could
not remain in bed. In her bare feet she sprang to the
cold floorand threw herself at the foot of the cross.
She was filled with a longing to spend her life in
the service of God in the quiet of a cloister cell. But
she had to wait for the fulfillment of her dreams. At
the early age of thirteen she was given in marriage
by her father to a young knight of eighteen, the son of
her father's friend. Such betrothals between children
were often made by parents that two families might be
united for mutual help.
Her Revelations andAsceticism. At the age of forty
Birgitta lost her husband. A
few days after his death,
while she was at prayer, she beheld a shining cloud,
and out of it she heard a voice, saying, "Woman, hear
me. I am your God, and I will speak to you. You are

my bride and the connection between me and the peo-
ple. You are to hear and see spiritual things, and my
Spirit shall abide with you to your last day."
She had received from her dying husband a gold
ring, which he asked her to wear as a memory of their
marriage. She now removed the ring from her finger.
And when people were astonished at such heartless-
ness, she said, "When I buried my husband, I buried
Saint Birgitta 83
with him my earthly love, for though I loved him as my

own soul, I would not even with one penny buy him
back to life against God's will. Now my soul shall de-
vote love to God alone, and, hence, I will forget both
its
the ring and my husband." She had exchanged her
earthly for a heavenly love.
She now devoted herself to self-denial and asceticism.

She slept even in winter on the ground with only a rug
and a pillow and a thin mantle for a covering. She
wore a horsehair garment next her body, and around
her waist a knotted rope, which pained her at every
move she made. Every Friday she dropped melted wax
on her arm to remind her of the Saviour's suffering.
There was something strange about her gifts of char-
ity, they seemed to suffice for everybody.
Christ spoke daily to her in revelations. At such

times she saw nothing and heard nothing of what hap-
pened around her. Afterwards she would tell those
about her what glorious things she had seen and heard.
Her words were taken dfcwn by her father confessors,
and were read with appreciation throughout Christen-
dom.
Her Vadstena Cloister and Visit to Rome. Finally

the thought occurred to her to establish a new cloister,
or convent, at Vadstena in East Gothland. This was
to be an improvement on, the convents of that day, for
in them idleness and luxurious living prevailed. In her
cloister men and women were to devote themselves to
useful work
alternating with devotional exercises.
But new cloister regulations had to be sanctioned by
the pope. Hence, Birgitta made a pilgrimage to Rome
notwithstanding the ravages of the Black Death in

central Europe.
Birgitta came to Rome, the holy city, whose soil had
once been dyed in the blood of martyrs. There was now
a period of decay. Churches lay in ruins and were pro-
faned. Parties fought among themselves for power,
Vadstena Cloister.
and robber bands held sway in the streets. The shep-

herd of Rome, the pope, had deserted the city, enticed
to France by its king, who thus secured control of the
Head of the Church. There the popes and their retinues
led luxurious and profligate lives. This disgraceful
period lasted nearly seventy years, and, hence, is
known as the "Babylonian Captivity of the Popes."
Birgitta was one of the many who deplored this
shame of Christendom and saw the remedy in the
Albert of Mecklenburg 85
pope's return to Rome. Unafraid as usual, she de-

nounced in unmeasured terms this corruption, but for
a long time her words were unheeded. At last, how-
ever, she had the joy of seeing a pope (Urban V) make
his solemn entry into Rome, and, she secured the papal
sanction of her convent order in 1370.
Her Canonization. After her death, which occurred
in Rome, 1373, she was canonized, that is, proclaimed
a saint, in 1391. In the papal chapel, decorated with
expensive draperies and green olive twigs, a sermon
was preached on her miracles and revelations. A hymn
of praise was then intoned by the pope, after which
he opened the golden book in which all the saints are
enrolled, and in it wrote Birgitta's name. In the
Church of St. Peter there were held solemn services by
the light of thousands of lamps, and bells rang in all
the churches in Rome.
H. ALBERT OP MECKLENBURG
The Rule of the Nobles. It was the great lords of
Sweden that made Albert of Mecklenburg king. It was
an honor dearly bought. He had to give his royal
assurance that he would ever rule according to the
wishes of the council. The lords had now reached their
long desired goal. They had a king only in name, the
power rested with them. They could now do just as
they pleased, and the oppressed masses had no redress
or protection.
The Tyranny of Sweden's Richest Lord. The richest
and mightiest man in the kingdom was Bo Jonsson
Grip, lord of two-thirds of Sweden and all of Finland.
The most of this he held by feudal tenure. To secure
the support of the lords the king had to grant each one
a feudal estate. The tenant or holder of the estate was
given the right to collect the crown taxes and keep a
part or the whole for his own use. But he was in turn
to conduct the government within his feudal domain
and maintain a military force for the service of the
king.
Though Bo Jonsson was the wealthiest lord in the
realm, he was never satisfied. Many a time he com-
pelled a peasant to give up his land and home without
a penny's compensation, on the threat of imprisonment
in the tower. And this man was at the same time lord
high chancellor of the realm, the chief administrator
of justice in the kingdom.
Deposition and Imprisonment of King Albert. On

the death of Bo Jonsson, the king attempted to secure
his possessions. But he met with the opposition of the
other lords. As they had once invoked the aid of
Albert against Magnus Ericsson, so now they appealed
to Margaret, ruler of Denmark and Norway, for help
against Albert. Margaret was the daughter of Walde-
mar Atterdag and had been married to H&kan Mag-
nusson, king of Norway. So able and highly esteemed
was she that upon the death of the two kings, she was
intrusted with the government in both kingdoms.
King Albert heaped insult upon her both in word and
deed for presuming to govern, seeing she was but a
woman. He met her with German troops near Fal-
koping in West Gothland. His forces were completely
vanquished, and he himself was taken prisoner, 1389.
Progress of Scandinavian Union. Again a union was
formed of the Scandinavian kingdoms this time a
Queen Margaret 87
union of all three. First the villages had coalesced

into provinces, the provinces had consolidated into the
three northern kingdoms. Now the attempt was made
to form one Scandinavian kingdom.
CHAPTEE VI
PERIOD OF THE UNION, 1389-1521
A. MARGARET AND ERIC OP POMERANIA
Queen Margaret. Another day dawned for the Swed-

ish lords when Margaret seized the reins of govern-
ment. It was soon manifest that she was the daughter
of the wise and vigorous Waldemar Atterdag. Law
and justice were again respected to the common good
of all. But then there was no Bo Jonsson in the
country.
was a magnificent power Margaret had estab-
It
lished. The three kingdoms, each by itself weak, could
now with united strength successfully contend with
dangerous They should now have been able to
rivals.
break up the Hanseatic monopoly of the northern trade.
But one weakness was the fact that Margaret felt her-
self first and foremost a Dane. To her, Denmark was
the chief part in the Union and, indeed, at the time,
Denmark was the wealthiest and most populous of the
northern kingdoms. She appointed Danish nobles as
bailiffs in the most important Swedish castles, but no
Swedish nobleman was ever appointed to such a place
in Denmark. The bailiffs were a sort of petty kings in
the territories surrounding the castles.
The dissatisfaction with Denmark's supremacy in the

Union was hardly noticeable, however, as long as Mar-
garet lived, for she was an able ruler and a noble char-
acter, who inspired respect. "Not soon will there be
born another woman like her," says an old chronicle.
Eric of Pomerania. It was different when her grand-
nephew, Eric of Pomerania, whom she had induced all
three kingdoms to choose as her successor, began his
reign after her death in 1412. Margaret had regarded
herself as a Dane, that was serious Eric was a German
;
and acted as such, that was more dangerous. Again a

large number of Germans crowded into Sweden. They
came as the king's bailiffs to rule the Swedish people.
This continued until at last Danes and Germans ruled
over nearly all the important parts of the kingdom.
It was then that the saying arose that the maxim of
the Union kings was "From Sweden your food, from
:
Norway your clothing, from Denmark your defense."

Engelbert Engelbertsson. The Swedish lords were
indignant, but it was the Swedish miners and peas-
ants under the lead of the mine owner Engelbert
Engelbertsson that took action. When the king refused
to give ear to the complaints of his subjects against
the tyranny and extortion of his bailiffs, the miners
and peasants of Dalecarlia and Westmanland rose in
a body under Engelbert and drove the tormentors from
their strong castles. The peasantry in other provinces
joined in the uprising, and in four months the king-
dom was cleared of foreign bailiffs. To such power had
the peasantry now risen that Engelbert could compel
the great Swedish lords who sat in the king's council
to renounce their allegiance to King Eric. And at the
Engelbertsson 89
firstSwedish Riksdag (Parliament), held at Arboga

in 1435, the peasantry forced through an enactment
that Engelbert should continue to govern Sweden as
regent of the realm'. This was the first time the peas-
antry had a hand in determining the government of
the kingdom. This had hitherto been done by the
wealthy nobles at the lords' diets. Thanks to Engelbert
and his faithful followers the peasants and burghers
had now become a power in the kingdom. Henceforth
they had a chance together with the nobles and the
clergy to exert their influence in the Swedish Riksdag.
Result of Engelbert s Services.
9
A
year after the
Riksdag of Arboga Engelbert fell a victim to the mur-
derous hand of a coarse and vindictive nobleman.
Short was his heroic career, but of singular impor-
tance. He united all classes and all provinces in the
service of a common fatherland. In sentiment and by
conviction the Swedes had become one people. Before
this they had been forced to unite by pressure from
above.By their war of liberation the Swedish com-
mons had saved themselves from the threat of serf-
dom. In the Danish islands the peasantry had at this
time succumbed to serfdom. But thanks to Engelbert,
Sweden is one of the few countries in which the peas-
ants were never serfs.
B. KARL KNUTSSON AND CHRISTIAN I
The Two Parties, the Swedish and the Union. When

Engelbert fell, the commons were without a leader.
Again the lords undertook to settle matters concerning
the crown. But they were now divided into a Swedish
Party, desiring a native king, and a Union Party. It
seems strange that any one could wish to continue a

union which had led to so much abuse. But to many
or the lords it seemed so restful to have a king residing
in Denmark, they could then do as they pleased at
home. Besides many of the lords had by marriage and
kinship become as much Danes as Swedes.
Karl Knutsson Bonde. At the head of the Swedish
party was the rich and lordly nobleman, Karl Knutsson
Bonde. He was stately and chivalrous in his bearing
and made many friends by his liberality. In 1448 he
succeeded in being acclaimed king of Sweden. At the
same time the Danes chose once more a German as
king, Christian of Oldenburg. He became the founder
of the Oldenburg family, which still rules in Denmark.
The Contest for Norway. The question was now to

which of the two Norway should go. Norway had by
this time been so weakened that she could not stand
alone. Through long and bitter civil struggles, the
Norwegian peasantry had become exhausted and in-
different to the weal or woe of the kingdom. Each one
sat in his own village and cared only for it. There was
no leader like Engelbert who could rouse the peasants
out of their lethargy.
Both Karl Knutsson and Christian I desired Norway.

They agreed to submit the matter to a joint
finally
meeting of Swedish and Danish councilmen. These
lords decided that Karl should concede Norway to
Christian, 1450. From that time to 1814 Norway was
united with Denmark.
Thus was King Karl betrayed by his lords, as they

did not like to have his power increased. But after
Jons Bengtsson Oxenstiern 91
this,peace could not be maintained between the two

ambitious kings. A
fierce border war followed.
Jons Bengtsson Oxenstiern. While King Karl was
engaged in this war, a dangerous enemy arose in his
rear. It was the rich and mighty archbishop Jons
Bengtsson Oxenstiern. It had long vexed him that his
own family should be pushed aside by the Bonde fam-
ily. He was determined to snatch the power from Karl
Knutsson. One day he entered the cathedral of Upp-
sala, advanced to the high altar, laid down his miter
and vowed not to take it up again until Karl had been
driven from the land. Then he put on his armor and
buckled the sword to his side. One night he succeeded
in surprising the king and capturing his men. Karl
himself was wounded, and, deserted by his friends,
was compelled to leave the country.
The archbishop and his following then called in
Christian of Denmark. He came and was at once
chosen king by the lords. But as nearly all his activities
consisted in extorting taxes, he was given the nick-
name "Bottomless-empty-purse" by the enraged peas-
antry, and was after a few years driven out. Karl
Knutsson was then recalled. But Jons Bengtsson would
give him no peace. The parties raged against each
other in a bewildering fight, which shook the whole
kingdom. Karl Knutsson was driven out a second time
and lived for a while in extreme poverty in Finland.
For a third time fortune bestowed the crown of Swed-
en on him. But civil war blazed up again and raged
violently throughout the land. In the midst of the tur-
moil Karl Knutsson passed away, in 1470, after having
1
had many bitter experiences of the world's unrest and

the fickleness of fortune.
C. STEN STURE THE ELDER

The Battle of Brunkeberg. Christian I determined,
by a mighty effort, to win back the crown of Sweden.
With a splendid army he sailed in 1471 to Stockholm
and fortified himself on Brunkeberg Ridge. But there
was now a powerful leader at the head of the Swedish
party. This was Karl Knutsson's kinsman and faithful
supporter, Sten Sture the Elder, who had been appoint-
ed regent by the council. At the head of a peasant army
collected from surrounding provinces, he vanquished
Christian so completely that he secured his country
from attacks of Danish kings for nearly thirty years.
Sten Sture's Internal Administration. After the war

Sten Sture strove to heal the evils caused by the many
recent wars. Under the aegis of peace all classes could
more freely pursue their various callings, hence, pros-
perity revived. Law and justice prevailed,. for it was
useless to defy the regent. Sten Sture, like Engelbert,
was a man after the mind and heart of the commons.
He often visited the peasants in their homes, talked
freely with them, and won their hearts by his frank
and unassuming ways.
Owing to the long* peace, the government could also
provide for the culture of the country. Jacob Ulfsson,
the learned and highly gifted archbishop, wished to
found a Swedish institution of higher learning. In the
convents and at the cathedrals there were schools, but
they were intended mainly for the training of priests
and monks. In them the instruction was largely limited
to religion, reading, writing, arithmetic, and some
Latin, the language of the cultured in all lands.
Sten Sture the Elder 93
Young men who wished to secure a higher education

had to make and expensive journeys to Paris,
difficult
or some 'other foreign city, where a
university might
be found. To afford young men of limited means an
opportunity to continue their studies at home, the
archbishop, backed up by the regent, procured the
papal sanction to the founding of Uppsala University,
Uppsala University.
1477. Twoyears later the University of Copenhagen

was founded. But it required more than a hundred
years to make Uppsala University what it should be.

There was a scarcity of capable teachers, scarcity of
means, and, hence, also scarcity of books. Books were
still very costly, although printing presses were begin-
ning to be established in Sweden.

The Art of Printing. About the middle of the fif-
teenth century John Gutenberg of Mainz invented the
art of printing with movable type. Before this,

print-
ing from wooden tablets engraved with pictures and
explanations had been practiced. Page after page could
thus be printed. But this was not much cheaper than
writing, for the engraved tablets were expensive, and
there had to be one for every different page. Guten-
berg's invention consisted in cutting out each separate
letter.These could then be combined in any way one
pleased and be used for any book. He soon made im-
provements by casting metal type. Even in the six-
teenth century books could be made so cheaply that
even people in moderate circumstances could own them
and thus derive knowledge from them.
D. STEN STURE THE YOUNGER AND CHRISTIAN II
Christian II of Denmark. Christian II, grandson of

Christian I, was a strong and richly endowed prince.
He aroused the admiration of everybody when at tour-

naments he managed his steed and with his lance un-
horsed one antagonist after another. But he was also
feared for his suspicious nature and fierce temper.
When he became king he wished to realize his early
ambition to conquer Sweden.
Sten Sture the Younger and Gustav Trolle. Sten
Sture the Younger, a noble and chivalrous youth, was
then regent in Sweden. He had a bitter enemy in Arch-
bishop Ulfsson's successor, Gustav Trolle, who power-
fully reminds one of Jons Bengtsson Oxenstiern. Sten
Sture had aided him in securing his lucrative and hon-
orable office, and sought afterwards again and again
to effect a reconciliation. Finally he went to Uppsala
and in the very cathedral offered his hand to the arch-
The Younger Sture and Christian II 95
bishop for conciliation. But the latter turned away

with contempt and secretly entered into negotiations
with Christian. Sten Sture at last sought support from
a Riksdag and revealed to the Estates the treason of
the archbishop. Filled with indignation the Riksdag
decreed that the archbishop should be deposed, and his
strong castle, "Staket," on the Malar, from which he
had defied the regent, should be leveled with the
ground. The decree was immediately carried out.
Christian's First Attack on Sweden. To make mat-
ters worse, Christian intervened. In the summer of
1518, he appeared before Stockholm with a large army.
But the regent with his peasant army defeated the
mercenaries of the king in a short battle at Brann-
kyrka, south of the city. As he could accomplish noth-
ing, Christian now boarded his fleet and offered to
negotiate peace with the regent, inviting him to come
on board his fleet. Sten Sture, who never thought of
treachery himself, suspected no ill intention. But his
friends warned him that he would never come back
alive from a meeting with Christian. He heeded the
warning, to the deep resentment of Christian, who now
offered to come himself to Stockholm to negotiate on
condition that six Swedish nobles be sent to his fleet
as hostages for his safety. The Swedes accepted Chris-
tian'sdemands as the giving of hostages was a common
practice in similar cases. But when the six nobles came
on board the Danish fleet, Christian imprisoned them
and sailedback to Denmark. He was fully determined
to return with a powerful army. Sweden must and
should be subdued.
Christian's Second Attack on Sweden. Christian

now made great preparations and strained Denmark's
powers to the utmost. He assembled an army so large
and so well trained that victory must be assured. At
the opening of the year 1520, the Danes invaded West
Gothland. Again the Swedish peasants were willing
and ready to fight for the defense of the fatherland.
But at the opening of the conflict Sten Sture was
severely wounded in the leg by a cannon ball. Left
without a commander, the peasants got confused and
were forced to retreat. The enemy pressed on across
Tiveden and into Svealand. In spite of his intense suf-
fering, Sten Sture thought only of the defense of his
country and wished to hasten to Stockholm to organize
the defense. But he did not reach Stockholm. In a
sleigh, on the
ice of the Malar, he passed away. His
greatest glory is the fact that during all these rancor-
ous times he never stained his memory with a single
mean act.
It soon became apparent what Sten Sture had meant

to his country. The peasants gathered in crowds and
clamored for fight, but had to disperse again, as none
of the lords had the will or the courage to lead them.
Of Gustav Trolle and his party the Danish commander
wrote to Christian "He and his friends spare neither
:
life nor comfort for the cause of Your Grace." He
succeeded, too, in inducing one after another to desert

the Swedish cause.
But there were some who did not lose heart. They
gathered around Christina Gyllenstierna, Sten Sture's
young widow. In her bitter sorrow, surrounded by
four small children, she did not shirk the high duty of
The Stockholm Massacre 97
carrying on her husband's work. She assumed com-

mand of Stockholm Castle. She held back her tears
and encouraged the burghers to make a brave defense.
When Christian's attack on the capital failed, he began
with fair promises to induce the city's defenders to
yield. He promised to forgive all opposition he had
encountered, and guaranteed their law and justice to
all the inhabitants of the land. Then the capital yielded
and surrendered in the fall of 1520, and Christian was

solemnly crowned king of Sweden.
The Massacre of Stockholm. Christian II was now
king of Sweden. "Now," he thought, "I will crush the
stubborn nobility of Sweden, crush them so they will
never again be able to raise an insurrection."
On account of the coronation ceremonies the fore-
most men of the kingdom were assembled in Stockholm.
The day after the coronation, November 7, Christian
summoned them to meet him in the castle. No one sus-
pected what was coming. But the purpose was made
plain, when Gustav Trolle appeared before the king
and demanded that all who had taken part in his depo-
sition should be summarily punished. Then more than
one face paled, and a shudder passed through the hall.
There followed an inquiry and trial of those present,
who were all detained in the castle till the next day.
A tribunal was constituted, which condemned to death
all those accused. On the same day, November 8, 1520,
there were beheaded in the Great Square (or Market)

in Stockholm more than eighty persons, councilmen
and other influential men. A number of burghers were
snatched from their labors, hurried off to the Square,
and put to death without a trial. This ghastly event
has been called the Massacre of Stockholm, and has

given to Christian II the name of Tyrant.
Christina Gyllenstierna and other noble women who
were made widows in this ghastly fashion were cast
into prison. On his way back to Denmark Christian con-
tinued his bloody work in other parts of the kingdom.
Gibbets and executions marked his progress through
the land. The government of Sweden during his ab-
sence he intrusted to a few Danish, German, and Swed-
ish lords, among whom was Gustav Trolle. As com-
manders in the castles he appointed Danes and Ger-
mans.
The people of Sweden were stunned with terror.
"Now," thought Christian, "the Swedes will never
again be able to organize a rebellion, for who would
lead them?"
E. GUSTAVUS VASA AND THE WAR OF LIBERATION

His Flight. Before Christian had crossed the Swed-
ish border on his way home, rumor brought him the
name of a new champion of Swedish liberty, the young
knight, Gustavus Ericsson Vasa. He had already dis-
tinguished himself in the war against Christian. He
was one of the six nobles who had been sent as hostages
to Christian's fleet and had been carried captive to
Denmark. He had already learned how that king kept
his plighted troth. After a year's imprisonment in
Denmark, he succeeded in making his escape. He made
his way to Liibeck, and from there he finally secured
passage on a ship to Sweden.
In the spring of 1520 he landed in Sweden imme-
diately south of Kalmar. Disguised, and by sequestered
Gustavus Vasa, Liberator 99
paths, he reached the home of his sister and her hus-

band, the councilman Joachim Brahe, in Sodermanland.
They were planning to attend Christian's coronation
in Stockholm.Gustavus warned them of the danger
and begged them not to go. But they had faith in
Christian and went.
Some time later an old servant of his brother-in-law
returned from Stockholm and, in words choked with
tears, told Gustavus of the Massacre of Stockholm,
and the murder of his father and brother-in-law, and
the imprisonment of his mother and sister. This was
bitter news. What
enabled Gustavus to bear up was
the thought that Sweden must be saved. His hope lay
in Dalecarlia. Disguised as a Dalecarlian peasant, with
round hat and homespun jacket and an ax on his shoul-
der, he set out on foot as one seeking work.
His Adventures in Dalecarlia. Of his adventures in
Dalecarlia Peder Svart, Bishop of Vester&s, later an
intimate friend of Gustavus, has given the follow-
ing sketch "He took service with Anders Persson of
:
Rankhyttan, clad as a peasant and keeping his iden-

tity to himself. But a servant girl informed Anders
Persson that she had noticed a gold embroidered collar
jut out from beneath the coarse peasant jacket. So
Anders Persson knew that the stranger was no com-
mon laborer. He had a private talk with Gustavus and
soon recognized him as a former fellow student at Upp-
sala University. But he was afraid to keep the fugitive
lest he should be discovered, and advised him to seek
a safer place.
"Gustavus then proceeded further, and came to Arent
Persson of Ornas, whom he trusted, and to whom he
made himself known. Arent treated him in a friendly

way and assured him that he could remain there with-
out danger. But Arent was a cunning man and saw
an opportunity to ingratiate himself with Christian
and his party. So he repaired to Christian's bailiff of
the province, and informed him of what had happened.
The Cottage of OrnSs.
Arent returned home accompanied by the bailiff and

twenty men, intent upon arresting the fugitive. But
Arent's wife had noticed which way her husband had
gone, and had understood his intentions. She warned
Gustavus and got him a horse and sleigh and a servant
to drive him over the ice across Lake Runn to Parson
Jon in Svardsjo."
But the priest dared not keep the fugitive, for the
region teemed with spies, as Christian had offered a
large reward for the arrest of Gustavus. Hence, a
safer hiding place was sought with Sven Elfsson in
Isala. But Gustavus had hardly arrived there before

spies entered the house and asked for the fugitive.
Elfsson's wife was busy baking, and Gustavus stood
beside the oven warming himself. The clever woman
raised her bread-shovel and gave him a smart blow
across his back and cried, "Why do you stand here and
stare at strangers as if you had never seen people be-
fore? Out to your threshing in the barn." Reshuffled
out of the house. The spies could never imagine that
it was the proud Knight Gustavus that this humble
woman could treat with such disrespect, and so hurried

on their way to the next place.
But Sven Elfsson did not think Gustavus sufficient-
ly safe in Isala. So he imbedded him in a big load of
straw and drove out toward the lonely forests. He soon
met some Danish spies. To make sure, they thrust
their spears several times into the straw and wounded
Gustavus in the leg. He quietly bore the pain, and
Sven Elfsson proceeded on his way. He soon noticed
that blood was trickling from the load and staining the
snow. He quickly seized his knife and cut his horse's
foot till it bled. When new spies arrived and inquired
about the blood stains, he pointed to the bleeding foot
of his horse, and was permitted to go on.
His Appeal to the Dalecarlians. At Christmas time,

1520, he had reached Rattvik, on the east side of Lake
the very heart of Dalecarlia. Here, at the close
Silja, in
of the services in church, he spoke openly to the
people for the first time. Later he did the same at
Mora, on the north side of the lake. He spoke vehe-
mently of Christian's perfidy, which he had personally
experienced, and described the Massacre of Stockholm.
He reminded them of the days of Engelbert and the

two Stures, exhorted them to take up arms again, and
offered with God's help to lead them against the foe.
But the peasants were tired of the constant fighting,

and Gustavus they hardly knew. They had not heard
that Christian was harsh against any classes, except
the proud lords. His last hope now vanished. He had
risked his life in vain. Nothing now remained for him,
but to save himself. Up toward the bleak northwest
he now pursued his lonely way on skis. More somber
became the forests, more savage the mountains, more
gloomy became the mind of Gustavus. Before him lay
the high Norwegian fjeld, which was to separate him
forever from a lost fatherland.
His Recall to Mora. Shortly after his departure from

Mora, some men of note arrived there as fugitives.
Their report of Christian's bloody proceedings brought
tears to the eyes of the hearers. They were now in-
formed that Christian intended to visit them too on his
bloody royal progress, that he had ordered the peas-
ants to surrender their arms, and that he had levied
a heavy tax on the land. Then muttered many a Mora
man, "God grant that we may not have to repent that
we turned a deaf ear to Gustavus Ericsson." On the
advice of the fugitives the peasants sent some of their
best ski-runners to entreat Gustavus to return. Day
and night they followed his track and reached him
near the Norwegian border. With joy he returned with
them to Mora. Thither assembled the foremost men
from east and west and chose Gustavus Ericsson Vasa
as commander of the Dalecarlians, in January, 1521.
SWEDEN
1521
100 200 300

The Opening of the War. Each day there gathered

around Gustavus crowds of armed peasants, and many
a trained warrior, who had sought refuge in the for-
ests, came forth to offer his services. The miners, too,
of southern Dalecarlia swore fealty to Gustavus.
But in Stockholm Gustav Trolle and his associates
in the government had become seriously alarmed. They
collected a considerable army and marched up to Dale-
carlia. At the Brunback Ferry on the River Dal ( Dal-
ai ven) they found the Dalecarlians encamped on the
north side of the river. Gustavus himself was absent
on a recruiting expedition in Helsingland and Gestrik-
land. It is said that a certain Danish leader asked how
large a force Dalecarlia could furnish, and when he
was told 20,000 at least, he asked how such a multitude
of people could find sustenance there. The answer was,
"The people there are accustomed to few dainties. The
greater part drink nothing but water, and when it is
necessary they can live on bark-bread." Then he is
said to have exclaimed, "Men who eat wood and drink

water the evil one himself can not subdue, much less
can man. Brethren, let us depart from here right soon."
But when the Dalecarlians beheld the Danes retreating,
they rushed across the river and put them to flight.
Victory at Vesteras and Siege of Stockholm. After
having organized and trained his men, Gustavus ad-
vanced into Westmanland at the head of 15,000 men.
The Danes met him at Vester&s, but were defeated and
put to flight. After this success the uprising spread
rapidly as in Engelbert's time. It was not long before
Gustavus was chosen regent of the realm by the Es-
Before the end of the year the members of Chris-
tates.
tian's Swedish government had departed for Denmark.

But the capital itself held out a long time against Gus-
tavus, for the Danes controlled the entrance to the city
from the sea, and could provide the city with men and
supplies. This Gustavus could not prevent for he had
no fleet. By land his forces consisted entirely of peas-
ants, who were indeed brave fighters, but untrained.
At seed 'time and harvest the majority had to return
home to their fields.
Fortunately for Sweden, Christian had become in-
volved in awar with Ltibeck. From this wealthy city
Gustavus could now secure ships and trained soldiers.
Stockholm was completely invested and the siege
pressed with vigor.
Gustavus Elected King. His Entry into Stockholm.
On June 6, 1523, Gustavus was unanimously elected
king by a Riksdag in Strengnas. At midsummer Stock-

holm surrendered. The city had long been in a deplora-
ble condition. Wooden structures had been torn down
and used for fuel or defense, food and ammunition
failed, and famine and pestilence raged. On midsum-
mer eve Gustavus made his solemn entry into the
devastated capital.
Final Dissolution of the Union. The union between
Sweden and Denmark was dissolved forever. After
having been abused by such men as Eric of Pomerania
and Christian II, it could not be renewed. The liberty-
loving Swedish people could not endure such bonds.
F. CHANGE OF REIGN ALSO IN DENMARK

Christian's Efforts to Crush the Danish Nobility. In
Denmark, as in Sweden, Christian sought to break
down the power of the haughty nobility. But for this
he needed a strong army of mercenaries. To secure
and maintain them large sums were necessary. The
needed funds he would procure through commerce. A
flourishing trade was to be built up and fostered. This
would enrich the burgher class and enable them to pay
heavier taxes, and larger revenues would flow from
the increased tolls. He sought to unite the merchants
of the three northern countries into a great trading

corporation to supplant the Hanseatic League.
But against the powerful nobles he needed not only
the co-operation of the burghers, but also of the peas-
ants. Through legislation he labored to improve the
condition of the poor peasants, to abolish serfdom, and
strengthen the administration of justice. He forbade
the "evil and unchristian" practice, prevalent on the
Danish islands, of selling poor peasants like cattle.
Hence, Christian was not only a bloodstained tyrant.
Christian's Deposition, Exile, and Imprisonment.
Christian's methods were too violent. Even in Den-
mark he caused nobles to be put to death contrary to
law and justice. Thus he set the nobles against him
and provoked an insurrection. They conspired against
him and proclaimed his uncle Frederick as king. In
this hour of danger no one came to his aid, not even
the peasants. For how could any one trust so guilty a
king, who broke his most sacred promises, and in wild
rage could commit any bloody crime whatever? When
Life in the Cities 107
he realized how absolutely alone he was, he lost cour-

age and fled the country to the Netherlands. Later he
made an attempt to regain his three crowns, but was
taken captive and imprisoned for seventeen long years,
during which he had many an hour of gloomy despair.
And when the prison gates were opened for the former
ruler of three kingdoms, it was a feeble old man that
tottered out.
G. LIFE IN THE CITIES
Origin of the Cities. The cities of Sweden grew up
in the most fertile parts of the country in places favor-
able to communication, especially along water courses.
These localities were often meeting places for sacri-
fice and for popular assemblies. When people came
together in large numbers for sacrificing or holding of
court, they brought with them goods or articles which
they wished to sell or exchange for other wares. Thus
markets or fairs arose. Merchants and craftsmen
found it convenient to locate in such places. Thus the
market place grew into a city. Such ancient assembly
places were Uppsala for Uppland; Kalmar for the
eastern border; Jonkoping for the interior of Sm&-
land; Skara for the eastern and Lodose for the
western section of West Gothland and Bohuslan. The
townspeople lived mainly by trade and handicrafts.
Trade. Trade was a monopoly, a privilege, of the
cities. In Magnus Ericsson's Municipal Law it was
enjoined that "all purchases shall be made in the city,

both between country people and city folk, and not in
the country or elsewhere." The penalty for any viola-
tion of this law was the forfeiture of the goods and a
fine of not less than 40 marks (a mark = $80).
108- A History of Sweden
Stores for buying and selling did not then exist. The
merchant with his wares was in a booth, the buyer
stood outside in the street, the transaction was con-
ducted through a window-opening, the shutter for this
opening was let down, forming a counter, which had a
projecting roof over it.
The Handicrafts. All workmen belonging to the

same craft or trade formed a union, or guild. The
guilds were governed by minute regulations, which had
to be carefully observed. Any one who wished to pur-
sue a certain trade had to begin as an apprentice under
a master, who was to train him and care for him as if
he were his own son. When the apprentice had finished
the prescribed course, he had to pass the test required
for a journeyman. Then as a journeyman the youth
had to visit foreign landsand learn new things and
methods. So he bade farewell to his home, and with
wallet and staff he traveled from city to city, took serv-
ice where he could, and went farther when it pleased
him. Hunger and cold he had to endure, but he lived
a care-free life and gained a rich experience. After his
return home, having there passed the master's test and
paid a certain fee, he was permitted to pursue his craft
and have under him a certain number of journeymen
and apprentices.
To guard against carelessness and inferior work-
manship, all work was supervised by the president of
the guild and his assistants. The guild also fixed -the
selling price of the goods so that no master could un-
dersell another. Competition did not exist, hence, nov-
elties and improvements came slowly. But the buyer
could depend on receiving a genuine article.
Reign of Gustavo Vasa 109
The workman regarded his craft as a sacred charge

from God. With the craftsman there was nothing of
the knight's thirst for war and adventure, instead,
there was the honor of dutiful and patient labor. "The
toiler's sweat is more pleasing to God than prayers,"
they said. They took much pride in fine workmanship.

Blunders and defects in the work put out were to them
a shame. "If no one else sees they said, "our dear
it,"
.God in heaven does." The guild system continued in
Sweden until 1846.
CHAPTER VII
REIGN OF GUSTAVUS VASA, 1523-1560
A. THE ADMINISTRATION
Conditions at the Opening of the Reign. Gustavus
Vasa was the founder of the modern Swedish mon-
archy. Through his War of Liberation he had restored
the political independence of the country. He was also
to secure for the country its religious, or ecclesiasti-
cal independence. This he effected by introducing the
Reformation, which Martin Luther had inaugurated
in Germany. After the long civil wars against the
union kings, Sweden and the Swedish people' were com-
pletely impoverished. But the church had accumulated
immense wealth in gold and silver vessels, ornaments,
and rich vestments, and owned one-fifth of the land in
the country. The king needed this superfluous wealth
for the recovery of the country. But the pope would
never permit the wealth of the Church to be put to
secular uses. Hence, the only way out was to break

down the power of the pope and the Catholic Church;
for was it right that those who were to be the minis-
ters of Christ should hold immense stores of super-
fluous wealth gathered from the country while
the country itself was on the verge of economic ruin?
Services of Olavm
Petri. Among the
young men who gath-
ered around Luther at
Wittenberg there was
a young student from
Sweden named Olavus
Petri, the son of a
blacksmith of Qrebro.
He learned and ac-
cepted the doctrines
and imbibed the spirit
of Martin Luther, and
upon his return to
Sweden he proclaimed
these doctrines with
warmth and boldness
Gustavus Vasa -
as teacher and preach-
er at Strengnas. Among his hearers
1
was the able and

gifted Laurentius Andrese, archdeacon of Strengnas,
and now, after the death of the bishop, head of the
diocese. Through him the king was made more fully
acquainted with the doctrines of the Reformation.
While attending the Riksdag in Strengnas, Gustavus
heard Olavus Petri, and he was well pleased with
his plain and earnest preaching. With his clear, un-
Olavus Petri 111
biased mind, the king recognized the truth of the doc-

trines so earnestly proclaimed. He soon after appointed
Laurentius Andrese as his chancellor, and installed
Olavua PetrL
Olavus Petri as preacher in "Storkyrkan," the Great

Church of Stockholm.
Olavus Petri, or "Master Olof," as he was familiarly
called, had many adherents, but also many
bitter ene-
mies. Some of the latter would at times interrupt his

sermons and hurl abuse and even stones at him. By

means of the printing press his doctrine spread to
every part of the kingdom. That every one might have
a chance to know the truth, he and his associates is-
sued the first Swedish translation of the New Testa-
ment, 1526. This work was condemned by the Catholic
clergy on the plea that it would be misunderstood and
misinterpreted by the ignorant masses. Bishop Brask
is reported to have said:
"Itwere better
That Paul were burned
Than of each man learned."
Olavus Petri likewise published the first Swedish

hymnbook, a book of sermons, and many other works.
His publications were so numerous that it may well
be said that "he taught the Swedish people to read."
He was also the first real Swedish historian.
The Vester&s Riksdag. Gustavus had to engage in
a decisive contest with the Roman Church to secure
means for saving the state. He had found support in
Martin Luther's utterances. It was a dangerous path
he had to tread, but he feared not the danger. He was
himself fully in accord with the doctrines of the Refor-
mation. From these he declared he would not swerve
as long as his heart was whole and his blood warm.
To settle the matter he summoned a Riksdag to Vester-
4s in 1527. The king's report of the condition of the
country was read before the assembled Estates. In it
he set forth how difficult it was to conduct the govern-
ment when its revenues were wholly inadequate. He
asked the Estates to provide the necessary funds. He
The Vesteras Riksdag 113
did not mention the source whence the means were to

come, but every one knew the only source available.
According to Peder Svart, "Bishop Brask then an-
swered 'We who belong to the spiritual Estate have
:
sworn our Most Holy Father, the Pope, that we will

not do anything in spiritual matters without his con-
sent. Therefore, it is not possible for us to relinquish
any of the possessions of the Holy Church.' The king
then asked the council and the nobles if they thought
this answer was right. Councilman Ture Jonsson and
his party said that they could not see but that the an-
swer was practically correct. Then Gustavus' patience
gave way. 'On such conditions/ he said, 1 have no
desire to be your king. I had, indeed, expected another
answer from you. Now I am not surprised that the
peasantry are wild and unruly, for I see what fine
abettors they have. If they get no rain they blame me,
if they get no sunshine they do the same. I may work
for your good to the utmost, but I have no reward to
expect but your wish to see the ax sunk in my head,
though no one dares to hold the handle. Be therefore
prepared to pay me back what I have spent of my own
for the kingdom, and I will depart and never return to
my ungrateful country.' Toward the end of the speech
the king burst into tears. He would say no more, but
left the room and went to the castle. Now, when the
king began to shed tears, the greater part of the peo-
ple wept too. But they were all so stunned that they
could come to no action that day. The next day
. . .
they met again to engage in the business of the meet-
ing. But they got nowhere. . . . The

third day the
burghers and peasants began to upbraid the clergy
and the nobles, saying, If you wish to be the cause of

our ruin, we will with the help of Gustavus destroy
"
you/
Finally they decided to ask the king to resume the
government, assuring him that the Estates would
gladly yield to his wishes. On the fourth day the king
appeared before the Estates and was received with
every mark of respect. An act was then drawn accord-
ing to the king's wishes and in due order passed by the
Riksdag In the first place all superfluous incomes of
:
the bishops, cathedrals, and convents should be ap-

propriated for the relief of the state treasury, and all
castles and strongholds of the bishops should be con-
fiscated. In the second place, the Word of God should
be preached in its purity in every part of the kingdom.
Results of the Acts of Vesteras Riksdag. Hence-

forth the king instead of the pope became the chief
governor of the Church of Sweden. The clergy in all
secular matters became amenable to the civil courts as
other citizens. The powerful bishops' days were ended.
They ceased to be members of the king's council.
Bishop Brask could not endure the new, "evil times,"
since he had to give up his beloved castle, and so de-
parted to foreign lands.* Under the influence of the
new faith and changed conditions, people ceased to
shut themselves up in convents. The acts of the Riks-
dag had not abolished the convents, but only seized
* In 1531 the devout and gentle Laurentius Petri, younger brother of Olavus
Petri, was elected archbishop of Uppsala,which position he held till his death
in 1573.During this long period, the evangelical doctrines and practices spread
throughout the kingdom and became deeply rooted in the minds and hearts of
the people.
The Vester&s Acts 115
their superfluous incomes. Gradually, however, they

dissolved of their own accord. Some were converted
into hospitals.
The Defense of the Realm. But when the Vester&s
actswere to be put into effect they were met, like every
reform, with determined opposition from all who stub-
bornly held to the old. The
opposition at times took the
form of insurrection against
the king. Gustavus, however,
succeeded in putting down the
uprisings and restoring har-
mony in the country.
Peace and quiet were finally
attained, but Gustavus la-
bored just as sedulously to
strengthen and improve his
country. The income from
12,000 estates, relinquished by
the Church, he devoted large-
Laurentius Petri.
ly toward the defense of the
realm. Armies of regular and trained soldiers were
needed for neither the peasant levies nor the mounted
;
retinue of the nobles could render the same service as

formerly, since firearms were now coming more and
more into use. Gustavus did not forget the lessons of
the war of liberation. He created a strong standing
army and a fine fleet for defense against enemies. At
the same time, however, he exerted himself to the ut-
most to save Sweden from the curse of war.
Supervision over Governors and Bailiffs. Gustavus
interested himself in everything, and kept a close
watch over his officials. He audited their accounts,

and if he found any errors, he was unsparing in his
reproofs. He would at times reprove his bailiffs for
mixing up matters till they could not understand their
own accounts, but to "wallow and welter in the na-
tion's wealth," that they well understood how to do.
They soon learned to turn to the king for direction in
everything. If supplies were needed, if repairs were
to fre made, or some construction work undertaken,
they would always consult the king. But Gustavus

also expected that his governors and bailiffs would in
turn remember him with some little gift of "good
things" from their respective regions.
The King's
Interest in Agriculture. Gustavus had a
very intimate knowledge of agriculture. He had a
large number of farms and stock-stations in various
parts of the country, which served as models for the
peasantry. On his many journeys throughout the
country he was untiring in admonishing the peasants
to clear the ground, dig ditches, and harvest their crops
in proper time. Where such warnings were not heeded
he threatened punishment. He ordered his bailiffs to
procure workmen for neglected farms and to require
the owners to pay not only for the labor, but to pay a
fine as well. Where peasants would not work their
farms in a proper way he threatened confiscation of
their farms. These were severe measures, but they
were needed, for the Swedish peasant was inclined to
be slow and sluggish.
His Improvements in the Mining Industry. For im-

provements in the mining industry he invited skilled
Agriculture, Industry, Commerce 117
workmen from Germany, who introduced the rolling

mill and the production of bar iron. The king tried to
encourage his people to substitute this more profitable
iron product for the old pig iron production. He estab-
lished forges for his own profit and as an example for
his people. The Sala silver mine was an object of his
special attention, and it yielded very rich returns.
His Encouragement of Commerce. But commerce,

especially foreign trade, received his most careful at-
tention. First of all he put an end to the trade suprem-
acy of the Hanseatic League in Sweden. The Lii-
beckers had become so overbearing that the Swedes
and Danes united their forces against them. By their
combined strength they defeated the enemy both on
land and sea.. In the treaty that followed, Liibeck lost
her great trade privileges in the North.
But even after this Gustavus had occasion to reprove
his people for rushing to Liibeck and other Baltic
cities with their Swedish wares, glutting the market
till they had to sell their products at great loss. They
were equally foolish in their buying. They crowded
into the foreign markets and bid up the prices against
each other.
But Gustavus did not only chide. He summoned the
burghers and showed them how to conduct their trade.
The Swedish merchants must go beyond the Baltic to
the cities along the North Sea and the Atlantic and
buy their goods. They would not then have to pay the
profits charged by the Baltic
traders. As a result of
these suggestions Swedish merchantmen found their
way to England, the Netherlands, France, and even to
Portugal and Spain. The king himself was the greatest
business man
in the kingdom. He took part with his
own ships in these expeditions and often offered the
merchants to carry their goods for them.
The Results of the King's Economic Measures. Thus
Gustavus conducted the affairs of his kingdom as
the master of a large estate. Through these activi-
ties prosperity was promoted throughout the king-
dom. Gustavus understood, too, how to manage his
own economic affairs. At length he owned individu-
ally 5,000 estates and had a very rich treasury. He
was accounted one of the wealthiest princes in Europe.
He appreciated the value of money, "for," said he, "it
costs the sweat and toil of the people/' His thrift some-
times degenerated into stinginess, but when the state
was in danger he was ready to sacrifice all his own
savings.
The Decline One thing declined, how-
of Education.
ever, during Gustavus' reign. It was education. The
most gifted Catholic and teachers left their
priests
heretical fatherland, and none came in their place.
Ministers and judges were often terribly ignorant.
And in spite of all king was very sparing of
this the
his gold and silver when
came to the support of
it
schools. He seems to have been too much occupied with

accounts and economics to think seriously of education.
B. THE DACKE INSURRECTION -
Autocratic Policies. Gustavus could with good rea-

son look back with satisfaction upon his work, and so
he did. In letters to be read at the great fairs, in 1540,
he compares himself to Moses. As that great man of
The Dacke Insurrection 119
God delivered the Children of Israel, so had Gustavus

"with the signal power and dispensation of God" de-
livered his people from the "terrible bloodhound and
tyrant, old King Christian."
Gustavus now felt secure in his. position and thought
he could govern his kingdom according to his own good
will. He dismissed his councilors, Olavus Petri and
Laurentius Andrese, who had assisted him in the intro-
duction of the Reformation. They were too independ-
ent to submit to the king in all matters. But it was not
possible for the king to find any one in the kingdom
of sufficient training, experience, and knowledge of
world affairs to serve as his secretary. So he chose
Germans as his councilors. They submitted plans to
him that might suit a German emperor, but were
wholly unsuitable for conditions in Sweden. Gustavus
began to rule arbitrarily and by force. He seized from
the churches the greater part of their silver vessels
and other valuables. There was a veritable church pil-
lage. It was painful for the people to see the conse-

crated chalices, crosses, and jewels, which they had
learned to reverence and hold dear, carried off as
plunder. This had not been granted the king by the
Riksdag of Vesteras. There soon arose a general de-
mand for the retention of what was "old and time-
honored," and the demand passed into threats, and in-
surrection in one province.
Grievances of the Sm&l&nders. In the remote parts

of Smaland, as in Dalecarlia, there lived a stubborn
and warlike race, accustomed to secure subsistence
from the forests with arrow and spear. Time and
again they had defied the king's orders and killed his
bailiffs. They were especially angered at the king's
orders forbidding them under a heavy fine to sell their
cattle at a higher price than he had fixed and forbid-
ding them under pain of death to sell their cattle
abroad. These prohibitions were the more exasperat-
ing to them as cattle were their chief articles of trade.
Nils Dacke, Leader of the Insurrection. In 1542 the
discontented Smalanders found a skillful leader in Nils
Dacke, who had, some time before, taken part in the
slaying of bailiffs, and had in consequence been com-
pelled to flee into the impenetrable forests on the
borders of the Danish provinces in Sweden. These for-
estshad been since early days resorts for thieves and
robbers from both kingdoms. It was such reckless fel-
lows he first gathered about him. Then he incited the
peasants against the king's acts until a general upris-
ing resulted.
This "coarse brute and forest-brood," as the king
called Nils Dacke, inflicted severe losses on the king's
forces. Especially threatening was the fact that the
Emperor Charles V entered into relations-wlt'h Dacke
for the purpose of restoring his brother-in-law, Chris-
tian II, to the Swedish throne. Matters became so des-
perate that Gustavus is said to have thought of aban-
doning everything and settling down in foreign lands.
Letters of Gustavus to the Peasantry. Gustavus suc-
ceeded with soothing letters to the peasantry in adja-
cent provinces to prevent the spread of the insurrec-
tion.
'The peasantry demands," he writes, "what is old
and time-honored, meaning thereby reduction of taxes
Gustavus to the Peasantry 121
and other payments, hoping thus to secure great free-

dom and well-being. When the peasantry thus wish to
reduce the income of the realm it will follow that the
defense of the kingdom will be neglected, and the ene-
mies will have a fair chance to possess the land again,
as lias been of old.
"We have instead taken to heart the great loss and
ruin which the land has suffered in plunder, murder,
and fire. And it has seemed to us advisable, as a good
new custom to strengthen the kingdom with strong,
good, able soldiers as well as by powerful and hand-
some war vessels, and by excellent guns and swords,
horses and armor, and various accouterments of war.
All of which has not been an old custom before our
time. And we hope that we may not have deserved
ingratitude for such new customs.
"What advantage the country derived from the old
customswe leave for you to consider. Merchants,
bringing into the country salt, hops, cloth, and other
necessaries, were robbed of ship and goods, and the
crews thrown overboard, and drowned like dogs. As all
old customs are to be counted as good, it still seems to
us, as we understand it, that these customs rendered
very little You all remember, too, how it was in
good.
West Gothland an9 Uppland recently in old King Chris-
tian's day, taxation by murder and fire that, too, is
an old custom. There lay many a poor man, food for
beasts and birds of prey, and not" even given a place in
the graveyard.
"So, dear countrymen, will we answer for our
my
deeds not only before men, but also before God's right-
eous judgment."
End of the Insurrection. These words of the king

had a soothing effect on the neighboring provinces.
Finally the king's forces in Smaland succeeded in in-
flicting on the insurgentarmy a bloody defeat. Dacke
was chased from parish to parish and was at last over-
taken and shot to death with arrows, 1543.
Thus ended the last bitter struggle between old and

new customs. This was the most dangerous of the up-
risings against Gustavus. He had been given a lesson,
and henceforth was more careful. He laid aside for-
eign monarchial methods and returned to the old

fatherly Swedish system. From this time Gustavus
had peace in the kingdom.
The Vest eras Succession Act. The late insurrection,
however, had shaken Gustavus Vasa's throne. Hence,
at the Riksdag in Vesteras, 1544, Gustavus stressed
the dangers of internal dissensions and disturbances.
The election of kings had often occasioned such dis-
sensions. Gustavus now induced the Estates to fore-

stallsuch dangers for the future by adopting a Suc-
cession Act, a law that the crown should be hereditary
in the male line of Gustavus Vasa's descendants accord-
ing to age. This repealed the provision in Magnus
Ericsson's National Law that the crown of Sweden
was elective and not hereditary. By this act the king
had become something more than one of the great lords
of the kingdom. The Vasa family hatf raised itself a
high step above its former equals among the nobility.

Gustavus Vasa in Old Age 123
C. GUSTAVUS VASA, His FAMILY AND OLD AGE

His Personality. The king's nephew, Per Brahe, has
given us a picture of Gustavus Vasa as he himself saw
him. He was of average height; he had light golden
hair, a handsome full beard, keen eyes, a small straight
nose, a well-formed mouth, rosy cheeks, and his body
was so well proportioned that no artist could have
painted a more perfect model.
He had a wonderfully good memory. What he had
heard once or twice he never forgot. Wherever he had
passed once or twice or stayed a while, he never lost
his way. If he had a good look at any one, he would
recognize him at once though he had not seen him for
ten or twenty years. He was a charming and cheerful
person to meet both in small talk and serious conver-
sation.
He loved music, both vocal and instrumental, and was
himself a fine singer and player. Of all instruments
he liked the lute the best, and there was no evening,
when alone, that he did not play it
His Family. Gustavus was thrice married. His first
marriage, with a German princess, was not happy, as
the queen was of a queer disposition. She was the
mother of the nearest heir to the throne, Eric. After
her death, Gustavus married Margareta Lejonhufvud,
and was most happy in his family life with his "heart's
dearest Margareta/' as he called her. She was the
mother of several children, among them the two sons,
John and Charles. As a husband and father Gustavus
was a model for his people, so also in his unfeigned
religion and pure morals.
His Old Age, After having passed his sixtieth year,

Gustavus began to feel less cheerful. His beloved lute
no more gave him any joy. He often complained of
feeling tired and of being unable to bear the accus-
tomed work for his beloved country. Family cares in-
creased his troubles. The oldest sons did not give the
father the joy he might have expected. Reared in times
of prosperity, Eric disregarded his father's warnings
against his thoughtless and prodigal life, and behaved
in a defiant and scornful manner toward his old father.
It was the old story of the rich man's son. Even John,
the favorite son, caused his father sorrow. It pained
the aged father to see that the two sons could never
bear each other. Under the burden of family troubles
he wrote during his last year, "My soul is sorrowful
even unto death."
His Farewell Address. When he felt his end ap-
proaching, he summoned the Estates to a meeting in
Stockholm to say farewell to his people. The venerable
"Father of his Country" sat on his throne with the two
oldest sons at his side the youngest, the nine-year-old
;
Charles, stood at the father's knee. For the last time

the people heard his eloquent voice, at times choked
with tears. "My dear Swedish people," he said, "you
now see me here in a royal palace, but we should not
forget that forty years ago this seemed to mortal eye
an impossibility, when I hid in forest and cranny,
dressed in homespun, drank water, and lived on
wretched food. But a merciful God in heaven has Him-
self wrought the wonder. He often uses humble means
for putting down haughty, aspiring minds. He took
David, a humble youth, and gave him the victory over
His Farewell and Last Will 125
the mighty Goliath, and then raised the same David to

royal power and glory. Thus hath God helped me, un-
worthy though I am, in a wonderful way to this estate.
"My dear Swedish people, whatever the government

I have given you may have been, I ask you to accept it.
If any good has been done it is God's work. Give Him
thanks for it. But if there has been any shortcoming
or fault in my government, I would fain ask you, for
God's sake, to forgive me; for God is.my witness that
it has not happened through malice or evil intentions,
but through human weakness. I have been unable to

do better. Mytime will soon be over. For this I need
consult no stars or other divination. I have the intima-
tion in my own body that I must soon depart." In
blessing he stretched forth his hands, and amidst gen-
eral deep emotion he parted from his people.
His Last Will Then was read the king's will, by

which he conferred the crown of Sweden on his oldest
son, and gave to his younger sons large hereditary
duchies. John received southwestern Finland; to
Charles he gave Sodermanland, Nerke, and Vermland.
That was the only way, as conditions of life were at
that time, to provide in a worthy manner for younger
sons. Perhaps, too, the father wished to give the king-
dom a safer stay than he felt Eric alone would be. But
it was dangerous to give these dukes full royal power
in their duchies. In this way Sweden was in fact

divided among three princes. Gustavus had evidently
not forgotten the fratricidal conflicts of the Folkung
Family, for he admonished his sons in an earnest and
fatherly way "to love one another as brothers and
live
in concord/' The will was approved and confirmed by

the Estates.
His Death. Shortly afterwards King Gustavus laid
his weary head to rest forever, September 29, 1560.
The Cathedral of Uppsala.
'
'Never could anyone depart this life more quietly and
peacefully," declares an eyewitness. His remains were
laid to rest in the Cathedral of Uppsala.
When, once, on his deathbed, he expressed the hope
that remembrance of him would not be buried with his
body, he received this beautiful assurance: "In God's
Eric XIV 127
pure Word, which by Your Grace's favor has come to

Sweden, Your Grace's memory will live, as also in for-
ests and plains, mountains and valleys, rivers and
lakes, which no one before knew how to use rightly ;
and mills and fisheries, which for the perpetual good

of the realm now devised and used can never be for-
gotten/'
CHAPTER VIII
REIGNS OF THE SONS OF GUSTAVUS VASA

1560-1611
A. REIGN OF ERIC XIV, 1560-1568
Eric's Suspicious Disposition and Violence. Eric was

highly gifted, and like all Gustavus Vasa's sons,he had
received a careful education. He was versed in many
branches of learning and spoke several languages. He
enjoyed the fine arts, could paint, sing, play the lute,
write and compose. Like all the sons of Gustavus he
was a stately man and was the handsomest of them.
But he was afflicted with a sickly 'temperament. This
weakness he aggravated by intemperance and other
vices in his association with depraved persons. In vain
had his father warned him. When sober he had mo-
ments of remorse and deep anguish. He imagined that
all prominent persons were traitors and wished him
ill. He was continually sending out spies to ascertain

what people thought of him. His suspicion of the lords
was abetted by his secretary and favorite, Goran Pers-
son, son of a clergyman of Westmanland.
He was an
industrious and able man, who wished to strengthen

the royal power and weaken the influence of the lords,
but he was filled with an envious hatred of them, and
was delighted when he could do them an injury.
Eric XIV.
Like many others of that day, Eric had a firm belief

in astrology and thought that he had read in the stars
that a fair-haired man was to thrust him from the
throne. He brooded over this and feared his brother
John and Svante Sture's oldest son Nils, both of whom
had light hair. Persuaded by his secretary that the son
Eric XIV 129
and two grandsons of Sten Sture the Younger and some

other lords had formed a conspiracy against him, he
caused these innocent men to be imprisoned in Uppsala
castle. One day his
suspicion drove him
to madness. With his
own hand he slew
Nils Sture, and then
ordered the other
prisoners to be put to
death. The victims of
this order were four
in number Svante
:
Sture, his son Sten

Sture, and two other
lords. This ghastly
crime, committed in
1567, has been called
"Sturemorden" (The
Sture Murders).
His Abdication,
Imprisonment, and
Death. Under such a
, . , A ,
The Castle of Gripsholm, in which John and
king no one could feel later Eric were for a time pris0 ners.
safe. The two broth-

ers, Charles and John, headed an insurrection which de-
veloped with unusual rapidity. After a few weeks the
king held only the capital. During its siege Goran Pers-
son was delivered by the* king's own party to the dukes
and was by them put to death. Finally the insurgents
entered the city, and the king surrendered himself and
abdicated the throne. Later the Estates passed a for-
mal deposition and deprived Eric of his freedom. He

died in prison nine years later. It is probable that John
had his brother poisoned, fearing that the prisoner
might be set free.
After several attempts to form marriage alliances at

foreign courts, Eric finally married Karin, or Cather-
ine, Mansdotter, a corporal's daughter. It is said that
he met her firstmaid selling nuts in the market
as a
place in Stockholm, and was charmed by her unusual
beauty. The lovely Karin was as good as she was beau-
tiful. With her, Eric's troubled heart found rest. She
alone could calm his anger and turn away his evil
thoughts. During his imprisonment she took every
occasion to assure him of her love, and this, as he as-
serts in his writings, was the only comfort in his sor-
row. To the nobility, this marriage was an unheard-of
humiliation to Eric's royal dignity, and it became a
prominent cause of his dethronement. After Eric's
death, his widow received a feudal estate in Finland,
where she lived until her death, in 1612, universally
loved and respected for her nobility of character and
many benevolences.
B. REIGN OF JOHN III, 1568-1592
John's Disposition and Extravagance. Like his broth-

er,John was suspicious and wasteful. It is true he did
not waste money and strength in dissipation. But every
once in a while he would take a fancy to building mag-
nificent palaces regardless of cost, "Building is our
delight," he wrote once to a builder. When he took a
notion to build, or some other enterprise tempted his
John III 131
love of grandeur, he would take funds wherever they

were found, even such as were appropriated for the
most necessary purposes, such as payment of salaries.
John HI.
In consequence, taxes rose so high that many people

could not pay them and had to give up both houses and
land. "Where once were and meadows forests
fields
are now growing, and they who for years were well-
to-do now wander through the land with staff and

wallet/' so reads an account of the last years of John's
reign.
The Liturgical Controversy. About the middle of the

sixteenth century the Reformation had prevailed over
Catholicism in northern and central Europe. It began
to spread even in the southern lands. The popes and
the Roman clergy then began to realize that something
had to be done lest they lose all control over the na-
tions. The worst abuses were removed. This move-
ment is known as the Catholic Counter-Reformation.
The Papal Church now became aggressive in efforts
to win back what she had lost. Her two formidable
weapons in this conflict were the Inquisition and the
Order of Jesuits.
The office of the Inquisition was to ferret out and

to condemn heretics, or apostates from the Roman
Church. Unhappy they who were accused before this
tribunal. By the use of terrible instruments of torture
confession was usually extorted. The victims were
solemnly burned at the stake or doomed to die in cold,
damp dungeons.
The Order was organized by a Spanish
of Jesuits
knight, Ignatius Loyola, who had been so severely
wounded in battle that he could no longer serve in war.
So he decided to win undying fame by spiritual weap-
ons. He would win the world for the Holy Church.
Hence, he gathered disciples and organized a society
which he named the Society of Jesus. Its members
were usually known as Jesuits. They were to go into
all lands and work for the pope and his church. The
John HI 133
society was given a military organization. Unquestion-

ing obedience to orders of superiors was the chief duty
of all members. One of their leading doctrines was that
the end justifies the means. Any act was permissible
if itonly had a good end in view. The murder of Prot-
estant princes, for instance, was a pious act as it was
supposed to further the cause of the Church. Thus were
men's minds and consciences perverted. Jesuit monks
sought admission at the court of kings and princes as
councilors and as teachers and preachers.
With such weapons the Roman Church entered upon

a struggle against the Protestants. The
lif e-and-death
results were soon seen. In France, during the time of

Eric's reign, fierce religious wars broke out, which
culminated in the Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day,
1572. During the festivities of a royal marriage at the
court in Paris, the Catholic party planned and carried
out a massacre of the Protestants in the city. Similar
massacres occurred in various parts of the country. It
is estimated that at least 20,000 Protestants were vic-
tims of these massacres.*
The victims of the numbered by un-

Inquisition are
told thousands, especially in
Spain and her dependency,
the Netherlands. In Spain Protestantism was thus com-
pletely rooted out. In the Netherlands the Protestants
were driven to a desperate fight for freedom, which
finally resulted in the establishment of the Protestant
Netherlands (the Dutch Republic) .
John, like his father, was a lover of the beautiful
* It should be said, however, that the motives for the massacres were no
less political than religious.
He especially delighted in beautifying the churches.

The splendor of the Catholic service with its beautiful
music appealed to him rather than the very simple
Lutheran service. He thought the Swedish people were
stolid, and wished to arouse and fire their minds with
a grander and more beautiful church service. Such a
service was prescribed in the new church book, which
he, with the aid of his secretary, had prepared and in-
duced the Estates to adopt. The book was meant as a
compromise between the Catholic and the Lutheran
service. It was printed in both Swedish and Latin, for
the king was anxious to have the Catholic mass re-
stored. The manual was known as the Red Book from
the color of its binding.
This step, which John had taken to approach the
Catholic Church, was not his last effort. Like many
other peace-loving people, he thought it a pity that
Lutherans and Catholics, who worshiped the same God,
should hate and condemn each other. Might not both
parties return to primitive Christianity? His wife,
a Polish princess, was a Catholic. She had inspired
him with a strong leaning toward the Eoman Church.
Think if he could achieve the honor of uniting the two
severed communions When he ascended the throne he
!
wrote to the pope about this plan, and received in deep

secrecy messengers from him. The pope, however,
could not sanction John's plan of uniting the Luther-
an faith with the Roman Catholic. That ended John's
Catholic zeal. But he still held stubbornly to his new
church book, and persecuted and reviled the ministers
that refused to use it. For them a place of refuge was
Sigismund 135
offered in theduchy of Duke Charles. To the king's

exasperation Charles absolutely refused to accept the
Catholic church customs.
C. THE REIGN OF SIGISMUND, 1592-1599

Threat of Catholic Restoration. Through her cruel
methods and oppression, the Catholic Church had be-
come a dangerous menace to all Protestant lands. The
danger became imminent when John's son and succes-
sor, Sigismund, came to the throne. His mother, a
Polish princess, was a Catholic, and her son had been
brought up in that faith. He had already been elected
king of Poland. There, he had shown energy and zeal
in but one thing, the persecution of Protestants. The
people of Sweden felt that an invasion of monks and
insidious Jesuits was impending, and that the day
might soon come when their sons and daughters might
be made victims of the horrible Inquisition. They real-
ized that an important crisis was
at hand, and they
took steps to prepare for the defense of their faith.
The Uppsala Convention. During the interval be-

tween the death of John and the arrival of Sigismund
from Poland, the government of Sweden was conducted
by Duke Charles and the council. The duke hastened
to call a church convention at Uppsala in 1593. There
gathered the duke and the council, large numbers of
the clergy, and members of the other Estates. The
Convention unanimously declared that the Bible is the
sole rule of faith, and that its doctrines are correctly
set forth in the three Symbols and the unaltered Augs-
burg Confession. Lastly all the members of the Con-
vention promised to defend their faith with their lives.

Then the president of the Convention exclaimed "Now :
Sweden has become one man, and we all have one Lord
and one God."
The decisions of the
Convention were sent
out in copies to all
the provinces and were

signed by all orders of
society. The duke de-
sired that the whole peo-
ple should take part in
this matter. No one
should be indifferent or
unconcerned about the
weal and woe of the
realm. Thus Sweden was
Kmpr Siffismuml.
prepared to receive the
new king.
Sigismund's Coronation. In the autumn of the same

year Sigismund came to Sweden to be crowned. He
was surrounded with Catholic priests and Jesuits, who
hoped to gain control of the Swedish people. The Es-
tates, assembled for the coronation, feared that Sigis-
mund would resort to force to restore the Catholic
faith. But Duke Charles assured them that there would
be no coronation unless Sigismund would first by oath
promise to maintain the decision of the Uppsala Con-
vention. Sigismund was compelled to yield. He solemn-
ly took the oath, and was then crowned. But the day
before he had secretly assured the Jesuits that he would
introduce Catholic service into Sweden as soon as he
Sigismund 137
had secured the power. To this double-dealing the

Jesuits had given their sanction and advice. They had
assured him that promises to heretics were not bind-
ing. As a perjurer Sigismund returned to Poland.
9
Government during Sigismund s Absence. Sigis-
mund had left the government in the hands of the duke
and the council. Hitherto these had stood together.
But the unanimity did not last long. The duke was a
man for the commons, and would not "pull even" with
the great lords.
The Power of the Lords. The Swedish lords had lost
their leaders in the Stockholm Massacre and by the Ves-
teras Succession Act. But during the times of Eric and
John they had increased in power again. At his coro-
nation, which he celebrated with unexampled splendor,
Eric increased the pomp by elevating the chief nobles
to the dignity of counts and barons. By this means he
would for the future shed luster on his court. The
lords were still more favored by John. Among other
favors he bestowed on the counts and barons large
feudal estates, known as counties and baronies, which
were made hereditary in the male line of descent. The
nobility had thus secured powerful leaders in these
"kings, each in his domain," as Duke Charles called
these great lords. And they were the very ones who
sat in the council
Duke and Estates versus King and Council. Soon
the council began to oppose the duke, but in turn he
received support from the Estates, especially from
the burghers and the peasants. Most of the councilmen
then fled to Sigismund in Poland, hoping that he would
with military force crush the proud duke and the ar-
rogant commons in Sweden. Thus were arrayed the

Duke and the Estates against the King and the Coun-
cil.
In the year 1598 Sigismund came back to Sweden,

now at the head of an army. But at Stangebro, near
Linkoping, the duke and his followers gained a signal
victory over the king, who was compelled by the duke
to deliver up to him the councilmen who had accompa-
nied him from Poland. Sigismund himself returned to
his Polish kingdom and never again saw his native
land.
Sigismund's Deposition and the Linkoping Massacre.

The following year, at a Riksdag in Stockholm, Sigis-
mund was formally deposed as king of Sweden. In
Poland he kept up a weak reign to the end of his life
in 1632.
At another Riksdag in Linkoping, in 1600, a special

court of justice was appointed to judge the councilmen
whom Sigismund had delivered to Duke Charles. They
were accused of having advised the king to lead a for-
eign army against their country. Some confessed their
guilt and were pardoned. Others could not be induced
to admit that they had done wrong. They claimed to
have obeyed their lawful king. They seemed to have
overlooked the fact that Sigismund had broken his
coronation oath and, hence, had forfeited his claim of
obedience. The accused were condemned to death. Their
wives and children often waited outside the castle gate
when the duke drove out, and on their knees and with
tears begged for mercy for husbands and fathers. But
he drove by, feigning not to see them. The death sen-
Charles IX 139
tences were carried out. This event has been called

the Linkoping Massacre (Linkopings Blodbad) .
Many of Sigismund's partisans were imprisoned,

others went into exile to Poland.
D. REGENCY AND REIGN OF CHARLES IX, 1599-1611
Development of Mining and the Iron Industry. In

time Duke Charles assumed the royal title and was then
known as Charles IX.

His reign differed very
much from that of Eric
and John. Like his fa-
ther, he felt it his duty
as king to work for the
development of his coun-
try. Like his father, too,
he wanted to have a
hand in everything, and
to set right what was
wrong. This work he had
already begun as regent.
He devoted himself espe-
cially tomining and the Charles IX.
iron industry in Verm-

land. He was zealous in
encouraging prospecting
for new mines. All who would
build smelting furnaces
were given years of exemption from taxes. He was the
real creator of Vermland's mining industry. For him
were named Karlstad and the Karlskoga mining dis-
trict. Thus there arose a flourishing region where
there had formerly been miles of lake and river shores.

He brought in skilled workmen from abroad, who

introduced improved methods in the mines and at the
smelters. He often visited the mining districts and
took a lively interest in the work. He visited the work-
men in their homes and conversed with them as an
equal. Hence, he was highly esteemed by the miners
and iron workers.
Land Improvements. In his work of bringing waste
lands in the north under cultivation, Charles was great-
ly aided by Finns, who had immigrated in large num-
bers into Sweden. In their own land they often suf-
fered want and were oppressed by cruel bailiffs and
governors. These immigrant Finns settled down in the
northern forests near some lake affording good fishing.
There they built their cabins and lived by hunting and
fishing, clearing the forests and breaking the soil for
planting. Thus by hard labor the Finns secured their
plots of ground, planted them with rye, and later,
when the soil was too exhausted for grain, it furnished
fine pasture for their cattle.
His Administration. His methods of administration
he inherited from his father. In the handling of the
nation's finances "Economy" was his motto. To his
he was an even sterner master than Gustavus
bailiffs
had been. In one instance they had collected extra
taxes from the peasants and pocketed the money, in an-
other they had accepted bribes from criminals. "Thiev-
ish lot" was the uncomplimentary name Charles often
gave "We will hold them to account till
to his bailiffs.
they are caught in the gallows/' he declared. It is said
that it was not a rare sight to see a bailiff hanged in
the gallows of his own district. Everybody that did not
Wars with Neighboring Countries 141
suit the king was made to feel the sting of his hasty
temper. He would at times inflict corporal punishment
even on men of note. He never learned self-control.
But when his outburst of anger was over, everything
was pleasant again.
His Administration ofJustice. Charles was espe-
ciallydevoted to the administration of justice. Many
anecdotes bear testimony to this fact. A poor widow
had suffered a wrong and had appealed in vain to the
court. She then went to the king to plead her cause.
He read all the papers in the case and found that her
cause was just. He then wrote on the back of the batch
of papers to the judges "Unless you secure justice for
:
this poor widow be assured that my cane shall dance

a polka on your backs."
There are not many princes that the commons have
so highly admired as Charles IX. Every peasant felt
assured that he had protection in his king. The nobles
called him the Peasant King. But the miners and peas-
ants called him "Store Karl" (Great Charles), and it
is said that "while the bells tolled the knell of 'Store
Karl' both old and young wept, and it seemed as if
everything were empty and dead throughout the land."
E. WARS WITH NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES DURING

THE PERIOD
Wars with Poland. At the close of the Crusades
there were organized in various European lands orders
of knighthood for the special purpose of defending
Christian lands against pagan inroads. One of these
was the Order of Teutonic Knights, which since the
time of the Crusades had held Esthonia, Livonia, and
ether Baltic lands. Many an exploit had these knights

performed in their conflict with the heathen peoples.
But when these conflicts ceased, the zeal and ardor of
the knights relaxed. They now thought only of pleas-
ure and lived dissolute lives. About the middle of the
sixteenth century wild Russian forces invaded the
country. There was now no power of resistance left.
Some of these lands sought help from Poland and oth-
ers from Sweden. Esthonia, whose capital, Reval, was
Protestant, placed herself under Sweden in 1561, for
her people feared both the Greek Orthodox Russians
and the Roman Catholic Poles. But the Polish king,
who took Livonia, sought to drive the Swedes from
Esthonia. Thus began a war between Sweden and Po-
land, which, though interrupted by several peace trea-
ties and truces, was to continue for a hundred years.
The first war ended with Sweden in possession of Es-
thonia. But the efforts of Charles IX to conquer Li-
vonia failed.
Wars with Russia. The Russians, too, threatened the
Swedish possessions along the eastern shores of the
Baltic. During John's reign their wild hordes invaded
Esthonia and ravaged the country. The Swedish gar-
rison in one of the fortresses was captured, and the
men were bound and roasted to death. But the Swedes
soon gained the upper hand.
A new war having broken out in the time of Charles
IX, the brave Jacob de la Gardie led his troops all the
way to Moscow. But a mutiny arose among his men,
most of whom were of foreign enlistment With a
band of 400 loyal men marching across the immense
wastes of Russia, he succeeded in reaching his home in
Wars with Neighboring Countries 143
safety. He returned, however, with a new force and

had made vast conquests when Charles IX passed
away.
Wars with Denmark. Gustavus Vasa had liberated
Sweden from the fetters of the Union. But Denmark
had, in the person of Frederick II, an ambitious king,
who hoped to force Sweden once more under the power
of Denmark. Besides, the proud Danish nobility could
not bear the thought that their country was not the
sole power in the North. In 1563 the so-called North-
ern Seven Years' War broke out. Denmark was sup-
ported by Liibeck. The importance of Gustavus Vasa's
naval preparations now became apparent. Never be-
fore nor since were such naval victories won by Swed-
en as now. Under the command of Sweden's greatest
naval hero, Klas Horn, the Swedish fleet won a com-
plete victory over the combined fleets of Denmark and
Liibeck off Bornholm, 1565. The hostile fleets were
finally driven from the Baltic. By these victories Horn
protected Swedish commerce and prevented ravages
of the Swedish coasts.
By land the hostile forces vied with each other in

brutal ravages and bloodshed. When both parties were
exhausted peace was concluded in Stettin, 1570. There
was a mutual restoration of land captured. In its re-
sults this war was most unfortunate for the Scandina-
vian peoples. The mutual ravages engendered a hatred
between them which did not exist before. Hitherto it
had been only the Danish kings and their German and
Danish bailiffs that had been abhorred in Sweden. But
now a national hatred was kindled between the two
peoples, which was to be a long continued misfortune

to both of them.
In the reign of Charles IX, the throne of Denmark
was again occupied by a young and ambitious prince,
Christian IV, who determined to subdue all Sweden,
or at least to cripple it so that Denmark would never
again have to fear her neighbor.
When the war began, Charles IX was old and broken
down. His eldest son, the sixteen-year-old Gustavus
Adolphus, became the father's prop in the war. He
had to conduct it alone when, in the autumn of 1611,
Charles IX closed his arduous life.
It was a difficult inheritance that Charles left to
his son. The country was involved in war with three
powers. At the thought of this situation Charles was
often troubled in spirit. But his look brightened when
it fell upon the promising young prince. He saw in
him the one who was to finish what he had not had
time to do. "Ille faciet" (he will do it) he would say,
,
as he stroked the blonde locks of his son. Charles may

well be said to have been a strict and stern ruler. But
his people followed him willingly, for he was the man
"needed for those stormy times.
Gustavus Adolyhus 145
CHAPTER IX
REIGN OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS, 1611-1632
A. INTRODUCTION
His Early Problems were a war with Russia, one

with Denmark, which was still stronger than Sweden,
and a threatened war with Poland, then one of Europe's
most extensive kingdoms. The country thus confronted
was exhausted by domestic and foreign conflicts and
ruled by a youth scarce seventeen years of age.
His Training and Attainments. But the youth had
matured and toughened through plain and simple liv-
ing. One did not learn effeminacy at a court where the
king forbade the court people to bone the herring,
and where the queen is said to have measured out the
thread to the court ladies. When Gustavus was six
years old, his father took him in midwinter on a jour-
ney around the Gulf of Bothnia and through Finland.
It has been said that Charles IX, like the eagle, "early
drove the young out of the nest to learn to fly."
At the age of thirteen Gustavus Adolphus was in-
trusted with receiving ambassadors from other lands,
and surprised them not a little when he conversed with
them in their own language, or at least showed them
that he understood it, no matter what country in Eu-
rope they came from. Latin, which was still
the lan-
guage of culture, he learned to speak and write fluent-

More and more he assisted his fa-
ly at an early age.
ther in the affairs of state. In the Danish war he took
his first lesson as a commander.
His Relation to His People. Sweden could not have

met so successfully the dangerous wars at the opening
of the reign had not the people had the fullest confi-
Gustavus II Adolphus.
dence in their young king. He at once showed power

and ability in no way inferior to his father's and
grandfather's. At the same time he won all hearts by
his kindness. After the stern times of domestic strife,
he came with conciliation. Hence, he could soon count
Gustavus Adolphus 147
among his devoted supporters the sons and kinsmen

of the nobles his father had executed. There was no
longer any danger of civil war. Never before had there
been such unity and harmony in the kingdom. All
classes of society loved their young king and willingly
complied with his exhortation to labor and sacrifice for
their beloved country.
B. THE EARLY WARS

The Danish War. Wild border 'wars with fire and
sword, but no considerable battles, such was still the
warfare between the Scandinavian lands. The Danes
captured Kalmar and Elf sborg, the keys of the king-
dom. The interior of the country, between these two
strongholds, now lay defenseless. From Elfsborg in
the west and Kalmar in the east, Danish armies ad-
vanced into the interior. They planned to meet in the
heart of Sweden and there direct the death thrust
against the independence of the country.
Through dark and dreary forests the Danish armies
moved. When out of the forests the invading armies
reached a community where they expected to find food,
they found the houses burned and all food supplies de-
stroyed. This was the work of the Swedish people
themselves, who blocked the roads, built obstructions,
tore down bridges, and took every opportunity to worry
the enemy on all sides. Gustavus Adolphus had sum-
moned all his people to arms and by his example en-
couraged them to fight and sacrifice. A war of such
hardships was more than Christian's soldiers could en-
dure. They threatened mutiny. The two Danish armies
were forced to retreat.
Both parties now desired peace. It was concluded in

Knared in 1613. Sweden was to pay a sum equal to
a million dollars in our money as a ransom for Elfs-
borg and surrounding territory, which the Danes still
held, and which they were to keep if the ransom was
not paid in six years.
The Elfsborg ransom weighed heavily on the impov-
erished people of Sweden. What such a sum meant at
a time when the kingdom had only one-fifth of its pres-
ent population can easily be imagined, and when one
considers that money had then at least ten times the
purchasing power that it has today. Money was scarce ;
no banks were found with accumulated funds to appeal

to. The Danes did not believe that the ransom could be
collected in the impoverished land. But the money
must be secured. concerned Sweden's only port on
It
the west coast. Both high and low had to bear heavy
byrdens of taxation. When the last coin was paid the
king's own table silver had been converted into coin.
The War with Russia. In this war the Swedes met
with signal successes under the command of Jacob De
la Gardie and Gustavus Adolphus. The Russians were
finally forced to conclude peace at Stolbova, a village

immediately south of Lake Ladoga, in 1617. By this
treaty the Russians ceded Ingria and Eastern Carelia,
thus abandoning their access to the Baltic. By these
acquisitions Sweden's possessions became a contiguous
territory, which was a matter of great importance, es-
pecially during seasons of the year when communica-
tion with Sweden across the Baltic was interrupted.
At a Riksdag assembled shortly after the peace, the
king expressed his gratification over the fact that the
Gustavus Adolphus 149
Russians were now separated from Sweden by seas,

morasses, and rivers. "Now/' he added, "Finland is
separated from Russia by the great Ladoga Lake; and
I hope to God that it shall henceforth be
difficult for
the Russians to jump across that brook."
The War with Poland. The danger from Denmark

and Russia had been happily removed. But Gustavus
Adolphus had his account with Sigismund still unset-
tled. Poland and other Catholic countries
regarded
Gustavus as a usurper of the Swedish throne, and a
traitor to his lawful sovereign, King Sigismund of
Poland. Hence, they refused to recognize him as king
of Sweden. At any time Sigismund might renew his
%
efforts to seize the Swedish throne. What might be

expected should he succeed in such efforts could be seen
in the persecution of Polish Protestants, which his
Jesuit advisers had induced him to institute.
Poland was not an insignificant enemy. It was still
the greatest power in eastern Europe. Its boundaries
extended toward the Danube and the lower Dnieper
and eastward to the vicinity of Moscow. Its nobility
were renowned for their valor. Besides, Poland could
expect aid from the two great Catholic powers, Austria
and Spain. In addition to religious ties Sigismund was
connected by marriage with the House of Austria.
Gustavus Adolphus thought it best not to await the
attack within the boundaries of Sweden, but took the
offensive in 1621, in Livonia, by besieging Riga. This
great commercial city was strongly fortified with walls,
towers, and dikes. The Swedes threw up intrench-
ments. Cannon boomed from both sides. Mortars
belched forth glowing balls and heavy stones. Towers
began to tumble. The Swedes pressed forward under

cover of sheds and trenches. The king himself with
spade in hand worked in the trenches amidst the leaden
showers.
Finally after a month's, siege everything was ready
for the storming of the city. The king had ordered
that at a given signal the whole
army was to rush for-
ward, some with scaling-ladders, others with bundles
of twigs, the latter the soldiers were to hold in front
of them as shields and then throw them by the city
wall to form a way over the wall. The city capitulated
to avoid the horrors of a capture. By further achieve-
ments Gustavus Adolphus made himself master of all
Livonia.
Later, 1626, Gustavus moved the scenes of war to

West Prussia, which at that time belonged to Poland.
Prussia was a prosperous country. Its rivers, Vistula,
Pregel, and Niemen, were the great thoroughfares for
the inland commerce of Poland. Could the Swedes
secure control of their port cities, "the Polish nation
would be seized by the throat," as Axel Oxenstiern ex-
pressed it, and there would be nothing for her to do
but submit to a peace. Gustavus soon made himself
master of the country. The Polish forces coming to
aid in the defense were easily defeated, even when
reinforced by Austrian troops.
Gustavus was often exposed to perilous adventures.
Once when engaged in the thickest of the fight, he was
surrounded by a number of the enemy, who already
regarded him as their prisoner. A Swedish horseman
seeing the situation rushed up to him and handed him
a loaded pistol, saying, "Here, Comrade." The king
The Thirty Years' War 151
quickly pressed the trigger, and one would-be captor

felldead with the butt-end of the pistol he struck an-
;
other, and he fell into a swoon a third one seized the

;
king's sword-belt to drag him But Gustavus quickly

off.
slipped the belt over his head, and the prize gained was
only the belt and the king's hat. Again an enemy
caught the king's arm and raised his saber to deal a
deathblow, when, in the nick of time one of the king's
men felled him by a well-aimed shot. "Never have I
been in a hotter bath," declared Gustavus.
Finally after the Swedes had held the Prussian ports
for three years, the Poles could hold out no longer.
In 1629 they concluded a truce of six years. Sweden
kept Livonia and the right to the rich duties at the
Prussian ports from Courland to Danzig. These reve-
nues were very much needed, for a new war was at
hand, a greater war than any that Sweden had ever
before engaged in.
C. GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR

Origin and Early History of the War. While Gus-
tavus Adolphus was engaged in the Polish War, Ger-
many was being torn asunder by a religious war, which
was destined to last for thirty years. It began in 1618,
with an insurrection of the Protestants in Bohemia
againsttheir Catholic king, who was ruler of the
Austrian crown lands, because he would deprive them
of the rights of their religion.
The insurrection soon spread to Germany over which
the ruler of the Austrian lands was Emperor. Ger-
many was then composed of many larger and smaller
states with their princes and magistrates under the
Emperor. Some were Catholics and others Protestants.

The two parties had long been hostile to each other.
Wallenstein and His Plans. The Emperor, Ferdi-
nand II, authorized the Bohemian nobleman, Albert
von Wallenstein, to raise an army. Large masses of
adventurers from all parts of Europe flocked to his
standard in the hope of plunder. These rough soldiers
feared their commander as a supernatural being. With
his boundless ambition, lone and mysterious, he moved
among his soldiers. He fancied he could read his des-
tiny in the stars. On this alone he relied. It was his
religion.
No one could check the victorious Catholics. Chris-
tian IV of Denmark, who came to the aid of the Prot-
estants, was thoroughly defeated and forced to agree
to take no further part in the war. Wallenstein's forces
spread out over Jutland and the German coasts of the
Baltic. The great commander fairly reveled in his vast
plans, one of which was to build a great fleet in the
Baltic and make the Emperor master of the northern
seas. Emperor Ferdinand had already appointed him
"Admiral of the Baltic and the Ocean."
Sweden's Independence Threatened. Sweden was
thus directly threatened, for what would be her fate if
the Emperor should become lord of the Baltic? What
would happen to her Protestant faith if Protestantism
were suppressed in the neighboring states? The Em-
peror plainly indicated his intention regarding Sweden

and Protestantism by sending troops at this time, 1629,
to aid Sigismund against Gustavus Adolphus, and an-
other army to aid Spain against the Protestant Nether-
lands. Gustavus Adolphus could not remain inactive
The Thirty Years War 9
153
when such dangers threatened. "It is an old woman's

moan and suffer; one should by wise means
solace to
remedy and remove the evil/' he declared. But could
he prevail upon his people to engage in this dangerous
war?
Ever since Gustavus Vasa passed away, the years of
peace had been few in Sweden. Hence, among all the
people there was a deep longing for the blessings of
peace. But should one purchase it by sacrificing future
freedom, and suffer brethren in the faith to perish?
No, rather, then, put forth all the powers of the state.
No one should under such circumstances think of his
own interests and comforts.
The Swedes were, in the language of old Gustavus
Vasa, "a determined people and devoted to great enter-
prises." The Estates agreed to the war and assumed
the burdens of many new taxes. The nobility set a
good example to the other Estates by giving up their
exemptions. By the side of the heavy money taxes
were the "blood taxes" conscriptions, almost annual,
;
took the flower of the youth of the land. The method

of conscription was as follows : All men fit for service
in each district were and divided into
called together
groups of ten. In each group one, the fittest, was
selected. As a rule such were selected as could best be
spared at home.
Gustavits Adolphus' Farewell to His People. In the
spring of 1630 when the fleet lay at Elfsnabben, near
Stockholm, ready to sail away to Germany with the
Swedish regiments, Gustavus Adolphus bade farewell
to the Estates assembled in Stockholm. Most of them
had on other occasions heard the king speak to his
people. Nearly every year a Riksdag had been held, for

Gustavus Adolphus wished to consult with his Estates
in all matters of importance.
Solemn and touching was the moment when Gusta-
vus Adolphus for the last time addressed his Riksdag.
He held in his arms his little daughter Christina, now
in her fourth year. He called God to witness that he
entered upon this war, not for love of adventure or of
war, but to save the Swedish people and their brethren
in the faith. "And as usually happens," he said with
a strange foreboding, "the pitcher is carried to the
well till it finally breaks, so it may also go with me.
After having in many dangers for my country's wel-
fare shed my blood, though hitherto by God's gracious
protection my life has been spared, yet finally I may
have to yield it. Therefore, I would commend you all
to God's gracious care, and pray that after this toil-
some life we may meet together in the heavenly and
eternal life." All eyes were suffused with tears. No
one knew what the future might bear in its bosom.
Gustavus Adolphus in Northern Germany. At mid-
summer time, 1630, the Swedish fleet anchored at
Usedom. Having landed on German soil, Gustavus
Adolphus knelt and invoked the blessing of God upon
his undertaking.
The king at onc$ secured the mouth of the Oder, for
it was along its banks he intended to advance into
Germany. Ever since the peace of Stolbova he had
controlled the Neva. The capture of Riga had made
him master of the Diina, and the truce with Poland
gave him the possession of the mouths of the Niemen,
the Pregel, and the Vistula. Now it concerned the next
Baltic river, the Oder. The river courses were the best
means of transportation.
The people of Pomerania received the Swedish
troops and their king as liberators. How different was
he from the princes and commanders they had seen
before! Stately and majestic he was, but gentle and
unaffected. He spoke kindly and in their own tongue
to the people who had collected to meet their fellow
believers from the other side of the sea. "Ein sanfter,
leutseliger Herr," it was said of him. His true north-
ern appearance the clear, ruddy complexion, the blue
eyes, the golden hair and beard was unusual to the
Germans, and led them to call him the ''Gold King of
the North." Surprised, too, were the Germans at the
disciplineand the fine spirit that prevailed in the
Swedish army.
9
Ghistavus Adolphus Articles of War. The good order
and fine spirit prevailing in the army of Gustavus
Adolphus may ie learned from his Articles of War, in
which among other things are the following:
"The taking of the Name of God in vain by swearing
or cursing is forbidden." The punishment might be
bodily pains or increased duties.
"In order to instill the fear of God in the hearts of
the soldiers there shall be morning and evening wor-
ship conducted in the camp of all the soldiers.
"No loose women shall be tolerated in the camp.
Married women may accompany their husbands if they
so wish.
"Whoever robs or steals cattle or the like in friendly
lands, or from those who bring supplies to the camp,
or from the enemy without permission, shall be pun-
ished as for other robbery or theft. No soldier may

plunder any church or hospital even though the city
may have been taken by storm. No one may use force
against ministers, old men, women, or children.
"Should anyone drink himself drunk with ale or

wine found in the enemy's camp or in any city before
the enemy is fully driven out, he may with impunity be
slain by anyone finding him."
In his own life the king set the example of simple

habits, morality, and godliness. The immoderate
drinking bouts, then common even at courts, Gustavus
detested. It was said of him, "He was a God-fearing
man in all his deeds to the day of his death."
Gustdvus Adolphus' Success in Pomerania. Gusta-

vus Adolphus soon drove out the division of the im-
perial army then in Pomerania, and thus secured
military control of the duchy. It likewise gave him
control of the traffic on the Oder. He was further
cheered by the report that Wallenstein had been dis-
missed from service. His wild hordes had ravaged the
lands of friends and foes alike. His ambitious plans,
too,were equally threatening to all German princes,
whether Catholics or Protestants. The German princes,
therefore, demanded unanimously that the Emperor
should discharge the dreaded commander, or they
would not support him against Sweden and other ene-
mies. Ferdinand was compelled to comply with their
wishes, and Wallenstein was dismissed.
The Siege and Capture of Magdeburg. All the Cath-
olic forceswere now placed under the command of the
old and tried Tilly, who could boast that he had never
9
lost a battle. He now laid

siege to Magdeburg, the most
important city in northern Germany and the firm bul-
wark of Protestantism in the days of persecution. The
city had entered into an alliance with Gustavus Adol-
phus. From the few defenders of the city there now
came to him message after message imploring his aid.
Magdeburg was a free city of the empire. It was not

subject to any local prince, but recognized the imme-
diate suzerainty of the Emperor. The road to Magde-
burg led through Saxony, a Protestant country, whose
ruler, the Elector John George, was also a Protestant.
And yet he was indifferent to the closing in of the
Catholic forces around Magdeburg. He even refused
Gustavus Adolphus a passage through his territory to
relieve the city. Hitherto John George had succeeded
in saving his own skin by keeping on good terms with
the Emperor and betraying his persecuted fellow be-
lievers. He hoped to be able to continue pursuing the
same course. The remaining Protestant princes of any
power Germany were about equally efficient. How
in
would have fared with the Protestants if Gustavus
it
Adolphus had not come to the rescue?

For Magdeburg there was no help. Gustavus Adol-
phus could not force his passage through Saxony, for
the elector's equal to his own in numbers.
army was
Besides a fight between Protestants could not be
thought of. It would have destroyed all hope for the
Protestant cause. And so Magdeburg was stormed by
Tilly's wild hordes. Then followed
scenes of pillage,
murder, and ravishment too horrible to describe.

A
fire broke out and reduced the wealthy city to a heap
15S A History of Sweden
of ruins. Tilly himself wept over the fate of the city

(May, 1631).
The Battle of Breitenfeld, Sept. 7, 1631. After the
fallof Magdeburg came the decisive moment for John
George. Tilly demanded that he unite his troops with
the imperial army and contribute to the support of
these forces. When the elector refused, Tilly led his
greedy hordes into the prosperous fields and villages
of Saxony. Now John George had no other recourse
than to entreat Gustavus Adolphus for help. The two
leaders formed an alliance, united their forces, and
marched against Tilly at Breitenfeld, near Leipsic.
There Tilly took up a favorable position at the top
of a long, sloping plain. Gustavus Adolphus marshaled
his troops on the plain below. The September sun
shone bright over the plain where the fate of millions
yet unborn was that day to be decided. Gustavus him-
self commanded the right wing; Gustav Horn, whom
the king called his "right hand/' commanded the left.
Lennart Torstensson with the artillery was placed be-
fore the center. The Saxon troops, in a body, joined
themselves to the left wing of the Swedish army, in
new and splendid uniforms and shining armor with all
possible finery. Grand, too, was the appearance of
Tilly's regiments. They were made up of well-trained
and seasoned warriors, overbearing through constant
victories. A Swedish eyewitness writes : "Torn, worn,
soiled, our men appeared as against the glittering, gild-
ed, plumed imperialists/' But they were men well-disci-
plined in many a hard fight in the Russian and Polish
wars. And in this army dwelt the trust in God ex-
pressed in the hymn :
"Be not dismayed, thou little flock,
Although the foe's fierce battle shock

Loud on all sides assail thee,
Though o'er thy fall they laugh secure,
Their triumph can not long endure,
Let not thy courage fail thee."
Two methods of warfare were to be tested out that

day. Tilly's army was formed immense squares up
in
to fifty ranks heavy masses, whose attacks hitherto
had always crushed the opponents. Their muskets
were heavy and had to be supported, when fired, by
stays, which the gunner carried with him. They were
fired with a slow-match, and required for loading and
firing not less than ninety-nine hand movements. The

chief weapons for the imperial infantry were not the
muskets, but immense pikes, neary twenty feet long.
The artillery was composed of large siege cannons,
requiring up to fourteen pairs of horses to drag them
to their places.
Gustavus' army, on the other hand, was composed

of small, flexible divisions, in which the musketeers
composed the greater part of the infantry. Their mus-
kets were light, needed no support, and were provided
with flint locks. Hence, with them, three shots could
be fired to the enemy's one. The Swedish cannons had
the same advantage in speed. They were light, could
be drawn by one or two horses. These innovations
were Gustavus Adolphus' own inventions and were to
revolutionize the art of war for the future.
When everything was ready, the king held in his

horse in front of the battle line, bared his head, and
raised his voice in prayer to the Most High for His
protection : "From distant land, from peaceful homes

have we come hither to fight for freedom, for truth,
and for Thy Gospel Grant us victory for Thy Holy
Name's sake. Amen."
The an attack on the Swed-
decisive fight began with
ish right wing by Pappenheim's cavalry. But before
the imperial cavalry could fire their first volley they
were received with so murderous a fire that their
horses shied and turned around. Pappenheim then
made a movement to attack the Swedes in
circuitous
the flank and rear. But Gustavus saw his intention
and gave orders to John Baner to form a new line at
right angles to the first. This was effected. A life-and-
death struggle then followed. Seven times Pappen-
heim's wing cut in on the Swedes, but though twice as
strong, he was driven back each time. The enemy's left
Wing (under Pappenheim) then disappeared in wild
flight.
At the sight of the bitter struggle of his left wing
Tilly had advanced with the rest of his army against
the Saxons. The fine warriors held out against the first
volley, but at the second they "scattered like chaff over
the field," touse Tilly's words. The elector led his men
in the flight.
In the meantime the Swedish left and center had
fought a desperate battle against superior numbers.
By the Saxons' flight the Swedish left was exposed.
But calm and collected, Gustavus Horn performed the
same masterly maneuver on the left wing that John
Baner had done on the right. With unruffled tenacity
his scanty forces received the violent attacks of the
enemy. But they were too few. Whole ranks fell, each
man at his post. Suddenly the enemies checked them-

selves. What had happened? Gustavus Adolphus with
his victorious right wing had swept up the hill, taken
Tilly's cannons, and directed them against Tilly's own
battalions. Tilly's forces then dispersed in flight. In
vain he attempted to check them. He begged, he threat-
ened, he wept in anger. But his men obeyed him not.
Only his faithful veterans remained true. Crippled
and wounded, they fought each in his appointed place.
They formed a square around their old commander
and withdrew in orderly retreat.
The best results of this victory were the overthrow
of the Catholic supremacy and the preservation of the
Protestant faith. Hence, Breitenfeld is one of the
world's decisive battles. The small Swedish nation,
which ever since the Viking Age had lived its own life,
almost unknown beyond the Baltic lands, became
through this victory world famous. Now were gath-
ered the fruits of the seeds planted by Gustavus Vasa
and Olavus Petri and developed under the care of
Charles IX, Gustavus Adolphus, and Axel Oxenstiern.
Sweden's Period of Greatness begins.
Gustavus Adolphits in South Germany. The victory
made Gustavus Adolphus master of the,
at Breitenfeld
line of the Elbe. Now his march concerned Germany's
most important river, the Rhine, where he wished to
liberate the millions of South German Protestants, who
had endured the severest persecutions, and who were
now looking for deliverance. He led his army from
Saxony down into the smiling valley of the Main, to
wealthy South Germany with knightly castles on vine-
clad hills, rich convents, and mighty cities. He came
as the liberator of the oppressed. But the Catholics

feared that he would come as the avenger of all that
his fellow Protestants had suffered. Stricken with fear,
they fled in masses. But Gustavus Adolphus disturbed

no one in his worship. He would not have Protestants
and Catholics oppress each other. Religious freedom
was his noble aim. But the immense wealth of ecclesi-
astical princes, convents, and churches became his
booty.
Gustavus followed the Main to its confluence with

the*Rhine, and took up his winter quarters in Mainz.
Here gathered around the victorious "Gold King from
the North" a brilliant throng of German princes and
ambassadors from all lands. Never has a Swedish king
been more esteemed and honored. Under his command
there was now a force of 100,000 men under different
commanders in various parts of Germany. Only one-
fifth of this army were Swedes. Thus had his army
increased by additions of German Protestants.
Death of Tilly. Recall of Wallenstein. In the battle

of the Lech (April, 1632), in South Germany, Tilly
was mortally wounded and died two weeks later. By
great concessions the Emperor then induced Wallen-
stein toresume the command. Scarcely had he issued
his call for volunteers before an immense army gath-
ered around him. His reappearance on the scene neces-
sitated a complete change in the plans of Gustavus
Adolphus. He had apparently planned to advance along
the Danube to Vienna and there in the hereditary
lands of the Emperor compel him to make peace. But
now Gustavus must prepare to defend central and
163
northern Germany against Wallenstein. He was forced

to withdraw from the line of the Danube.
The Battle of Lutzen. In the late autumn of 1632,
Gustavus Adolphus received the alarming news that
Wallenstein was ravaging Saxony with a view to com-
pelling the elector to break his alliance with the Swed-
ish king. At the report of this danger Gustavus Adol-
phus hastened northward toward Saxony in forced
marches. Wallenstein's army lay near the little town
of Lutzen. Thither now marched the Swedish army
over plowed fields, where the mud clung to the soldiers'
feet and the horses' hoofs sank deep in the soft earth.
On the morning of November 6, a thick mist spread
over the plains of Lutzen, preventing an early engage-
ment. The soldiers were arranged for battle, but could
scarcely distinguish their nearest companions. While
waiting, the king struck up the hymn, "Be not dis-
mayed, thou little flock." The soldiers joined in as the
tones reached them until the soul-stirring sounds from
thousands of throats reverberated over the plain. At
last the mists scattered and the autumn sun burst
forth. The king then drew his sword, folded his hands
about the hilt, and prayed "Jesus, help me today to
:
fight for the glory of Thy Name." He waved the sword

above his head and ordered, "Forward."
In the midst of the battle the mists again shrouded
the battlefield. The sections could no longer hold to-
gether, and the battle resolved itself into a fierce hand-
to-hand conflict. Swords whizzed and muskets flashed.
The king was carried along into the confusion, sep-
arated from his men. He was seen to reel and fall from
the saddle; a bullet had struck his back. One of his
attendants tried to help him onto another horse. But

according to reports, the king was then surrounded by
enemy troopers, who asked who the wounded man was,
and when Gustavus answered, "I am the king of Swed-
en," one of them fired a shot through his head.
The Swedish forces had been driven back. But when
they saw the king's horse, bloodstained and with an
empty running wildly, a terrible foreboding
saddle,
seized them "The king has fallen/' they all burned
all :
with a desire to rush forward and avenge his death*

Their center was largely cut down, yet Wallenstein
was put to rout. The Swedes were masters of the field,
but darkness prevented a pursuit. The victory was
thus not quite complete, for the victors could not scat-
ter and cut down the enemy. And the death of the
great king was an irreparable loss.
AnJ^tinuitejff.. Gustavus AdolpJms. JEallen was

Sweden's greatest king, fallen the greatest son of the
North. As a statesman he had the gift of genius to
survey the world and to judge of the proper time to
act. The world's greatest military genius, Napoleon I,
reckoned Gustavus Adolphus as one of the greatest

commanders of all time, and as one who had trans-
formed the art of war. But that is not all. There was
something out of the ordinary in everything that he
did. His chief greatness lies in the fact that he devoted
his genius to a great and noble end to secure religious
:
freedom to a people oppressed and threatened with its

lossVHis warm human sympathy, his strong and noble
will equaled his keen, penetrating intellect. His warm
patriotism he showed in his deeds and expressed in
words to Axel Oxenstiern: "The majesty of the state
Domestic Development 165
and the Church of God within it are well worthy of the

sacrifice of comfort and even of life."
Among German Protestants he is still cherished in

grateful remembrance, as is shown by the many "Gus-
tavus Adolphus" societies organized by them for the
support of scattered Lutheran congregations in lands
of other faiths. Some of Germany's foremost histori-
ans regard Gustavus Adolphus as the saviour not only
of German Protestantism, but even of German nation-
ality, whose existence was threatened by Spanish
Jesuits and by unpatriotic leaders of mercenary
armies.
D. DOMESTIC DEVELOPMENT UNDER GUSTAVUS

ADOLPHUS
The Administration of Justice. Even in his works of
Pac_ej3rustavus Adolphus Jiad to carry on a campaign
against-fcoth the indolence and the lethargy of the peo-
plejmd âgainst the dishonesty and oppression of the

bailiffs and other officers.- Everywhere in his govern-
ment there was a system and an order as never before.
For the proper administration of justice he established
a ^supreme court of appeal in Stockholm for Sweden
proper, another in Abo for Finland, and later, after
Gusfevus' death, another was established in Jonkoping
for the southern provinces (Gotaland). To his judgeiR
he gave strict orders to administer justice withoijj^
fear or favor.
Development of Commerce. In his untiring journeys
through the country, Gustavus had learned to know
his .people and their wants. That Sweden was a poor
country he had experienced in all his great undertak-
ings. But why might not Sweden become wealthy like

other lands ? Could it not build up a flourishing com-
merce and thriving industries? But to do this he would

have to renew his grandfather's work for trade and
navigation. At the time of his accession the Swedish
cities lay idle, decayed, and in ruins, as he himself
says. The constant wars and the misrule of John III

had destroyed the work of Gustavus Vasa. All foreign
trade was now in the hands of foreigners, who carried
away raw materials and brought them back as manu-
factured products at greatly increased prices. This
evil the king sought to remedy. He tried to stir up
the enterprise of cities by granting them special privi-
leges. Many new were founded. Gothenburg,
cities
which had been destroyed by the Danes in the recent
war, was rebuilt, nearer the sea, in its present location.
Foreigners were permitted to sell their goods in cer-
tain cities only and for a limited time each year, and
only in wholesale quantities.
To encourage Swedish foreign trade men of means
were induced to make investments in trading com-
panies. Such corporations were the Copper Company,
which had the monopoly of exporting the country's
copper output, the most important Swedish export;
and the South Sea Company, Sweden's first attempt
to engage in trade with lands beyond the sea. These
plans of Gustavus Adolphus filled the Dutch, the fore-
most commercial nation of that day, with fear and
jealousy. But they could soon draw a sigh of relief.
There was a dearth of capital in Sweden, and those
who had money would rather spend it for luxuries than
for the country's benefit.
The Mining Industry. In his efforts to build up the

mining industry Gustavus Adolphus followed his fa-
ther's plan.Here, too, capital was needed. This was
secured by inviting a wealthy Hollander, Louis De
Geer, who employed his means in the founding of iron
works in Finspong and about the Dannemora mines.
He filled also another want, that of skillful miners and
iron workers, by inducing a number of them to immi-
grate to Sweden from the part of the Netherlands now
known as Belgium.
Soon there appeared in the former wilds busy activi-
ties that furnished bread and prosperity to thousands.
Ore was mined in masses as never before. Blast fur-
naces and forges blazed and sizzled, forge hammers
boomed, smoke from the charring-stacks filled the for-
ests, waterfalls furnished power for mills, forges, and
shops of many sorts. The example set by these im-
ported workmen and the many new enterprises stirred
up the Swedes, and thus encouraged even other in-
dustries.
The Falun Copper Mine had its most flourishing
period about the middle of the seventeenth century. A
marvelous work has been performed in the recesses of
that mine during the last seven centuries. During that
time this one mine has yielded half a million tons of
pure copper. In output no other mine in the world
equals it.
Agriculture. The government did not give the same

attention to agriculture as to trade, mining, and manu-
facture, as it would not yield revenue as quickly as
the
other industries. That agriculture offers many advan-
tages in other respects was not considered. "The
wel-
fare of the country depends on commerce and naviga-

tion," was one of Gustavus Adolphus' sayings. Such
were the doctrines of statesmen in nearly every coun-
try at that time. The frequent wars were also a hin-
drance to the development of agriculture. On an
average 4,000 of the ablest men of the country were
annually called into military service. And as there was
continual war from 1621 to 1648 one can readily see
what such a tremendous loss of man power meant to
a country of a little over a million of men, women, and
children.
Means of Communication. At this time, too, people
began to realize the importance of good means of com-
munication to a country's industrial life and prosper-
ity. The roads were, in the words of Gustavus Adol-
phus, "so narrow and rocky that they might rather be
called footpaths/' Hence, both men and women usually
traveled on horseback. At times one found the way
blocked by wagoners, who would not turn out, but only
quarrel. Again wagons would sometimes stick in the
mire and could not be pulled out without help. When
the roads were icy and one was to travel up or down
steep hills it was almost a risk of life. A
journey from
Kalmar might require three weeks, or
to Stockholm
dduble the time now required for a voyage between
Stockholm and New York.
"
Gustavus Adolphus began to improve the roads, but
the work did not get fully under way till after his
death, under the administration of Axel Oxenstiern.
The result was a network of fine roads, for that time.
Canals, too, were constructed. Postal service was
established, uniting different parts of the country and
also the country with foreign lands. Postal stations

were established along the main roads, and between
them mail was carried by swift runners.
When the postilion neared the station he was to blow
his horn so that the next runner could be ready to take
up the mail bag without loss of time. Thus mail was
carried day and night without stoppage, regardless of
the weather. Soon horses were provided for the car-
riers, when the speed between stations was to be at a
gallop.
From the post office in Stockholm the first Swedish
newspapers were issued. They were at first small leaf-
lets published by the government and mainly filled with
news of the war and tales of horrid monsters, ghost
adventures, and other terrible happenings.
-
-
Education. The
dearest interests of Gustavus Adol-'
phus werejhis efforts to elevate his. people through ,
education^ and culture, Uppsala University received

from Gustavus Adolphus a_donation of 300 estates,
all lEEa^remairied^ Gustavus Vasa's estates after
of"
Eric's and John's extravagances. The income from

these estates, the so-called Gustavian Hereditaments
(Gustavianska arvegodsen), was designed for the sup-
port of professors and other teachers, for buildings,
library, publications, etc. Even to this day the Univer-
sity derives a large part of its support from this
endowment.
During the reign of Gustavus Adolphus the Swedish
gymnasia had their .beginning. At these institutions
youiig^nen w ere prepared for the university. The first
r
one was founded at VesterSs. These êducational insti-

tutions were open to all, high andTow, and many young

men of poor families have taken advantage of these

free institutions and worked themselves up into promi-
nence in the kingdom.
CHAPTER X
REIGN OF CHRISTINA, 1632-1654
A. THE REGENCY UNDER AXEL OXENSTIERN, 1632-1644

The Board of Regents. Gustavus Adolphus left only
one child, the six-year-old Christina. According to
the Norrkoping Succession Act of 1604, which extend-
ed the succession to the female line, she would at the
age of eighteen become the ruler of Sweden. But who
was to conduct the government during her minority?
Who, indeed, could conduct the great war to a success-
ful end? Fortunately Sweden had one man who was
eminently fitted for the office and one who had no rival
for the position, and that was the great chancellor Axel
Oxenstiern, Gustavus' faithful assistant.
In 1634 a new organic law was enacted, according
to which the kingdom was to be governed during the
minority of the queen by a regency of five high offi-
cers of state, each at the head of a department of gov-
ernment : the Chancellorship, the Departments of Jus-
tice,War and Navy, Foreign Affairs, and Finance.
Axel Oxenstiern as chancellor was one of them. He
now became the virtual ruler of Sweden. Both at home
and in foreign lands, he enjoyed an unusual esteem.
A contemporary French statesman declared that "if
Reign of Christina 171
all the statesmen of

Europe were together on a ship
they should entrust its helm, to Axel Oxenstiern."
The Last Period of the Thirty Years War. In 1634
9
Wallenstein was assassinated by some of his officers.
Axel Oxenstiern.
He had lately been engaged in treasonable plots against

the Emperor. The new imperial commanders attacked
the Protestants in South Germany. The nearest Swed-
ish forces were commanded, one by Bernard of Wei-
mar, the other by Gustav Horn. They united their
forces to save the free city of Nordlingen, which was

besieged by the imperial army. The Protestants were
inferior in numbers and suffered a defeat, 1634. Horn
was taken captive while trying to maintain order and
save the army. No Swedish regiment took part in this
battle.
The were serious for Sweden. At once near-

results
ly all the Protestant states fell away, Saxony tak-
ing the lead. The Elector John George concluded a
separate peace with the Emperor, promising to aid him
in driving the Swedes from Germany without any re-
ward in lands. But with a humiliating dismissal Gus-
tavus Adolphus' people were not to end their heroic
career in Germany. Axel Oxenstiern would see to that.
He sought to steel his colleagues in the government at
home, and suceeded, too, though his own labors and
cares were such that "head and brain would not suf-
fice," as he put it. He finally returned to Sweden and
succeeded in putting through a decision of the govern-
ment to continue the war until Sweden had secured
compensation and their fellow Protestants were made
secure.
The fate of Sweden in Germany now depended on
what John Baner with the only Swedish army left
could do against the Emperor and the elector of Saxony,
who had now become an open enemy. In an interview
with Baner the elector said "The Swedes must hasten
:
to leave Germany, or I will help them along." "You

spoke differently when Tilly appeared before Leipsic,"
reminded Banr,and threatened to "scorch the fingers"
of any one who tried to drive out the Swedes. This he
also did emphatically by defeating a superior force of
tne combined imperial and Saxon armies at Wittstock

in northern Brandenburg, 1636. By this victory he
restored the Swedish military fame.
Baner was often in serious danger. Once while lead-
ing his army along the right bank of the Oder he en-
countered an imperial force of twice his strength, at
the confluence of the Oder and the Warthe. He was
thus shut up in the angle between the two rivers. The
enemy boasted that they had bagged him. But Baner
feigned a march of his army into Poland, thus draw-
ing the enemy's attention that way, while he .quietly
led his army safely across the Oder into Pomerania.
"They had me bagged," he is reported to have said
jocularly, "but forgot to tie the knot."
What unhappy Germany suffered from the march
of armies back and forth can not be described. Large
areas of the richest land in Germany were laid waste.
And of what use was it to cultivate afresh? Soon
wild hordes would come again and destroy it all. The
Swedish soldiers had become nearly as hardened and
savage as the others. With the passing of Gustavus
Adolphus the war had degenerated into a mere strug-
gle for conquest.
On
the death of John Ban6r, the command of the
Swedish army fell to Lennart Torstensson. He had
distinguished himself in the battle of Breitenfeld, but
his services had for a season been interrupted when
he was captured in a hot fight in South Germany. Dur-
ing his captivity in a damp and cold prison, he had
contracted rheumatism so that at times he had to be
carried in a litter. He reverted to Gustavus Adolphus'
plan to transfer the scenes of war to the Emperor's
hereditary possessions Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia,

and Austria. His method of war reminds one also of
Gustavus Adolphus. He sought for instance to spare
as far as possible the peaceable inhabitants of the lands
into which he led his army.
His campaign into the Emperor's lands he sud-
first
denly abandoned, however, and fell back into Saxony.

The imperial forces pursued. The Swedish march be-
came more and more precipitate, and the pursuers in
like measure more and more eager, supposing the
Swedes to be fleeing in fright. When the pursuers
reached the plains of Breitenfeld, one October morn-
ing, 1642, they found themselves face to face with the
Swedish army drawn up in battle array. Torstensson
had conceived the plan of leading his wary opponent
to a decisive battle. The result was a brilliant victory
on the battle field where Gustavus Adolphus had won
his decisive victory eleven years before. Thereupon
Torstensson invaded anew the Emperor's lands, but
was now ordered by the home government to march
against Denmark.*
Through continued victories under Karl Gustav

Wrangel, who succeeded Torstensson, the Swedish
army as well as that of France forced the Emperor, in
1648, to agree to the Peace of Westphalia. A brilliant
assembly of delegates from nearly all European states
had continued during five whole years to negotiate,
bargain, and adjust. The terms of peace accorded equal
*A
peace congress was about to assemble, and Denmark, which had watched
with a jealous eye the leadership of Sweden and her successes, now offered her
services as a mediator. This must at all hazards be prevented. Hence, this
order to Torstensson.
rights to Catholic and Protestant princes in the Ger-

man states. This recognition of Protestantism was
the best fruit of Gustavus Adolphus' participation in
the Thirty Years' War. In the territorial settlement
the treaty accorded to Sweden Hither Pomerania, west
of the Oder, and part of Farther Pomerania, along the
right bank of the Oder ; the islands of Riigen, Usedom,
and Wollin Wismar and the bishoprics of Bremen and
;
Verden. The reason for this scattering of the Swed-

ish possessions is that it gave Sweden control of the
mouths of three German rivers, and the splendid har-
bor of Wismar was the terminus of a fourth line of
transportation is from the Elbe to the Baltic.
that
Sweden had now become one of the greatest Eu-
ropean powers. When the peace was concluded, Chris-
tina had for four years, since 1644, been the ruling
queen of Sweden.
The Danish War, 1643-1645. Through Gustavus
Adolphus' victories in Germany Sweden had become
the chief power in the North. One can readily see how
Denmark must have felt to be thus pushed back from
her leadership. Christian IV did not dare, however,
to resort to force a second time, but instead caused
Sweden trouble in other ways. For centuries Den-
mark had levied toll on all merchant vessels passing
through 6resund. But by agreement Swedish vessels
were exempt from this toll. Now, however, they were
unnecessarily keenly searched and in various ways
annoyed. Denmark's jealousy and overbearance was
more than Sweden could long endure. Furthermore
permanent peace could not be maintained in the North
as long as the boundaries between the kingdoms were
so unnatural as at that time. Gothenburg, Sweden's

only port in the west, was narrowly hemmed in be-
tween the Norwegian Bohuslan and the Danish Hal-
land. Sk&ne, Blekinge, and the Island of Gothland
belonged to Denmark; Jemtland and Herjedalen to
Norway.
As has already been related, Lennart Torstensson,
while commanding the Swedish forces in Germany, re-
ceived an order from home to march against Denmark.
This was in the fall of 1643. At the opening of the new
year he entered Denmark, and in less than a month he
had subdued the Peninsula. Another Swedish army
had invaded SkSne and conquered nearly the whole
province.
On the sea, however, the Danes were more success-
ful. Under the lead of Christian IV, then nearly 70
years old, they fought a great naval battle off the Is-
land of Fehmarn, near the coast of Holstein, with an
equally strong Swedish fleet under the command of
Klas Fleming. The king was wounded and fell, but
rose again, and kept heroically on deck till darkness
put an end to the fight. Neither party could claim the
victory. But Denmark was saved, for the Swedish fleet
was not strong enough to land forces on the Danish
islands. This was the greatest exploit of Denmark's
greatest king.
Soon, however, the Swedes gained the upper hand
on the sea too, and Denmark was compelled to accept
peace. This was concluded in 1645 at Bromsebro on
the border of Smaland and Blekinge. Sweden's chief
gains were Jemtland and Herjedalen from Norway
and Halland and Gothland from Denmark, and unre-
stricted exemption from tolls at Oresund.
B. PERSONAL RULE OP CHRISTINA, 1644WL654

A Picture of the Times. There is a holiday at the
little town of Grenna, The whole town stands rever-
ently waiting down at the bridge. All eyes are turned
to a little flotilla of boats, decorated with crimson dra-
peries, justready to land. From the finest of them a
statelygentleman comes forth. With becoming dignity
he responds to the reverential bows of the mayor and
the council. The burghers on parade present arms.
Who is he on whom this princely homage is bestowed?
He is one of the five high officers of the realm, the
Count of Visingsborg, Per Brahe, who today vouch-
safes a visit to his town.
He is a mighty man, Count Per. By purchases from
the crown and private parties he has greatly extended
his domains. By grants of a generous queen they have
increased still more. He now owns all the lands about
the southern parts of Lake Vettern, except Jonkoping,
and has in addition considerable possessions in Finland
and Uppland. He Sweden's richest count. His proud
is
castle, Visingsborg, strongly fortified with walls and

is
towers. It is beautifully furnished with costly tapes-

tries and hangings, paintings, and polished weapons.
From Visingsborg he rules over his subjects with
princely power (his own statement) He collects taxes
.
from them. He is the chief judge in his domains, and

on Vising he has the power of life and death over
Isle
Yet no one ever hears any complaint that
his subjects.
the count abuses his power in extortions or unjust
decisions. No, a better lord there is none. He visits
the different parts of his vast domains to see that his
ITS A History of Sweden
people are prosperous and comfortable. He has built

roads, improved harbors, and planted fruit trees around
the castle and about the huts of his subjects.
The Privileges of the Nobles. Lands held by the
nobles were more or less exempt from taxation, and
such lands were continually increasing in extent. Many
a warlike exploit had to be rewarded with a grant of
land. Possessions of such men as Axel Oxenstiern,
John Banr, Lennart Torstensson, and Per Brahe
equaled whole provinces. Naturally the government
sought to reward such men for their eminent services
to the state. In critical times neither Gustavus Adol-
phus nor the regency had any other means of secur-
ing funds than to sell crown lands to wealthy nobles.
With every such sale or feudal grant the revenues of
the crown diminished. But the war relentlessly de-
manded money and more money and men in their best
years. Thus ever heavier became the burdens of the
unprivileged classes.
Those were dark days for the peasantry. Their small
holdings were threatened to be swallowed up by the
nobles. Many peasants on crown lands passed by grants
and purchases under lordly masters. One must not
suppose that the tax burdens of the peasants were
lightened by the fact that the lands they now worked
under the lords were more or less exempt from taxa-
tion. No, and arbitrary lords practiced many
cruel
extortions, and and flogging huts
in their prisons
many heart-rending cruelties and injustices were com-
mitted on defenseless subjects.
The peasants complained at a Eiksdag in Christian's
reign "We have heard that in other lands the peasant
:
Reign of Christina, 179
is we fear that the same fate may reach us."

a slave,
Had they deserved such a lot? No, they declared, "We
have taken part in the defense of our spiritual and civil
freedom, we have secured for the kingdom many large
Skokloster on an inlet of Lake Malar.
territories." And now, "should a few have the benefit

of it all?"The Swedish peasantry were wont to expect
relief from the throne. Was it to come?
Life during the Period of Greatness. Many lordly
estates viedwith Visingsborg. Such were De la Gar-
die's Lacko with a beautifully located castle on the
northern shore of Kalland Isle; Axel Oxenstiern's Sod-
ra More in southeastern Sm&land; and Karl Gustav
Wrangel's Skokloster on an inlet of the Malar, where

with the treasures gathered in Polish and German
wars he had reared the proudest castle ever owned by
a private man in Sweden. Its interior was decorated
with masses of splendid weapons, paintings, precious
hangings, ornaments, and books, things saved from
the Thirty Years' War. Thus arose one castle more
magnificent than another.
In these grand halls was- hastily spent the plundered
wealth in feasting and luxurious living. One must,
forsooth, show the foreigner that the Swede was not
only a fine warrior, but was also rich and stylish. The
Swede thought more of being a rich man than of work-
ing himself up to be one. Even the ambassador of
wealthy France declared that luxury in Sweden in
proportion to wealth was greater than in any other
land. Under the glittering surface there was much
coarseness, which astonished cultured foreigners; not
least was the extravagance in food and drink. One
of Gustavus Adolphus* table orders prescribed thirty
dishes for dinner. Of course it was not intended that
each one should eat of all the dishes, but that each one
could have his choice of them.
The long continued camp had inevitably tended
life
to lower social standards among men, and wild drink-
ing bouts with fighting belonged to the order of the
day. But the war had also another result. As in the
viking days, the men returned home not only with
precious plunder, but also with new, fresh impres-
sions from the great world, and with a newborn in-
itiative and aggressiveness, which served the country
in good stead.
The extravagance and love of splendor noted above

did not extend to the peasants. Among them the sim-
ple life prevailed, albeit with coarseness and supersti-
tion. Foreigners were surprised at their hospitality,
a primitive virtue in the North. To them it was the
most natural thing to receive wayfarers as many as
they could house. An English envoy, making the long
journey from Gothenburg to Stockholm, with a large
suite and baggage, tells with some surprise of another
trait of this people. On that long journey he had not
lost a single thing, not a penny's worth.
The Queen and Her Court. Christina had a most re-
markable ability for acquiring knowledge. The learn-
ing of a new language, Greek for instance, she re-
garded as a pastime for spare moments. And this won-
der child had been crammed with all the learning of
the day. But in womanly employments she took no
interest whatever.
The young queen was determined to hold the reins
of government herself. No one was to help her, for
then the honor would not be hers. The great Axel
Oxenstiern was in her way. Away, therefore, with the
old, faithfulservant. He was now for a season to ex-
perience the disfavor of his young ruler. Instead, she
gave her favor to young nobles, whose qualities con-
sisted in brilliant appearance.Foremost among them
was Count Magnus De On him the queen
la Gardie.
showered undeserved distinctions, grants of land, and
gifts of money. At a little more than twenty he was
made a councilor, and shortly afterwards a high offi-
cer of the realm. He did, however, render service to
Swedish culture by the generous support he gave to
artists and men of science. This he did especially as

chief executive of Uppsala University.
The Queen's Extravagance. Christina's lavishness

in bestowing lands and titles exceeded all reasonable
Queen Christina.
limits. She more than doubled the number of noble

families and created five times as many counts and
barons as there had been before. All these had to be
provided with appropriate holdings. Finally she had
to insert in the deed of gift the phrase "Provided the
:
land not already granted to another." Her father,

is
it is had also greatly favored the nobility. The

true,
noblemen were, at the time, almost the only persons
who possessed the culture required for government
service. But Gustavus Adolphus also demanded that
they should serve their country either with the sword
or "the learned arts." No one, as he expressed it, was
allowed to "lie at home on the rubbish." To the order
of the nobles Gustavus Adolphus raised only such of
the commons as had distinguished themselves in war
or peace.
Christina on the other hand bestowed the honors on
a large number of unworthy persons. The holdings of
the nobility finally embraced more than half the land
of the kingdom. The unprivileged classes complained
of their heavy burdens, and requested that the state
should take back the land which the nobles had seized.
In some quarters the peasants were so embittered that
they threatened to "slay all the nobles."
Christina's Decision to Abdicate. The queen realized
very well that a change must be made, but she did not
wish to make it herself. She delighted to have about
her a powerful and brilliant nobility and never wished
to offend this social class. She soon found a way of
escaping the difficulty. She would abdicate her crown
and leave her dull fatherland forever. To this decision
other causes contributed. Christina had never been

able to reconcile herself to the strict Lutheran doctrine.
She thought the Protestant services monotonous and
dull. It suit the dull, uncultured Northerner,
might
but as for her, she was attracted to the livelier South,
its cultured people, its time-honored church with its
splendor and wealth. There she would live in the midst

of art creations, poetry, and science as queen in the
world of genius. There would her rich endowments of
genius be fully appreciated. And what wonder and
admiration would the act she was about to perform ex-
cite all over Europe, when she at the height of power,
young and admired, voluntarily laid down her crown !
Christina was the last legal heir to the throne of the

Vasa family, and had formed a definite decision never
to marry. She had prevailed on the council and the
Estates to accept her cousin, Charles Gustavus, as her
successor to the throne. He was the son of the daugh-
ter of Charles IX, and Count Palatine of Zweibrucken.
His family is therefore known as the Palatinate Fam-
ily.
The Abdication. At a Riksdag in 1654 she carried

out her decision, after having secured for herself a
sufficient annual allowance from Sweden. She ap-
peared before the Estates in royal attire. Her letter
of abdication was whereupon she delivered the
read,
crown, the scepter, and the mound to the ministry, and
laid aside the coronation robe. She then appeared robed
in white and "spoke so beautifully and so freely," says
Per Brahe, in his diary. "At times her voice almost
broke. Her majesty brought tears to the eyes of many
an honest man and woman. She appeared as beautiful
as an angel." "She is after all the daughter of the
great Gustavus," sighed the aged Axel Oxenstiern, who
was soon to lay his weary head to rest forever.
Among those present at this ceremony was an Eng-
lish envoy. He relates among other things how the
speakers of the four Estates Nobility, Clergy, Burgh-
Reign of Christina, 185
ers, and Peasants each in order presented his re-

grets at the queen's decision. With special interest he
dwells upon the presentations of one of them, the
speaker for the peasants. "A simple peasant with nail-
studded shoes and in peasant's garb stepped forward,
and in his plain speech said, 'What is Your Majesty
about to do? It grieves us to hear you talk of desert-
ing those who love you as we do. If you leave this

great kingdom, both you and we will have occasion to
regret it in deep sorrow when it is too late. Therefore
my comrades and I pray Your Majesty to think seri-
ously on this matter. Continue in the harness, Your
Majesty, and be the forward horse as long as you live.
We will aid you as well as we can, and pull the load.
Your father was an honest man and a good king and
active in the world. We
followed him, obeyed him, and
loved him during days. You are his only child,
all his
and we love you with all our heart. The Count is an

honorable man, and when his time comes we will do
our duty by him. But as long as you live we would not
part from you. Therefore we pray Your Majesty, do
not part from us/
"After having thus spoken, he stepped forward
without ceremony and took the queen's hand with a
hearty shake and kissed it two or three times. Then
he turned away, and from his pocket drew a coarse
handkerchief, and wiped the tears from his eyes."
This plain peasant, in his homespun clothes before
the queen and her brilliant surroundings, was perhaps
the most remarkable thing the foreign diplomats saw
in Sweden, during a century when the tiller of the soil
in nearly every other country in Europe was a serf.

Christina's Departure. Immediately after this, Chris-

tina left her native land. On the way to Rome, the
daughter of Gustavus Adolphus renounced the faith
for which her father had laid down his life, and es-
poused the Roman faith. In Rome she expected to
gain the happiness she had pictured to herself. But
she could not flee from herself, or from her restless,
fickle nature. She made two subsequent visits to her
native land in the vain hope of having her title to the
Swedish throne restored. These visits were of short
duration, as she was forbidden her Catholic worship.
She returned to Rome, where she died April 19, 1689.
She was buried in St. Peter's, in Rome.
CHAPTER XI
REIGN OF CHARLES X GUSTAVUS, 1654-1660
A. INTRODUCTION
The Palatinate Family. With the abdication of

Christina/ in 1654, the House of Vasa came to an end.
The new Family received its name from the German
Palatinate of Zweibrucken. During the Thirty Years'
War, Count Palatine John Casimir and his wife Cather-
ine, sister of Gustavus Adolphus, driven from their
home in Germany, found refuge in Sweden. Here their
son Charles Gustavus was born and grew up in the
same simple manner as his mother and his uncle, Gus-
tavus Adolphus, had done before him.
Though the family derived its name from Germany,
Charles Gustavus was in language, sympathies, and
Reign of Charles Gustavus 187
patriotism thoroughly Swedish. With enthusiasm he

seized the opportunity of learning the art of war un-
der the command of Lennart Torstensson, He soon
won the confidence of his commander and the devotion
Charles X Gustavus.
of his soldiers, and became the last Swedish comman-

der in the Thirty Years' War. Full of youthful vigor
and energy he now ascended the Swedish throne.
The Resumption (Reduktionen) It was a most un-
.
pleasant task Christina had left to her successor. To

restore to the crown what she had thoughtlessly given
away was the only possible way to supply the means
for the country's necessary expenses. Only thus could

the complaints of the peasantry be quieted and good
will restored. Charles Gustavus knew what he wanted.
At his first Riksdag he induced the nobles to agree to
a Resumption by the crown of one-fourth of the estates
granted after the death of Gustavus Adolphus.
B. THE POLISH WAR, 1655-1660

Object and Cause of the War. After Sweden had
once begun to make conquests on the other side of the
Baltic, her aim was to secure all the shores of that sea,
and thus convert it into a Swedish lake. By this means
Sweden might mouths of all the
levy port duties at the
Polish rivers, and thus tax all Poland's commerce as
she did that of Russia and North Germany. Thus she
could secure the means for keeping up her position as
a great power. Such control of the Baltic had loomed
before the eyes of Gustavus Adolphus. It was to be-
come the chief aim of Charles Gustavus' policy.
Poland and Russia were engaged in a life-and-death
struggle. Russia was about to extend her control over
Poland's coast lands, thus reaching the Baltic, and
breaking down the wall raised against her by Gusta-
vus Adolphus. This plan Sweden must oppose at all
costs.
The Campaigns. As on a triumphal march Charles
Gustavus began his invasion of Poland at the head of
a magnificent army. He was soon master of the greater
part of the land. Europe was amazed. But suddenly
there was an angry uprising of the people against the
heretical strangers,who plundered their churches and
convents. The Swedes marched rapidly through the
War with Denmark 189
country in all directions and won in all engagements.

But immediately the enemy rose again, well organized
and reinforced. In the meantime the Swedish forces
began to dwindle more and more. To deal the Poles a
decisive blow, the king entered into an alliance with
the Elector of Brandenburg, who also sought to in-
crease his possessions at the expense of Poland. With
the combined force of 18,000 men the allies after a
three days' conflict triumphed over 50,000 Poles at
Warsaw, 1656. The great victory had, however, no
important results. The Swedish army was too weak
to pursue the enemy, and the elector, who would not
allow his ally any advantages, refused to accompany
him southward.
C. THE FIRST WAR WITH DENMARK, 1657-1658

The Opening of the War. While Charles Gustavus
was thus engaged in the Polish War, the king of Den-
mark, Frederick III, resolved to attempt to wrest from
Sweden what she had taken from Denmark a decade
before. But before Frederick was well aware of it, the
king of Sweden had left Poland, crossed North Ger-
many, and appeared in Jutland. This was in the late
summer of 1657. The Swedish army was small, but it
was made up of the world's foremost warriors, trained
and toughened in numerous conflicts. The Danish
forces, on the other hand, were untrained. Without
meeting with any serious resistence, the Swedes made
themselves masters of all Jutland.
Crossing the Little Belt. 'Even nature came to the

aid of the Swedes. In January, 1658, the cold became
so intense that the Little Belt froze over. When the

sun arose on January 30, the Swedish army appeared
in battle array on the ice of Little Belt. On the shore
of the Isle of Fyen the Danes stood waiting. At the
weakest point of the ice the horsemen dismounted
and led their horses. The ice rose and fell under them,
but did not break. The regiments that first arrived
fell upon the Danes. Suddenly from over the ice came
a cry of distress. The sea had opened and two troops

of cavalry had disappeared in the deep. The other
forces coming up behind stopped. Would their fate be
the same? The king hurried back to the edge of the
break at the risk of his life and by his example calmed
his men, who in scattered bands happily got across.
The enemy was beaten and the island taken.
Crossing the Great Belt. But the most dangerous
part of the enterprise remained the crossing of the
Great Belt, for the goal was Copenhagen. The king
intrusted to his adjutant, the able and brave Eric
Dahlberg, the investigation of the ice. He had won
the king's favor in a high degree by his courage and
ability as an engineer. He returned with the assurance
that the ice would carry. Then the king struck his
hands together with enthusiasm and exclaimed "Now,
:
brother Frederick, we will converse together in good

Swedish."
The same night the army began the march toward
Langeland. "It was," says an accompanying French
ambassador, "something awful to travel by night over
this field of ice, where the tramp of the horses had
melted the snow so that water stood over nineteen
inches deep on the ice, and where one feared every
moment to find open places in the sea." At noon the

forces reached the eastern coast of the island of Lange-
land. Before them they could see only a waste sheet of
snow and icefor the channel between Langeland and
;
Laland is fourteen miles wide. But no rest. Like a dark,

curling line appeared the marching army across the
snow. At the head rode Eric Dahlberg showing the
way. By and by a bluish line appeared in the east. It
was Inland. By dusk the army again reached land.
From there the march was rapid across Laland and
Falster to Seeland's southern point. Thus was com-
pleted this exploit, which has no parallel in all history,
vying in boldness with Hannibal's and Napoleon's
crossing the Alps.
The Treaty of Roskilde. The fortifications of Copen-
hagen had fallen into decay, the garrison was insuffi-
cient, and the people were paralyzed with fear, Den-
mark's fate was sealed. By the Treaty of Roskilde, 1658,
Sweden acquired from Denmark Sk&ne, Blekinge, and
Bornholm from Norway Bohuslan and the province of
;
Trondhjem. By its two attacks on Denmark from the

German side Sweden proper had acquired natural
boundaries and largest extent of territory.
its
Denmark was considerably weakened by these losses.

In Skane she lost one of her chief parts, the home of
her mightiest peasants and her most celebrated nobil-
ity.
D. THE SECOND WAR WITH DENMARK, 1658-1660
Cause of the War. A stipulation in the Treaty of

Roskilde provided that Sweden and Denmark should
fleets from the Baltic. But
jointly exclude all hostile
SWEDEN
1658
f OF ,
i.marY..,(\ us*-
4a PRUSSIA/
^Stra\
v stettm? /WEST
owittstock -(..PRUSSIA.,
^^* Miles
200 500
how could Charles Gustavus hope to secure a willing

ally in apower with which he had just fought a cam-
paign of life and death? He was soon to find that he
had thoroughly deceived himself and that from Den-
mark he could expect not aid but revenge at the first
opportunity. "Better forestall than.be forestalled," he
thought, and decided to convert Denmark and Norway
into Swedish provinces.
Siege and Storming of CopenJiagen. Within six
months after the treaty of Roskilde, Charles Gustavus
with an army appeared before Copenhagen a second
time. The plan was to storm the city at once. Its forti-
fications were in a dilapidated condition the dikes were
;
in manyplaces dry the walls could in many places be

;
ridden or driven over. But indignation and a sense of

danger filled the people with the courage of despair.
When King Frederick was advised to flee he answered :
"I will die in my capital like the bird in its nest." The
city officials with the assent of the people pledged him
their lives for the defense of the fatherland. Every
man became a warrior. The students armed them--
selves; the highest men in the state seized the spade
to work at the walls women pushed wheelbarrows ancj
;
encouraged the men.

At the sight of Copenhagen's determined efforts at
defense Charles Gustavus' face clouded. He became
wary and held a council of war. Eric Dahlberg who
had carefully examined the fortifications earnestly ad-
vised him to storm the city at once; he would under-
take to drive a wagon over the wall in front of the
storming army. But most of the high officers advised
against it, as the army was too weak for storming.
This time the king did not follow Dahlberg's advice,

but adopted the fatal plan of formally investing the
city.
At the opening of the year 1659, when the cold had
closed the sea to the fleets, he decided to storm the
place. It was a hazardous attempt as the defenders
were superior in numbers to the besiegers. The soldiers
were shrouded in white robes to make them less con-
spicuous against the snow. Silently they approached
the walls. Everything seemed to go well as had been
planned. Scaling ladders were placed against the icy
walls, andsoldiers began climbing up, when suddenly
cannons flashed from the walls. The plan had been
revealed to the Danes, and they were ready for the de-
fense. The besiegers were met with a deadly musket
fire, volleys of stones rained down upon them and
streams of scalding water drenched them. Beneath
the walls were heaps of dead and dying. "That night
the Danish people performed their greatest military
achievement in historic times," says a celebrated Dan-
ish historian.
Finally Charles Gustavus was compelled to give the
signal for retreat. But those who supposed that he had
given up his plans deceived themselves. After some
time he repaired to Sweden and called a Riksdag to
meet in Gothenburg, to secure new levies and appro-
priations for the war. Having arrived in Gothenburg,
he was suddenly seized .with a fever and was snatched
away in the flower of his age, February 13, 1660. To
the last moment he worked as untiringly as in the days
of his health. In vain his physicians advised him to
rest. Fearlessly he met death, which he had so often
faced on battle fields.
Reign of Charles XI 195
CHAPTER XII
REIGN OF CHARLES XI, 1660-1697
A. PERIOD OP THE REGENCY, 1660-1672
The Regency. In the midst of wars Charles Gusta-

vus passed away, leaving the kingdom to a child of
four, his son Charles. Again Sweden had a board of
regents. It was composed of the queen mother and the
five chief ministers of state. Questions on which the
regents could not agree were to be decided by the whole

council.
Peace Treaties. The most important duty of the re-

gency was to secure peace for the overburdened peo-
ple. It succeeded beyond expectations. With Poland
peace was concluded at Oliva, a cloister near Danzig,
in 1660. By this peace Livonia was permanently ceded
to Sweden. By it, too, was ended the century-long
struggle for the possession of the Baltic Provinces.*
The same year peace was made with Denmark in Co-
penhagen. By this treaty Denmark recovered Born-
holm and the province of Trondhjem, and the bounda-
ries of the three northern countries were fixed as they
have ever since remained.
Misrule of the Regency. In this regency there was
unfortunately no such man as Axel Oxenstiern. There
were too many who wished to play masters, hence, the
*By this treaty the king of Poland renounced his claim to the Swedish
throne. In this treaty, too, Brandenburg and the Emperor were included. Peace
on the basis of status quo was concluded at Kardis with Russia in 1661.
government was divided and weak. The worst was,

however, its extravagance. They distributed large
numbers of estates, and most liberally to themselves.
The resources of the realm diminished as in Christina's
day. Means were not found for even the most necessary
expenses. Government officials and servants could not
The University of Lund.
get their salaries. They almost had to beg their bread,

or resort to accepting bribes. Soldiers deserted in
masses to escape starvation, and in the harbors costly
ships lay idle and rotting.
For and mismanagement the most
this extravagance
among the regents was Magnus De la Gardie.
culpable
From his many estates he had an immense income.
But "he could have consumed whole kingdoms had they
been in his power." So declared a contemporary.
Redeeming Features. The Regency has, however,

some good to its credit. It did much for the nationali-
zation of the newly acquired provinces, among other
things the founding of the University of Lund (1668).
During this time, too, the Swedish National Bank
(Sveriges riksbank) was founded, which the Estates
took over. In time it became highly serviceable to in-
dustries by aiding new enterprises with loans.
B. THE PERSONAL RULE OF CHARLES XI, 1672-1697

His Education and Character. At the age of seven-
teen Charles XI was declared of age at a Riksdag in
Stockholm, 1672. At this time he was a young sports-
man, whose chief delights were wild rides, hunting,
and military exploits.
His education had been sadly neglected, another in-
stance of the carelessness of the regency. He had not
acquired the knowledge necessary for the government
of a kingdom, and what was worse, he had not learned
to govern himself. It is true he was justly praised for
moral uprightness, justice, and love of truth; but he
might become perfectly beside himself with anger. At
military drill, for instance, one might see him strike
officers about the ears with the flat of his sword.
The War with Denmark. When Christian V of Den-
mark learned the unfortunate condition of Sweden, he
declared war in 1675, hoping to regain what his coun-
try had lost to Sweden. Denmark's domestic affairs

were greatly improved since the days of Charles X.
The indifference of the nobles to their country during
the last three wars with Sweden had aroused a fierce
rage among the unprivileged classes against those "in-
famous robbers and traitors to the kingdom." When

in the last war Denmark's independence was at stake,
it was only Copenhagen's burghers and the king that
Charles XI.
had sacrificed for the defense of the country. The al-

liance between the king and the burghers prevailed
when the three higher estates were summoned to a
convention at Copenhagen in 1660.
The burghers and clergy proposed that the crown

of Denmark should be made hereditary in recognition
of Fredrick Ill's services in the war. The council and
nobles opposed the measure. Then the gates were closed
so that the obstinate nobles could not escape, and the
burghers began to arm themselves. The nobles were
thus frightened into yielding. Shortly after this the
king published new laws, which made him an absolute
sovereign. No one now dared oppose him.
The one who really governed the kingdom during
the first years of Christian's reign was his friend and
chancellor, Griffenfeldt. Though strong and healthy,
the king was, in natural endowments, far inferior to
his highly gifted minister. Griffenfeldt wished to unite
the northern kingdoms in an alliance against other
powers. But he was defeated by his jealous associates
and other opponents. They prevailed on the king to de-
clare war on Sweden, to arrest Griffenfeldt and accuse
him of treason against the state. The stroke came as a
clap of thunder from a clear sky. The chancellor could
not be convicted of the crime, but was nevertheless
condemned to death. Just before the execution was
to take place he was pardoned, but was kept in prison
till shortly before his death.
When the war opened, Charles XI placed his reliance
on his fleet. With
he hoped to ward off the war from
it
Sweden and effect a landing on Seeland. But when the

ships were finally ready to put to sea they were met
by autumn storms. The cordage of the ships was then
found to be rotten, and the ships were left without
both sails and anchors. Unwholesome food and lack
of fresh water had already caused sickness on board.
The rough sea incapacitated the recruits so that, for

instance, on one ship of 200 men only 11 were fit for
service. The ships were mainly left to drift. To meet
an enemy with a fleet that could not manage itself 'was
not to be thought of, so there was nothing to do but
to return to Stockholm.
The inexperienced youth who was to direct the king-
dom realized that his guardians had neglected their
duties, but as yet he did not know the full extent of
the evil. He hastened to the naval storehouse and
discovered the old rottencordage used for naval
equipment. He turned to the admiralty and asked
the officials why they had managed the fleet so poorly.
They replied that funds were lacking. Then he re-
paired to the treasury department. The accounts were
examined and it was found that the report of the ad-
miralty was all too true. Upon further inquiry he
found that the revenues for the coming year were al-
ready spent. His head was in a whirl. There seemed
to be no one that he could depend on. He decided to
take charge of all himself. He asked no advice. He
gave orders. The youth had become a man.
During the winter, the king devoted himself to fit-
ting out the fleet, which put to sea in the spring of
1676 in good order, but under a land commander and
with a crew called by the Danes "only farm hands
dipped in water." The Swedish admiral sought a battle.
Followed by the Danish fleet he sailed with a strong
wind toward the southern point of (Hand, where he
decided to give battle, and gave orders to face about.
But in his eagerness he forgot that the admiral's ship
had the lower gun ports open to be ready to give a
tteign of Charles XI 201
broadside. In the turning of the ship the water rushed

in, and the ship nearly captized. A
general confusion
ensued. The men standing at the cannons with burning
fuses dropped them. Fire broke out and spread to the
powder magazine. A roaring fiery pillar pierced the
air,and in another moment only a few scattered frag-
ments were left of the proudest war vessel in the
North. In terror the fleet scattered. But Klas Uggla
with four ships held out against fifteen of the enemy's
largest ships until his own ship was fired, when he
threw himself into the sea and perished.
The Danes were now masters in the Baltic. Any at-
tempt make a landing on Seeland was now out of

to
the question. Instead the Danes now crossed the Sound
and conquered Skane. The peasants in Skne, who
were still Danish in spirit, thought the war was over
and Skane restored to Denmark. In the forests along
the borders of Sm&land and Blekinge they gathered in
bands under the name of snappers and plundered the
Swedish peasants, and under bold leaders attacked
small divisions of the Swedish army. Their captives
were tortured to death with such cruelty that veterans
of the Thirty Years' War declared they had never seen
anything like it. It is related that the king himself had
a narrow escape from the snappers while visiting the
pastor in Ahus. In haste he climbed up into the chim-
ney, and the minister shut the damper on which the
king rested while the snappers ransacked every nook
and corner of the house without finding their prey.
At the news of these disasters on land and sea the
king was seized with dumb despair. He soon, however,
roused himself from his stupor and resolved to risk a
decisive battleand conquer or die. One cold December

morning Swedish and Danish armies met
in 1676, the
at Lund, Charles advanced with the right wing, shout-
ing to his men, "Remember you are Swedes." His
horse was shot under him, but he mounted a new one,
and mingled in the hottest hand-to-hand fight. After
several hot encounters the Danish left wing broke in
wild flight, while Charles pursued. Being informed
that his center and left wing were about to give way,
he hurried to their aid at full speed. At the sight of
their king the soldiers were fired with new courage.
A murderous fight followed. The enemy's lines were
crowded into a clump. Their cavalry sought safety in
flight. The infantry were cut down or captured. The
battlewas one of the bloodiest ever fought by Swedes.
Half of the combatants fell on each side.
After the battle of Lund, the Swedes won back Skane
step by Charles celebrated the day of that battle
step.
every year; not with noise or great festivities, but in
the quietude of his chamber, he rendered thanks to
God. By the Treaty of Lund, in 1679, Sweden was left
with its territory undiminished.
Johan Gyllenstierna. Charles XI could well have

repeated the words of Gustavus Vasa that he had re-
ceived "a wasted and paralyzed kingdom." As in the
days of Gustavus Vasa, there was even now wealth
among a class of people in the midst of the general
poverty. During the dark days of trial, he decided
upon a more thorough resumption of alienated estates
than that of his father. In this determination he was
supported by a man who had won his confidence during
the war. This was the councilor Johan Gyllenstierna.
"He is a hero in war as in peace," said Charles of him.

Nothing seemed too difficult for this strong giant, who
with his powerful hands could straighten out a horse-
shoe.
That members of his class hated him for his recom-
mendations to the king and called him Stor-Jon (Big
John) he cared not; for he saw what the country
needed for its salvation. He advised the king to have
the absolutism which he had assumed during the war
confirmed by an act of the Riksdag, and carry through
a thorough resumption. Only through such means
could the strength of Sweden be restored. But he was
not to live to see his plans carried out. Shortly after
the peace, he was carried off by a sudden fever in the
fullstrength of his manhood. He is said to have ut-
tered on his deathbed, "I die content, for I know that
Sweden will for many years be governed on my prin-
ciples."
Inquiry into the Affairs of the Regency. The king

placed his hopes on the Riksdag summoned in 1680.
It was felt throughout the kingdom that important
matters would be decided at this Riksdag, and that the
hostility among the classes would here come to an issue.
After vehement discussion, it was decided that the

king's guardians should be held accountable for their
mismanagement and should reimburse the state for
the losses it had sustained. The inquiry was to be
conducted by a high commission. Not only the regents,
but all the members of the council as well were made
amenable to this commission. The inquiry fell heavily
on the great lords or their heirs, who were sentenced
to pay large sums into the treasury. This inquiry
was
the first blow It fell on, the men

to the great nobles.
who had mismanaged the affairs of the government.
But yet harder blows were to follow, blows to fall upon
the entire class, whose leading men had abused their
power and wealth.
The Resumption. Immediately after the establish-
ment of this commission, the three unprivileged
Estates presented to the king a joint memorial for a
thorough resumption. The king was well informed of
what was coming. He left it to the nobles to answer.
For a long time the great lords objected, but they had
no effective remedy to propose in its place. The result
was a resolution by the nobles that the countships,
baronies, and all other large grants should be restored
to the crown. A special commission was appointed to
carry out this decision.
But what was secured through the resumption act
of 1680 did not suffice for the payment of the national
debt. Therefore the resumption was extended at the
next Riksdag, in 1682, to the smaller grants as well.
The burden thus fell on the lesser nobility, too. No
wonder the nobility were embittered beyond measure.
No one now felt secure in his possessions. Many a
small holder of land, barely sufficient for a living, was
visited by the crown and district bailiffs and informed
that his land had once been a crown possession and
would accordingly be confiscated. The owner had per-
haps never had an inkling of this matter. He or his
ancestors had bought the place. "Show then that it
has never been royal domain/' declared the officers.
Thus the owner was shorn of house and lands.
The king himself was untiring in his work of confis-
cation. Throughout the land cries and lamentations

were heard against these severe measures. Not only
men, but helpless widows, left destitute, came to Stock-
holm to implore the king for mercy. But he pursued
his course unmoved, holding fast to his principle that
the public weal is paramount to that of the individual.
The king had been stirred to deep indignation at the
evils brought on by laxity, hence, his unyielding stern-
ness. He had seen his kingdom paralyzed and dishon-
ored through the lack of means. It was not to happen
again, rather let the individual suffer. Every mite he
collected went to the upbuilding of the state, not a
penny to amusements, pomp, or display, nor to his
own personal use.
The chief significance of the Inquiry and the Re-
sumption was that the power of the great nobles was
forever broken, De la Gardie was permitted to hold
only one small estate, where he spent his last years in
poverty and complaint. It was the end of petty princes,
boasting of their "courts" and "subjects/' The free-
dom of the people was secured.
Absolutism. We have seen that during the war the

king took matters in his own hands and did not consult
his council. But this increase in the royal power did
not accord with the law of the land. The king must
therefore have the law changed by the Estates. He had
need of this power continually, for powerful forces
were working to undo the Resumption. He therefore
inquired of the Riksdag, in 1680, whether he had
to
consult the council when he took measures regarding

the government of the realm. The Estates gave a writ-
ten reply to the effect that the councilors were simply
the king's faithful servants, whom he could consult

when he pleased, and that the decision always rested
with His Majesty, who as governor of his own God-
given heritage was responsible to God alone for his
acts-
At the Riksdag in 1682, the turn came to the power
of the Estates themselves. The king induced them to
pass an act giving him the right to make laws without
the consent of the Estates. Thus absolutism was estab-
lished in Sweden as it had previously been established
in Denmark and in several other lands. When the next
Riksdag was summoned the members on their way to
Stockholm could read the following irritating lines on
some of the milestones :
"What's to be done is e'en now done,

Ye, legislators, need not run."
It was true enough. The Estates only bowed and

assented to everything His Majesty proposed. Their
humility knew no bounds. The king was called "an
absolute and all-commanding king with power to gov-
ern his kingdom according to his own pleasure." Even
the power of taxation passed from the Estates. The
proceeds from the inquest of the regents and the re-
sumption of grants furnished the king with increased
revenues so that he had no need of extra taxes and
could manage with the incomes that accrued without
the acts of the Estates.
Naval Defenses. With the naval defense Charles
had to start practically anew. The late war had dem-
onstrated the unsuitableness of Stockholm as a chief
naval station. There the fleet was usually icebound
till late in the spring, and in its passage through the
archipelago nearly all winds were needed, thus causing

much delay. In the meantime an enemy might do much
damage along the country's coasts. Hence, there was
founded under the able supervision of Hans Wacht-
meister a new naval base with docks and yards, which
received the name of Karlskrona. Under his super-
was built a strong fleet at this place.
vision, too, there
But Charles was not one to abuse his country's powers.
He had seen too much of the miseries of war to plunge
his country into that evil.
The Peasantry. Like a father Charles cared for the
interests of the peasantry. He had freed the peasants
from the oppression of the nobles. They need no more
fear imprisonment and torture in the castles of the
lords. By watchful care that justice was evenly ad-
ministered he contributed not a little to the general
welfare. Thus he wrote to all the governors of the
kingdom, "It is our gracious will and order that ye at
all times diligently and without fail listen to the com-
plaints of the people and render assistance, so that no

one complain that he has failed to get a hearing
may
and to receive help in what is right and possible."
Charles felt most at home with the peasantry, hence,
the nobles gave him the same name as Charles IX had
received from them. On his many journeys through
the country he inquired into the conditions of the peo-
ple. He would then usually come riding, wearing a
gray cloak. Many songs are extant of the journeys of
"Gray Cloak."
Church and Education. Since the days of Charles IX
no king had done so much for the Church as Charles
XL It received order and stability through his Church
Law, which in its main features survives to the present

day. The new Catechism and Hymnal (Psalmbok)
also contributed to good churchly order. Hitherto it
had often been left to the whims of the publishers what
hymns should be included in the hymn books.

The Church Law served also as a school regulation.
Charles had himself felt the want of a more thorough
education. He often wished that as a child he could
have had a chance to acquire learning. Hence, he was
all the more eager to spread learning and culture
among his people.

The king's chief ad-
viser in church matters
was Bishop, later Arch-
bishop,Hakan Spegel, a
prominent hymn writer
and one of the noblest
characters of the Swed-
ish Church. The king
also held in high esteem
the able and courageous
Bishop Jesper Sved-
berg, who labored most
zealously for
the en-
lightenment and culture H&kan Spegel.
of the Swedish people.
Witchcraft. We, who at Easter time are wont to jest

about witches riding through the air to the witches'
sabbath, find it hard to realize that two and a half
centuries ago even the most learned men fully believed
that women could enter into a league with the devil,
and from him receive power to practice witchcraft, to
work evil to men and animals. If a plague broke out

in a community it was believed that some witch had
caused it. If failure of crops occurred, if fire broke
out, if a cow failed to give milk, or gave poor milk
all such calamities were ascribed to witchcraft. Soon
the unhappy victim, the supposed witch, was discov-

ered. No punishment could be too severe for so hein-
ous a sin.
Ever since the Middle Ages the spiritual and tem-

poral powers had united in efforts to drive out the evil
spirit from such possessed persons. The unhappy vic-
tims accused of witchcraft were first forced by the use
of the most cruel torture to confess and were then
burned at the stake. Like a pestilence the infection
spread to all lands, and it is believed that millions suf-
fered death in consequence.
In Sweden this spiritual plague seems to have broken

out in Dalecarlia. Near the Leksand church there is
shown to this day a mound on which witches were
burned, who were believed to have carried off children
to the evil one and practiced other iniquities. This
delusion spread to neighboring provinces and then to
wider circles.
Toward the close of the century, however, enlight-
ened men began to see that the whole matter was im-
agination and slander. The chief credit for this sane
movement is due to the noted physician Urban Hjarne,
a member of a witch-court in Stockholm. He suc-
ceeded gradually in convincing people that all this talk
of witchcraft was mere superstition and gossip. Thus
finally the trial and punishment of witches ceased.
Queen Ulrica Eleonora. While Charles with iron

hand pressed forward the work of. resumption and
untiringly labored to
strengthen his king-
dom, his gentle queen,
Ulrica Eleonora of Den-
mark, one of the noblest
women known to his-
tory, devoted her life
to soothing and reliev-

ing sorrow an$ distress.
Shortly after the treaty
of Lund, she had come
to Sweden as the bride
of Charles XI, a guard-
ian angel of the peace
in the North. She had
Queen Ulrica Eleonora,
promised her hand to wife of Charles XI.
Charles before the war
broke out, and she kept her promise during the hostili-
ties, between the two countries, though many efforts
were made by her brother, Christian V, to break the
betrothal.
When her beloved husband, Charles XI, was sick she
was ever at his bedside. But to show any tenderness in
return was not in Charles' nature. Not until she lay
on her deathbed were his eyes opened to what he was
about to lose. Now he feltremorse for his
bitter
neglect. He day and night and re-
sat at her bedside
ceived her last request, that he would be kind to the
poor and treat his subjects with gentleness. Charles
was inconsolable. "Here I leave the half of my heart,"
he said as he withdrew from the departed.
Failure of Crops and Famine. During the last dec-

ade of the century the seasons seemed to have changed
their usual order of succession. One year buds and
leaves appeared in February, and migratory birds came
north. In many places spring planting was begun. But
in May there was good sleighing, and in August heads
of grain hung ice-covered. Another year strawberries
ripened in September. Some winters were so long and
severe that wolves driven by hunger attacked people
homes. Spring work did not begin before mid-
in their
summer. Here and there a green blade was seen on
the fields, otherwise only the black soil. In many places
people were found dead with pieces of bark in their
mouths. The king bought grain to distribute among
the starving, but it did not suffice. More than 100,000
persons starved to death. Whole parishes perished;
the churches were then closed, and the keys sent to the
king.
The Death of the King. While such sorrowful reports
came in from all parts of the country, the king lay on
his deathbed, suffering most terrible pain. Bitterly
did he realize his inability to help his suffering people,
and to his ears came whispers that the famine was
a punishment for the king's harshness. The suppressed
hatred and the cry of vengeance from, the many who
had been deprived of their wealth gnawed at his vitals.
Sorrow at the death of his queen never ceased to prey
on his strength. But he bore both physical and mental
suffering with "indescribable patience, and during his
greatest pains tried to comfort his distressed physi-
cian," says Urban Hjarne, who now stood helpless with
allhis skill and learning. In 1697 Charles entered his
eternal rest at the early age of forty-one years.
C. CULTURE OF THE PERIOD

Characteristics of the Seventeenth Century. Along
military and political lines the seventeenth century is
no doubt the greatest period in Swedish history. Its
annals record the achievements of its great kings and
statesmen Charles IX, Gustavus Adolphus, Axel Oxen-
:
stiern, Charles X Gustavus, Charles XI, and the early

career of Charles XII. It is also noted for progress
along cultural lines, of which George Stiernhielm and
Olof Eudbeck are the foremost representatives.
George Stiernhielm. Among the great literary lights
of the period George Stiernhielm, the father of Swed-
ish poetry, holds the first place. He was born in Dale-
carlia in 1598 and diedfj
in Stockholm in 1672.
Before his day Swedish
poetry, as exemplified
in the Rhymed Chroni-
cle, differed little from
prose, except in the ;
rhyme; the were

lines
of unequal length and
without meter, or suc-
cession of accented and
unaccented syllables.
Melody and rhythm
were both introduced
into Swedish poetry by Geow
Stiernhielm. Thus he
made Swedish poetry a beautiful art. In his most cele-
brated poem, "Hercules/' he introduces the Homeric
hexameter verse into Swedish poetry.
Culture of the Period 213
This is a didactic poem, in which Lady Pleasure

seeks to entice the Swedish youth into a life of sensu-
ous gratification. The youth is about to yield and fol-
low her, when Lady Virtue, faithful, noble goddess,
appears in garb
"Simple and plain, and pure, in a manner ancient and honest."
She turns the first step of the youth from the path
which leads to destruction, and prompts him to pursue,
in continuous toil, the rugged path of virtue to the
paradise of bliss.
Stiernhielm felt proud of belonging to Gustavus

Adolphus' people and wanted to show the world that
his people could accomplish something of worth even
in the world of letters. Hence, with patriotic feeling
he placed on the title page of a collection of songs the
motto,
"The Muses now learning to write and to sing in the tongue
of the Northland."
Of this world's goods Stiernhielm had little; sore

adversities he had to endure, yet was ever "glad and
jolly," as says one of his pupils. On his tombstone he
wished to have inscribed, "Vixit dum vixit laetus" (He
lived happy while he lived),
Olof Rudbeck. It was a notable day at Uppsala Uni-
versity when Queen Christina accompanied by a
brilliant group of statesmen, native and foreign schol-
ars, came to attend a certain learned discourse. The
lecturer was the twenty-two-year-old student Olof
Rudbeck, by whom a most remarkable scientific dis-
covery was reported to have been made. He had care-
fully studied the circulation of the blood and had dis-

covered the lymphatic system of vessels.
The learning of his professors did not satisfy his
quest for knowledge. He must needs dissect and inves-
tigate everything himself. He saw what others failed
to see. He divined the continuity and relationship of
all nature. Such is the vision of genius. His fame soon
spread over Europe.
Soon after Queen Christina's visit to Uppsala, he
received from her and Axel Oxenstiern a generous
allowance for a scientific sojourn in Holland, then a
foremost scientific center. There he made a thorough
study of the many discoveries and inventions for which
that country was then noted, and rejoiced in the
thought of enriching his own country with the good
and useful things he saw.
Upon his return to Uppsala he invited the public to
see his exhibit of plants, his models, and drawings,
and to hear his description of them. But when the
appointed time came he found himself alone with his
collections. He burst into tears. This was his first
great disappointment. But it did not quench his zeal.
He announced new lectures and soon had among the
students an interested body of listeners.
At the same time he carried out a long cherished
plan of founding a botanical garden at the university.
With a will that overcame all difficulties he started
the work with his own limited means. The enterprise
soon aroused the interest of Magnus De la Gardie, who
from his vast resources furnished all necessary funds
for enlarging and completing the work until Eudbeck
could boast of the finest botanical garden in Europe,
except that of Paris.
He was early ap-

pointed professor in
the university. He
taught not only the sci-
ences, but also the prac-

tical application of
them. He imparted in-
struction to future phy-
sicians, civil engineers,
mining engineers, sur-
veyors, architects, and
builders. Many of the
most noted generals of
a later day received
from him their training
in the science of artil- Olof Rudbeck.
lery and the art of for-

tification.Imperishable were the impressions of his
patriotism which all his students received.
With him love of country was paramount. In his

later life he devoted himself to the study of his coun-
try's history. While thus engaged the thought occurred
to him that Sweden was the original home of the de-
scendants of Japheth (the Indo-European peoples),
who had entered there shortly after the flood. What
Greek authors had written about the mythical Atlantis
seemed to him to apply word for word to Sweden. He
could not believe that all this was mere fiction. So he
published his great work "Atland eller Manhem," in
which he ingeniously seeks to prove his proposition.
The rich supply of game and fish he names as an
inducement for the children of Japheth to immigrate
to Sweden. He next names as an inducement the

healthful climate of the North "The winter here/* he
:
declares, "is clear, pure,and bracing." In the South

it is accompanied with "filth, fogs, and stench." The
summer in the North, "both night and day, is so de-

lightful that no place in the South can compare with
it. Infectious diseases rarely reach the North, hence,
people, as a rule, here reach a very great age" and
acquire greater strength than people in the South. In
the North "light and its charm" is richer than in the
South; for in winter flame the northern lights and
with the whiteness of the snow "furnish such bright-
ness that one can travel night and day."
His contemporaries wondered and admired. Later
generations were to learn that his national zeal had
ledhim astray.
The evening of Olof Rudbeck's untiring life was
approaching. It seemed calm and peaceful. Then came
a crushing stroke. On the night of Ascension Day,
1702, fire broke out in Uppsala. A raging windstorm
carried the flames from house to house. In the morn-
ing fire threatened the "Gustavianum," which housed
within its walls the university's greatest treasure, its
library.
building," says an
"Then was seen on the roof of the
shower of sparks, between tongues of
old record, "in a
flame and columns of smoke, an aged man of giant
form and with gray locks fluttering in the wind. It
was Olof Rudbeck, who from the smoking shingle roof
directed the fire extinguishers, and whose orders, given
in a stentorian voice, were distinctly heard in all direc-
tions over the din and the tumult. He was informed
that his own house was on fire, that the fruits of forty
years of labor, his botanical work, the unpublished
part of his Atlantica, and his many priceless collec-
tions were perishing in flames. But he did not desert
his post, and thus was saved what could be saved by
the unyielding efforts of the seventy-two-year-old
man."
He saved both the treasures of the library and the
beautiful cathedral. To those who deplored his own
personal losses he replied: "The Lord gave, and the
Lord hath taken away blessed be His name forever."
;
Shortly after this his busy, active life came to an end

in 1702.
CHAPTER XIII
REIGN OF CHARLES XII, 1697-1718
A. INTRODUCTION
Charles Declared of Age. Again a child was king

of Sweden. Charles XI had provided for a regency
composed of his mother and five members of his coun-
cil. But at the first Riksdag, assembled in the fall of
1697, the Estates declared the fifteen-year-old Charles

of age and intrusted him with the absolute control of
the kingdom. The proposition came from the nobility,
who hoped by this act to ingratiate themselves with
the young sovereign. They naturally supposed that it
would not be hard to induce a youth of fifteen to make
concessions in the matter of the Land Resumption, and
that he would think it a pleasure to show generosity.
21& A History of Sweden
The lower estates acquiesced in the proposition, pre-

ferring to have one king instead of several.
But the nobles were soonto learn that they had thor-
oughly deceived themselves in this matter. The Re-
sumption proceeded as before, and all petitions for
abatement were refused. Charles was not an ordinary
child. At coronations, the archbishop, at the altar, was
wont to place the crown on the head of the anointed.
But Charles rode to the church with his crown on,
took when the archbishop anointed his
it off forehead,
and then with his own hand replaced it on his head.
He also omitted the
usual coronation oath.
The Estates were as-
tounded. Charles was
now a full-fledged au-
tocratic ruler, respon-
sible to God alone for
his acts.
His Training and
Adventures. Charles
XI had provided for
his son's thorough ed-
ucation. Charles had
greater ability for
acquiring knowledge
than his father had.
In other respects the
son was the father's
image. The follow-
ing trait is his fa-
ther's over again. The charles xn -
Reign of Charles XII 219
young prince had once remarked that the court painter

looked like a monkey. A
scene followed. The father
stern and commanding, the mother, mild and persua-
sive, tried toget the boy to change his mind. No, the
boy insisted that the painter was like a monkey.
The father's love of wild sports was inherited by
the son. Early the father took him along on rides
and bear hunts. At twelve he shot his first bear. But
by and by Charles thought it cowardly to use firearms
against the forest king. He hit on the plan of arming
himself and his companions with wooden forks and
nothing else. A duel it should be, not a hunt. When
the shaggy beast raised himself to deal a deathblow to
the bold enemy, the hunter thrust the prongs of the
fork about the bear's neck and pushed him over. When
the bear was thus thrown on his back the rest of the
party hastened to tie the legs of the animal together.
His rides were of the wildest sort, over high fences,
across deep ditches, up high steeps where horse and
rider would roll back in summersaults. When his com-
panions rushed forward expecting to see him crushed,
his usual remark was "Lappri" (a trifle) .
Just before his seventh anniversary his teacher

wrote in the boy's diary: "Make a wish of what you
most like." Charles wrote: "I wish that I may some
day have the good fortune to accompany my father in
battle." When his teacher asked him at the age of six
to describe a true gentleman, he replied "He should be
:
kind, but have a heart in his bosom; to his enemies

bold as a lion, at home gentle as a lamb."
Charles AsRuler. Charles, however, did not allow

his pleasures to interfere with his duties as king, but
performed these with great vigor, assisted by his trust-

ed counselor Karl Piper, whom his father had recom-
mended to him as the ablest and most reliable of his
men. A remarkable knowledge of the various branches
of government the young king manifested. Hence, his
decisions were far more mature than one would have
expected from a youth of fifteen. He had his father's
stern way of treating his officials always to command,
:
never to argue. "I have given my order, act accord-

ingly/' he said once to some officers who tried to have
him change his order.
B. THE OPENING OF THE GREAT NORTHERN WAR

Conspiracy against Charles. The three neighboring
princes Frederick IV, king of Denmark; Augustus II,
elector of Saxony and king of Poland; and Peter I,
called the Great, tsar of Russia thought it opportune
to attack Sweden at this time, when
was governed
it
by an inexperienced youth and weakened by years of

famine. They intended to wrest from Sweden the ter-
ritories they had lost. While these princes were thus
weaving their webs about Charles, they assured him
of their friendship, and even suggested forming al-
liances with him.
The Triple Attack. But in February, 1700, Augustus

invaded Livonia, and immediately Frederick of Den-
mark attacked Sweden's ally, the Duke of Holstein,
while Peter invaded Ingria.
Charles was on a bear hunt at Kungsor, when news
reached him that peace was at an end. On a nature like
that of Charles this treachery made such an abhorrent
War with Russia 221
impression that he never ceased to despise these

princes and never trusted them any more.
Denmark Forced to Make Peace. With confidence
Charles proceeded to face the danger. He left his capi-
tal, which he was destined never to see again, to pre-
pare in person an attack on Denmark and thus aid

his ally. He landed on Seeland, where Frederick IV
had not expected an attack. After a short fight the in-
ferior forces of the enemy were driven back. There
is a saying that when Charles landed and heard the
bullets whiz about him, he exclaimed, "This shall hence-

7
forth be my music.'
Denmark hastened to make peace with the Duke of
Holstein-Gottorp in Traventhal, a castle on the Trave,
in 1700. Denmark pledged herself not to molest Hoi-
stein nor assist the enemies of Sweden. Charles then
left Seeland to proceed against the Russians.
C. THE WAR WITH RUSSIA

The Battle of Narva, 1700. Charles soon reached the
eastern shores of the Baltic. Peter besieged the city
of Narva with a force of 40,000 men. Charles advanced
with an army of 10,000 men over roads made well-nigh
impassable by fall rains, and through a country rav-
aged by the enemy. During the last four days the men
had starved, and their horses had scarcely had a straw.
But Charles would listen to no talk of waiting for sup-
plies. "I know," he said, "that God is with me,
and I
have a righteous cause."
Just as the Swedes moved against the enemy's lines,
a sudden snowstorm arose and drove the snow and
sleet into the faces of the Russians, and when the
storm abated the Swedes were upon them. Panic-

stricken, large numbers fled at once, others attempted
to defend themselves, but without order or system.
Charles was always in the hottest of the fight at the
head of his "companions," a chosen body of warriors.
Twice he lost his horse. Of this a Swedish colonel
writes in a letter "His Majesty was twice down with
:
his horse in a bog. But think how the Lord preserved

him The horse could not get out of the mire, and no
!
one was with him, except Axel Hard, who called to two
Finns for help. They pulled him out, but one boot and
stocking were left in the mire. His Majesty's sword
was also lost. The horse they rescued. His Majesty
then put on Axel Hlird's boots, minus the socks, took
a sword from one of the guards, and rode thus wet
and without socks all that night, in such bitter cold
that of the wounded perished from its effects."
many
When darkness put an end to the fight, the king lay
down in his wet clothes near a log-fire and fell asleep
leaning his head against one of his "fellows."
Results of the Battle. The following day the Russian
captives marched with uncovered heads past the scan-
ty Swedish lines, presented arms before the king and
respectfully laid them down before him. The prisoners
were so many that it was impossible to guard them all.
The men were permitted to march back, and only the
chief officers were retained as prisoners. Ingria was
saved to Sweden.
War ivith Poland 223
D. THE WAR WITH AUGUSTUS II
Charles Became Aggressive. Having thus repulsed

the Russians, Charles turned against his third enemy,
Augustus, and defeated him in the hard-fought battle
of Riga, 1701. In the course of one year Charles had
cleared his own and his ally's lands of enemies. Other
princes now advised him to make peace. His own sub-
jects begged for it. The country's strength had been
sorely tried. Taxes were so high that in many places
the people were unable to pay them. But Charles
would listen to no peace with Augustus. "For since
he (Augustus) has once practiced treachery the Royal
Majesty can place no reliance on his word, no matter
what he says,"" wrote Charles to his council. And to
Piper, Charles said, "If we leave Augustus in posses-

sion of the throne of Poland, he will attack us in the
rear when we march against Tsar Peter." Hence,
Charles was fully resolved to render Augustus harm-
less by deposing him from the throne of Poland.
Charles thus passes from the defensive to the offensive
stage of the war.
The Invasion of Poland. When he was about to in-
vade Poland, the people there warned him not to pass
their border, as it was not they, but their king that had
begun the war. "Very well, renounce your king then,"
replied Charles. But by this answer Charles had
wounded their national pride and incited them to war.
Should they on the demand of a foreign prince depose
their king, whom by their own free choice they had
elected?
This war in Poland reminds one forcibly of that of
Charles X. The Swedish forces traversed the land up

and down with constant victories, often over forces
several times their number. But lords of the land they
never became. After three years of war Charles suc-
ceeded in inducing a part of the Polish nobility to de-
clare Augustus deposed, and to elect Stanislaus Les-
czinski, one of their own number, as king. But it re-
quired three years more to secure his general recogni-
tion.
In pursuit of Augustus toward the south, Charles

was informed that his enemy had turned about and
was advancing northward toward Warsaw, where
there was stationed a small Swedish garrison. But
Charles did not turn in pursuit. Farther south in
Poland lay Lemberg with fortifications, boasting that
it had never been taken by an enemy, although a
Turkish army of 100,000 men had invested it for

many months. This was some exploit for Charles to
try. Suddenly he gave orders to his cavalry to mount
and set out in a gallop, leaving his infantry and ar-
tillery behind. Soon the greater part of the cavalry
dropped behind too, and the king had with him only
three regiments of dragoons. With them he attacked
the fortifications of Lemberg. The garrison kept up a
sharp firing. The soldiers with their king at the head
rushed across the trenches, sprang upon each other's
shoulders, and climbed the walls. They pushed through
the city gate at the same time as the fleeing garrison
passed out. In a quarter of an hour the city was taken,
with the loss of but a few men. The report of this in-
credible exploit served to increase still more, in the
minds of the Poles, the fear of the Carolinians.
War with Poland 225
Invasion of Saxony. To compel Augustus himself to

recognize Stanislaus Lesczinski as king of Poland,
Charles finally invaded Saxony and compelled the elec-
tor to accept the Peace of Altranstadt, in 1706. Augus-
tus abdicated the Polish throne, recognized the new
king, and renounced the alliance with Sweden's foes.
For his own part Charles took nothing.* He hoped
now to have received in Poland a good ally and a
country from which he could direct a decisive blow
against Russia.
Peace was concluded, but Charles gave no signs of
leaving Saxony. He had to keep an eye on Augustus
and make sure of the fulfillment of the terms of peace,
and at the same time to rest and recuperate his forces
in the rich lands of the elector.
Here gathered in the Swedish headquarters at Alt-
ranstadt princes, generals, and ambassadors from
nearly every land in Europe. Some came merely to see
the celebrated hero-king, others to solicit the aid of
his victorious army in the great war which was being
fought in central and western Europe simultaneously
with the Great Northern War. The question was who
should succeed to the vacant throne in Spain. This
war, in which nearly all the states in Europe were in-
volved, isknown as the War of the Spanish Succession.
These gatherings at Altranstadt around Charles XII
remind one of the days of Gustavus Adolphus in Mainz.
. It was a strange spectacle to see the richly decorated
lords in silk hose and gold-embroidered vestments of
satin and velvet in gaudy colors, and decked with
* Charles never declared war against any country, nor did he ever aim at
adding new territory to his own.
jewels and pearls; and in their midst the northern

hero in his coarse blue coat with turned skirts lined
with yellow flannel, bright brass buttons, yellow rid-
ing breeches, and large dubbed-leather boots, and a
broadsword at his side. Stern and silent he stood in
the midst of the pomp, unmoved by all attempts to
divert him from his own military plan the Russian
campaign.
E. THE WAR WITH RUSSIA CONTINUED

Peter's Conquests in the Baltic Provinces. The long
war against Augustus gave Peter time to strengthen
and drill his army and to ravage and conquer lands in
the Baltic Provinces. In Ingria he founded in the
marshes at the mouth of the Neva a new capital, St.
Petersburg. Thus Russia had once more a footing on
the shores of the Baltic. Charles' counselors now
begged him to attack and remove this danger. But he
thought himself so near the accomplishment of his
cherished plan to depose Augustus. He could not now
abandon this object. When
informed of the fall of a
certain important fortress, he simply said, "We will
soon retake the castle."
Preparation for the Campaign. For his Russian war

Charles had made extensive preparations. But his
plans are not easily discovered. He was such a silent
man. His main however, seems to have been
object,
to direct a decisive blow against the heart of Russia,
the old sacred capital of Moscow. When, in the spring
of 1708, he invaded Russia he had an army of 40,000
men. Besides, reinforcements were to arrive from
Courland. This province had been conquered by
War with Russia 227
Charles and ably defended by Adam Lewenhaupt, who

was now ordered by Charles to join the main army
with his troops and supplies. Charles also counted on
Polish auxiliaries under Stanislaus.
Peter's Plan of Defense. It soon became evident that
it was impossible to marchdirectly against Moscow,
for the Russians burned their cities and crops through-
out large districts so that the horizon around the Swed-
ish army seemed to be one great blaze. Peter's plan
was to fall back inchby inch, devastate the country,
destroy bridges, and in every way wear out the enemy,
and never allow himself to be drawn into battle with
the best army of that day, for then all might be lost in
a single hour. Southward lay a fertile land open to
Charles, from which section, too, were good marching
roads to Moscow. Here he would await Lewenhaupt.
He had learned from scouts that the general was not
far away. But it soon became apparent that these re-
ports were false. Lewenhaupt had not advanced as far
as was reported. But it was now too late to go to his
assistance.
Lewenhaupt's Misfortunes. Lewenhaupt's army

made but slow progress over roads made almost im-
passable by heavy fall rains. The long baggage train
carrying supplies for the main army detained him as

did also the obstinacy of some of his subordinates.
Shortly after crossing the Dnieper he was attacked by
superior Russian forces, who were repulsed again and
again, but at great cost. To escape from the enemy
he was at length compelled to leave his artillery and
supplies behind. After untold hardships he finally
reached the king's army, but with only half of his
original number a few thousand destitute soldiers.

The was irreparable,
loss of supplies
New Misfortunes. But disasters did not come singly.

The Russians had preceded the Swedes even southward
and devastated the fertile country, rendering it unfit
for winter quarters. Farther south were the rich
plains of the Ukraine, the land of the Cossacks, whose
aged chief, or hetman, Mazeppa, was planning an in-
surrection against the tsar, and offered Charles his
alliance. Unfortunately,however, the Russians reached
Mazeppa's capital ahead of Charles and sacked it. Thus
valuable supplies of food, cannons, and ammunition
fell into their hands.Of Mazeppa's men only some two
thousand followed their chief. With them he came as
a fugitive to the camp of Charles XII. In the mean-
time the Swedes wintered in the Ukraine.
In Winter Quarters. The winter of 1708-1709 was
the severest ever known throughout Europe. It was
especially so on the steppes of Russia. It was at its
worst during the Christmas season. Never before had
the soldiers had so terrible a Christmas. The suffering
was intense and the losses in life and limb most
terrible.
The king shared equally with the soldiers in all these
sufferings, and the soldiers* admiration for him re-
mained the same in all vicissitudes. Willingly they
went wherever he ordered them. It was enough for
them that he commanded it.
The Swedish forces were continually disturbed by
the Russians. Almost daily in this terrible cold the
king would go forth with divisions of his army in
skirmishes against them. The Swedes, to be sure, came
War with Russia 229
off victors in each skirmish, but in such violent exer-

tions more men were sacrificed than in bloody battles.
Peter is said to have declared that he could well afford
to sacrifice ten Russians for one Swede. What differ-
ence did itmake to the Russian masses if a few thou-
sand of them fell? Thus was the king's proud army
reduced by cold, starvation, and battles to 18,000 men.
The Battle of Poltava. In the summer of 1709, Peter
entrenched himself in a strong position at Poltava.
Charles decided to force on him a decisive battle. To
wait longer would serve no purpose, for lack of food
and ammunition became more pressing each day.
There was, however, one adverse circumstance. In a
recent skirmish the king had been wounded in the foot,
blood poison and a fever set in, and he was unable to
command in person. The command was given to Field
Marshal Rehnskold who had, indeed, before won noted
victories, but to fill the king's place as leader, to inspire
his soldiers as he did, that no one else could do.
In this battle the Swedes, after detailing a sufficient
guard for the camp and baggage, could muster only
14,000 men, while Peter had a force of more than three
times that number. Nevertheless, in the first part of
the battle victory seemed inclined toward the Swedes.
In the second part, however, the struggle was too un-
equal. The Swedes fell like grass before the scythe.
Whole regiments were cut down. The dear old bullet-
riven flags swayed and fluttered, but finally sank down
and disappeared one by one. The king had himself
carried about where the bullets rained the thickest,
lying with drawn sword on a litter borne by two horses
in tandem fashion. When all hope of victory was gone,
Rehnskold sought to collect all forces to protect the

king. "Our infantry ruined/' he called. "Lads, see
is
that you save the king." But immediately he was cap-

tured. Piper, too, was made a prisoner. The army was
broken and scattered. At last, however, separate divi-
sions of the cavalry made repeated attacks on the
enemy and so delayed their pursuit, thus enabling the
Swedish remnants to collect and move southward.
Hither arrived Charles. As long as any regiment was
under fire he could not be prevailed upon to withdraw
from the fight. His litter was shot to pieces, men fell
around him on all sides. Not until the hostile battal-
ions were scarce fifty paces away did he allow him-
self to be placed on a horse, and thus he barely escaped
capture, riding away "with his wounded leg resting on

the pommel of the saddle and the bandage loose and
dragging," as an eyewitness relates.
Exerting his utmost powers, the fever-stricken king
at length succeeded in collecting the remnants of his
army into an orderly retreat. But when they arrived
at the junction of the Dnieper and the Vorskla there
were only a few boats and barges to be had, and on
either side was a broad and swift river. At any time
the enemy might appear on the heights behind.
Charles did not wish to separate himself from his
faithful army, but finally the officers prevailed on the
half-conscious king to yield, Lewenhaupt promising to
lead the army across the Vorskla into the land of the
Tartars. Charles was then carried across the Dnieper
together with some two thousand of his men. Across
the scorching steppes the little party moved toward
the shores of the Black Sea, then in the possession of
War with Russia 231
Russia's enemy, Turkey. There Charles was hospitably

received by the Turkish pasha in Bender, and there he
pitched his camp.
Capitulation at the Dnieper. But a tragedy had been,
enacted at the Dnieper. On the morning of the third day
after Poltava the Swedes beheld on the heights above
the river a Russian division, whose commander pro-
posed capitulation to Lewenhaupt. After carefully
considering the situation of the army and the condition
of the soldiers, Lewenhaupt decided to accept the over-
tures, and subscribed to the articles of capitulation.
Thus the Swedish army of nearly 14,000 men, includ-
ing 5,000 sick and wounded, surrendered to the tsar
on the promise of fair treatment.
Result of the Victory. After this victory Peter
wrote: "The foundations of St. Petersburg are now
secure." Once more the Russians could turn their
forces against the Swedish Baltic Provinces, which fell
into the hands of the Russians. Next the turn came to
Finland, which they overran with fire and sword. The
battle of Poltava is one of the world's decisive battles.
Had it gone the other way the subsequent history of
the world would have been different from what it is.
The Swedish Captives in Russia. Most of the Swed-
ish soldiers taken captives at Poltava and the Dnieper
were taken into the interior of Russia or Siberia and
were quartered under strict guard in the cities. From
all parts of Sweden and from nearly every larger fam-
ily group there was some member captive in the far-

away country with scarcely any hope of his ever re-
turning home. Only a small part of these unfortunate
soldiers had the joy of again seeing their native land.
So perished the army which at one time ranked first
in the world. Among those who died in captivity were

Count Piper and General Lewenhaupt.
For the officers who knew some handicraft the cap-
tivitywas the most tolerable. Some earned their bread
as saddlers, some as blacksmiths, others as carpenters
or turners. Those who knew no trade were most un-
fortunate. Some were sent to St. Petersburg to work
on buildings and fortifications, others to the Ural
mines.
One officer writes in his diary "Our captivity was

a severe school of correction, in which we had painful
lessons to learn. I admit that I had never prayed to
my God so faithfully, so earnestly, so reverently as
during our miserable captivity. It taught us emphat-
ically to turn for refuge to the Lord and seek help and
comfort in our distress."
The greatest force among the Swedes in Moscow was
Count Piper. He became a fatherly helper for the un-
fortunates who with him languished in this thralldom.
He wrote often to his wife and asked her to cash checks
which He had issued to the destitute. As self-sacrificing
as he was to the poor sufferers, so unafraid was he
before his oppressors.
Not until 1721, when peace was concluded, the hour

of freedom struck for the surviving Swedes in Russia.
Everywhere in Russia where Swedes were found
thanksgiving services were held. In the Siberian city
of Tobolsk the sermon was preached on the text "Be :
thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee a crown

of life."
Stenbock's Campaign in Skane 233
F. MAGNUS STENBOCK'S CAMPAIGN IN SKANE

Renewal of Hostilities by Augustus and Frederick.
Augustus II and Frederick IV had long watched for
an opportunity for revenge. It came in 1709, when
they again declared war. Augustus drove out Stanis-
laus and once more seized the crown of Poland. The
Danes landed in Skane and were soon masters of the
whole province.
Battle of Helsingborg. Before the Ukraine campaign
Charles had sent home his general, Magnus Stenbock,
to be provincial governor and chief commander in
Skane. With remarkable dispatch the council, now
governing Sweden in the king's absence, levied a new
army against the Danish invaders. With the uniforms,
indeed, it was so so, for some came in their peasant
clothes, some in goatskin coats and wooden shoes
fastened on with bast fiber. The Danes made merry
over this motley army, but Stenbock knew that his men
and boys were brave and efficient fighters.
Stenbock had to act quickly, for he knew that his
forces were not prepared for a winter campaign.
Hence, as soon as possible he marched from Smidand,
where his forces met, into Skane. Shrewdly he suc-
ceeded in leading the enemy from the interior of Skdne
toward the Sound by feigning to cut them off from the
Sound and from their connection with their home
country. This led the Danish commander to hasten with
his forces to Helsingborg.
Stenbock gathered his men for a decisive blow.
now
If any of his boys looked a little discouraged he would
lift up his chin and say, "Look bold, my boy, and the
A History o/ Sweden. 16.

284 A History of Siveden
Danes will run away from you/' So it turned out. In

the battle of Helsingborg, 1710, he routed the Danes
after a short and sharp engagement, in which a large
part of the Danish army fell or were taken prisoners.
The rest returned to their home. Since then the Danes
have never crossed the Sound as enemies.
G. CHARLES XII IN TURKEY

Reason for His Stay in Turkey. While the Swedish
possessions on the east side of the Baltic fell into the
hands of the enemy, Charles continued his sojourn in
a foreign land. His first intention was no doubt to
remain in Turkey till his wound was healed. But soon
the thought occurred to him that he might employ the
enmity of Turkey toward Peter, who had seized im-
portant Turkish territories along the Black Sea. Thus
there appeared to Charles the inviting prospect of re-
turning to Russia at the head of a strong Turkish
army. With this he hoped to conquer Peter and to
crush his power.
War between Turkey and Russia. The northern
fugitives succeeded, indeed, in prevailing on the sultan
to declare war on Russia. At the Pruth, Peter with his
army was surrounded by a far superior Turkish force,
and would have been ruined if the Turkish commander
had exerted himself. But he was weak and easily
frightened, and Peter understood the art of negotiat-
ing. So he secured peace on easy terms. Charles, how-
ever, did not give up hope, but remained to continue
his efforts. He did not succeed, however, in getting
any further war under way. .
Charles XII in Turkey 235
The Sultan's Efforts to Get Rid of diaries. The

Swedish king and his men were expensive guests to
the sultan. He let it be known to Charles that however
much he appreciated his highly esteemed guest he
would prefer to have him depart. But Charles had dis-
covered a secret correspondence, showing that Augus-
tus II had bribed the commander of the guards whom
the sultan would furnish Charles as an escort to de-
liver Charles into the hands of Augustus.
The sultan, however, knew nothing of this plot. He
only noticed that Charles remained obstinate, and got
offended. At last he ordered the pasha of Bender to
force Charles to depart for home. But Charles, who
would rather fall into the hands of the Turks than into
the power of Augustus, prepared for defense and
raised palisades in front of his quarters outside of
Bender. Ten thousand Turks and Tartars were sent
against the Northern Lion and his 500 men.
The Kalabalik. Charles went out to fight them, but
most of his men, convinced of the futility, laid down
their arms. With a band of about fifty of his most faith-
ful champions he defended himself in his house. The
Turks then attacked the house with arrows wrapped
in flaming tow. The building caught fire and parts of
the roof fell in. But the king only remarked, "There
is no danger as long as our clothes are not afire."
Finally when smoke and flames enveloped the king

and his men, Charles decided to fight his way to a stone
building and there continue the defense. The doors
were thrown open and out rushed the king with the
sword in his right hand and a pistol in his left, fol-
lowed by his men. They had forced their way nearly
to the stone structure when Charles stumbled and fell.

A number of Turks then fell on him and made him a
prisoner. His men shared his fate. This event, which

occurred in Bender in 1713, was called by the Turks
The Kalabalik, which means tumult. Charles was now
conveyed as a captive of the sultan, still farther from
home, to a castle near Adrianople, but was treated
even in captivity with admiration and respect.
The Return Home of Charles XII. At home the
Swedish government was conducted by the councilors.
They had long bombarded the king with petitions to
return home. Finally they ventured to summon the
Estates, who sent a messenger to the king to inform
him that in case of necessity they would open negotia-
tions for peace on such terms as they might obtain.
Then Charles was hazardous to delay
realized that it
any longer. A dark November night, 1714, two bespat-

tered knights arrived at the gate of Stralsund. One of
them was the king of Sweden. The two adventurers
had ridden 1,400 miles in fourteen days, during which
time they had not once slept in a bed.
At this time two additional states joined the enemies
of Sweden. They were Prussia and Hanover. They
had allied themselves with Denmark to divide the
Swedish possessions in Germany among them. Han-
over was a dangerous enemy, as its elector was also
king of England. The allies gathered their forces
around Stralsund. The small Swedish garrison made
desperate sorties under the king's own command. A
rain of balls and bombs fell over the city. When the
walls were so shot to pieces that the city could in no
way defend itself, Charles decided to attempt escape
Sweden 9
after Charles Return 237
from capture. He boarded a small boat. All around

were Danish warships, but they paid no attention to
the little craft, and safe and unharmed Charles landed
on the shores of Skane, a year after his arrival at
Stralsund. The day after his departure the city sur-
rendered. The next year Wismar fell. Sweden had
now no land on the southern side of the Baltic.
H. CONDITIONS IN SWEDEN AFTER CHARLES' RETURN

Complete Destitution. Peace, peace was the earnest
prayer to the king from every Swedish heart as he,
after an absence of fifteen years of dangers and adven-
tures in foreign lands, now returned home. The people
fainted under the heavy burdens of taxes and levies
of soldiers for the war. In some provinces complaints
arose, even during* the first years of the war, that only
old and decrepit men, and women and children were
left. How much worse must it have been after the
calamities of 1709 and subsequent years But the peo-
!
ple had to fill the vacant places of fallen men and cap-
tives.Many a peasant at last had no means for hiring
a substitute and had to go himself, leaving his home
and land wasted. A Hollander, who traveled from
Skane to Stockholm in 1719, expressed his astonish-
ment at what he saw. He found only old men, women,
and children serving as coachmen. "I can truthfully
say," he declared, "that I have not seen in all Sweden
any man between twenty and forty years of age, except
soldiers." To crown the calamity Sweden suffered from
failure of crops seven different times during the reign
of Charles. Large masses died of hunger. In the wake
of famine came the Asiatic plague. The victims of

these calamities are estimated at 100,000.
But in spite of the people showed a wonderful
all,
willingness to sacrifice. In the spring of 1718, for in-

stance, a provincial governor reported to the govern-
ment that the people of the province had sold their
grain to pay the taxes till they had nothing to subsist
on nor anything to sow. Similar reports came in from
practically all the provinces.
But was a limit to the
in spite of willingness there
ability to pay.The national income sank from year to

year. Charles, however, had to find means for carrying
on the war; for he was determined not to yield to any
power an inch of territory without compensation. "The
Lord will always give success when one bravely does
what he ought to to," he said.
Baron Gortz's Token Money. The man who now
came forward to show Charles what to do was Baron
Gortz of Holstein. Never at a loss, never afraid to use
the most violent means, Baron Gortz was just the man
for minister to Charles XII,who would never listen to
such a word as "impossible." The means Baron Gortz
employed to secure funds was in the first place token
money. It consisted of copper coins which were to pass
for silver money. When better times came, the govern-
ment would redeem them in silver coin.
These tokens were at first received willingly and the
king was enabled to buy at a small co$t the supplies
and equipment for a new army. But when millions
upon millions of these tokens, flooded the land, it be-
came evident to most people that the government could
never redeem them in silver. Merchants began to ask
War in Norway 239
more for their goods if paid in tokens than when paid

in silver. Then the king forbade the use of silver
money in trade. All silver coin and bullion must be
turned over to the crown in exchange for copper coins.
In like manner the king seized all iron and paid for it
in token money. In the same way the government ap-
propriated a lot of other private property. The whole
country was treated like a besieged city, where all pri-
vate property may be used for defense. But it was a
matter of holding out till a tolerable peace be concluded
and an alliance made with one of the more powerful
of the enemies. And a good prospect for this appeared
in sight, as the allied enemies seemed ready to fly at
each other's throats.
I. WAR IN NORWAY, 1718
Siege of the Fortress of Frednkssten. With the ut-

most efforts of the entire country, Charles had suc-
ceeded in collecting an army of 50,000 men. With this
force he invaded Norway to compel Denmark to make
peace and to secure compensation for losses on the
other side of the Baltic. The Swedes drove the Norwe-
gians almost without opposition across the Glommen.
But there the Fortress of Fredrikssten, at Fredriks-
hald, was still hands of the Norwegians. The
in the
Swedes surrounded it with trenches and batteries, and
soon one of the outer works was stormed. The king as
usual was foremost in the fight. Soon, it seemed, the
fort would be taken.
The King's Death. In the afternoon of November 30,

the king came as usual to inspect the work. He climbed
up on one side of a trench so that his head and shoul-

ders appeared above the parapet. Thus he stood with
the head leaning on his left hand and viewed the for-
tress. Bullets rained on all sides. The officers present
warned him in vain not to expose himself to such dan-
ger. Suddenly they heard a faint sound and noticed
that the king's hand fell, and his head sank into the
collar of his cloak. A bullet had pierced his temple.
This bullet put an end to Sweden's period of greatness.
Charles received the death he had so often defied.
Soon rumors spread that he had been the victim of a
traitor. After careful investigations, no real grounds
for such rumors have ever been found. But the rumors
have on to our own day. The camp had been
lived
Charles' home. A quiet family life did not appeal to
him. No woman won his love. Of marriage he never
wished to hear as long as he was engaged in war.
CHAPTER XIV
REIGNS OF ULRICA ELEONORA AND

FREDERICK I, 1719-1751
A. INTRODUCTION
The Succession and the End of Absolutism. At the

death of Charles XII there was no one who had a legal
hereditary right to the throne. His two sisters had
married without the consent of the Estates. There was,
however, one matter on which all were agreed, that no
matter who succeeded to the throne, absolutism should
be abolished. It was held to be the great evil which had
Absolutism Abolished 241
brought the country to the verge of destruction. Hence,

Charles' surviving sister, Ulrica Eleonora, hastened
to offer to renounce absolutism if thecrown were be-
stowed on her. Her husband, Prince Frederick of
Hesse, had persuaded her to take this unpleasant step.
She was accordingly, at a Riksdag in 1719, chosen
queen by the Estates. She was, however, compelled to
subscribe to a new constitution, which not only abol-
ished absolutism, but went to the other extreme and
left the royal power weaker than it had ever been since
the Middle Ages.
The Execution of Baron Gortz. At the same time
that absolutism was abolished, the death sentence was
passed upon its most hated instrument. The vengeance
of the people was aroused, and demanded Baron Gortz
as a victim for the sins of absolutism. He was tried
by a special court, which summarily sentenced him
to death for plans ruinous to the state, without giving
him the necessary time for defense.
The Crown Transferred to Frederick. Ulrica Eleo-
nora was an estimable woman, devoted to the welfare
of her country. But she had imbibed the spirit of abso-
lutism and failed to understand the new era. Her acts
depended more on what she had conceived in her mind
than what the law prescribed. She was sincerely de-
voted to her husband and desired above everything else
to see him king of Sweden. The Estates made no ob-
jection to the proposition and chose Frederick I as king
in 1720.
This petty German prince was of a cheerful and
lively disposition, which made him very popular. But
he seemed to live only for amusement and pleasure.
To work for his faithful people and help them out of

their distress was a matter entirely foreign to his
thoughts. No, "Live and let live" was his maxim. As
he grew older he was given more and more to pleasure,
idleness, and slackness, and the people's love was grad-
ually changed to contempt.
B. THE END OF THE GREAT WAR. PEACE TREATIES

Continued Attacks and Ravages by the Enemies.
The cry of the people for peace became stronger and
stronger during the last years of absolutism. One only
had stood in the way of the wishes of a whole people,
only one, he who "could not yield, only fall/' His war
plans fell with him. During nearly two decades his
people had bled away their strength on battle fields
over half of Europe. Where could now be found the
power or the will for war to win back the lost posses-
sions, when the people were practically starving to
death?
The enemies would not allow the exhausted land any
rest. The western coast was harassed by the brave
Norwegian sea captain, Tordenskjold. He did much

harm to Sweden. But the Russian ravages along the
were the worst. From the coasts of East
Baltic coasts
Gothland up to the northernmost point of Norrland
the Russian fleet plundered and burnt nearly all the
cities and many factories and villages. They set fire
to forests, destroyed the crops, and carried off or killed
the stock. The people thus ravaged had during twenty
years borne the burdens of a continuous war.
The Peace Treaties. No foreign aid could be expect-
ed.Sweden had to conclude peace with her many ene-
End of the Great War 248
mies by separate treaties on the best terms she could

secure. To England-Hanover were ceded Bremen and
Verden in 1719 (at Stockholm) Prussia received the
.
Southern part of Swedish Pomerania in 1720 (Stock-

holm). With Denmark peace was made without loss
of territory in 1720 (Fredriksborg) but Sweden was
,
forced to give up her exemption from tolls in Oresund

and abandon her alliance with the Duke of Holstein-
Gottorp. Without aid, without resources, and for the
third summer
attacked by the tsar's incendiaries, Swed-
en had no other recourse than to submit to
finally
Russia's hard conditions of peace. In the Treaty of
Nystad, 1721, Sweden ceded to Eussia Livonia, Estho-
nia, Ingria, and southeastern Carelia.
Sweden had thus at last secured peace. But what a
peace The fruits of a century and a half of struggle
!
to secure and maintain a Swedish Baltic power were

lost. Sweden had alone sustained the first thrust of
the westward advance of the Russian Colossus. Alone,

too, she had to conclude the hard struggle which civil-
ized Europe should have united to sustain. But the
shortsighted policy of the other states was in the
course of time to avenge itself.
C. CONSTITUTIONAL AND LEGISLATIVE REFORMS

The New Constitution. This constitution, adopted in
1719, and somewhat modified in 1720, upon the acces-
sion of Frederick and the regulations of the Riksdag
I,
power from the king and vested it in

in 1723, took the
the Estates. They alone had the power to levy taxes,
make laws, and decide all other matters of importance.
They assumed control of foreign relations during ses-
SWEDEN
1721
SO 100 ISO 200
1700 before the

greab War of the North
1721 after "
Constitutional Reforms 245
sions of the Riksdag. They interfered in the adminis-

tration of justice, questions of promotions, appoint-
ments, etc. For any one claiming to have been wronged
could lay his complaints before them. How much power
the king had relative to the Estates is shown in Frede-
rick's declaration that he would "ever concur with the
Estates of the realm."
Between the meetings of the Riksdag, the council-
ors acted for the Estates. They had been nominated
by the Estates and were accountable to them for their
acts. All important matters in the council were de-
cided by vote, each councilor having one vote and the
king two. His Majesty, therefore, had as much power
as two of the seventeen councilmen. In former days
the king did not even have to consult his council. In
reality Sweden was now ruled as a republic, whose
president was styled king.
Hence, the king was now subject to the Council, and
the Council to the all-powerful Estates. By the aboli-
tion of absolutism, it was now held, the old Swed-
ish liberty had been restored, and so the period now
ushered in has been called the Era of Liberty.
Kings had been seen to abuse their power, council-
ors had abused theirs, but that the Estates might also
abuse their power was not suspected.
The New General Code of Laws. For more than a
hundred years the government had been considering
the plan of preparing a new general code of laws. The
law that had been most excellent in the time of Magnus
Ericsson could not remain so when everything else
in the kingdom had changed. It is true that the general
law of the realm had been issued in a new edition after
a hundred years in the reign of Christopher of Ba-

varia, and, hence, called the Code of King Christopher,
but the changes in it were few and unimportant, and
for the cities the law remained unchanged. Finally,
however, learned jurists were appointed to prepare a
new code. After some thirty years of labor the new
code was adopted by the Estates in 1734. It was the
general as well as the local law of the realm. It is still
in force though many improvements have been made
in it. It contains no regulation for king and govern-
ment as this was supplied by the Constitution of 1720.
The constitution and the regulations of the Riksdag
were known as fundamental laws, as all other laws
were based on them. The fundamental laws defined
the relations of the government to the people the code,
;
or general law, regulated the mutual relations of in-

dividuals.
Both on account of its contents and its clear, vigor-
ous statements, the code of 1734 is a worthy heir of
the old provincial laws of the land. These masterpieces
of Teutonic jurisprudence are among the most valuable
treasures of Swedish culture.
D. THE ADMINISTRATION OF ARVID HORN

Character of Arvid Horn. The most powerful per-
son during this period was not the king, but the presi-
dent of the chancery department. This office, which
corresponds to the chancellorship during the period of
greatness, was held after the accession of Frederick I
for eighteen years by Arvid Horn. He had distin-
guished himself as one of the bravest of Charles'
"champions," and of the most reckless participants in
Administration of Arvid Horn 247
the king's adventures. But now he showed a remark-

able capacity for works of peace. When the new era
opened, he was by common consent the man to direct
the affairs of state. He was then nearly sixty years of
Arvid Horn.
age. The reckless leader in wild adventures had be-
come a wise and cautious statesman.

His personal appearance inspired respect. There was
dignity and honor about his personality and his life
and conduct. He never neglected the ancient custom
of conducting evening worship with all his household,
even if ministers of state or other noted persons were
present. Foreign ministers in reports to their home

governments mentioned, often with surprise, Horn's
uprightness and absolute proof against bribes, a rare
virtue in that day.
Arvid Horn's Policy. Arvid Horn saw clearly that

what Sweden most needed was peace and rest for re-
cuperation. At the death of Charles XII there were
many deserted homesteads throughout the country.
Even Skane there were nearly
in so rich a province as
1,000. In 6sterbotten, a poorer province, there were
about 2,000. The suffering in some places was so great
that the government gave starving parishes permis-
sion to get bark from the crown forests for the relief
of the starving.
Posterity finds it hard to understand how a small
people like that of Sweden at the time could bear all
the burdens and privations of the great war and not
perish completely. But hardly less remarkable is the
rapid awakening of the people out of the stupor of de-
spair which the last years had cast over their lives
and minds. Buildings rose again out of the ashes of
burnt cities, ruined factories were alive once more
with busy workmen, and on deserted homesteads plows
were again turning furrows.
It was to Arvid Horn in the first place that the credit
is due for Sweden's long period of rest and peace. With
skillful statesmanship he removed every occasion for

war. His administration was not a time of great and
stirring events, but a quiet, happy time, when the coun-
try could revive after its violent overexertion and gath-
er strength for peaceful pursuits. In his efforts to
secure prosperity to Sweden and develop her industries
Horn was ably assisted by two noted patriots and in-

ventors : Jonas Alstromer and Christopher Polhem.
Jonas Alstrom was the son of a poor merchant in
Alings&s.As a mere boy he was forced to leave home
and earn his own livelihood. At first he served as a
shop boy and later as a bookkeeper in London. There
he soon engaged in business of his own and became a
wealthy man.
grieved him to see his countrymen, as he himself
It
writes, "send their money to foreign lands for goods

which they could just as well produce at home." This
thought fostered within him a burning desire to intro-
duce into Sweden the industries which had made Eng-
land prosperous and great.
First, however, he visited the more important in-

dustrial countries, inspecting their factories, especially
those of the spinning and weaving industries. He care-
fully noted their methods and the latest improvements
in the various establishments. On these journeys he
purchased such instruments and machinery as were
then in use, and secured skilled workmen, who could
serve as instructors of his inexperienced countrymen.
He chose his native city as the central location of

his industrial enterprise. Alingss soon put on the
appearance of a new city. Its population grew apace
with its textile mills and dye works. The most im-
portant products of the mills were woolen fabrics. To
secure the best quality of wool he introduced improved
breeds of sheep. For his dye works he planted large
areas about the city with tinctorial plants from the
South. The city became an industrial school for the
whole country, where persons were trained for super-

vising works in other places.
Alstrom had, however, not the same aptitude for
directing and supervising his enterprises as for start-
ing them. The workmen and the foremen did not get
the same thorough training as in other lands. Hence,
the products of his mills were inferior and yet dearer
than those imported from abroad. It was therefore
difficult to secure a market for them. But it must be
remembered that Swedish industries were still in their
infancy. It was a time of experiment. Later times were
to profit even by early mistakes.
Alstrom's greatest service to his country was per-
haps his untiring effort to make the potato generally
known and accepted as an article of food among his
countrymen. It required several generations to over-
come the prejudice against this most important of
vegetable foods.
For his great services to his country Alstrom was
ennobled. He then assumed the name Alstromer.
Christopher Polhem. At the age of twelve Christo-

pher Polhem was left alone in the world. He was given
a position on a large estate and thus earned his living.
Through his untiring industry and iron will he devel-
oped his genius until he became, after Olof Rudbeck,
Sweden's greatest inventor up to his time. For the
Falun mine he made an invention by which the ore
was carried to the shaft, then up the same, and thence
to the smelterwhere the car was automatically emp-
tied through amovable bottom, and then returned to
the mine to be refilled. All this was done by water
power. Manual labor was required only for the load-
ing. Encouraged by Charles XI, he made many other

inventions.
On a journey abroad he made many valuable ob-
servations. It pained him to see that foreign manu-
facturers bought Swed-
ish raw materials at a
low price and then re-
turned them as finished
products at greatly in-
creased prices. Upon
his return home he de-
voted himself to estab-
lishing mills and facto-
ries for the economic
and social uplift of his
people. Among these

the most noted was
the Stjernsund Factory
Christopher Polhem. in Dalecarlia. Among
its manufactures were
watches of different kinds and tin plate for various
uses, such as roofing, plates, cups, and pitchers. His
machines for the making of watches were the admira-
tion of the age.
From Bender Charles 'XII sent greetings to Polhem
encouraging him to continue his inventions, adding
that he himself was greatly interested in mechanics.
Shortly after his arrival at Stralsund, Charles sent
orders to Polhem to come, bringing his plans and
models. With enthusiasm Charles entered into all his
plans for the improvement of his country. His great-
est projectwas the construction of a waterway across
Sweden from Stockholm to Gothenburg. Charles en-

tered eagerly into this project, declaring that after five
years all would be completed. The work had barely be-
gun when the shot at Fredrikshald put an end to the
enterprise.
A mere list of Polhem's inventions would fill many

pages. He was filled with an earnest desire to serve
his fellow men. His life ended in 1751.
Rise of a War Party. Fall of Arvid Horn. In meas-

ures limiting the royal power the Estates had been
unanimous, but in other matters there was little har-
mony among them. As soon
as the people had recov-
ered strength after the ruin of the great war, many
began to talk of renewing the war with Russia and
regaining the territories lost by the treaty of Nystad
in 1721. A new generation had arisen, which gloried
in the victories and the achievements of the past, but
forgot its defeats, its sorrows, and its hardships. The
new generation burned with a desire to avenge itself

upon its hereditary enemy to the east. But the old and
cautious statesman at the helm must first be removed.
To undermine his influence and make him unpopular
first among the people and then with the Estates, the
war enthusiasts circulated the report that he was pro-

Russian, which was the worst thing that could be said
about any one in Sweden at that time. The truth was
that Horn did not wish to rush his country into war
before had regained its strength, and its defenses
it
had been restored. But the young and inexperienced

enthusiasts would take fortune by storm, and glory and
lands would be theirs.
War with Russia 253
In the first place the war party had to win over a

majority of the Estates that met in a Riksdag in 1738;
for these could compel Horn to resign from his posi-
tion. The members were entreated and urged and
even bribed with free entertainments and money sup-
plied by Russia's enemy, France. Abusive pamphlets
were circulated against the venerable and cautious
Horn and his party. The war party designated their
opponents as "Nightcaps/' while they assumed the
name of "Hats." The hat had from of old been a sym-
bol of manliness and freedom. Thus arose the party
names of Hats and Caps, which maintained themselves
to the end of the Era of Liberty. By such methods did
the Hat party force Horn to retire. His friends in the
Council were dismissed, and Hats were appointed in
their places.
E. THE WAR WITH RUSSIA, 1741-1743

Rise of the War Spirit. A new period was ushered
in. The
rest and peace which the land had enjoyed for
nearly twenty years had come to an end. Sweden was
now to become great and powerful again in one stroke.
The Hats had promised it. But the people were not
ready to take up the sword again. They did not yet
feel strong enough to engage in so dangerous a play.
But an event occurred shortly after the adjournment
of the Riksdag which aroused the people and kindled
their anger against Russia to white heat. The Estates
had sent a certain Major Malcolm Sinclair to Turkey
to negotiate an alliance with that country against
Russia. On his return home with important docu-
ments regarding the alliance, he was attacked in Sile-
sia by a band of horsemen sent by the Russian gov-

ernment, was dragged from the highway, robbed, and
murdered. A popular song, "Sinclairsvisan," giving
the account of the foul murder, was composed, circu-
lated, and sung throughout all Sweden, arousing hot
indignation and a burning desire for revenge. It ended
with this challenge :
"And, therefore, heroes, brave and good,

With heart within your bosom,
Avenge ye Malcolm Sinclair's blood,
Which Kuthler shed, most gruesome!"
Proud memories from the days of Charles XII and

his champions were revived, and bitter memories, too,
of the sufferings of fathers and kinsmen in the long
captivity under the hated foe. And now "Up and
avenge these sufferings and the murder of an innocent
man!"
The Declaration of War. In 1741 the Riksdag de-
clared war. The army was not equipped for defense,
much less for attack. But what mattered such trifles !
The objective was clearly understood. The least that

would satisfy the patriots was the conquest of south-
eastern Carelia and St. Petersburg with surrounding
territory. Thus in dreams the people were back once
more in the glorious days of Gustavus Adolphus. In
the name of the Estates a report was made of the con-
dition of the country. There was a general song of
rejoicing over the courage of the Estates, and the evi-
dent fact that Providence was shaping events to the
plan and wishes of the Estates.
War with Russia 255
The Opening of the War. The war opened in the fall

of 1741 with a defeat of the Swedes near the Russian
border. The loss of life in this battle, however, was not
as great as that in the winter quarters of 1741-42. The
soldiers suffered from poor and insufficient food. For
a long period they had to camp in dugouts, dark and
damp, where the clothes molded and rotted on their
bodies. What wonder that sickness and death raged!
Insubordination in the Army. But there was a worse

evil inthe army even than sickness, and that was in-
subordination. The commander in chief was Charles
Emil Lewenhaupt. He had been one of the "champions"
of Charles XII, and that was sufficient evidence of his
bravery. His honest and frank bearing and his stately
appearance won him many friends and supporters. At
the Riksdag in which the war was declared, he pre-
sided in the Estate of the nobles and was one of the
most zealous supporters of that measure. But all this
did not necessarily prove his fitness for the chief com-
mand.
In one of the many pamphlets published after the
Rigsdag we read: "Where can we find in our army,
today the subordination that existed in the days of
Charles XII? Will not each ensign, if corrected by the
general, at once think of the equality existing among
the peerage?" It was a striking prediction of what
happened in the army. Officers of noble rank found it
difficult to see in Lewenhaupt the general instead of
the president of their Estate and their party leader.
All the members of the Estate wished to command, no
one would obey. They were not able to do the simple
and necessary thing, to hold their peace and do their
duty. And thecommander was not the man to teach

them the lesson.When a subsequent Riksdag was sum-
moned, the officers left their command to engage in the
less strenuous and more agreeable task of attending

the Riksdag. The soldiers despised their officers and
imitated their insubordination.
The Capitulation in Helsingfors. Under such cir-

cumstances the campaign of 1742 became one continu-
ous retreat from one strong position to another at the
mere mention of the approach of the enemy. At Hel-
singfors the Swedes should have been able to defend
themselves, but the army was in a state of dissolution,
and the commander could do nothing but subscribe to
the Capitulation of Helsingfors in 1742, by which the
Swedish forces withdrew from Finland. Of the sol-
diers transported to Finland only one-third returned

home, the rest had perished from sickness, want, and
exposure. Only a small part had fallen in battle. Thus,
for instance, in the report of one regiment, in which
the losses were 700, only two had fallen in battle.
The Treaty of Abo, 1743. By this treaty Sweden

ceded to Russia a small strip of southeastern Finland,
east of Lake Saima and the River Kymmene. But the
easy terms were purchased by the election of Adolph
Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, a kinsman of
Empress Elizabeth of Russia, as heir to the Swedish
throne. Ulrica Eleonora had died during the war, 1741,
leaving no heir to the throne.
Such were the results of the efforts of the Hats to
recover southeastern Finland and conquer St. Peters-
burg.
The Hat Party and Tess-in 257
F. RECOVERY AND SERVICES OF THE HAT PARTY

Victims of the War Failures. The Hats had greatly
reduced the power of the realm and changed the mili-
tary glory of Sweden into the laughing-stock of the
world. The great mass of the people had now had their
eyes opened and saw with a shudder how the kingdom
was led on to destruction. But the Hats succeeded at
the Riksdag in saving themselves by throwing the
blame for the failure of the war on Lewenhaupt and
his assistant Buddenbrock. By the execution of these
two victims the mistakes of the Hats were expiated.
But the real causes of the unhappy issue of the war
were of a deeper nature.
Attitude of the Empress Elizabeth toward Sweden.
With difficulty the Hats thus succeeded in maintaining
their leadership. They had bought the safety of Swed-
en by placing it under the influence of its enemy in
choosing as heir to the throne one whom none of them
knew or had even thought of before. Empress Eliza-
beth had no doubt assumed that the prince who owed
his appointment to her would remain her ever grateful
tributary king. Both she and her ambassador in Swed-
en assumed a tone toward Sweden as if it were already
a subject kingdom of Russia. The insolence reached its
climax when she had her ambassador administer to
Adolph Frederick a reproof in which she complained
that the heir to the throne had taken as friends and
counselors persons who were unfriendly to Russia,
although all the world knew he owed his election to her.
And if he would not change his ways she would be
compelled to "discontinue her friendly efforts in behalf
of His Royal Highness." At the same time a division

of the Russian fleet threatened the southern coast of
Finland. This occurred during the Riksdag of 1746.
But under these national insults, the Hats showed

themselves in a new and better light. They inspired
the Estates to give utterance to their patriotic resent-
ment in a national declaration, which was embodied in
a decree of the Riksdag. It declared that as they had
of their own free will chosen His Royal Highness as
heir to the Swedish throne, so they pledged themselves
to defend him and his heirs with life and blood and
estate.
This declaration was a bitter morsel for Her Impe-

rialMajesty, but it inspired the Russians with a new
respect for Sweden. To the Hats their brave and deter-
mined up a new period. Their days of
attitude opened
youthful delirium were past. They were no longer an
irresponsible war party. Their efforts were now bent
toward their country's inner development and outward
independence. It was the underlying principles of
Arvid Horn's administration restored to honor with
some changes, as we shall see.
Defensive Works of the Hats. In one respect their

administration was an improvement on Horn's. They
made it an object to strengthen the national defenses,
for which Horn had lacked the necessary means. For
Finland's defense the able engineer Augustin Ehren-
svard constructed a fort and naval station on the is-
lands off Helsingfors, which received the proud name
of Sveaborg. To prevent a repetition of the awful rav-
ages during the days of the great war, the Estates
Industrial Development 259
ordered the building of a coast flotilla to operate with

land forces for coast protection.
Count Karl Gustav Tessin. The Hats had thus won

the confidence of well-nigh the whole people and were
more powerful than ever. Under their leadership
Sweden was again united for common defense. Their
foremost man, the president of the chancery, was Count
Gustav Tessin. He was the Magnus De la Gardie of his
day. Like the latter he was a brilliant man of the
world, with the same warm interest in art and learn-
ing, which he generously supported. As an orator he
was one of the foremost of his time. At the court in
Paris, with its dazzling splendor, its elegant salons, he
had, had his training, and had there lived as a French-
man. In his own country he had infused this love of
everything French in all lines from politics and litera-
ture to the culinary arts. A great statesman he was
not; for this, he was too hot-tempered, too ready to
believe what he wished to believe, and thought too
much of what was brilliant and appealing. In his
merits and defects he was a type of his age and of the
Hat party.
G. INDUSTRIAL AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Development Policies of the Hat Party. When the
Hat party came to power in 1738, there was a change
not only in politics, but also in industrial life. To raise
Sweden once more to a great power was but one of the
party's aims. With equal zeal they took up the second
great aim to make Sweden wealthy and strong. This
:
had, indeed, been an aim of all good administrations,

but none had carried the efforts to such extremes as

the Hat party.
They especially encouraged industries by granting
privileges. All who would establish factories or mills
were given free building grounds and free timber for
buildings, machinery, and tools. When ready to start
the industry, the manufacturer could count on a loan
from the crown and then premiums on work done.
Then, too, manufacturers were protected from foreign
competition. The importation of goods which could be
produced in sufficient quantities at home was prohib-
ited, and heavy duties were imposed on other goods
which could be produced at least in part at home.
This encouragement of industries by the government
awakened enterprise and initiative among the people,
which had been seriously lacking before. Everybody
wished to- assist in the upbuilding of the fatherland.
And factories sprang up like mushrooms throughout
the country. The textile industry especially developed
on a grand scale notwithstanding the fact that the
application of steam power had not yet come into use.
With patriotic enthusiasm the Estates agreed at the
firstRiksdag at which the Hat party was in power
"that after a certain time they would wear no other
clothing than such as had been produced at home."
Among the nobility this resolution was hailed with
applause.
But this policy had a darker side. The tax-paying
and consuming public were the victims. Prices rose
while goods deteriorated. Under this system the indus-
tries were hothouse plants, of which many shoots were
doomed to pine away. But in spite of many errors, the
Commercial Development 261
Estates of this period have the undisputed credit of

having created Sweden's first more important indus-
tries.
Commerce and Navigation. The ultimate object of

this legislation for industry and commerce was to
enable Sweden to produce everything that its
people
needed, and thus make the country independent of for-
eigners* This object should be gained by trying in
every way to increase the exports and diminish the
imports. In this way more and more money would
remain at home. By calculations, which, however, were
deceptive, it appeared, during the
early part of the
period, that the country's imports exceeded the exports
by millions of crowns. Extreme poverty and even dis-
aster seemed imminent.
During Horn's administration an act was passed
forbidding foreign nations to carry into Sweden other
goods than those of their own production. Soon all
imports of salt came from the Mediterranean lands,
and grain from the Baltic lands, carried in Swedish
bottoms. In Horn's day, too, there was founded in
Gothenburg the Swedish East India Company, which
during the Hat administration carried on a prosperous
trade with East India and China, and brought home
large cargoes of silk, chinaware, tea, coffee, spices, and
other Oriental products. Some years the profits rose
to a hundred per cent and over. With gratification
the Hats could show that the turnover of Swedish trade
had more than doubled since the first decade of the
period, and that the greater part of the foreign trade
was now in Swedish hands, and best of all, that the
exports exceeded the imports by several million crowns.
Sweden had never before witnessed such a develop-

ment.
Cultural Development. Of the highest permanent
value, however, were the achievements of the period in
Literature and Science. The large number of eminent
men, thinkers and writers, who now appeared made
this period pre-eminently an age of culture. Of these
only a few can here be mentioned.
For material culture there labored such men as
Christopher Polhem and Jonas Alstromer, already re-
ferred to. In Literature and History there was Olov
von Dalin; in Botany, the world-famous Carl von
Linne, or Linnaeus; in Mathematics and Astronomy,
Anders Celsius; in Chemistry, Torbern Bergman and
Karl Wilhelm Scheele; in Mathematics and Astronomy,
Physics and Mechanics, Chemistry, Geology, and Phi-
losophy, the gentle and kindly Emanuel Swedenborg.
Olof von Dalin. In 1732 appeared the first Swedish
periodical that was read with general interest. It was
"The Swedish Argus" (Then Swanska Argus), whose
editor had determined to let his fellow
countrymen see
their faults and follies face to face. Never, perhaps,
has a paper been received with more enthusiasm than
this little sheet issued weekly. A contemporary relates
a generation later "Most of us remember even today
:
with what longing we waited for the day on which this

little paper usually made its appearance, and how
eagerly we devoured its contents even as a hungry man
at table."And when after two years the paper was dis-
continued the whole country "sorrowed as over the
death of some national benefactor."
How curious people were to know who the witty
Cultural Development Dalin 263
editor was
But no one suspected that it was a poor
!
young man of twenty-fotir, Olof Dalin, who aimed at

the betterment of his age. When his identity be-
came known, however, the Estates rewarded him with
the appointment as librarian of the royal library, an
unusual distinction for one so young.
Dalin strove to make people better, happier, and
more efficient citizens
by the spread of useful knowl-
edge. The Argus treated its readers even to such mat-
ters, presented in a simple and interesting manner, and

in language that could be comprehended by everybody.
Such a movement of enlightenment spread over all
Europe during the eighteenth century. Before this,
treasures of knowledge had been confined to the
learned few. The heavy tomes of knowledge, written
in Latin, were stowed away in the libraries of the
learned. With the life outside they had nothing to
do. But now of a sudden there appeared in the writ-
ings of scholars much that was of interest to the
masses, much that would lead them to think of life and
its problems, give them a keener insight into things,
and emancipate them from superstition and old preju-

dices. There was, therefore, a general effort at enlight-
enment, and, hence, this period in European history
has been called the Age if Illumination. In Sweden
Dalin was the first to bring out the light of learning
from the seclusion of the study or the laboratory.
Dalin's power to narrate in a simple and interesting
way characterizes his Swedish History. Before this,
books on Swedish history were so dry that only men
of learning could endure to read them. Dalin removed
History from the book-shelf to the hearts and minds
of his people. As a poet he was also greatly admired.

His songs and ballads spread throughout the whole
country and were sung to popular and well-known
melodies.
His language was simple and pure. People today can
read his works without any difficulty. Therefore,
Dalin's Argus introduced a new period in the Swedish
language and literature, known as Modern Swedish.
He was ennobled and assumed the name Von Dalin.
Carl von Linne. In 1707, in the beautiful month of
May, there was born to the curate of Rashult, in Smi-
land, a son, who name of Sweden's hero
received the
king, Carl. It was when Sweden and her
at the time
king were at the height of power and glory. The little
child in the cradle was to grow up and become king in
the realm of flowers and make his land honored when
its political greatness was at an end.
After a year his father became the pastor of the
parish and moved into the rectory of Stenbrohult.
Both parents were kind and devout people and great
lovers of flowers. With his own hands the pastor
planted at Stenbrohult an orchard and flower garden
which became the finest in all Sm&land. Here the par-
ents spent their leisure moments, and flowers became
littleCarl's dearest playthings. Even as an infant he
would immediately stop crying if a flower were put in
his hand. When he was old enough *to talk he gave his
father no rest, asking the name of every kind of flower
and plant in the garden, some of which the father did
not know. This Linnseus in his old age tells of himself.
It is touching to read how the aged botanist, with all
his honors, longed for his childhood's happy days again.
Cultural Development Linne 265
But how short is that period At the age of seven

!
he was taken from home, from his parents and his

dear friends, the flowers, and sent to school in Vexio.
Carl von LinnS.
Here, away from his dear ones, he lived a stranger,

all by himself. The school room was dark and cold
and noisy. But he enjoyed the leisure moments when
he could be among the flowers and plants and learn
their names. But nature studies were then regarded
as useless, affording neither honor nor bread.

Years passed. He came to Uppsala to pursue his

studies along the lines of medicine and science. But all
the time he had to struggle with poverty. In his auto-
biography he says that he had to borrow for his living.
He could not afford to have his shoes resoled, but used
paper as insoles.
One spring day he was sitting in the botanical gar-

den examining some plants, when he saw a venerable
man approaching him. The stranger entered into con-
versation with the young student and was astonished
at his knowledge of flowers and plants, and invited
him to come along to his home. When they arrived at
the home, Linnseus was surprised to find that it was
the learned Professor Olof Celsius who had so honored
him.
Celsius wasso well pleased with the young student

that he treated him as a member of his family. His
hardships were now over. He could now devote him-
self to his chosen studies without interruption, and his
fame spread to other lands. On .a visit to Holland he
won wealthy friends and patrons, who enabled him to
get his works published. At length he became profes-
sor at Uppsala University.
Thither flocked students from all lands to get a look

under his guidance into the secrets of nature. Lasting
were the impressions his students received from the
great scientist's love of nature, and his reverence for
the infinite wisdom of the Creator. He introduced his
most noted work with the following beautiful words :
"I saw the infinite, omniscient, and almighty God,

I saw His back as He passed on, and I was awed. I
Cultural Development Linne 267
sought His footsteps in the realm of nature, and found

in each of them infinite wisdom and power."
On summer days he took his students with him into
the woods and fields to take a look into nature's work-
shop. Of every plant or animal they saw, the master
had some amusing and interesting thing to tell. A
member of one of the classes relates "After the stu-
:
dents had thus enjoyed the day, from morning till
Hammarby, LinneVs Home near Uppsala.
afternoon, the return to the city followed. The master

led the way, and the students escorted him to his home,
where with enthusiastic repetitions of 'Vivat Linnaeus'
a happy day was ended."
His vacations were spent at his country home, Ham-
marby, near Uppsala, where he had a large orchard
and flower garden.
In his later years he was ennobled and changed his
celebrated name Linnaeus for Von Linne. Splendid dec-
orations were conferred upon him from foreign lands,
and attractive positions were offered him. He was,

however, happy in his little university city, and could
not be lured away. When he looked back upon his life's
course, it was with gratitude to God, who "had led him
by His all-powerful hand."
But even a flower king must wither like the flowers.
On January 10th, 1778, his spirit took its flight. On
his writing table there was afterwards found a paper
with one word written on it, only one, and with a trem-
bling hand. It was "Stenbrohult," his happy child-
hood's home. Linn#us was a genius with a child's heart.
CHAPTER XV
REIGN OF ADOLPH FREDERICK, 1751-1771
A. ATTEMPTED COUP D' STAT BY THE COURT

The Ambition of the Queen. In the year 1751 Fred-
erick I passed away without leaving any perceptible
vacancy behind him. People generally had almost for-

gotten that there was a king. The new king, Adolph
Frederick, was a kind, honorable gentleman, whose
greatest delight was in fleeing from the world's din to
his dear turning lathe. He would have been well satis-
fied with the scant power the constitution accorded
the king had it not been for his wife. Queen Louise
Ulrica reminds one very much of her brother, Fred-
erick II of Prussia, called the Great She was deter-
mined to make her fine talents felt in the affairs of
government. Through her amiability, the royal pair
secured a group of adherents who were ready to ven-
Attempt at Revolution 269
ture everything to secure greater power for the king

that is, for the queen.
Attempts of the King to Disregard the Council At

firstthe king tried to assume the power to decide mat-
ters which the council claimed the sole power to decide.
Then he tried to nullify the decisions of the council
by refusing to sign them. The queen fed the flame of
discord to the best of her ability. Both the king and
the council appealed to the Estates to settle the ques-
tion. The Estates, meeting in 1755, sided with the
council and ordered that if the king refused his signa-
ture to their decisions, the council was authorized to
attach it by means of a stamp.
Efforts of the Court to Win the Peasants. At the

Riksdag the king and queen attempted to secure the
support of the peasants. Members of that Estate were
treated to refreshments by the court party and 'some
were invited to meetings with the king. One peasant,
for instance, boasted that he had been at the palace
and been treated to wine, had sat on a fine upholstered
chair, and had been offered snuff out of the king's own
snuffbox. But these efforts resulted in failure and the
humiliation of the peasants.
Extreme Measures of the Estates. The Estates took
pleasure in showing the king, and especially the proud
queen, that supreme power rested with them. So they
undertook to discharge the excellent tutors of Prince
Gustav simply because they were friends of the king
and queen, and then forced upon the prince teachers
whom the royal family could not tolerate. The sensi-
tive little prince took the separation from his beloved
teachers so much to heart that he became ill in conse-
quence.
The haughty, hot-tempered queen hated the officious

Estates, who had so impudently thrust themselves into
the sanctity of family life, intruded themselves be-
tween parents and children. Her "head began to reel,"
she wrote in her diary. She must get away from this
intolerable dependence. There was but one course to :
overthrow the system of government.
The Plot and Its Results. Some friends of the court

plotted to bring about the desired change, and gained
supporters among the soldiers, sailors, and workmen
of Stockholm. The plan was that these conspirators
should gather some night, and under the lead of some
trusty officers, cause an uprising, seize the important
positions in the city, arrest the chief men of the coun-
ciland the Estates. The king should then summon a
new Eiksdag and induce it to grant greater powers to
the king. But unfortunately for the court, they were
forced to let into the secret too many unreliable men of
the lower classes.
One
innkeeper, known for drunkenness and rash-
ness, had in readiness a few hundred men, whom he
had induced to assist in the uprising. But he could not
wait till the leaders had made all necessary prepara-
tions. One night, when drunk as usual, he would, for-
sooth, of his own accord carry out the plan. One of his
confidants went to a corporal of the guard, aroused
him and asked "Are your men
:
willing to do their duty
in loyalty to their king in case an order is given to
act?" The corporal answered, "yes," but hastened to
Sweden in the Seven Years' War 271
notify his lieutenant, who was a zealous partisan of

the Hats, and who at once informed Axel von Fersen.
Axel von Fersen gathered the trustiest officers and
other members of the Hat party. Guards were sta-
tioned at important places, the leaders of the plot were
arrested, and the premature attempt at revolution was
easily put down. Of those who had been leaders no
fewer than eight were condemned to death and were
beheaded in front of Riddarholm Church. Never since
the Massacre of Linkoping, in 1600, had Sweden wit-
nessed such a scene.
The Estates knew how to reach the root of the at-
tempted revolution. They charged the clergy, not as
an estate of the realm, but as
spiritual leaders, to ad-
minister to the queen a sharp correction. The arch-
bishop and another bishop repaired to Ulriksdal and
laid before the queen a written admonition and warn-
ing signed by allthe members of the spiritual Estate.
As to the king, his own crown was at stake. But the
Estates were content with sending him, too, in writing,
a sharp warning.
During the Eiksdag of 1755-56 the king had lost the
last remnant of his power. The premature attempt at
revolution had in no wise shaken the power of the
Hats. But for their own errors the party was some day
doomed to fall.
B. SWEDEN'S PART IN THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR

Motives for Participation. In 1756, the year of the at-
tempted revolution, there broke out a great European
war, known as the Seven Years' War. Half of Europe
was arrayed against Frederick II of Prussia. Among
his many enemies was France, which now as in 1741

lured Sweden into war. Large subsidies were offered
and promises made that Sweden should recover what
she had lost to Prussia in 1720. Such tempting pros-
pects the council could not resist and so joined Prus-
sia's many enemies. This was a treacherous and cow-
ardly act, just as Prussia's had been in joining Swed-

en's many enemies in 1715.
Results of the Participation. The results were dis-
astrous. The Swedish forces were few, untrained, and
poorly equipped. Their worst enemies were want and
disease. There were times when every third man was
on the sick list. But the people were loyal as they had
been in the days of Charles XII, and more than one
brave exploit was performed. But nothing of real
value was accomplished. The officers were now, as
in the previous war, selfish and insubordinate. Many
simply neglected their military duties to take part in

the Riksdag or to attend to private affairs or pleasures.
Both the commanders in chief and the government
were helpless against such abuses.
The Treaty of Hamburg. After five years the war
was closed by the separate Treaty of Hamburg, May
through the personal mediation of the queen.
22, 1762,
Sweden escaped without loss of territory. The general
peace was concluded at Paris in 1763. Frederick
emerged from the war with prestige greatly enhanced.
C. THE FALL OP THE HAT PARTY

Cost of the Late War. The late war had cost the
kingdom many million crowns to no purpose. This
failure was now added to the other sins of the Hat
Sweden in the Seven Years' War 273
party the miserable Russian War and the extravagant

:
subsidies granted the factories. In consequence of this

mismanagement the country was burdened with an
immense debt, about the same as that at the death of
Charles XII of course with this difference, that the
country was better able to bear the burden now than
it was at that time, its industries being in a far better
condition.
The Mismanagement of the Hat Party. To meet

these expenditures the government had resorted to
borrowing as long as it was possible and then to issue
paper money without limit. When it became evident
that the government could not redeem in real money
the immense quantity of bills in circulation, the result
was the same as in the case of Baron Gortz's copper
coins: they depreciated even to one-third of the face
value. The result was distress and uncertainty. No
one knew if the bills he received today would have the
same value tomorrow. People of fixed salaries were
deprived of two-thirds of their income. People who
had made investments suffered in the same way.
Among people of means there was a sharp competition
for the purchase of goods, metals, commodities of per-
manent value. It was said that one might find peasants
buying at auction Latin books just for the purpose of
getting some value for their despised bills.
The economists of that day had not fully learned the
danger of issuing too much paper money.
The Ousting of the Hats. At the Riksdag of 1765,
the people unanimously insisted that extravagance
must end, and the government of the Hat party as
well. The majority of the members chosen to this Riks-

dag belonged to the Cap party. They compelled all the
zealous Hat members of the council to withdraw and
replaced them with men of their own party.
D. ADMINISTRATION OF THE YOUNGER CAP PARTY

The Foreign Policy of the Caps. The Cap party,
which came to power in 1765, differed greatly from
the old Cap party under the lead of Arvid Horn. It is
true that both advocated economy in national expendi-
tures and opposed extravagance and waste. But while
Horn and his followers had placed Sweden's inde-
pendence as their goal, the present Cap party had
during the political strife, in blind party rage, sought
support from Russia, the sworn enemy of the Hats.
It even came to light that the Russian ambassador in
Stockholm had received from friends in the Cap party
traitorous writings, which suggested that if the Rus-
sian government failed by peaceful means to crush the
Hats, it should resort to threats and mobilize forces
along the borders of Finland. These men called them-

selves "patriots." It was Swedish leaders who backed
up the insolent behavior of the Russian minister after
the election of the heir to the Swedish throne in 1743.
The object of this affiliation with Russia on the part
of the Caps was to enable them afterwards to adopt
measures for the country's welfare. The hereditary
enemy so powerfully rebuked by the Hats now with
the success of the Caps secured a foothold in Sweden.
The party leaders could not now adopt any important
measures without first consulting the Russian minister.
Gold was freely used by him to strengthen his cause.
The Younger Cap Party 275
The System of Bribery. The system of bribery was

the ugliest feature of the government of the Estates.
The means were taken partly from the treasury, part-
ly from the party's fund of private contributions, but
were principally secured from foreign ambassadors.
The latter distributed money to members in all the
Estates to win supporters. To save the Hats, in 1765,
France spent more than two and one-half million
crowns. England, Russia, and Denmark in like man-
ner supported the Caps with four million crowns. Still
larger sums were spent four years later at the Riksdag
of 1769. Honor and patriotism seemed in a fair way
to be effaced from men's minds and hearts.
Sweden's Independence Threatened. Sweden was

threatened during the administration of the Caps with
becoming a subject kingdom of Russia. This was the
more dangerous as Russia had joined with Prussia and
Denmark in a plan to uphold the liberal constitution
of Sweden, as it tended to keep alive the party strife,
rendering the government weak and dependent. The
same policy had been pursued by Russia and Prussia
regarding another neighbor, Poland. The result was
the partition of Poland between these two "friends of
Polish liberty," and a third neighbor, Austria.
In order not to disturb the good relations with this
friend and well-wisher of Sweden, the Caps discon-
tinued Ehrensvard's works for the defense of Finland.
They were, forsooth, no longer needed.
For all honorable and true patriots it had now be-
come a sacred duty to defeat the Cap party. It was not
a thing to do, for the party defeated itself
difficult
through the errors of its domestic policy.

276 .4 History of Sweden
The Domestic Policy of the Caps. In economic mat-

ters the Caps now had some excellent ideas. They had
come to recognize the great importance of agriculture
to the prosperity of a nation. Even the Hats had dis-
covered during the later years of their government
that there were other things besides commerce and
manufactures that needed encouragement. It was a
serious matter that Sweden could not produce enough
grain for home consumption, but had to import con-
siderable quantities from abroad.
For centuries Swedish agriculture had been ham-
pered by a faulty economic and social system. From
the earliest times the peasants lived, chiefly for com-
mon protection, in crowded villages, in unsanitary con-
ditions, and exposed to ravages of fire. The lands of
the villages were divided into a large number of nar-
row strips, for each one was to have his share of all
the different qualities of the land. Thus in a village
of say twenty owners there might be no less than 5,000
strips.
These strips were necessarily very narrow, hardly
wide enough in places for the peasant to turn with
his team without getting into his neighbor's strip. The
margins between the strips were so much waste land.
There was great sacrifice of time and convenience in
moving teams and tools from one strip to another,
often at considerable distances. They all had to har-
vest at the same time, for one could not haul in his
grain over the unharvested strip of his neighbor, and
a separate road to each strip could of course not be
thought of. This was a great handicap especially to
industrious and thrifty peasants.
The Younger Cap Party 277
An important step in reform was begun, about the

middle of the eighteenth century, with a system of con-
solidation of the many small strips into a few larger
strips for each villager. A still greater reform was
effected at the opening of the nineteenth century when
the various strips were consolidated into one tract for
each owner. This led to a gradual dissolution of the
village as each peasant moved his home to his own
tract of land. These reforms largely increased the
acreage of cultivation and removed ancient handicaps
from agriculture, and the peasant could now give more
attention to stock raising. But the reform met with
much opposition from those who held to the ancient
customs and were loth to leave their old surroundings.
The Passing of the Mercantile System. The care giv-
en to agriculture from the middle of the eighteenth
century, and especially during the administration of
the Caps, indicates that the belief in the Mercantile
System was shaken. Everywhere in Europe people be-
gan to think that each country should not attempt to
produce everything that it needed, but that each coun-
try should produce such things as it was especially
adapted for, and import other necessaries from other
lands. As it became apparent that many protected in-
dustries were artifically created and maintained, voices
began to be raised against this system of paternalism.
The state should rather let free competition control.
An Industrial Crisis. Notwithstanding certain mer-
its, the administration of the Caps suffered
from seri-
ous faults. The party had determined to put an end
.to waste by the practice of economy. But they made
the mistake of going to the other extreme. They sud-
27& A History of Sweden
denly prohibited the state bank from granting loans

to factories and other enterprises, and began a forcible
collection of all the bank's credits. By this means it
was expected that the bank by degrees would be able
to redeem all the paper money in coin. But hard times
for the manufacturers and miners followed. They had
all been borrowers at the bank. Now many had to close
their businesses. Expensive machinery was sold at
great sacrifice, large masses of workmen were thrown
out of employment and suffered want. Many of them
emigrated, and thus Sweden lost thousands of her
most skillful sons. This sudden change in the policy
of the government had brought on an industrial crisis
which was painful to pass through. It was, however,
to a great extent unavoidable after the extravagance
of the Hats. It swept away many establishments which
had been maintained by excessive state subsidies. But
the larger factories, which rested on a more solid foun-
dation, survived the crisis.
The Riksdag of 1769. At the Riksdag summoned in
1769 to relieve the distress, the general discontent led
to the removal of the majority of the Caps from the
council and their places were filled by men of the
Hat party. All Russia's and Denmark's intrigues and
bribery could not save the Cap party from defeat.
Gustavu$ III 279
CHAPTER XVI
REIGN OF GUSTAVUS III, 1771-1792
A. THE COUP D' ETAT OF 1772
CJiaracter and Aim of the Young King. Adolph Fred-

erick died suddenly in 1771 and was succeeded by his
oldest son, Gustavus III.
The young king had in-
herited his mother's rich
endowments. He had a
consuming love for his
fatherland and was de-
termined to risk every-
thing to be its savior.
From weakness and dis-
honor he would rescue it,
from discord, which set
son against father and
brother against brother,
he would save it. He
must put an end to the
"liberty" which had be- Gustavus III.
come license, a liberty

only for the most powerful party, a liberty which had
caused the greedy neighbors of the fatherland to
crouch, ready to spring upon it and tear it to pieces.
He glowed with enthusiasm for his country and its
honor. He worshiped the memory of Gustavus I and
Gustavus II and was proud to bear their name. He
would resemble them in more than name. The times
required heroic action, for to appeal to the patriotism

of the party leaders was futile.
The Kings Appeal to Officers and Soldiers. In the

beginning of August, 1772, the rulers of Russia, Prus-
sia, and Austria signed "in the Name of the Holy Trin-
ity" their agreement to partition Poland in order "to

preserve mutual good will among themselves and re-
store peace and order in Poland." On the 19th of the
same month the fate of Sweden as an independent state
was decided.At the change of guards at the palace in
Stockholm, on that day, the king called the officers and
their subordinates into the guard-hall.
There he began, "pale and deeply moved," to address

them. In vivid colors he pictured conditions in Sweden.
The root of the evil lay in the arbitrary government
of the many. It was this which he aimed to destroy,
and restore Sweden's time-honored liberty under law.
He closed his powerfuland convincing address with
the words "Will you follow me with the same loyalty
:
as your fathers did Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adol-

phus? Then I will venture my life and blood for you and
your country's salvation." There was a moment of
silence, a fateful moment. Then sounded a voice "We
:
offer life and blood in Your Majesty's service." This

promise was followed by a deafening "Yes." With the
same enthusiasm the men outside pledged support to
their king.
The Revolution Became a Celebration. But through-

out the city rumors spread as to what was taking place
at the palace. People rushed thither, but found the
gates closed. Was the king a captive? Perhaps de-
Gustavus HI and the Estates 281
prived of his crown ? The gates were opened, the king

appeared, mounted and with drawn sword, followed
by the guard. The people's anxiety was changed to joy
and cheering. Wherever the king rode forth, through-
out the capital, to receive the oath of loyalty from sol-
diers and officers, the people crowded around him with
shouts of "Live the King !" The same shouts came from
the ships in the harbors. The king tied a white band,
as a badge, around his arm. In a short time the white
band was around the arm of every person in the city.
Wherever the king's proclamation to save the land
from party strife was read, shouts of applause were
heard. It was not simply a revolution; it was a cele-
bration.
The Meeting of the Estates. Two days later the Es-

tates met on call of the king. Gustavus entered the
hall and from the throne addressed the Estates as fol-
lows "Filled with deep anxiety over the condition of
:
the country, and constrained to exhibit the truth in its

full light, when the kingdom is at the brink of destruc-
tion, it is not to be wondered at that today I am unable

to receive you with feelings of gladness. For a long
time the country has been rent in twain by party
strife, divided, as it were, into tw o peoples, the parties
r
united only in tearing the unhappy land to pieces. To

strengthen itself has been the only aim of the ruling
party. Nothing has been sacred to a party animated
by a feeling of hate and revenge. Thus has liberty, the
noblest of man's rights, been converted into an intoler-
able despotism in the hands of each ruling party. If
the domestic affairs of the country are in a perilous
condition, how terrible are its foreign relations ! I am
ashamed to speak of it. Born a Swede, and king of

Sweden, should be impossible for me to believe that
it
foreign aims could control Swedish statesmen, and

further that the foulest means have been employed for
this purpose. You know what I mean, and my feelings
of shame may lead you to see into what disgrace your
dissensions have plunged the kingdom."
The king closed by assuring the Estates that it was
license and not liberty he wished to abolish.
Hence,
he caused to be read before the Estates a proposed
new constitution, restoring the power of the king. By
this constitution Gustavus III sought to restore that
of Gustavus Adolphus. Power was divided equally be-
tween the king and the Estates. The Estates levied
the taxes and together with the king made the laws.
Without the consent of the Estates the king could not
begin aggressive wars. The Council was appointed by
the king and responsible to him alone. Its function was
solely advisory. The king was required to consult the
Council only on important matters.
This constitution was unanimously adopted and by
oath confirmed by the Estates. The members who
would have opposed it could not, or dared not, for the
king had the army and the people on his side. Thus
fell the power of the Estates without a hand raised
for its support. The "Era of Liberty" was at an end, a

new era had begun.
The Conclusion. The revolution had been effected
without bloodshed and almost without the use of force.
Only the most prominent of the party leaders had been
kept under guard. They were now released. The hate-
ful and infamous party names, Hats and Caps, were
Gtistavus III and Russia, 283
abolished. Conciliation and harmony were the watch-

words of Gustavus.
The report of the revolution was received through-
out the land as a deliverance. But the Russian ambas-
sador in Stockholm complained bitterly of the treach-
ery of his former friends, who now appeared with the
white badge on the arm, and did not even dare to visit
him. He felt alone and deserted.
B. GUSTAVUS AVERTS THE VENGEANCE OP THE

NEIGHBORS
Russia's Vengeance held in Abeyance. Catherine II,
Russia's proud mistress, stormed over Gustavus' un-

expected attempts to deprive her of her expected prey.
For the present, however, she had to put up with it,
for her military forces were employed in Turkey and
Poland. But only for the present. By a hint from her,
Denmark and Prussia also restrained themselves for
the time being.
Gustaviis' Preparation for Defense. Much depended

on the measures of the king in this delicate situation.
He hastened to put the most exposed part of the realm,
Finland, in a state of defense as far as his limited
means afforded. Soon, too, an earnest effort was made
to strengthen the naval defense. A
strong fleet was
provided and the coast flotilla was strengthened. But
more respect was aroused among the impudent neigh-
bors when they saw that the Swedish people were
united around their king, so that no further oppor-
tunity was offered for outsiders to meddle in the do-
mestic affairs of the kingdom. Sweden had demon-
strated that would and could be saved. That was the

it
great difference between it and Poland, which to the
last was disintegrated, and therefore had been parti-

tioned.
The King's Diplomacy. In his foreign policy Gusta-

vus was greatly aided by his chancellor, Ulric Scheffer,
whose cautious and unruffled calm made a wholesome
impression on the spirited and restless king. The rela-
tion between these two has, apart from certain differ-
ences, a well known parallel in Sweden's earlier histo-
ry. Gustavus' own inclinationand aptitude lay toward
foreign relations. His keen insight and his artfulness
made him a skillful diplomat.
The Assistance of France. At this time, too, France
came to Sweden's assistance. Her government would
not permit Russia and Prussia to become too powerful.
So she granted subsidies to Sweden for the strengthen-
ing of its defenses, and promised military aid in case
of need. She also let her ambassadors in St. Peters-
burg, Berlin, and Copenhagen make it known that an
attack on Sweden would entail a war with France.
C. REFORMS UNDER GUSTAVUS III
Currency Reform. A serious problem for Sweden at

this time was haw to be enabled to maintain her inde-
pendence. The various experiments of the Estates had
resulted in a heavy national debt and a ruined cur-
rency. First and foremost a thorough reform in the
currency must be made before any prosperity could
come to the various industries. The bank notes had,
it is true, risen somewhat in value during the adminis-
Gustavus HI and His Reforms 285
tration of the Caps, but not to half of their face value.

To redeem the notes in full face value was not possible,
nor would it have been just, since they had passed cur-
rent from hand to hand for more than a generation at
a greatly reduced value. On the advice of his accom-
plished minister of finance, Johan Liljencrants, the
king decided to order the bank to redeem the bills at
half of the face value. To furnish the silver necessary
for this redemption, Liljencrants negotiated a foreign
loan. Soon real money came into circulation, and thus
a wholesome business life became possible in all indus-
tries.
Removal of Restrictions on Trade. Business was
further encouraged by the removal of restrictions im-
posed by the mercantile system and other outgrown
methods. Peasants were now permitted to sell their
grain or stock wherever they pleased. It was now no
longer likely that want and hard times would prevail
in one province while abundance and low prices ob-
tained in a neighboring one.
Abolition of Torture. Like most of the kings of this
period, Gustavus wished to appear enlightened
and
free from prejudice. In this spirit he abolished tor-
ture, which up to this time had occasionally been re-

sorted to in judicial procedure to extort confession.
In the case of participants in the attempted revolution
of 1756 the accused had been suspended in a cistern
of ice cold water they confessed. It often happened
till
that innocent persons confessed to guilt simply to es-

cape from the awful suffering.
Religious Freedom for Foreigners. In the spirit of
the age religious freedom for foreigners was estab-
lished.This spirit was expressed in the words of Fred-

erick II: "In my country each one may be saved in
his own way." Times had changed since the Swedish
Church engaged in a life-and-death struggle for its
faith. This act also aimed at inducing wealthy and
enterprising foreigners to settle in the country and
build up trade and industry.
Freedom of the Press. One of the civil rights which
writers of the period had most earnestly advocated was
the freedom of the press. This freedom the Younger
Cap party had established. The ordinance, however,
forbade the publishing of attacks on the Christian re-
ligion and the constitution of the realm as well as of
libelous and immoral writings. This ordinance was
now main confirmed by Gustavus III. He had,
in the
indeed, seen abuses of this freedom, and the council
strove to induce him to repeal the law. But he replied :
"A king may through the freedom of the press get to

hear the truth, which is often enough, and successfully,
concealed from him."
D. CULTURE DURING THE REIGN

The Court Life. Never before had life at court been
so significant to the people as during the reign of Gus-
tavus III. He had himself shared in the French court
life, which had become a model for all European courts.
He lovedits pomp and splendor, ceremonies and
its
pageantry. He delighted in surrounding himself with

his country's genius, wit, and beauty. He, the royal
charmer, through his amiability, his refinement, his
wit, his genial conversation, was the soul of this bril-
liant drama, in which every movement, every gesture
G-ustavus III and Culture . 287
was an art beautifying life. *Kich, all too rich, in festi-

valswas the life in the palace of Stockholm and in the
many country palaces where Gustavus loved to hold
his court the stately Drottningholm, the romantic
Gripsholm, the lovely Haga. Everywhere theaters were
arranged where the king himself, his brothers, court-
iers, and court ladies appeared as actors. For the
theater was a passion with him.
But amusement was not the only aim of Gustavus in
his court and theater life. He saw in it a means for
culture and refinement, through which he would ele-
vate his people. And results were not wanting. "Gus-
tavian" refinement and elegance lived on through sev-
eral generations. But unhappily French frivolity and
moral corruption accompanied the refinements of Pa-
risian life. And Gustavus forgot, when he wanted to
convert his Stockholm to a Versailles, that it was over
a poor Sweden and not a wealthy France that he wield-
ed the scepter.
Literature and Art. After the Era of Liberty, science

and learning declined, but literature flourished the
more. The king's mind inclined that way. According
to the spirit of the times, he was filled with admiration
of French literature, whose elegance and wit served as
a model also in Sweden. Gustavus himself was Swed-
en's foremost orator as author, too, he was prominent,
;
especially along dramatic lines. He gathered about him

gifted writers and artists who enjoyed his patronage.
To further the cause of Swedish literature for all time
he founded the Swedish Academy in 1786. It was com-
posed of eighteen members. Its aim was to foster the
Swedish language and literature.
288 . A History of Sweden
Johan Henrik Kellgren. Among the poets of the peri-

od Kellgren left behind him the deepest impression.
He was, like Dalin, a standard-bearer of the period of
illumination. His weapon was his fun-provoking, ready
wit. He boldly attacked all errors and weaknesses, es-
pecially of the leaders in society. Tegner sings witlrad-

miration of the time "when Kellgren dealt the heavy
strokes, the flashing strokes, for truth, for justice, and
for sense."
Like Dalin, Kellgren labored as editor and poet. He
was, however, of a deeper, more serious nature, with
truly great poetic endowments. For Dalin, poetry was
rather a pastime. In Kellgren, Gustavus found what
he had long sought a poetic genius that could co-
operate with him in the service of the Swedish theater.
The king made sketches for Swedish operas, and Kell-
gren was then left to carry out his thoughts and put
them in verse. This he did so well that to this day he
is unsurpassed as a writer of Swedish opera texts.
When his pen fell forever from his hand, there was
universal sorrow in the land.
Karl Gustav Leopold. Leopold's songs are closely re-

lated to Kellgren's,by whose side he labored for en-
lightenment. In flashing wit, he fully equaled Kell-
gren, but lacked the latter's enthusiasm and fervor.
He survived his fellow poet long enough to learn that
new tendencies came to prevail in the world of letters.
Karl Mikael Bellman. Bellman was and remained a
child, a child filled with the joy of life, and care-free,
he enjoyed its pleasures. An idler, a wag he was, in-
capable of work, but a rare poetic genius. In crowds
of happy friends, at the soft tones of the lute, were
Gustavus III and Culture 289
born his undying pictures, in poetry and music, of the

re-
checkered life at inns and taverns and in nature's
treats. The world to him was a big child nursery,
where all played, and no one was weighed down by
life's burdens.
Sergei's Statue of Gustavus III in

Stockholm.
Johan Tobias Sergei He was Sweden's greatest

He escaped the usual lot
sculptor, her greatest artist.
of artists privation and want. In Italy, the Paradise
the youth
of artists, beneath the soft blue southern sky,
from the bare and artless North could enjoy the glori-
and god-
ous Greek and Roman art-creations of gods
desses and heroes. This art he took as a model and

himself formed art creations which made him the
greatest sculptor of his time. His best known master-
piece is the statue of Gustavus III, in Stockholm, where
the king landed upon his return from the Russian War
in 1790. As a work of art it is unsurpassed by any of
Sweden's historical statues.
E. THE KING'S REVERSES

Government Monopoly of Distillation of Spirits.
From of old the Swedish peasant had enjoyed the right
to convert his grain into brandy, or whiskey. One
might even hear members of the Riksdag declare that
a moderate use of brandy was the peasant's best medi-
cine. The was considered a household necessity.
still
This distillation removed large quantities of grain

from the food supply of the nation. But what was
worse, the people were on a fair way to ruin through
the drink habit. Thinking people had long felt that
Sweden, to use Dalin's words, "had suffered a greater
lossfrom brandy than from war and pestilence."
To reduce this evil and at the same time afford the
crown a new source of revenue, Gustavus prohibited
private distilling and established instead government
distilleries. But the government's desire for revenue
triumphed over its other object, to limit the drink

habit.A whiskey flood began to inundate the land.
Government agents were instructed to urge people to
buy whiskey and thus help the impoverished govern-
ment. Drinking was considered a patriotic duty.
Places for the sale of liquor sprang up everywhere,
even near the churches, where they were kept open
Reverses of Gustavus HI 291
before, during, and after services. Iiyfoie parish, for

instance, it is said that there were twelve dramshops,
and as a result no one got any his hired
servicei^rom
help on Mondays. ^^
Private, or Illegal, Distilling. People could not under-
stand why they should not be allowed to turn their
own grain into whiskey. So they began to distill
secretly. Officers made tours of inspection, seized the
stills, and imprisonments or heavy fines followed. The
peasants then combined in large groups and established
their stills in secluded places in the forests. Should
the officers of the law venture to interfere there would
be bloody fights that might result in loss of life. In
some places the people were ruined through heavy
fines. Thus the government monopoly had caused yet
greater evils among the people, and instead of furnish-

ing the government an income, it had caused it losses.
Finally the monopoly had to be abandoned. At the close
of the 70's there were plain signs that the popularity
of Gustavus was waning.
Various Causes of Discontent. The liquor question
was not alone the cause of Gustavus' failure. During
the early years of his reign, his weak nature had been
strengthened by the dangers that threatened the realm.
But gradually as the dangers seemed to disappear, the
king's weaker side came to the fore his love of pleas-
ure and his vanity. The many court festivals, which
consumed the revenues of the realm, sapped the king's
strength, and set a bad example to his subjects, called
most forcibly to mind the times of Christina. The
king's expensive foreign travels also aroused much
criticism; especially expensive were his visits to
France and Italy, which lasted nearly a year. At the

same time a failure of crops afflicted the land, and
many people perished from hunger.
The displeasure with Gustavus was partly of the
kind that usually follows reforms. The burghers com-
plained of the changes wrought in the mercantile sys-
tem, as the clergy did of the establishment of religious
freedom, and the nobility could not forgive Gustavus
for depriving them of their former prerogative at the
meetings of the Riksdag and of the incomes connected
therewith.
The King's Efforts toRegain Popularity. It was

bitter indeed for one so sensitive as Gustavus to have
lost the love of his people. The happy, youthful period
of his career was at an end. His peace of mind was
gone. In the noisy pleasures of court life he sought to
forget his grief and unrest. But those who were close
to him noticed how sorrow wore on him. He was
moody and irritable, and at times tears gathered in his
eyes. The love of the people how was he to regain it?
He must. He began to dream of victories and con-
quests, which should cover his reign with glory and
make him Gustavus Adolphus.
like his hero,
But for such exploits he was not supported by his
old advisers, Scheffer and Liljencrants, both of whom
resigned. Instead came the officer in guard, Gustav
Maurits Armfelt, whose good humor and fine personal
appearance made him the king's spoiled favorite. He
was untiring in his efforts, with sparkling wit and ever
new amusements, toward off dullness and monotony,
which Gustavus dreaded more than anything else. Arm-
felt was a real genius, but through his insatiable love
War with Ru-ssia and Denmark 293
of pleasure and his profligacy he was a dangerous

friend to the king, whose chief weakness was a thirst
for pleasure.
F. THE RUSSIAN WAR FIRST PART

Causes of the War. It was against Eussia that Gus-
tavus decided to turn his weapons. He hoped to return
in triumph to be cheered by his people and admired
by the world. He had, however, real and weighty
causes for such a war. For with Russia no permanent
peace was possible. The Empress Catherine had only
postponed her revenge to a more opportune time. For
a war with Russia, Gustavus had to keep himself in
readiness. His best policy would be to anticipate his
enemy by a bold attack when a favorable opportunity
offered itself. This came when Russia was engaged in
a new war with Turkey. St. Petersburg was now left
without defenders. Now, if ever, was the time.
But the constitution required the consent of the
Estates for engaging in aggressive wars. This Gusta-
vus knew he could never secure. In the meantime, it
happened that a small division of Cossacks crossed the
Finnish border and fired a few shots on a Swedish
frontier guard. Hence, it was Russia that broke the
peace, and Gustavus had a legal right and even the
duty to defend his country. So far, so good. But there
was a story current that the little skirmish was ar-
ranged by order of the king, who shortly before wrote
and assistant, Armfelt: "Now it is time
'to his friend
to begin the war, that is, to get the Russians to make
trouble on the border." The invading Cossacks were
said to have been disguised Swedish soldiers. No won-
der then that no shot hit the mark. Gustavus' taste for
theatricals had had a practical application.
The Anjala Conspiracy. In the summer of 1788 the
king and his army were transported to Finland. The
new Swedish fleet was to defeat the Russian, and then
land troops at St. Petersburg. In the meantime the
land forces were to advance against the city and thus
enclose it from two sides. Off the Island of Hogland
in the Gulf of Finland the battle was fought creditably
by the Swedes, but it was indecisive. The fleet was
unable to penetrate to St. Petersburg. The plan to
land troops miscarried.
The king then decided to attack the city from the
land side only. But the army had not advanced far
beyond the Russian border before the hatred of the
lordly officers broke out in a meeting, which in one
stroke destroyedwhat had been built up during sixteen
years, and crushed all hope of a victory over a hated
foe, a mutiny so shameful that it has no parallel in

history. Now these had a
lordly officers felt that they
fine opportunity to wreak vengeance on him who had
deprived them of their political power. As ground for

their mutiny they alleged the fact that the king had
no right to begin an aggressive war "without the con-
sent of the Estates. That they had thus caused their
country an irreparable loss they did not seem to
consider.
The same wretched spectacle as during the two pre-
vious wars was now repeated. It became popular
among the officers to censure everything that the king
did, speak disrespectfully of him, and treat him with
open contempt. A large number of officers conspired
War with Russia and Denmark 295
at Anjala on the Kymmene to secure a summons for a

Riksdag. The intention was to have the Estates force
the king to conclude peace and to observe the constitu-
tion. Some Finnish officers even proved themselves
traitors to their country, urging the separation of
Finland from Sweden, forming it into an independent
state under Russia's protection.
An
Attack by Denmark Saved the King. The king's
position was desperate. His promising campaign was
ruined, for Catherine had been given time to strength-
en the defenses of St. Petersburg. He was threatened
by his own subjects with the loss of freedom and even

of But at this critical point unexpected help came.
life.
It was a new war, a war with Denmark. As Russia's

ally, Denmark must now fulfill her old agreements. At
the news that Denmark prep&red for war, Gustavus
exclaimed, "I am saved." He had now found a way to
return to his country without dishonor. So he hastened
back to Sweden to meet his new enemy.
He had
recovered the same youthful energy he had
when he gave Sweden her new constitution. He now
met the danger boldly, for he knew how to strike both
his foreign and domestic enemies. He found among
his people a strong resentment against the officers who
had betrayed their country in the moment of danger.
Like Gustavus Vasa, in former years, he went up to
Dalecarlia and addressed the peasants at the churches.
He asked them to come, as their fathers of old, to the
defense of their country, and select their best men for
its support. Everywhere they were willing to follow
their king, and organized forces in every parish in
Dalecarlia. The same patriotic spirit spread over the
whole country. It was a demonstration such as had

not been seen since the days of Magnus Stenbock. This
was the people's answer to the treason of the officers.
Gustavus also received valuable aid from the Eng-
lish and Prussian ambassadors, who on behalf of their
governments threatened Denmark with war unless she

let Sweden alone. This action of the two powers in
favor of Sweden was owing to their fear lest Russia

might become too powerful. Denmark withdrew her
forces from Sweden.
G. THE RIKSDAG OF 1789. A NEW REVOLUTION

Now to meet the Estates. The
Gustavus did not fear
Anjala conspirators had meant to accuse Gustavus be-
fore the Estates. But now it was the king who meant
with the aid of the lower orders to chastise the rebel-
lious nobles and secure increased powers so that in
the future he might be able to hold the turbulent mem-
bers in check.
The nobles on their part prepared to defy the king
and at they did so. But the king called all the
first
Estates together in the hall of state and in a thunder-

ing address administered a reprimand to the nobles.
When murmurs of opposition were heard from this
Estate, the king ordered the nobles to leave the hall.
There was a moment of hesitation. The nine hundred
nobles all kept their seats, and some caught the hilts
of their swords. It was a moment when the crown of
Gustavus seemed suspended by a hair. But finally the
nobles obeyed and left the hall.
The king then addressed the other Estates in gra-
cious words, and proposed an amendment to the consti-
A New Revolution The Russian War 297
tution which would make the king almost absolute.

When the proposition had been well worked over, the
king again summoned the Estates to meet in the hall.
To carry the proposition he had resorted to the violent
means of arresting his most determined opponents
among the nobles. The nobles, however, refused to
accept the measure. But when the other three Estates
accepted it, the king declared it adopted. This was in
effect a revolution, for the changes had not been made
in a constitutional way, but by the use of force.
By the amended constitution it was left to the king's
"gracious will" to determine the number of members
of the council. The king fixed the number at zero.
Thus passed out of Swedish history the venerable body
which had existed for half a millennium.
H. THE RUSSIAN WAR SECOND PART, 1789-1790

The Viborg Gauntlet. After the Riksdag of 1789, the
Russian war was renewed. It was chiefly a naval war,
in which the Swedes fought bravely, but with varying
success. With both his fleet and coast flotilla, Gustavus
sailed into the Bay of Viborg to destroy a Russian
squadron stationed there. The attempt failed, and the
king's rashness avenged itself when the whole Russian
fleet closed up the entrance to the bay. A continuous
western wind prevented the Swedes from escaping.
They were short of both food and fresh water, and the
largest Swedish fleet ever assembled, 200 ships and
30,000 men and the king himself, seemed doomed to
destruction.
Finally after nearly a month the wind changed, and
the king decided by a desperate effort to break through
A History vj Sweden. 20.
the enemy's fleet. The wind freshened, filling the sails

and driving the Swedish ships in a murderous fight
through the enemy's lines.The Swedes lost one-third
of their ships and men. The event has been called the
Viborg Gauntlet.
The Battle of Svensksund. With his coast flotilla,
which was less damaged, Gustavus stationed himself
at Svensksund, west of the bay, and awaited the ap-
proach of the Russian flotilla, which was far superior
to the Swedish. Its admiral was fully assured of vic-
tory, and fitted up on his own ship a room worthy of
his royal captive. He postponed the attack to the anni-
versary of the Tsarina's coronation, to celebrate the
day with a great victory. There was a great victory,
but it was for the Swedes. The victory at Svensksund
was the crowning glory of the Swedish fleet. The Rus-
sians lost one-third of their fleet, and more than half
of their men were killed or captured.
The Significance of This War. The victory at Svensk-
sund inclined Catherine to peace, which was concluded
in 1790 (Varala, Finland) without loss of territory on
either side. The war had cost Sweden immense losses
in men and money, but there were other and greater
results. The war had inspired the Swedes with self-
confidence, had taught its overbearing neighbor that
it
the Swedish arms were not dulled, it had put an end

to Russia's influence in Sweden. By the peace, Russia
was compelled to recognize the revolution of 1772, and
to promise to cease meddling in the domestic affairs of
Sweden.
Conclusion of the Anjala Conspiracy. At the close of
the war the authors of the Anjala Conspiracy were
Death of Gustavus HI 299
triedand punished. The king now displayed his gentle-

ness and clemency, a beautiful trait of his character.
Only one of the guilty, Colonel Hastesko, was punished
with death.
I. THE DEATH OP GUSTAVUS III
The Assassination. After the Riksdag of 1789, all
the nobles breathed hatred against Gustavus. Every-

where among them there were mutterings of revolu-
tion, and among the most bitter a conspiracy was
formed to take the life of the tyrant and save liberty.
Their tool was Captain Anckarstrom, a harsh and
revengeful character, who felt himself wronged by the
king. For the evening of March 16, 1792, a masquerade
ball had been arranged at the Opera House, and the
king was expected to be there. He came, too, not heed-
ing the warnings he had received. He put on the'
masquerade costume and mingled with the crowd.
Presently he was surrounded by a crowd in black
masks the conspirators. A shot was fired, the king
cried, "I am wounded, seize him." The conspirators
made for the exits and sought to divert attention by
the cry of "Fire." But the king's friends closed the
doors, and all had to remove their masks and give their
names.
The The king had been shot in the
Reconciliation.
back, above the left hip. At first his wound was not
considered dangerous, but soon took a fatal turn and
in two weeks ended his life. Mild and forgiving, he
met death, concerned about the welfare of his country
to the last. Gustavus was great in his last moments.
The murderous deed aroused horror even among the
king's opponents, and during the approach of death
a reconciliation between the king and the leading no-

bles was effected. They waited on the dying king and
avowed their sorrow and horror at the murderous
crime. The feeling that he was reconciled with all his
people spread a shimmer of joy over Gustavus' last
moments.
"There lay a shimmer o'er the days of Gustav,
Fantastic, foreign, pompous if you will,
But there was sun within, and though you censure,
Where would we be if they had never been?"
CHAPTER XVII
REIGN OF GUSTAVUS IV ADOLPHUS, 1792-1809
A. INTRODUCTION
The Regency of Duke Charles. With Gustavus 111

an era passed away, an era of sunlight and shadows.
"There was sun within/' These words could not be
said of the age that followed. It brought heavy, leaden
skies. "Gustavus was dead, and the age of genius past/'
Gustavus' only heir, Gustavus IV Adolphus, was but
a child when his father passed away. According to
Gustavus' will, his brother, Duke Charles, assumed the
regency.
The duke was a well-meaning man, but too indolent
and fond of pleasure to rule, except in name. The real
control of the government was in the hands of a
stronger character, Count Gustav Adolf Reuterholm,
a favorite of Duke Charles. He had been one of Gus-
tavus' most bitter enemies and hence removed the
Gustavus IV Adolphus 301
friends of Gustavus, the Gustavians, from all influence

in the government. In consequence, the regicides re-
ceived but mild punishment. Ancharstrom alone was
put to death.
Reuterholm was great, very great, in his own eyes.
Others have not succeeded in discovering his genius.
But orderly and industrious he was, and so did much
good for Sweden's domestic development. His rigid
economy served the country well, industries began to
flourish once more, and general prosperity increased.
Character of the New King. In 1796 Gustavus IV

Adolphus assumed the reins of government himself.
He was the very incarnation of order and economy.
He resembled Charles XI much more than his hero
Charles XII. In love of truth, in morality, seriousness,
and piety he resembled them both. In obstinacy he
rivaled his hero, but completely lacked not only his
ability, but all that made Charles a hero. Gustavus III
did not entertain any high hopes for his son. He is said
to have remarked about him: "He will end unhappily,
for he is narrow-minded and obstinate."
The brilliant Gustavian court life had come to an
end. In the place of the royal charmer there was now
a stern, unyielding, serious prince, whose dignity for-
bade him to jest or smile. The royal residence in Stock-
holm had become *an enchanted palace of dullness and
ennui, where everything seemed to have congealed,
where at royal receptions one could neither sit down
for his royal majesty preferred to stand for hours in
the middle of the floor nor talk, scarcely whisper; to
laugh was an offense. For poets' songs or artists' crea-
tions there was no appreciation from the throne.
B. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON

BONAPARTE
The Meeting of the States-General. The same year
that Gustavus III carried out his second revolution in
the Swedish government, 1789, there began in France
the great world movement known as the French Revo-
lution. Great French writers like Montesquieu, Vol-
taire, Rousseau, Turgot, and Diderot had prepared the
minds and hearts of the French people for the great
world events that were to be enacted in France. The
bankruptcy of the French government finally compelled
the king, Louis XIV, to summon the Estates of France,
known as the States-General, which had not met for
one hundred and seventy-five years. It was composed
of about 1,200 members, more than half of whom be-
longed to the Third Estate or the unprivileged classes.
It had formerly been the rule for the Estates to sit in
separate chambers and vote in separate bodies, but

now the members of the Third Estate insisted upon
having the three Estates sitting together and voting
as one body. This was the first act in the Revolution.
The National Assembly. The Third Estate carried

their point, the Estates disappeared, and the new body,
composed of the members of all the Estates, assumed
the name of the National Assembly. The privileges of
the nobles were abolished; church property was con-
fiscated; a civil constitution was given the Church, and
a national constitution was prepared and confirmed,
establishing a government by a Legislative Assembly
and the king.
Gustavus IV Adolphtis and Napoleon 303
Great masses of the nobles, deprived of their privi-

leges, fled the country to Prussia and Austria, hoping
to induce the princes of these states to rescue the king
and restore the old order. In the mean time an at-
tempted flight of the royal family had been made. Axel
von Fersen, a devoted friend of the royal family, as-
sisted in the plot and served as the disguised coachman
of the royal fugitives. The attempt failed. The royal
family was arrested near the French border, taken
back to Paris, and placed under strict surveillance.
The National Convention. The new government un-
der the Legislative Assembly and king failed, and a
new assembly known as the National Convention met
in September, 1792, to conduct the government and pre-
pare a new constitution. The Convention established
a Republic, deposed, tried, and finally beheaded the
king in January, 1793. This led the European states to
form what has been called the First Coalition against
France. It was during this coalition that Napoleon Bo-
naparte arose, conducted a brilliant campaign against
Austria, and put an end to the coalition by the Treaty
of Campo Formio, in 1797. Two years later he made
himself First Consul of France and five years later
was crowned Emperor, 1804. Coalition after coalition
was formed against him, always headed by England.
For many years he was victorious against these coali-
tions, deposing princes, creating new states, establish-
ing his brothers and a brother-in-law as allied or sub-
ject kings, until he was finally defeated at Waterloo,
1815, and banished to St. Helena.
Gustaviis IV Adolphus and Napoleon. Gustavus III
was a personal friend of the French royal family, from

whom he had received many favors. He had eagerly

sought to unite the princes of Europe in a crusade
against the Revolution. He would command the united
forces, but before the campaign could begin Gustavus
III was no more. His son, Gustavus IV Adolphus, in-
herited the father's hatred of the Revolution and trans-
ferred that hatred to Napoleon Bonaparte. His hatred
of this political and social subverter had become an
obsession with him. He saw in Napoleon the incarna-
tion of all wickedness. He recognized in him the "great
beast" of the Apocalypse. It should be a sacred duty
of all upright princes to make war on him.
The Sacrifice of Finland to Napoleon's Ambition. In-

accessible in their island-world, the British would not
submit to the dictation of the conqueror of continental
Europe. The contest for the mastery of the world was
thus to resolve itself into a duel between Napoleon and
England. In an open and direct fight Napoleon was
unable to subdue this sea power, for his fleet was far
inferior to that of England. Then was born in him the
thought to strike this commercial state in its most vul-
nerable spot, its commerce. It was to be accomplished
by inducing all the states of Europe to close their har-
bors against all English trade. Thus England was to
be deprived of the very source of her prosperity and
to be starved out. This was Napoleon's well known
Continental System, the most terrible war plan that
has ever arisen in a human mind.
But to carry out this plan Napoleon felt that for a
time he needed a confederate on the Continent. Such
a one he found in Tsar Alexander I of Russia. After
defeating him in the battle of Friedland, he met his
The Finnish War 305
vanquished foe at Tilsit, in 1807, and surprised him

with an offer of an alliance and a division of Europe
between them. The lure was especially Turkey with
Constantinople, the goal of Russia's proudest dreams
for centuries. As yet, however, Napoleon was not ready
to allow Russia a free hand with Turkey. It was in
fact his secret plan to have a hand in the partition of
Turkey to secure the chief parts for himself. For this
enterprise he was not yet prepared. He must first
thoroughly subdue Spain. In the mean time he had to
satisfy Russia's land-hunger. For this Sweden seemed
a suitable victim. Its king was Napoleon's persistent
enemy and had refused to join the Continental System.
The Swedish king could conveniently be punished with
the* loss of Finland. Denmark was to be compelled to
assist Russia in the attack on Sweden.
While Russia was thus engaged in swallowing this
morsel in the far North, Napoleon would find time to
settle his affairs in Spain. While thus setting Russia
against Finland, Napoleon was working to carry out

his plan against England, a chief part of his world-
embracing policy.
C. THE FINNISH WAR, 1808-1809

The Outbreak of the War. Without any declaration
of war or sign of warning, the Russian army crossed
the southeastern border of Finland in February, 1808.
A few days before, the Swedish minister in St. Peters-
burg had asked the tsar what was the object of the
mobilization of Russian troops on the Finnish border,
and the tsar had replied that it did not in any way
concern Finland. "God is my witness," he declared,
"that I am not seeking to take a single village of

yours,"
Klingspor's Retreat. The Finnish soldiers burned
with a desire to drive the enemy back, but the com-
mander, V. M. Klingspor, ordered a retreat, and this
order was repeated day after day. On every hand the
retreating soldiers heard the wail of the people, who
were filled with gloomy thoughts of their homes and
dear ones left to the mercy of the dreaded foe* Through
immense snowdrifts, from five to six feet deep, and
with the thermometer down to 22 below zero (Fahren-
heit) the soldiers had to make their way. The tracks
,
of soldiers' bleeding feet could be seen in the snow, ac-

cording to the report of the second in command. Thus
the Finnish army suffered itself to be chased from
southern Finland to the neighborhood of Ule&borg in
the far north, a distance of nearly 350 miles. And
why? Simply because the commander had conceived
the notion that the Russians had invaded Finland with
an overwhelmingly superior force.
The End of the Retreat. Should these days of dis-
grace never end? Not before the command should be
intrusted to a man with determination to restore the
honor of the Swedish arms or die in the attempt. This
man was the brave Karl Johan Adlercreutz. As soon as
he had become the adjutant general under Klingspor,
he faced about and won the victory of Revolaks south
of Uleaborg. At last there was an end of the retreat.
The spell was broken. The enemy was not invincible.
The pursuing army had for some time been inferior
in numbers. But this fact Klingspor had never as-
certained.
The Finnish War 307
With the battle of Revolaks the winter campaign

was ended. The melting snow and floods made roads
impassable and for a time interrupted the war move-
ments. With the sun's rays there penetrated a ray of
hope to the soldiers in the far North.
Forced back was Finland's noble troop,
To polar regions dragged;
Still in our bosoms there was hope,
Our courage never fagged,
For victory seemed within our powers
As long as Sveaborg was ours.
RUNEBEKG.
But this hope was beginning to fade through rumors

that came stealing in from the South.
Anon a whisper reached our ear,

Forth from the South it came;
It spoke of treachery and fear,
Dishonoring our name.
From mouth to mouth, from plain to plain,
It only met with proud disdain.
RUNEBERG.
At Sveaborg. During the winter campaign decisive

events had transpired within the walls of Sveaborg.
This fortress, defending the entrance to Helsingfors,
was Finland's was largely built into
chief bulwark. It
the solid granite rock and was known as the Gibraltar
of the North. Its commander, Karl 0. Cronstedt, was
reckoned, after his achievements at Svensksund, among
the chief officers of the Swedish navy. But, like Kling-
spor, he had the impression that the Russians were
approaching with an overwhelming force, and that
it would be impossible to defend Finland against it.
Among his subordinates were a number of traitors,

bribed with Russian gold, who were secretly working
for the "liberation" of Finland from Sweden. They
finally prevailedon Cronstedt to surrender the fortress
to the Russians. Thus Sveaborg yielded at the time the
ice was clearing away and re-enforcements could soon
be expected from Sweden. It surrendered to a force
not larger than its own, with an abundance of supplies
in food and ammunition.
The men complained bitterly and even wept with
indignation when they heard of the capitulation, and
among the younger officers there was talk of an up-
rising against the commander, but the leader was
wanting. Thus the Finns were compelled to withdraw
from their strong bulwark, and for the last time the
blue-and-gold flag was lowered from the Sveaborg>
tower, and the Russian eagle rose in its place. The
last act in the Anjala tragedy had been enacted.
The Summer Campaign. The stain placed by the

capitulation of Sveaborg upon the Finnish army the
land forces were permitted to wash away during the
following summer's campaign. With the main army
Adlercreutz drove the Russians southward in several
fineengagements, the most important one at Lappo,
East of Vasa, where he defeated a Russian army of
equal strength. And away off to the eastward, in the
wilds of Savolaks with its thousand inlets and capes,
where the roads wind along between the narrow lakes,
Sandels won achievements that belong to the most
heroic in Swedish military history.
In spite of the loss of Sveaborg, seemed that the
it
recovery of Finland was not altogether hopeless. But

The Finnish War 309
the Finnish army was too weak to do it alone. If aid

would only come from Sweden, but the summer passed
and no help came. The king had now other plans to
occupy him. He would, forsooth, first take Norway
from Denmark, which had been compelled by France
and Russia to declare war on Sweden. When the at-
tack on Norway had failed, he wasted valuable time
with plans to occupy Seeland, and not until that plan
had failed too, he turned his thoughts to Finland. But
the forces which attempted to land on that coast were
too few and were at once driven back. Then violent
autumn storms set in, scattering and destroying the
fleetsattempting to land. Only a few thousand Swed-
ish troops succeeded in landing and uniting with the
Finnish army.
The Russians on the other hand received consider-

and began a new offensive. The
able re-enforcements
Swedes and Finns did, indeed, again and again drive
back superior forces of the enemy, but soon a new re-
treat was begun with continuous fighting, now victor-
ies, now defeats. The war activities ended with "Ora-
vais' bloody day, when victory itself became a defeat."
In this battle the Swedes composed at least two-thirds
of Adlercreutz' army and fought with a gallantry
worthy of the days of Charles XII. But the Russians
were too powerful. Finland's fate was sealed. It re-
mained only to bring the worn and bleeding remnants
of the army safely across to Swedish soil.
The Treaty of Fredrikshanin, September 17, 1809.

By this treaty Sweden ceded to Russia all of Finland,
the Aland Islands, and the Swedish Lapp District with
Vesterbotten to the rivers Muonio and TorneL This

was the hardest treaty Sweden ever concluded. By it
she lost more than one-third of her territory, Sweden
and Finland were thus severed after a union of five
hundred years. From Sweden Finland had received
her religion, her social order, her culture, in one word,
European civilization. Under the great tsar Finland
was now to experience the "blessing" which the trai-
tors had pictured to her people a "blessing" from
which the great majority of her people had by all
means sought to be delivered,
Treaties with Denmark andFrance. Shortly after
the treaty with Russia, Sweden concluded a treaty with
Denmark (in Jonkoping, December 10, 1809) and with
France (in Paris, January 6, 1810). In both cases
Sweden sustained no loss of territory. When these
treaties were concluded Gustavus IV Adolphus was no
longer king.
D. DEPOSITION OP GUSTAVUS IV ADOLPHUS

Catling Out the National Militia. While Gustavus
IV left the Finnish forces to fight their battles alone,
he was demonstrating his total unfitness in other mili-
tary fields. For defense against the Denmark-Norway
attacks the Swedish army was re-enforced by a na-
tional militia (Lantvarn) composed of unmarried men
,
between the ages of 19 and 25. Willingly these young

men hastened to the standards. But here, too, all hopes
were to meet with cruel disappointment. Most of the
young soldiers were never to meet the enemy. Poorly
equipped and provisioned, they perished in large
masses from hunger and exposure. Disease raged un-
Gustavus IV Adolphus Deposed 311
mercifully among the starving soldiers, and nursing 1
was terribly neglected. Those who returned to their

homes came covered with rags, tottering like old men,
and many with frozen limbs were crippled for life.
Causes of the Failure. The king alone was not to
blame for all this misery. Many of the high officers
and political leaders must share the blame with him.
They imagined that if they could only rid themselves
of the stubborn despot, Napoleon could be made their
ally. Hence, they placed many obstacles in the king's
way, even for the proper equipment of the militia, thus
adding to the king's burdens, causing his head to reel
and his mind to become clouded.
The king had never secured his people's confidence
and co-operation, and hence it was easy to make him
the scapegoat for- all the ills of the country. The opin-
ion spread more and more that he alone was to blame
for the loss of Finland and for the sacrifice of the mili-
tia, the flower of the country's youth. It was thought
best therefore to remove him from the throne.
The Arrest and Deposition of the King. On the 13th
of March, 1809, Adlercreutz and a few followers sud-
denly entered the king's room in the palace to seize the
person of the king. Gustavus drew his sword, but was
at once disarmed. He escaped through a secret door to
the courtyard and rushed toward the palace guard for
protection. But he was arrested and carried back to
his room. He was kept in custody until a Riksdag as-
sembled and formally deposed him and extended the
forfeiture of the crown also to his descendants (May
10). The king and his family were exiled from the
country. His mental queerness increased, he separated
from his family, and for some time led a roving life.
He finally settled down
in Switzerland, where he lived
in humble circumstances till his death, February 7,
1837.
CHAPTER XVIII
REIGN OF CHARLES XIII, 1809-1818
A. THE NEW CONSTITUTION

The Work of the Committee. When King Gustavus
IV Adolphus was arrested, his uncle, Duke Charles,
assumed the government as regent. The Riksdag which
later assembled and deposed the king now found it-
self confronted with the task of choosing a new king.
But first a new constitution must be provided a con-
stitution that would forestall a repetition of the evils
of absolutism. Twice had the abuse of absolute power
brought the country to the brink of destruction. The
task was now to divide in a happier and more definite
way the power between the king and the Riksdag. Such
was the problem of the committee now appointed by
the Riksdag to draft a new constitution.
With enthusiasm the members of the committee ad-
dressed themselves to their important and laborious
task. The leading man of the committee was its secre-
tary, Hans Jarta, who as a youth had been an enthusi-
ast for the liberalizing efforts of the French Revolu-
tion, and was known as one of the most dangerous
opponents of absolutism, feared for his sharp pen. En-
dowed with a keen intellect, developed by a thorough
CJiarles XIII and Constitutional Reform 313
study of Swedish history and law, and coupled with a

manly character and iron will, he was a finished states-
man, who well knew what his country needed.
In the report in which the committee set forth the
leading principles of their draft of the constitution, the
following noteworthy statement appears: "The com-
mittee does not propose any great or striking changes
in the ancient forms of our constitution. It has felt
that such forms should not lightly be changed, least of
all in the first moments of recovered freedom during a
divergence of opinions then unavoidable. It has felt,

what the example of Europe's freest state (England)
also proves, that for a nation's public justice and the
citizen's personal liberty and safety there is no stronger
bulwark than such forms hallowed by centuries and
strengthened by a common national force acting in
them."
Adoption and Ratification of the New Constitution.
The Constitution was accepted by the Estates June 5,
1809, and ratified by the new king the following day.
This constitution, with various amendments made from
time to time, is still in force.
Analysis of the Constitution. The constitution di-

vides the powers of the government thus the executive
:
power is vested in the king, the power of taxation in

the Riksdag, the legislative power in the king and the
Riksdag. The highest judicial power is vested in a
Supreme Court which had been established in 1789 and
had assumed the judicial power of the Royal Council
then dissolved.
The king alone has the power to govern the state.
Hence, he has the right to begin war, conclude peace,
and form alliances. The right to begin war was an in-

crease of the royal power over that in the constitution
of 1772. The reason for this increase is the difficulty,
in many cases the impossibility, of distinguishing be-
tween offensive and defensive wars. By this provision
the constitution provides against such evils as the An-
jala Conspiracy. Besides, in this as well as in other
matters, the constitution provides against arbitrary
acts of the king by establishing a Council of State,
whose opinion must always be ascertained, and no or-
der of the king valid without the countersignature
is
of the Council. The members of the Council are ap-

pointed by the king, but are responsible to the Riksdag.
The Riksdag alone exercises the time-honored right
of the Swedish people to tax themselves. It decides the
amount of taxes to be levied and how these sums shall
be applied.
The Riksdag and the king enact the laws. "The king
may not without the consent of the Riksdag, nor the
Riksdag without the consent of the king, enact a new
law nor repeal an old one," so reads the constitution.
During the session of the Riksdag three other con-
were enacted: the Law of Suc-
stitutional regulations
cession to the throne, the Riksdag Regulations, and
the Regulations regarding the Freedom of the Press.
B. THE ELECTION OP A CROWN PRINCE

Christian August of the Augusteriburg Family. Im-
mediately after the adoption of the constitution the
Estates chose Duke Charles king, as Charles XIII.
Christian August Elected, Crown Prince 315
But he was old and fee-

ble and had no heirs.
Hence, a crown prince
had to be elected. The
leaders of the late revo-
lutionchose Christian
August of the Augus-
tenburg Family, who as
general of the Norwe-
gian army had proved
himself friendly to the
Swedes.
The new heir to the
throne, who assumed
Charles XIII. the name of Charles
August, soon won the
good will of the people by his frank and artless con-
duct. But the court and a large part of the higher
nobility, who were adherents of the old royal family,
known as Gustavians, would have nothing to do with
him. They wanted the son of Gustavus IV Adolphus
as heir to the throne. Those elegant men of the world
and grand society dames made pointed remarks about
the awkward and clumsy manners of the new heir, and
some, especially the members of the haughty family
of Von Fersen, showed him open disrespect.
The hopes which most of the people entertained re-

specting Charles August were soon blighted. One day
in the spring of 1810, while at Quidinge, east of Hel-
singborg, reviewing the drill of the hussars, he was
seen suddenly to lose control of his horse, which now
ran off at full speed. The prince began to sway in the
saddle and finallyfell backward to the ground. In a
short time ebbed away. The autopsy indicated that

life
death had resulted from a stroke.

The Murder of Axel von Fersen. Insinuations that
the prince had been poisoned quickly spread, and bitter
slander fixed upon the family of Axel von Fersen as
the younger instigators of the assumed crime. The
leaders of the revolution must bear a heavy responsi-
bility for the rapidspread of these reports. They feared
that the Gustavians would now attempt to force the
election of their candidate, overturn the revolution of
1809, and avenge themselves upon the authors of the
same. Hence, they encouraged the embitterment of the
people against the leaders of the Gustavians.
The day arrived when the body of the prince was to
be conveyed to the palace in Stockholm. In the capacity
of high steward Axel von Fersen, son of the noted
leader of the party, took part in the procession, riding
in his stately carriage. He was rich, aristocratic, and
haughty. Against him it was easy to incite the masses.
If he could be made harmless the whole Gustavian par-
ty would be helpless. He was attacked with stones by
a wild, enraged mob and had to seek shelter in a pri-
vate house, but the mob seized him and beat him till
the last spark of life was gone. The violence continued
a whole hour, in broad daylight, in the capital city,
within sight of the troops, and almost within their
lines.
Bernadotte, the New Crown Prince. After the death

of Charles August a new heir to the throne had to be
chosen. As such the Estates finally selected one of
Napoleon's most noted generals, Marshal Bernadotte.
Bernadotte Elected Crown Prince 317
It was thought that above

everything else Sweden must
have a great general, who might raise the country out
of its ruin. The story of this election reads like a ro-
mance. The government had concluded to elect the
brother of the deceased prince. As the leading men
wished to stand well in the graces of Napoleon, they
sent a courier to Paris to inform the Emperor of the
intended election.
The courier, a young lieutenant named Morner, un-
dertook to actindependently in this matter. He
thought, like so many others, that Sweden must have
a general. But the intended candidate lacked com-
pletely all military talent. So young Morner hit upon
the plan of calling on Marshal Bernadotte and secured
his consent to become the heir to the throne of Sweden
if the choice should fall on him. With this project he
hastened back to Sweden.

His proposition fell like a bomb in the Swedish coun-
cil of state, but somehow it won many adherents. The
result was that the candidate proposed by the council
and elected by the Estates was not the Augustenbur-
ger, but the French marshal.
Marshal Bernadotte had behind him a remarkable
career. He was born in southern France of bourgeois
parentage. His father was a lawyer and he himself
had been educated for the profession. He began his
military career as a private. He soon rose to the posi-
tion of a subaltern officer. Higher he could not rise,
as he did not belong to the nobility. Then came the
Eevolution, which broke down all class distinctions,
and within five years the subaltern had become a gen-
eral. Napoleon's plans to make himself master of
France were opposed by Bernadotte. But when all
efforts to check Napoleon's ambition became futile,

Bernadotte entered into his service and won new glory.
He was raised by Napoleon to the position of mar-
shal and prince. The Emperor, however, entertained a
suspicion and distrust of his former opponent, and
hence his election as crown prince of Sweden did not
arouse the enthusiasm in Napoleon that the Swedes
had expected. As if anticipating some fateful reverses,
Napoleon sought to make him promise never to bear
arms against France. But Bernadotte's duty as the
future king of an independent state forbade him to
bind his hands. "Well, then," said Napoleon, "go, and
may our destinies reach their fulfilment." When they
next met was in a life-and-death struggle.
it
Charles John was the name that the founder of the

new royal family assumed as heir apparent to the Swed-
ish throne. In him Sweden received a new "charmer
king/' As if by enchantment he won over all that came
into his presence. He was in the full vigor of his age.
His fiery southern manner and his bearing indi-
cated a bold energy in action a complete antithesis
man on the throne, who might at times
to the feeble old
fall asleep in the midst of the discussions in the coun-
cil. Under such conditions the prince at once upon his
arrival in Sweden, in 1810, became the actual ruler.
The sleepy deliberations were at an end.
C. THE ADMINISTRATION OP CHARLES JOHN

AS CROWN PRINCE
Revolt of Sweden from French Subserviency. Sel-
dom has Sweden been in such dire need of a wise and
Charles XIV John 319
able leader as at the time of the arrival of the new

crown prince. There was peace, it is true, but the
country lay mutilated and exhausted. The Russian
prime minister compared its condition to that of a
dying man, whom one should not touch until life has
fully gone out. The peace with France had been pur-
chased at a great price. Sweden was compelled to join
Napoleon's continental system. It would not only ruin
Sweden's commerce and industry, especially the mining
industry, but a war with England seemed also an in-
evitable result.In the meantime, however, a lively
smuggling trade was carried on with England. But
when Napoleon heard of it, he was filled with great
anger and demanded that Sweden should at once de-
clare war against England. Sweden had no choice but
to submit to this humiliation. But before any declara-
tion of war could be issued, the Swedish government
had agreed with its coming enemy that it would be
only a paper war.
It was soon brought to Napoleon's notice that the
trade between England and Sweden was carried on as
before, and that not a gun had been fired in the
war
he had ordered. His cup of wrath was now filled to the
brim, and French troops were sent to occupy Swedish
Pomerania. By this he thought he had completely
quashed Sweden. But he had instead aroused the
Swedish people's bitter resentment against having
their country treated as a subject kingdom of France.
"The gauntlet is thrown down," exclaimed the prince,
"and I will take it up." Under his leadership Sweden
armed herself for the coming conflict. To strengthen
the defense of the realm a militia, or national guard,
was established, making every young man from twenty

to twenty-five years of age liable to military service.
The Battle of Leipsic, 1813. Sweden did not have to

fight alone. The alliance between Napoleon and Alex-
ander was of short duration. In 1812 Napoleon in-
vaded Eussia to add even this great state to his mighty
empire. He advanced at the head of the grandest army
the world had ever seen, a force of about a million
men. The Russians employed the same plan of cam-
paign as against Charles XII, turning their country
into a wilderness. Nearly the whole of the
grand army
perished from hunger and cold.
One oppressed people after another now rose in re-
volt. England, Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Sweden
formed a grand coalition against Napoleon in 1813.
As a reward for the valuable assistance of Charles
John, the allies promised that for the loss of Finland,
Sweden should be compensated by the. acquisition of
Norway, which was to be torn from Denmark. The
latter state stillremained in alliance with Napoleon.
By Sweden would escape from her un-
this acquisition
favorable situation, hemmed in between her two hered-
itary enemies, Russia on the one side and Denmark-
Norway on the other. Old plans in Swedish politics
were now to be realized, plans reaching back to Charles
X and Charles XII, and which had more recently ap-
pealed to Gustavus III and Gustavus IV Adolphus.
At the head of 30,000 men Charles John landed in
Germany in the spring of 1813. The allied forces now
advanced from three directions against Napoleon, who
appeared in Saxony with a newly recruited army.
Charles John commanded the Northern Army, com-
posed of Prussian, Russian, and Swedish forces.

Against this army Napoleon directed his chief attacks
to break the iron ring with which the enemies sur-
rounded him. But Charles John defeated the French
troops in sharp engagements at Gross-Beeren and Den-
newitz, south of Berlin. Finally the three armies con-
centrated their strength against Napoleon at Leipsic
and during three days (Oct. 16, 18, 19) fought the
great "Battle of the Nations/' as it has been called.
With the fragments of his army Napoleon withdrew.
Europe was liberated. It was to the skillful strategy
of Charles John that the allies in the first place owed
their victory, his plan of the campaign having been
previously accepted by the allies at a conference held
at the Castle of Trachenberg near Breslau.
From Leipsic the allies advanced into France. But
Charles John did not wish to enter his native land as
an enemy. His duty as crown prince had compelled
him to fight his former compatriots, but it was not
against the French people he had fought, but against
their despot. In fact, he had fought not only for the
liberation of Sweden and her allies, but also for the
freedom of France from a despot actuated only by an
insatiable ambition.
The Treaty of Kiel. While the allies were continuing

the war and compelling Napoleon to abdicate, Charles
John seized the opportunity of securing his reward for
the part he had taken in the late struggle. Like Tor-
stensson and Charles X in former days, he invaded
Denmark from Germany. He easily compelled Fred-
erick VI to accept the terms of the Treaty of Kiel,
1814, by which the king ceded Norway to Sweden in

exchange for Swedish Pomerania.
Norwegian opposition to the Treaty. The Norwe-
gians would not consent to have their fate decided by
foreign princes. They claimed the right to "set their
own house in order." Times had changed since the
fifteenth century,when Norway was united with Den-
mark. Itthen needed foreign support. During the long
years of peace Norway had become prosperous through
a flourishing trade with England. With the growth of
prosperity there had also developed a strong spirit of
nationalism. Their
poets praised the "Norwegian
mountain folk," and sang of this "land of ours" so
glorious in both winter and summer.
The year 1807 had been an unfortunate one for the
Norwegians. The English fleet had cut off their com-
munication with Denmark from which they were wont
to import their needed grain. Some bold adventurers
would now and then succeed in carrying home some
cargoes of this precious food, but most of them lost
both ship and cargo and even life. The little that was
thus smuggled in did 'not suffice. Many had to eat
bark-bread, and many died of hunger. But the national
The thought grew apace that Norway's
spirit lived on.
union with another land was a great danger. It was
such a union that had dragged Norway without her
consent into a state of war. Thus the national spirit
developed into one of independence, which grew
stronger from year to year. A fruit of this was the
University of Christiania, founded with great national
rejoicing in 1811. Such a country could not be given
away by one king to another.
Norway's Independence Declared. The Danish prince,

Christian Frederick, who was governor of Norway,
summoned a National Assembly at Eidsvold, an estate
north of Christiania. This assembly declared Norway
an independent kingdom, adopted a constitution, and
chose Christian Frederick king, May 17, 1814. The
assembly then adjourned, but with a feeling that this
matter was not to be decided by Norway alone, that
world politics would soon demand a voice in the matter.
At the hour of parting, however, they joined hands
and pledged themselves to stand together "united and
loyal, till the mountains fall."
The Union of Nonvay and Siveden. But from the

east came Charles John with a victorious army and
from the sea the Swedish fleet threatened. With ease
they drove back the Norwegian forces and threatened
Christiania. The Norwegians were compelled to nego-
tiate. Christian Frederick ceased hostilities and abdi-
cated.A Storthing, that is, a Norwegian Riksdag, was
summoned. It decided that Norway should unite with
Sweden as a "free and independent kingdom under one
king." Thereupon Charles XIII was chosen king of
Norway, November 4, 1814.
This union was confirmed by the Congress of Vienna,
a body composed of representatives of the European
states assembled for the purpose of settling the affairs
of Europe after Napoleon's power had been crushed.
Thus was the peace of the Scandinavian Peninsula
assured, and the two peoples, now forming in all for-
eign relations one state, seemed to be facing a peaceful

and happy future.
CHAPTER XIX
REIGNS OF THE BERNADOTTE FAMILY
A. REIGN OF CHARLES XIV JOHN, 1818-1844

Services of Charles XIV. In the year 1818 Charles
XIII died, and the crown prince became king, as
Charles XIV John. It is the imperishable glory of
Charles John that he
raisedSweden out of its
degradation and weak-
ness. He came with
military skill and train-
ing and the vision of a
statesman, all of which
the leading men in
Sweden lacked, and he
saved the country from
ruin and restored it to
an honored place among
the European states.
His continued rule was
in many respects bene-
ficial to the country.
Charles XIV John.
The former warrior be-
came a wise and cautious statesman. He gave peace to
the country, a peace which it still enjoys.
Drawbacks of the Reign. Aside from its many mer-

its, the reign also had its drawbacks. The former gen-
eral was accustomed to give arbitrary orders from his
camp. He now had be-

side him a Council of
State and a Riksdag,
who in no wise accepted
all his measures and,
who instead
plans, but
demanded a number of
reforms, which he re-
garded as unnecessary
and even harmful. His
hot southern temper
then blazed up, and the
vehemence he showed
at the least opposition
"appeared to the north-
erners worse than it
Queen Eugenia Desideria (Bernadotte).
was. Perhaps the son
of the South found it equally difficult to understand
the northern temper. Unfortunately the king never
learned to speak Swedish and in consequence remained
a stranger to his people.
The Period of Reaction. The former republican Ber-
nadotte did not become the friend of popular liberty
and reforms that one might have expected. He had so
often seen the name of liberty made to serve violence
and oppression that he now feared its abuse and even
liberty itself. It seemed safer and more comfortable
to him to hold fast to what was old and tried, even
though it might be defective. In almost every effort at
reform he saw a danger to the present order, and
especially to his own throne. It required only a
thoughtless expression to expose one's self to a charge
of treason, and the punishment was imprisonment.

Such was the case with two persons who in a state of
intoxication had drunk to the health of Gustavus, re-
ferring to the son of Gustavus IV Adolphus,
It should be remembered, however, that this opposi-
tion to liberty, this anxious fear of everything new,
did not characterize Charles John alone. It possessed
nearly all European princes. The people of Europe
had passed through a period of violence and disruption
during the Revolution and the subsequent wars. What
Europe now wanted was rest. Hence, this period of
reaction.
Opposition to the King. The king's arbitrary gov-

ernment and his opposition to reforms gave rise to an
opposition party, which grew in intensity from year
to year. In the newspapers and at meetings of the
Riksdag this party denounced the king's arbitrary
measures, and demanded reforms throughout the king-
dom, especially extension of the freedom of the press
and the abolition of the four Estates in the Riksdag,
so that all the people would have an equal right to vote
for its members. The advocates of these reforms be-
came known as Liberals.
Their chief man among the nobility was Count
Anckarsvard. His eloquence was of a kind to arouse
his hearers and to carry them with him. In the long
run, however, he was not very dangerous to the reac-
tionary party. He dulled his weapons by his extreme
love of criticism. Before long the government could
not do a thing that Anckarsvard did not find fault with.
Among the peasants the opposition was led by
Anders Danielsson of West Gothland. He was a lordly
*
peasant chief, who asked favors of no one, for he was

conscious of his own worth. He was so highly esteemed
by the peasants that he was chosen to represent twen-
ty-seven districts, and, hence, had twenty-seven votes,
or one-fifth of all the votes in the Estate of the
peasants.
Struggle for the Freedom of the Press. The opposi-

tion appeared not only at the meetings of the Riksdag,
but also in the press. It was at this time that the mod-
ern newspaper appeared. Hitherto the papers con-
tained news items and advertisements, but did not
discuss political and social questions of the day. In
1830 the young official, the highly gifted and cultured
Lars Hierta, began the publication of Aftonbladet
(The Evening Paper) in which he treated his readers
to political discussions, presenting the views of the
liberal party. His editorials were read with great in-
terest by the people, for they were witty and clever and
never gloomy. But like Anckarsvard's criticisms, they
often went to extremes and were so fiery and ruthless
that they failed of their object. Other opposition
papers appeared, while the administration also had its
defenders. The press had thus aroused a more lively
interest in social and political questions, and it was
now easy for each one to form a political opinion of his
own. The press had become a power both for good
and evil.
The government tried to put an end to the offensive
Aftonbladet by means of the so-called "withdrawal
office," which had the power to stop the publication of
any paper deemed harmful in any way. The order was
issued without an inquiry or investigation and even
without giving a reason for the prohibition. But the

paper only changed its name after each prohibition,
and thus continued its publication until the with-
drawal office became a laughing-stock and was finally
abolished.
The Triumph of Liberalism. The opposition had
thus triumphed in its struggle for the freedom of the
press. Likewise in its struggle against absolutism.
This victory was won at the Riksdag in 1840. The
opposition collected all its powers. It had received the
powerful support ,of Eric Gustav Geijer, Sweden's
greatest historian. The king was compelled to dismiss
the most reactionary members of the council and ap-
point in ^heir stead men of more liberal views. He was
forced to give assent to a number of reform measures.
The most desired social and political reform, however,
the abolition of class 'distinction and the division of the
Riksdag into four Estates, could not then be accom-
plished.
The King's Twenty-fifth Anniversary. After the
Riksdag of 1840 the storms of opposition quieted down,
and the octogenarian prince on the throne could cele-
brate his twenty-fifth anniversary as king amid the
general and sincere expressions of his people's grati-
tude. Their thoughts went back to their country's days
of weakness and humiliation when the French Marshal
Bernadotte as crown prince had come to assume the
affairs of government. It was a different Sweden now
which under his wise direction had risen to an honored
place among European states. This anniversary day,
when the aged king was assured of the gratitude and
love of all his people, he regarded as the happiest day
of his life.

The King's Death. A year later his body was laid to

rest in Riddarholm church. The former French repub-
lican burgher's son found his final resting place by the
side of Sweden's most honored kings. "No one has had
a career like mine," were among his last words.
B. REIGN OF OSCAR 1, 1844-1859

Liberal Policies. the year 1840 the liberals had
By
triumphed over the stubborn resistance of the reaction-
aries. But the reforms
did not make any decid-
ed progress before the
reign of Oscar I. He
had been regarded by
his father as altogether
too liberal, and, hence,
had not been allowed to
exert any influence on
the government until
the last years of his
father's reign. Instead
he had sought to pre-
pare himself for his
coming duties as king
by a thorough study of King Oscar I.
social and political

questions. He had also in various writings advocated
certain reforms dear to him, as
improvement in popu-
lar education, more equitable
penal laws, and more
humane treatment of prisoners.
On his accession to the throne he was greeted with
enthusiasm by the friends of reform. He chose his
advisers from the liberal party, and a
lively reform
Oscar I Charles XV 331
work began for popular advancement not only in eco-

nomic well-being, but also in culture and refinement.
His Change to Conservatism. The question of abol-
ishing the estates system remained unsolved during
this reign, too, although the king himself proposed a
plan to organize the Riksdag into an upper and a lower
house instead of the four Estates. The liberals, how-
ever, did not give the measure sufficient support to
carry it through. During the last half of his reign the
king gradually withdrew from the liberal and ap-
proached the conservative party.
REIGN OF CHARLES XV, 1859-1872
C.
On his death in 1859, Oscar I was succeeded by his
oldest son, known as Charles XV. In his ways and
tastes he was a truly democratic king. He liked to
mingle with his people as one among them. Innumer-
able stories are told of this stately and handsome king
in his travels through-
out the country, of his
joining with the com-
mon people in their fes-
tivities and everyday
life, of his sprightly
appearance and ready
wit. He became unusu-
ally popular with the
people. But his interest
in the government was V
not so great. On one

occasion he is reported
to have said, "I place
my honor in being a charies xv.
man in the first place and a king in the second/' His

aptitude lay along artistic lines. He loved gay amuse-
Oscar II.
ments rather than the dry, prosaic work of govern-

ment, laws, and ordinances. In consequence he did not
accomplish as much for his people as one might have
expected.
Oscar IIGustav V 333
D. REIGN OF OSCAR II, 1872-1907

As Charles XV had no son, the crown passed to his
brother Oscar at his death in 1872. Oscar II was high-
ly gifted along both artistic and scientific lines. His
great 'endowments were further developed through
wide reading and thorough study, so that he became
the most learned and cultured among the European
kings of his day. He was prominent as a poet and
prose writer, and was regarded as one of the foremost
orators of his country. His tall and stately form and
noble features spoke of majesty and inspired respect.
His kindness won his people's love and devotion. This
trait was also noticeable in politics, which never be-
came a mere matter of the head with him. When polit-
ical conflicts arose, he* placed himself above parties
and tried to mediate and restore peace. But politics
goes its own way, like nature's forces, regardless of
wounded feelings and broken hearts. Of this the aged
monarch had a bitter experience as king of Norway,
where a revolution- deprived him of one of his crowns
in 1905. But it was a comfort to him that he succeeded
in preventing a war between kindred peoples at the
dissolution of the Union. In doing this he has merited
their gratitude for all time.
E. REIGN OF GUSTAV V, 1907-
When Oscar II passedaway, in 1907, he was suc-

ceeded by his oldest son, Gustav V. Plain and unaf-
fected in his conduct, King Gustav has earnestly tried
to realize his motto, "With the people for the father-
land."
In 1932 the twenty-fifth anniversary of his succes-

sion to the throne was celebrated throughout the king-
Gustav V.
dom in a hearty and becoming manner by a happy and

prosperous people.
Era of Progress Agriculture 335
CHAPTER XX
ECONOMIC PROGRESS DURING THE BERNA-

DOTTE PERIOD
A". IN AGRICULTURE
Increase in Acreage. It is a notable fact that the

cultivated area of Sweden has quadrupled since 1800.
Stress has been laid upon draining and cultivating the
immense peat bogs and marsh lands of the country.
There remain in different parts of the country
still
vast areas of such marshes to be converted into fields

of waving grain. It has been estimated that the com-
bined area of such unimproved marsh lands equals in
extent one-half of all the cultivated lands of Sweden
today. Hence, the soil of Sweden is capable of support-
ing a much larger population than the present.
Improvements in Methods. The arable lands of Swed-

en have not only been greatly increased in area, but
have also been greatly improved in quality. As a result
the yield per acre has constantly increased. This im-
provement is owing especially to scientific investiga-
tions and discoveries. The various soils have been care-
fully analyzed, and the elements needed for the pro-
duction of different crops have been ascertained. It
has therefore been possible to adapt the crops to the
different soils and to put into the fields as fertilizers
the elements needed. This chemical analysis has made
it possible by the rotation of crops to dispense with
the practice of letting the fields lie fallow every second

or third year, a practice which artificially reduced by

at least one-third the crop acreage every year. With
the rotation of crops the fallow-land system may per-
haps be dispensed with altogether.
Introduction of Farm Machinery. Noth withstand-
ing these improvements, agriculture does not hold pre-
eminence among the occupations in Sweden as in for-
mer Only one-half of the people are now en-
days.
gaged whereas in 1860 three-fourths
in agriculture,
were thus engaged. The rural laborers have been at-
tracted to the manufacturing industries in the cities
owing to the higher wages paid there.
To offset this loss of farm laborers, machinery has
been introduced. many places the planting and
In
sowing, the harvesting and threshing are now done by
machines. This is the case not only on large estates,
but a number of small farmers combine and buy the
machines an3 then take turns in using them. By such
co-operation the small farmers secure the benefits of
large producers in getting better seed grain, feed, fod-
der, and fertilizers.
B. LIVE STOCK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS

Cattle Raising. Owing to sensible treatment of do-
mestic animals, cattle raising in Sweden has lately
reached a point of prosperity which has no parallel
in past times. To this prosperity science has material-
ly paved the way. It has indicated what breeds of cat-
tle are best adapted to the varying climates throughout
the country. It has led to a better stable hygiene and
to checking the spread of infectious diseases among
live stock.
Era of Progress Forestry 337
The barbarous method of starving cattle during win-

ter was in vogue to the middle of last century. The
poor creatures were starved till they were so weak
that when downthey could not rise without help. This
cruel practice was found to be uneconomical and has
been abolished. Now cattle are properly fed during
the long winter months, and cows give milk in winter
as well as in summer.
The Dairy Industry. Not only has the number of
cattle enormously increased, but the quality has also
greatly improved. In weight the cows today have dou-
bled, in some cases trebled and quadrupled, since the
time of Gustavus Vasa, and in the yield of milk each
cow, on an average, has doubled during the last dec-
ades. During the first half of last century Sweden
did not produce enough butter for home consumption,
while now she exports eight million dollars worth of
butter annually. Community co-operative creameries
have been established throughout the land, which af-
ford even to the smallest producers the benefits of
large production, as each member, however small, gets
his proportional share of the proceeds.
C. FORESTRY
A Vast Source of Income. In her forests, especial-
ly those in Norrland, Sweden has a
source of wealth
which brings into the country from abroad a greater
income than any other export. In fact, her timber and
forest products, in prosperous years, equal one-half of
all her exports. In addition to this the forests
should
be credited with all the timber and fuel they furnish
for home consumption.
Protection of the Forests. In earlier times the for-

ests inSweden, as in other lands, were thoughtlessly
wasted. Mature trees and saplings were indiscrimi-
nately cut down without any thought of planting young
trees in their stead. In this respect people seemed to
have no thought for the future. The bare mountain
slopes and naked heaths, once beautiful forests, bear
testimony to this waste. Nearly one-fourth of the sur-
face of the country has been converted from forest
land to desolate wastes.
But in Sweden it is not too late to mend much of
this. Laws have been made for the protection and care
of the forests. The cutting down of saplings and young
trees is forbidden. Anyone cutting down a tree is re-
quired to provide for a new tree to take its place. At-
tention is also given to the care and healthy growth of
the forests.
D. THE MINING INDUSTRY
Copper and Iron Ore. For centuries the Falun Cop-
per Mine was pre-eminently "Sweden's treasury." Dur-
ing the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries it was
undoubtedly the richest copper mine in Europe. Now,
however, it is nearly exhausted, and iron mining has
become the most important in Sweden. The output of
iron ore is now over eleven million tons annually. This
is, however, not over three per cent of the world's an-
nual output. But in quality the Swedish ore is among

the best in the world. Its yield of iron is from 60 to
70 per cent while most other ore now mined yields only
from 30 to 40 per cent. It has been estimated that of
all the ore in the world yielding over 60 per cent four-
fifths are in Sweden.
Era of Progress Manufactures 339
A Desideratum. Sweden has an abundant supply of

the finest iron ore in the world. She desires to make a
more profitable use of it than simply to export it in a
raw state. She
looking forward to establishing iron
is
and steel manufactures on a large scale, but for this,

great power is needed. She has scarcely any coal
deposits, and importing coal or using charcoal would
be too expensive. She has, however, abundant water
power, which may be converted into electrical power.
This is one of her great problems for the future.
MANUFACTURES
E.
Origin of the Machine Age. The machine age owes

its origin to the invention of the steam engine by James
Watt in 1769. This important invention was followed

by an almost endless machines extending to
series of
our own day. These machines have completely revolu-
tionized the world's industrial system. The spinning
wheel in the home has given way to the spindle in the
mill, the hand loom to the power loom, the handicrafts-
man to the laborer in the factory, and the domestic
system to the factory system.
Its Beginning and Spread in Sweden. Since the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century the new industrial
system has been developing in Sweden. Its first im-
pulse was given by the English mechanic Samuel Owen,
who established on Kungsholm in Stockholm, in 1809,
the first Swedish factory using steam power. Since
then one branch of industry after another has taken
the steam engine into its service. The natural resources
of the country, especially the forests and the mines,
have by the power of steam been developed as never
before. There are at present about 12,000 factories in

operation in Sweden, employing some 400,000 persons,
with an annual output amounting to over a billion dol-
lars.
In her manufactures Sweden's great handicap has
been her lack of coal. Its importation has been too ex-
pensive. Her abundant water power now being con-
verted into electrical power will remove the handicap.
F. TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION

Foreign Trade. Lively trade relations have been en-
tered into with Germany and Poland, which offer a rich
market for Swedish products. The direct connection
with Prussia's railroad net by steam ferries between
Trelleborg and Sassnitz is in consequence of great im-
portance. Another encouraging circumstance regard-
ing Swedish trade is the effort to dispense with middle-
men and to deal directly with the producers a good
old policy from the days of Gustavus Vasa. Now
regular steamship lines extend from Sweden not only
to the large transshipment wharves of Copenhagen,
Hamburg, London, Rotterdam, Antwerp, and other
places, but, by subsidies from the state, also across the
oceans to South Africa, North and South America,
Eastern Asia, and Australia. The Swedish merchant
fleet has considerably increased in tonnage during the
last decade. A new day has dawned for Swedish com-
merce.
Construction of Canals. Swedish inland navigation
was greatly enhanced by the construction of Gota Ca-
nal. A
number of smaller canals had already been built.
The most noted was Trollhatte Canal, finished in 1800.
Era of Progress Trade and Transportation 341
Before this one might find even up to 900 horses for

carrying shipments from the boats above the series of
falls to the boats at the
foot of the last fall. The
locks at these falls were
a triumph of engineer-
ing skill. At the Riks-
dag in 1809 it was de-
cided to continue the
work uniting the
of
Baltic with the sea on
the western side of the
country. As is usual
when great enterprises
are undertaken, the cost
of this construction far
exceeded the
original
Baltsar von Platen.
estimate. Riksdag after
Riksdag had to make
additional appropriations for this construction. On ac-
count of many discouragements the work on "Sweden's
blue band" was at times about to be discontinued. The
opponents of the undertaking spoke sneeringly of the
"Government ditch in which nothing would float, but
the tears of the investors." But nothing affected the
bold "Sea Bear" who led the great enterprise. With
iron will Baltsar von Platen pushed forward the work,
ably supported by the Councilor of Commerce Santes-
son, who devoted the whole of his large fortune to this
enterprise. After twenty years of labor the
canal was
opened to traffic in 1829, but Von Platen did not live to

see his life's work finished. He lies buried beside the

canal near Motala,
"By the billows he created,

On the banks himself had built,"
as Tegner sang.
Railroad Building. The protagonist of Swedish rail-

road building was Adolf von Rosen, who had carefully
studied the railroad problem in England. It was his
proud dream to make Sweden a leader on the continent
in peaceful enterprises by equipping her with a net-
work of railroads. He
labored in speech and press to
gain supporters for his plan. But there was a stubborn
opposition to overcome. Most people regarded "Rail-
road-Rosen" as "a little off."
Even in the Riksdag some alleged that in a country
likeSweden railroads could be operated only in sum-
mer. Others held that people living along the lines
would steal and carry off the iron for home use. The
terrible fire engines rushing across the country like
dragons and comets would scare the life out of both
man and beast. The poor innkeepers, carters, and wag-
oners would lose their living and become charges of
the parishes.
But Von Rosen continued his work in spite of all op-
position, and finally at the Riksdag of the year 1853-54,
it was decided to build trunk lines to serve as a frame
work from which branch lines could extend to all parts

of the kingdom. The direction of the state railway
construction was intrusted to Colonel Nils Ericsson,
brother of Captain John Ericsson, the builder of the
Monitor. Colonel Ericsson's high character and un-
Political Progress 343
usual ability made him an exceptional leader for the

great enterprise. The work went forward with rapid
strides. Many private lines have also been built. The
two systems furnish Sweden a network of railroads
which in proportion to population is larger than that
of any other European country.
The railroads of Sweden, as indeed those of nearly
every other country, have contributed more toward the
shifting of population than any other one thing. They
have brought the markets, as it were, to distant mines
and farming communities, and made them prosperous
as never before. As an illustration might be mentioned
the case of Kiruna in the far north. In 1809 it is said
to have consisted of one hut. In a few years after
the railroad reached it, there was a city of 7,000 peo-
ple. It was therailroads that aroused to life the "Norr-

land mines with their slumbering millions."
CHAPTER XXI
POLITICAL AND SOCIAL PROGRESS
A. ESTABLISHMENT OP A RIKSDAG OP Two CHAMBERS

Abolition of the Four Estates. Half a century had
of
passed since the adoption of the new constitution
re-
1809, and yet none of the plans proposed for the
organization of the Riksdag had won the approval
of
both the king and the Riksdag. Then Louis De Geer

entered the council as minister of state. He was the
man who should accomplish it. He was not a genius,
least of all in hisown eyes. But he was a clear-sighted,

upright statesman.* And when he felt convinced that
justice demanded the abolition of the Estates, he per-
ceived it his duty to bring it about. Though he belonged
to the highest Estate of the realm, he devoted all his
power to the abolition of its antiquated privileges.
Hence, under his leadership there was prepared a plan
for a new organization of the Riksdag to be composed
not of four estates, but of two chambers. He was deter-
mined to stand or fall with this proposition.
The first step was
overcome the opposition of the
to
king, as Charles XV was opposed to the abolition of the
Estates. But when he found that his indispensable
minister, with a unanimous ministry behind him, was
determined rather to resign his office than to withdraw
his proposition, the king yielded.
At the Riksdag in 1865 the representatives of the
Swedish people were to speak the decisive word.
Everywhere throughout the country people thought
and spoke of but one thing, the reform of the Riksdag.
Newspapers were filled with fiery articles for and
against the reform. From day to day the adherents ot
De Geer's proposition multiplied throughout the coun-
try. Finally the question came before the Estates.
Among the burghers and the peasants the victory of
the reform was a matter of course. A unanimous
aye was the response of the peasants. Among the
burghers the same response was almost unanimous.
But in the two higher Estates there was a strong feel-
* In his memoirs he
writes, "Feelings of hate and revenge I can not remem-
ber having experienced, perhaps because I have been very little exposed to
any baseness of my fellow men."
ing against the proposition. In the meantime the'

clergy decided to postpone their decision till the nobles
had given theirs. If the nobles should accept the re-
form the clergy felt that it would be unwise for them
to oppose it. The fate of the proposition therefore
rested with the nobility. It was of this Estate the
reform required the greatest sacrifice. Their discus-
sions lasted four days. Never were more brilliant de-
bates heard among them. Strange it was to hear
brother argue against brother and son against father.
The vote revealed a handsome majority for the propo-
sition. The following day, without the formality of a
vote, the clergy joined with the other Estates in the
decision. The triumph was hailed throughout the
country with a jubilation never witnessed before.
Thus the Estates of the Realm of their own accord
withdrew from the political arena. Never more would
the worshipful knights and nobles meet to decide the
country's fate; never more would the reverend clergy
be called to political deliberations; never more would
the licensed burghers differ from other citizens in the
Riksdag; and evermore would the honorable peasant
estate be a thing of the past.
"Laws may be changed, privileges may be abolished,
but duties to the fatherland remain and if these duties
;
be well fulfilled, it matters little to the true nobility

where their place in the community may be assigned."
With these words the lord president closed his farewell
address to the nobility.
The New Organization of the Riksdag. In the year
1866, the new regulations for the Riksdag became a
part of the organic law of the realm. By these regu-
lations the Riksdag meets annually in two chambers.

The first, or upper chamber, was composed of experi-
enced and wealthy men. The age and property qualifi-
cations for eligibility to the second, or lower ^chamber,
were lower. The two chambers have equal powers, so
that if either chamber rejects a measure, the same is
lost. To an exception.
this regulation, however, there is
Questions regarding the government's revenues and
expenses must be settled. Should the two chambers
disagree on such a measure the same must be decided
of the two chambers voting as one body.
by a joint vote
In such a case the lower chamber has the advantage
of numbers, having 230 members to 150 of the upper
chamber.
B. THE THREE GREAT POLITICAL QUESTIONS

The Tariff Question. About the middle of the nine-
teenth century Sweden removed nearly all tariffs, and
espoused the system of free trade. It soon became
apparent, however, that she had conceded too much
to the consumer at the expense of the producer. The
weak Swedish industries could not compete in the mar-
home or abroad, with the wealthy for-
kets, either at
eign manufacturers and were about to be crushed out
of existence. And from
the farmers, too, loud protests
arose, when large quantities of grain were imported
at low prices from Russia and the United States. Thou-
sands of farmers sold their lands and emigrated to the
United States to make a living. Sweden had a touch
of the economic warfare between peoples, a warfare
in which numberless victims are sacrificed without
mercy.
Strong demands for protective tariffs were now

made, especially when it was found that other Euro-
pean states were abandoning free trade. Soon there
raged as bitter a fight between protectionists and free
traders as in former days between Hats and Caps.
The slogan of the protectionist was, "Sweden for the
Swedes"; that of the free trader, "No Starvation
Tariffs." The struggle ended with the triumph of the
protectionists in the Riksdag of 1888. Ever since pro-
tective tariffs have been maintained. But the contro-
versy between protection and free trade continues.
The Question of National Defense. During the long
period of peace after 1814, the Swedish people seemed
to have forgotten that in times past they were often
called upon to defend their national independence. To
the end of the century nothing was done for national
defense. A
foreign military attache in Stockholm at
this time wrote home to his government: "Sweden has
no army, it has a guard." Anything like a serviceable
fleet simply did not exist.
Only gradually did the Swedish people awake to the

danger of remaining wholly defenseless in the midst
of neighbors thoroughly armed. The danger came close
to them when at the end of the century Russia began
to overthrow by force the freedom of the Finns, and
in disregard of Finland's law and right, to introduce
Russian laws and courts. Then the Riksdag of 1901
decided to establish a national militia properly trained.
Subject to service are all able-bodied men between
twenty and forty-two years of age.
The Swedish fleet constructed during the last decade
of the nineteenth century was an entirely new creation.
composed of large, well-equipped, modern war vessels.

As a mark of the times an air fleet has also been pro-
vided. At the opening of the Great War Sweden's de-
fenses were in a better condition than they had been
since the time of Charles XII. She was thus enabled
to maintain her neutrality, her independence, and her
culture.
The Right of Suffrage. The new organization of the

Riksdag, in 1866, had been hailed with delight. But
nothing human is perfect. Voices of discontent were
soon heard. Only a minority of the men in the king-
dom had a right to vote, such as had an annual income
of over eight hundred crowns. This money line of de-
marcation became more and more hateful. An ardent
struggle for universal manhood suffrage began. At the
suffrage meetings the poet Heidenstam's "Citizens'
Song" was sung:
" J
Tis a shame, 'tis a blot on the national flag,
That citizens' rights are called money."
When general military service was established it

was should also be made
felt that the right of suffrage
general. At the Riksdag of 1909 general manhood

suffrage was enacted into law, and twelve years later,
1921, the same rights were extended to women. The
age limit for both men and women was fixed at twenty-
four years.
In each election district several members of the
Riksdag shall be chosen in such a way as to give pro-
portional representation to the various parties in the
district. The difference in the qualifications for mem-
bership in the two chambers has been greatly reduced

Social Progress 349
and the salaries of members are the same in the two

bodies.
In local elections the number of votes each citizen

possessed was formerly regulated by his income. But
in 1918 this distinction was abolished, and now each
citizen (man or woman) has one vote, as in the general
election of members of the Riksdag.
C. THE THREE GREAT SOCIAL QUESTIONS
The Woman's Problem. It was not only the handi-

craftsman that was crowded out by machine produc-
tion. Much of women's work in the home was also
taken over by it. What were the unmarried daughters
in a home to do if they wanted to support themselves
and not be a burden to anyone? All women could not
marry as the proportion of adult men to adult women
in Sweden is as four to five. Want was the unmarried
woman's lot in the early days of machine production.
She was barred from the right to learn a trade or prac-
tice a profession, and most women inherited only half
the amount of their brothers.
In 1845 the first step in establishing woman's rights

inheri-
was taken, when the Riksdag decided that the
tance of brother and sister should be equal. Another
step in her emancipation was taken
when the Riksdag
decided that an unmarried woman was of age and re-
as a man. The
sponsible for herself at the same age
Riksdag has also from time to time opened a way for
her to earn her support. She has been given the right
to enter trades, professions, and government service.
For a long time her highest aim was to secure the right
of suffrage. This reform was carried through the Riks-

dag of 1919 and was confirmed by the Riksdag of 1921.
The apostle of woman's rights in Sweden was Fred-
rica Bremer. She grew up at a time when a woman
might not be a teach-
er or a physician
or have an inde-
pendent occupation.
A girl might have
a burning thirst for
knowledge, a strong
desire to do some-
thing good in the
world, but was not
permitted to follow
her inclination, for
it was regarded as
improper for a cul-
tured woman to
study or work out-
side of the home.
Of all this young
Fredrica had a bit-
ter experience. She Fredrica Bremer*
writes: "I felt that
I was born with strong wings, but felt, too, that they
were clipped, and thought that they would ever remain
so."
But the hour of deliverance would strike even for

her. She became known and highly appreciated as a
writer. But she never forgot what a gifted girl might
have to suffer. She began a struggle for the deliver-
Social Progress 351
ance of her sisters from constraint and repression.

This became the great aim of her life. She had long
felt this inward call, but could not see the way to its
accomplishment. In 1849 she made a voyage to Amer-
ica in the hope of finding light, and she found it. Dur-
ing a visit of two years she became well acquainted
with the institutions established there for the training
of young women for a fuller life. She returned home
by way of England. The translation of her works by
Mary Howitt had preceded her to America and pre-
pared the way for her. She had been most cordially
received there. Her impressions of America she pub-
lished under the title, "Hemmen i Nya Verlden" (The
Homes in the New World) .
Having returned home, she now took up her pen

again. But the novelist now became a social reformer.
With enthusiasm she began to work for the establish-
ment of schools for the training of young women. A
storm of bitterness and scorn met her new authorship.
But her courage never wavered, for she remembered
what suffering she had endured under the bonds that
had fettered the greater and better portion of her life.
She would save others from a similar fate. She was
permitted to see her ideas and efforts crowned with
success.
In the Fredrica Bremer Association the woman's
movement has its real center. The Association has
placed as its maintain a healthy and orderly

aim to
development of its uplift of women along

work for the
moral and intellectual, social and economic lines.
The Temperance Movement From the days of Gus-

tavus in till near the middle of the nineteenth century
drunkenness increased at an appalling rate. Drinking

at every meal was common throughout the land. To
drink one's self drunk was regarded as an innocent
matter. It was not an uncommon sight to find both
judge and jury drunk while sitting to deside a person's
fate. The average life of people at that time in Sweden
was only thirty-five years. It has now risen to fifty-six
years the highest in the world.
The Swedish people stood at the brink of destruction
when the great champion of temperance, Peter Wiesel-
gren, arose. It was as pastor in a parish near Lund
that he began his temperance work. Drunkenness with
its attendant evils, dullness, coarseness, poverty, met
him on all sides as he visited around in his parish.
More than one of the poor victims that tramped about
the parish had once been well-to-do peasants, but
brandy had destroyed both them and their homes.
Here the young pastor took hold "in the spirit and
power of Elijah," as a contemporary expressed it. He
worked for the cause not only in his sermons, but also
during his daily visits in the homes. Everywhere he
met the same enemy, brandy, and the struggle was
hard. More than once in their bitterness the worst
drunkards decided to take the life of the brave
preacher, but when it came to the decisive moment no
one had the courage to lift a hand against the great
man. One of these would-be assassins was a peasant
who had been reprimanded by the church council for
his shameful living. He sent word to the pastor that
and wished him to
his wife lay at the point of death
come. The pastor had been warned, but he decided
to go. Upon entering the house he found the woman
Social Progress 353
lying on the bed, groaning, apparently in great pain.

He ordered her at once to get up, and she obeyed. Her
pains were all gone. The pastor then turned to the
peasant, who stood behind the door with an ax in his
hand. "Put down the murderous weapon," came the
order. The peasant obeyed. But when the pastor ad-
monished him to give up his wicked life and ask God's
forgiveness, he scornfully replied that it would be time

for that when he should lie on his deathbed. "You will
have no deathbed," said the minister. A few days later,
in a drunken state the peasant fell into a well and was
drowned. This event made a more powerful impression
on the parish than the most powerful sermon could
have done.
Finally there came a time when the people learned

to appreciate their pastor. They began to see that all
his efforts were meant for their good. The former wild
and hostile congregationwas completely changed. One
after another of the members ceased to convert his
grain into brandy. Prosperity and happiness followed
in the wake of temperance.
Gradually the movement spread over the whole

country. Many of Sweden's foremost men joined the
movement, among them the crown prince, later Oscar
I. Beside him were two such scientists as the chemist
Berzelius and the noted physician Huss. The latter

made scientific investigations of the effects of alcohol
on the human body. He pointed out its evil effects not
only on the drunkard himself but upon his children
and children's children even to "the third and fourth
generation."
The time came when all Sweden had its eyes open
to the horrible ravages of brandy among the people,
and there was a general desire for legislation against
the evil At the Riksdag of 1854 measures were adopt-
ed which put an end to private distilling. Henceforth
only large and heavily taxed distilleries were permit-
ted. As alcoholic liquors became dearer and harder to
get, drinking was greatly diminished. At the same

time the number of crimes diminished. Prosperity and
refinement followed. The Swedish people were saved
from a humiliating death through alcoholic poisoning.
The temperance work is still going on, but now
more stress is laid on education and moral suasion. To
get drunk is now regarded as a shame. Efforts are
also made through lectures, study courses, and ele-
vating amusements to keep people away from the

saloon. Large temperance societies have been organ-
ized throughout the kingdom, numbering half a million
members.
The Labor Question. The labor problems in Sweden
have been the same as those in other industrial lands.
There have been labor organizations, strikes, and lock-
outs* but the misery amoung laborers has not been as
;
great as in many of the larger industrial lands. Social-

industrial organization has been carried to a greater
extent than in the United States. But communism,
bolshevism, and violence have been on the whole suc-
cessfully opposed.
Much has been done in the interest of labor through
legislation. A normal working day has been estab-
*To the credit of the Swedish laborers it should be said that in all their
labor agitations they never resorted to violence.
Social Progress 355
and limb of the laborer has

lished; protection to life
been provided; regulations regarding the labor of
women and children have been made, protecting them
from hurtful labor and overexertion, likewise regula-
tions for compensation to the laborer in case of acci-
dents or injuries while at work and aid in case of sick-
ness. Loans are made by the state to laborers, enabling
them to build theirown homes old-age pensions have
;
also been established.

At the Eiksdag in 1913 an act for a general people's
pension was passed. Henceforth every citizen, man or
woman, permanently disabled for work, and in all
cases at sixty-seven years of age, is entitled to a pen-
sion. Hence, every person able to work must pay to
the state an annual pension fee from the calendar year
in which he or she reaches the age of sixteen years to
the age of sixty-six years. This annual fee varies from
three to thirty-three crowns (a crown =
26.8 cents)
according to the annual income of each one. These fees
with the interest are not sufficient to provide a proper
support. Hence, the state and the local community also
contribute to the support of the most needy.
The indolent, the drunkards, and convicts, however,
receive no contributions from the state and the local
community. In like manner those who have shown
themselves obstinate and remiss in their contributions
or who have made false reports as to incomes receive
no contributions from the state and community.
This pension is more burdensome to Sweden than it
would be to other lands, because there are in propor-
tion to population nearly twice as many persons past
lands.
sixty-seven years of age as in other civilized
But there is a blessing with money thus spent. The

aged, worn-out toilers need not suffer the humiliation
of being treated as objects of charity. Those who in
their days of strength have faithfully striven to do
their part deserve a respectable living when no longer
able to work.
CHAPTER XXII
EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS
A. THE SCHOOLS
Early Attempts at Child Instruction. Ever since the
time of Charles XI the church law prescribed that the
parish clerk should teach the children of the parish to
read. But how this order was to be carried out in the
large and sparsely peopled parishes was another ques-
tion. Children might have a desire to learn and good
ability for it, but of what avail was it when no schools

existed in rural districts? It often happened that some
old inebriate soldier or other impoverished fellow went
about the parish and taught the children in the home
for his food and shelter and occasionally a few coins.
Such instruction was of course of the crudest kind..
But it was something. Many children did not even get
that much. Hence, there were many people who could
neither read nor write. Only in the cities were schools
more regularly established.
Establishment of Public Schools. In 1842 the Riks.-

dag decided that there should be at least one public
school established in each parish, and attendance was
Educational Progress 357
made compulsory. The establishment of these schools

has had a remarkable influence on popular develop-
ment. Swedish popular education is not surpassed in
any country and is equaled in few. Among those who
have labored most efficiently for the development of
popular education in Sweden the statesman and his-
torian Fredrik Ferdinand Carlson deserves especial
mention.
PublicHigh Schools. These have been established to
enable the young to increase their knowledge and to
widen their outlook. The father of the public school
was the warm-hearted Danish poet and orator, Bishop
Grundtvig. His great idea was that the public high
school should help the young students to make their
knowledge fruitful in actual life, train them for good
and useful draw the sons and daugh-
citizenship, not to
ters away from manual labor, but to return them to it
with new devotion for their life's work and with in-
creased powers for it.
Other Schools and Institutions. At the same time
that the public schools were established, men began
to provide for vocational schools- for the training of
The demand
specialists along various economic lines.
more and more urgent as
for such schools has become
production has become more and more dependent on
scientific investigation.
B. MUSEUMS
Skansen, an Outdoor Museum. At Skansen, on Djur-
garden, an island in the Stockholm archipelago, is the
world's greatest outdoor museum. It was opened to the
public in 1891. Here may be seen the modes of life of
the Swedish commonalty from different parts of the

kingdom in generations past. The objects displayed
are not imitations or fancied reconstructions, but the
genuine articles themselves. The homes, larger and
smaller, mostly log houses from different provinces,
have been bought or donated, carefully taken down,
moved to Skansen, and there set up in their original
form. Barns, sheds, pens, charcoal-huts, tools, wagons,
and other implements may also be seen. Within the
houses may be seen the ancient furniture, kitchen uten-
sils, clothing, etc. One may enter these houses, see all
the rooms, and get a complete picture of the life lived
two or three hundred years ago.
"What grandfather's father wrought

In his generation,
To us children here is brought
For our contemplation."
GELLEKSTEDT.
The Northern Museum. This beautiful structure is

located on the same island. Its building was begun in
1889. It was opened to the public in 1907. It is one of
the best arranged historical museums in the world.
The visitor may begin with the stone age, pass on to
the bronze age and the iron age, then from century
to century, and finally from decade to decade. Each
age, century, and decade is represented by objects of
its own production. It is a panorama of the history
of civilization in the North.
Work ofArthur Hazelius* Both of these institutions

are the work of one man, Dr. Arthur Hazelius. He had
always taken a lively interest in finding and collecting
Educational Progress 359
whatever pertained to the old Swedish folk-life. Old

customs, which were passing away, old tools and im-
plements, old furniture, articles of wear, household
utensils, now fast disappearing all this was dear to
him. He also had the rare ability of interesting others
in this his life's work. He never tired of soliciting
The Northern Museum.
giftsand contributions, hence he was called "Sweden's

greatest beggar/' But this was a title of honor, for he
begged not for himself, but for his fatherland. His
warm patriotism gave him the strength and the cour-
age for this great undertaking, first to collect the
immense sums needed and then the valuable articles.
He saved from oblivion, for coming generations, this
intimate knowledge of his people's life in ages past
He was buried on the island in the midst of the monu-
ments to his great services.
CHAPTER XXIII
LITERATURE
A. THE NEW ROMANTICISM

A
Movement of Reaction. The eighteenth century
was the Age of Illumination. Everything should be
measured, by the cool, sober intellect. Nothing but
what was and practical was considered worth-
useful
while. People were so rational, so practically rational,
that finally times became unbearably dull. Even
preaching in the churches took on the characteristics
of the time. Thus on Christmas morn the minister,
from the text of the Christ-child, in the manger, would
preach a sermon on the importance of the proper
stabling and feeding of cattle. It was at this time that
the beautiful evening hymn beginning,
"Now all the earth is resting/'
was changed, in harmony with fact and reason, to read,
"Now half the earth is resting."
It was
at this time, too, that people in solemn earnest-
ness discussed the question of making use of church
steeples for windmills. It seemed a pity to have them
stand there without serving any practical purpose.
But happily man not only a creature of intellect,

is
but also of emotion and imagination. These long sup-

pressed powers of the soul were at last to assert their
The Romantic School 361
So the period of
rights.
the New Romanticism
opened with its poetry
and song. Its writers
found comfort in escap-
ing from the cold pro-
saic reality and dream-
ing themselves into
peace and an
bliss in
unseen world of fancy.
Per Daniel Amadeus
Atterbom. The fore-
most poet of this ro-
mantic movement was
Atterbom. In his chief
poem, which is also the Per Daniel Amadeus Atterbom.
chief poem of the whole

movement, "Lycksalighetens 6" (The Isle of Bliss), he
sings :
"Oh, if there were a magic

That would submerge our naked world of fact
So very deep in fancy's dream-world sea,
That never bridge could reach from our dull earth
To fancy's ever summer-verdant isle
I would at once, no matter what the price,
Exchange for such a blissful world of dreams

My conscious life."
Together with other romantic youths, Atterbom as

a young Uppsala student founded, in the year 1807,
the Aurora Association. It was an inspired band of
young men who placed as the aim of their songs noth-
ing less than to be the "dawn" of Swedish poetry. A
new springtime had come for Swedish literature.
JoJutn Olof Wallin. The childlike trait of the new

literture appeared in its fullest strength in a poet who
stood very close to Romanticism though he never joined
the circle of its poets. It was the great hymnist and
eloquent preacher,
Johan Olof Wallin.
From Dalecarlia's
God-
plain, earnest,
fearing people he
came. In poor and
humble circumstan-
ces he was born.
During all his youth
he hacl to strug-
gle against poverty
and ill-health. But
through it all his
.power of will was
strengthened, which
enabled him to bear
up even when his
oiof waiiin. physical strength
wavered, and the
poor Dalecarlian youth finished his life as archbishop
of the kingdom.
He was a most eloquent preacher. His powerful
voice, according to one hearer, sounded like a strain
from another world. People gathered in large masses
to hear his eloquent spiritual sermons.
But it is through his beautiful hymns that
especially
his influence has been the most powerful and last-
ing. He composed, revised, or translated from foreign
The Gothic School 363
sources most of the hymns in the Swedish Hymn Book

of 1819. This hymn collection Geijer declared to be
one of the greatest any tongue can show. Tegner com-
pared it to the Old Testament Psalter, and called Wal-
lin "David's Harp in the North."
His most notable poem is no doubt his swan song,

"The Angel of Death," which begins:
"Ye sons of Adam, of earth engendered,

Who shall return unto earth again,
Ye are my victims, your doom was rendered
When sin first entered the world of men."
It ends with the drying of all

tears, the end of all pain,
the opening of the portals of immortality, the angel of
death becoming a seraph and joining with the redeemed
in the songs of praise before the throne of God.
B. THE GOTHIC SCHOOL

The Gothic Society. The New Romanticism did not
have to struggle alone very long against the faults and
weaknesses of the past. A sense of the danger that
threatened Sweden at the time of the deposition of
Gustavus IV, and grief over the loss of Finland made
a deep impression, especially on the young, and caused
a wave of patriotism to spread over the country side
by side with Romanticism. The central point of this
national awakening was the Gothic Society, organized
in 1811 in Stockholm by a few patriotic youths, mostly
from Vermland. Its chief aim was to review the old
Gothic love of freedom, courage, and sincerity, and
encourage the study of old Gothic history and tradi-
tion. In this society belonged a number of men who
made a name for themselves in Swedish literature and

art, men like Ling, the founder of Swedish gymnastics,
Geijer, Sweden's greatest historian, and Tegner, its
greatest poet.
Per Henrik Ling. Among them the most original old
Goth was Ling, "the
Asa-bard and cham-
pion" as he was called
by his contemporaries.
To him, gymnastics and
literature coalesced into
one purpose, to infuse
new strength into the
weakened descendants
of the old Goths. He
was born in Ljunga, in
the poorest and wildest
part of Smaland. Like
so many other promi-
nent men of Sweden, he
was a minister's son.
Per Henrik Ling.
In early years he lost
both father and mother, and had to shift for himself
and became inured to want and hard work.
In childhood and early youth he was not of robust
health.To strengthen himself he engaged in fencing
and gymnastics. By this means he soon changed the
sickly youth into a giant in strength. He discovered
what a source of health and strength proper exercise
is. He would nowteach his people this simple remedy
for weakness and dullness. He made a thorough study
of anatomy and developed a system of gymnastics that
would afford each muscle of the body its proper exer-

cise. Thus he became the founder of Swedish gymnas-
tics, the principles of which have been adopted by most

civilized countries. He made gymnastics a real art.
This was his great life's work, the work for which he
is especially remembered, though he is also known for
his literary productions.
Erik Giistaf Geijer was born at Ransater in Verm-

land. His parents were
well to do. His father
was the owner of the
ironworks at the place.
It was a happy and hos-
pitable home he came
from. He writes: "I
thank God for the best
of parents. The happy
spot their kindly care
hallowed remains as
sunshine in my breast/'
Through rambles in
forest and field, skating
excursions, and swim-
ming bouts he devel-
oped into a strong and Erik Gustaf Geijer.
robust youth. He re-

mained an enthusiastic sportsman to the end of his life.
He first became known as a poet. Among his most
noted short poems are, The Viking, The Freeholder
(Odalbonden), The Charcoal Boy, and The Last Scald.
He was also a composer of music and wrote the melo-
dies of many of his songs. But he is greatest as a
historian. As Professor of History in Uppsala Univer-

sity,he wrote the "History of the Swedish People."
He laid stress on truth and aimed to show his people
what their forefathers had borne without fainting.
Thus he would steel the descendants of mighty north-
men. As a model in the art of writing history Geijer
had Lagerbring of the eighteenth century, who may
be called Sweden's first scientific historian. He tested
carefully all his sources and kept only what he found
to be true.
Anders Fryxell. Geijer's opposite in the manner of

writing history was in many respects Anders Fryx-
ell, a churchman in Vermland, who became the most
widely read of all Swedish historians. While Geijer's

language presupposed a high culture in the reader,
Fryxell, in his "Storiesfrom Swedish History," wrote
in a style adapted to the
young and the masses. In vivid
narrative art he is a master. Hence his stories have
;
become favorite reading for youth and common people.
Esaias Tegner. Like Geijer, Tegn6r was born in

Vermland, but unlike Geijer he did not long enjoy the
quiet and happiness of home. His father, who was
a churchman of limited means, died when the boy was
only ten. He was soon compelled to leave home and
make his own living. He secured a position as assist-
ant secretary to a crown official. His employer soon
discovered the boy's ardent love of books and reading,
and his remarkable talent. "Esse," he would repeated-
ly say, "you are too good to sit here and copy figures
under me." He soon secured opportunities for the boy
to study.
With an iron will

coupled with genius,
he made remark-
able progress, and,
in 1812, at the early
age of thirty, he be-
came professor in
the University of
Lund. The year be-
fore, his name had
been borne on the
wings of fame to
every part of the
kingdom. His first
great patriotic poem
"Svea" had been
written in 1811. It
opens with the fol-
lowing reproving Esaias Tegner.
words :
"Land, which has nourished me and hides ancestral ashes,

Ye heirs of heroes, but forgetful of their virtues,
Forth from my quiet nook, I tender you a song;
The voice of flattery lulls, hear that of truth for once."
The poem secure for its author the grand prize of

the Swedish Academy.
Tegner's most celebrated poem on
work is his great
the Viking Age, "Fritjofs Saga," which has been trans-
lated into a large number of foreign tongues, and has
placed Tegner among the world's great poets. One of
his most beautiful poems is "The Children of the
Lord's Supper" (Nattvardsbarnen).*
* It has been rendered into excellent English by Longfellow.
At the age of forty-two, Tegner was appointed

Bishop of Vexio. This office he held for twenty-two
years, or till his death in 1846. In this capacity he had
many opportunities to appear as a speaker. His fiery,
sparkling genius made him one of Sweden's foremost
orators. Masterpieces are also his letters, which of
their kind have no parallels in Swedish literature.
C. THE FINNISH SCHOOL

Jolian Ludvig Runeberg. In race, education, and
authorship Runeberg belong to Swedish culture. He
was born in Finland in
1804. As a young stu-
dent he formed the ac-
quaintance of an old of-
ficer from the Finnish
War, who had much to

tell of its heroes. The
young student began to
feel a deep love and
admiration for the
army "that froze, and
starved, and conquered
with it all/' In after
years he put these sto-
ries into verse, which
became the immortal Johan Ludvig Runeberg.
collection known as
"Fanrik Stals Sagner" (Tales of Ensign Stal).
Runeberg*s treatment of his subjects was something
new in Swedish literature. His characters are not
creatures of fancy and imagination, but real men and
The Finnish School 369
women as we find them in every-day life. They are

Finland's and Sweden's plain, faithful sons. As they
once lived their life with their faults and merits, such
they live in literature. We see them with all their angu-
larities and and silent, on the sur-
peculiarities, stern
face hard. Andyet they appeal to our hearts. We find
such characters beautiful in spite of faults, for within
the rough exterior there is a genuine pearl. That is
why we can live and sympathize with the army "that
froze and starved and conquered with it all."
Zacharias Topeliics. Finland's most distinguished

writer after Runeberg was his pupil and friend Tope-
lius. He was especially a children's writer. He has
spread gladness and goodness among millions of chil-
dren through his charming stories for children. He has
given his readers, old and young, in his Surgeon's
Stories, a series of most enchanting historical novels.
He died at the age of eighty in the year 1898.
D. A NEW BRILLIANT PERIOD IN LITERATURE

AFTER 1860
Viktor Rydberg. In 1828, there was born to a poor
subaltern officer in Jonkoping a son who became one
of his country's noblest writers and thinkers. Viktor
Rydberg was a scion of an old peasant family. He was
a genuine Swede in thought and language, and prided
himself on the fact that
"To Arian blood, the purest and the oldest,

To be a Swede he was ordained by friendly Norn,"
as he sings in his swan song.

The brightest mem-

ory from his childhood,
which he carried with
him through life, was
the image of his early
departed mother. His
yearning for the noble,
the exalted, the eternal,
which marked his per-
sonality, had been in-
stilled into him by his
good and self-sacrific-
ing mother. She taught

him not to fear any-
Viktor Rydberg. thing except to do
wrong, that in reality
there is no other great danger.
The passing of that noble woman completely crushed
her husband. He began to be queer and had to resign
his position. This broke up the home. Little Viktor,
only six years old, had to experience life's vicissitudes
under a strange roof. It was often hard, but his rich
gifts carried him forward, and finally he became a pro-
fessor in Stockholm. To the children and youth of
Sweden he is especially known
as the author of "Little
Vigg's Adventures on Christmas Eve," "The Free-
booter on the Baltic/' and "Singoalla." His splendid
poem "Dexippos" will ever inspire the young to self-
sacrificing achievements. "The Last Athenian" is his
most celebrated novel.
The most beautiful of Viktor Rydberg's poems is
perhaps his Cantata written for the four hundredth
Modem Literary Period 371
anniversary of the founding of Uppsala University.

Those sublime stanzas will never die,
"Your noble thoughts, what you in love would do,
What beauty dreamed, can ne'er by time be marred ;
Time from their harvests is forever barred,
For they do to eternity belong.
Advance, humanity, with joy and zest,
You bear eternity within your breast."
Carl Snoilsky. As a youth enamored of life and in-

toxicated with sunshine and the flowery South, Snoil-
sky met with in the world of poetry and song.
is first
an ardent worship of all beauty in the world that

It is
meets one in the youthful traveler's Italian and Span-
ish pictures.
But of a sudden his tone changes to deep sadness.
Whence came this chilly autumn frost upon him? The
poet is too proud to tell. He only says :
"I make not publicmy heart's joys and woes

For unknown strangers' hands to seize and wrinkle."
Was it, perhaps, when he was made to choose between

a life of poetry and song and one of statesmanship
and dry diplomacy, and chose the latter?
But in the second spring, the poet left his diplomatic
course and settled down once more beneath the south-
ern sky. The memory of his northern home now seized
him with irresistible force, and thus were born his
"Swedish Pictures." Here he followed the footsteps
of Runeberg and Topelius. Thus Snoilsky became a
singer of two immortal springs, a southern and a
northern and thus is heard a double surge or murmur,
;
from the Mediterranean and the Malar, in his artis-

tically finished verses.
In his "Swedish Pictures" he sings the praises not

only of heroic exploits on the battle field, but of peace-
ful achievements as well, and of the power to endure
pain and privation, which has enabled the Swedish
people to pass through so many trying times.
One of the most beautiful traits of this, by birth and
character, noble knight was his sympathy with the
toiling masses in their struggle toward light and free-
dom. Evidence of this trait may be seen in his poems
such as "The Serving Brother." In his clear and beau-
tiful diction, Snoilsky is an heir of Kellgren and Teg-
ner. He has been called "the last Gustavian" in Swed-
ish literature.
E. REALISM AND IDEALISM AFTER 1880

The Nineteenth Century. Although Romanticism
had its beginning near the opening of the nineteenth
century, that century was not favorable to it. It came
to be the age of steam, of railroads, and of machine
production, ending with social, industrial, and political
struggles. Stern reality soon claimed and received the
people's interest. The dreams of Romanticism faded
away. The age of untility had returned. Romanticism
with its hostility to reality and its sentimentalism did
not belong to an age of materialism and activity.
August Strindberg. The foremost name in Swedish
realism is August Strindberg, and his pioneer work in
this line is "The Red Room." This realism is not
pleased with life, as Runeberg's was. It aims to lay
bare the misery and wretchedness of society, and
hence often becomes bitter and gloomy. The teachers
of Swedish realism were the three noted Norwegians,
Ibsen, Bjornson, and Lie.
Modern Literary Period 373
Strindberg was a restless spirit, who had investi-

gated all departments of life, but had never felt satis-
fied. Nature alone had afforded him moments of peace.
In its bosom he could at times forget men's petty
rivalries, and even forget his own torn self. His stories
from the Swedish skerries (Skargardsberattelser) are
therefore among his best writings. It is genuine realis-
tic art. Splendid passages are also found in his his-
torical sketches, "Swedish Fortunes and Adventures,"
"
as well as in his plays, "Master Olof (Olavus Petri) ,
"Gustaf Vasa," and "Eric XIV."
New Idealism a Reverse to Realism. The Realism

of the latter part of the nineteenth century felt con-
vinced that Romanticism had faded away, and yet it
lived on. Its sentimentalism and its scorn of reality
were, indeed, gone. But the thought of the infinite and
eternal in the human soul can not die. The divine gift
of fancy can not be denied us lest we die. The tendency
which struggles for these two realities in the human
soul, high thoughts and ideas, is Realism. To this
school belonged, in the first place, Viktor Rydberg. He

was followed by a large number of writers, among
whom are Eroding, Hallstrom, Karlfeldt, Heidenstam,
and Lagerlof.
Verner von Heidenstam. It was the joy of life whose

praise young Heidenstam sang in his early verses. To
be young and happy, to be allowed to be glad, this had
not been permitted to a genuine realist. There were
so many problems yet unsolved. As if all peri-
social
ods did not have their special problems to solve! and
as if one could solve them better in a melancholy mood !
In his later writings there appears a strong love of

Sweden and her great memories. We meet this patriot-
ism in his work "Karolinerna," a book on Charles XII
and his men. There we read concerning the fall of
Sweden as a great power: "Beloved by the people,
who made their poverty
in the fall of their greatness
honored before the world." For the young, Heiden-
stam has written "The Swedes and Their Chieftains/'
Like the men of the Gothic school, Heidenstam would
revive the ancient race-strength of the Swedes, and
place high ideals before them. Proudly sounds his ap-
peal to his people in his poetical collection, "Ett Folk" :
"No people must be more than you,

This is the aim, whate'er the cost be."
Selma Lagerlof. In
"Gosta Berlings Saga"
Selma Lagerlof is re-
vealed as the great
saga-teller in Swedish
literature. How rich is
this work in imagina-
tion, in wonderful ad-
ventures in the deep
Vermland forests! In
this work Selma Lager-
lof glorifies the adven-
turous, the knightly, the
care-free, roaming dis-
position of the Swedes,
as exemplified in the life
of the "Cavaliers" in
Ekeby manor house. seima
Modern Literary Period 375
In her work "Jerusalem" she takes the reader far

into Dalecarlia among the ancient peasant families.
In the first chapter she draws a fine picture of a Swed-
ish peasant. "There was a young man," she "who
says,
was plowing his fallow one summer morning. The sun
shone bright, the grass wet with dew, the air fresh be-
yond words to describe. ... He thought within him-
self, 'How is it that, at times, I worry much and life
seems hard? Can anything more be needed than sun-
shine and fine weather to make one as happy as a child
of God in heaven? And such an estate as this, its many
well-built houses, and fine cattle, and splendid horses,
and servants true as gold. You are at least as rich as
any one in the district, and you never need fear pov-
erty. It is not poverty I fear. I would be satisfied
if I only were as good a man as my father or my grand-
"
father/
Such peasants were they who could voluntarily leave
the dearest they had and go forth with Engelbert and
Gustavus Vasa to fight for right and freedom. They
could also sell goods and lands when the voice sounded
in their ears the strange summons, "To Jerusalem,
God's Holy City." And then is told the gripping true
saga of a religious awakening spreading over one of
the large parishes in Dalecarlia, where many of the
people leave their homes and go forth on the long pil-
grimage to Jerusalem.
She has told other sagas to old and young. In
many
"Nils Holgersson's Travels" she has given the Swedish
children beautiful pictures of their long land and im-
mense forests, the red peasant houses, and the rushing
rivers.
Thus Selma Lagerlof has shown us how much

beauty there is in life, and how much good is happen-
ing in our world. The same world in which Strind-
berg finds only misery, meanness, and vice is to Selma
Lagerlof as to Viktor Rydberg a world in which the
good is moving on to victory. But one type of man is
reprehensible to both, the egotist, who thinks only of
his own little fortune and would rise by putting others
down.
CHAPTEE XXIV
ART AND SCIENCE

A. PAINTING
The Art of Painting has had a slow development in

the North. Not until our own day has Sweden had any
great painters. Now, however, her masterpieces in
this art rank among the foremost in the world. Her
most distinguished historical paintings are by George
von Rosen and Gustav Cederstrom.
George von Rosen. In his historical paintings von
Rosen aims especially to express the soul life of his
characters. In his celebrated painting, "Eric XIV,"
one can see Eric's anguish of soul. One can see him, as
it were, hesitating between Goran Persson, who urges
him to sign the death warrant, and Karin, his good

guardian angel.
Gustwv Cederstrom. One of the most popular of
Sweden's historical paintings is that of the Funeral
Painting 377
Procession of Charles XII. The artist Cederstrom

never reveled in colors; he used but few and those of
a somber hue. In this case his colors comport well with
the subject of the painting. In other paintings he has
faithfully represented scenes from the time of Charles
George von Rosen's "Eric XIV."
XII. No
other painter has so well as he represented
the silent greatness and manly gravity of the Caro-
linians.
Julius Kronberg, a "poet in colors," is best known

to the children ofSweden for his beautiful Bible pic-
tures. He lent his art as a handmaid to architecture
and especially well known for his beautiful ceiling
is
paintings in a number of 'Sweden's public buildings.

He is also noted as a portrait painter.
Richard Bergh was pre-eminently a portrait painter.

His works are not many, but they are the result of deep
study and hard work. His aim was to give expression
to the soul life of his subjects. His art may therefore
'
be truly called the art of the will and the intellect.
Funeral Procession of Charles XII.
Prince Eugene. In his beautiful "Swedish Land-

scapes" Prince Eugene has given us a rare collection
of nature pictures. For a peaceful, idyllic effect he
often chose the subdued light of evenings or the beauti-
ful summer nights.
Bruno Liljeforsthe painter of animal life as found

is
in the deep forests, on the plains, and on the eastern
shores, among the inlets and isles of his native land.

A genuine love of nature finds utterance through his
pictures.
Sculpture and Architecture 379
Karl Nordstrom was another landscape painter.

Unlike Liljefors he chose the western shores of his
country for his pictures. He loved their grand scenery,
the surging sea, the steep cliffs, and bald rocks. Like
Prince Eugene he preferred the subdued light of eve-
ning.
Carl Larsson was one of the most popular of Swed-
ish painters.His happy disposition is revealed in his
paintings. As a painter of home life and home joys he
has no superior. His largest and boldest works are the
wall paintings of the stairway approach to the National
Museum.
Anders Zorn was one of Sweden's most celebrated
painters. He is especially a master of the difficult art
of transferring from actual life to the canvas the finest
shifting of light and shadow. He is famous alike for
his portraits and his etchings.
B. SCULPTURE AND ARCHITECTURE

Sculpture. This art too enjoys a flourishing devel-
opment in Sweden today. Many prominent artists can
be named, such as John Borjeson, known for his fine
statues; Per Hasselberg, mourned at his untimely
death and remembered for his works, "The Snow-
drop," "The Water Lily," "The Grandfather," and
others, into which he has infused his ardent love of
life and youth; Christian Eriksson with his artistic
skill showing his worship of life's beauty-values and ;
Carl Milles, the foremost living Swedish sculptor.

Besides his many other works, he has modeled the
majestic figure of "Old King Gosta" in the court of
the Northern Museum.
Architecture. Noted architects of Sweden today are

Isak Gustav Clason, Ferdinand Boberg, and Ragnar
Jons Jakob Berzelius.
ostberg. Clason's greatest masterpiece is that monu-

mental structure, The Northern Museum. It is noble,
a genuine national character. Clason's art
solid art of
Science, Invention, Exploration 381
ever aims at being a growth from the glorious old

foundation.He is the leader of the historical trend of
modern Swedish architecture, while Boberg has sought
new architectural forms, expressive of his bold person-
ality. The post office building in Stockholm is one of
the most monumental creations of this tendency in the
art. Stockholm's most imposing and admired struc-
ture of the present day is the city hall, a creation of
Ragnar ostberg.
C. SCIENCE, INVENTION, AND EXPLORATION

Jons Jakob Berzelius was born of very poor parents
in 1779. In tender years he lost both father and moth-
er, and became an object of charity in the home

of
relatives. After many a hard struggle he became pro-
fessor in the Carolinian Institute in Stockholm. Chem-
istry became the chief subject of his study and investi-
gation. "There is not a department in the whole field
of chemistry to "whose development Berzelius has not
contributed," is the testimony given by a prominent
German chemist. inventing the simple system of
By
notation by letters and figures Berzelius rendered the
same service to chemistry that Linnaeus did to botany.
Berzelius became a of European reputation and
man
received many attractive calls to foreign universities,
but he declined them all. To his fatherland he would
devote his powers. He died at the age of sixty-nine in
August, 1848.
John Ericsson. Not soon shall the memory of that

September day, 1890, pass from the minds of the Swed-
ish people, when the United States Cruiser Baltimore,
under the command of Admiral Schley, brought to the

land of his birth the earthly remains of an aged Swed-
ish gentleman. This man had lived the greater part of
his life outside of Sweden, but had expressed the wish
that he might find a final resting place in his native
land. His name was John Ericsson.
In a poor home in Vermland he had grown up to-
gether with his brother Nils, the destined builder of

the Swedish railroads. To draw and make experiments
had always been John's delight. But at that time
Sweden was poor and its industries little developed.
Hence, John Ericsson had not the chance to develop his
many mechanical ideas at home. He decided to go to
England, the "Promised Land" of mechanics and in-
dustries. There he made a large number of inventions,
the most important being that of the propeller. The
English admiralty failed to accept his invention, and
Ericsson left England for the United States in 1839.
Here he was given, almost immediately, an order for
the construction of a war
vessel on the propeller plan.
It was known as the Princeton. It proved a success
and at once revolutionized the navies of the world. In
1861, John Ericsson was given a new order by the
United States. It resulted in the construction of the
Monitor, which successfully met the Merrimac in a
ship duel March 9, 1862. This battle prevented an
attack on Washington, made good the blockade of the
Confederate States, and contributed powerfully to
Lincoln's final triumph. For a second time Ericsson
revolutionized the navies of the world.
Ericsson was not intoxicated by his successes. In his
quiet, patient way he continued his work, ever making
new inventions. Work was his life. The money earned

he spent on his experiments or in helping needy friends
John Ericsson.
and unfortunates. His love for his native land never

languished.
Along the way to the public school at L&ngbans-
hyttan in Vermland is placed an iron memorial with
the following inscription "In a miner's home at Lang-

:
banshyttan were born the brothers Nils Ericsson, the

31st of January, 1802, and John Ericsson, the 31st of
July, 1803, who have both served the fatherland. Their
way through work knowledge and immortal fame
to is
open to every Swedish youth."

Alfred B. Nobel. In 1867 Alfred Nobel, a Swedish
engineer, patented his invention of dynamite. This is
one of the most destructive forces man ever invented,
but if properly used is one of man's great benefactors.
Such great engineering works as railway tunnels of
miles through immense mountain ridges, and grand
canal construction, such as that of the Panama Canal,
could not have been accomplished without almost in-
finite labor and ex-
pense, except for dyna-
mite. Its saving to the
world during the first
half century of its use
amounts to billions of
dollars.
Alfred Nobel died
December 10, 1896, be-
queathing nearly his
whole estate, estimated
at $9,000,000, to the
founding of a fund, the
interest of which should
be distributed each year
to such persons as had
during the preceding
year contributed the Alfred Nobel .
most toward the benefit of mankind along the lines of
Physics, Chemistry, Medicine, Literature, and Peace.

The prizes in Physics and Chemistry are awarded by
the Swedish Academy of Science in Medicine by the
;
Stockholm Faculty of Medicine, in Literature by the

Swedish Academy, in Peace by a committee of five
electedby the Norwegian Storthing. The Fund is man-
aged by a Board of Directors, whose chairman is ap-
pointed by the Swedish government. The office of the
Board and residence of members is Stockholm.
Adolf Erik Nordenskiold. The Viking disposition,
love of adventure, is deeply rooted in the Swedish mind.
But for this, so
small people as
a
the Swedish nation
could never have
played the role in
history which they
have done. The po-
lar regions, the
northern waters,
have especially at-
tracted them. The
most noted of Swed-
ish explorers dur-
ing the last century
was Nordenskiold.
He was born in
Helsingfors in 1832
and became profes-
fessor of Mineral-
ogy in Stockholm in Adolf Erik Nordenskiold.
1858. He made a number of northern expeditions. He

definitely located Spitzbergen. He
penetrated deeper
into the interior of Greenland than any explorer had
done before. He made a careful study of polar ice fields
and arctic currents and was firmly persuaded that
there was open water north of Asia, and, hence, that
a circumnavigation of the Old World of Europe, Asia,
and Africa was possible, which had theretofore been
declared impossible.
In 1878, with the "Vega" and two other ships, he set
out on this adventure. Through a narrow channel be-
tween icefields and the coast of Asia the Vega passed
during the fall, but on the last of September she was
frozen in and remained so until about midsummer
the next year, When Nordenskiold could continue
his voyage. He passed
through Bering Strait
and reached Japan.
From Yokohama he an-
nounced to the world
that the"Northeast
Passage" had been dis-
covered.
Sven Hedin. In our

own day, Sven Hedin
has won fame as the
foremost modern Swed-
ish explorer, through
his expeditions in Cen-
tral Asia. He has had
to struggle for life in
the burning heat of Sven Hedin .
Union of Sweden and Norway 387
mighty deserts and on ice-covered mountains of Tibet,

in want and privation. But he has succeeded in ex-
ploring, mapping, and describing immense regions

before unknown.
CHAPTER XXV
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
A. THE UNION OP SWEDEN AND NORWAY

Nature of the Union. The Union of Sweden and
Norway did not unite them into one nation. Each
country retained its independent national existence.
They only agreed to have the same king, to stand to-
gether as one in all foreign relations, and to support
each other in case of war. Each was to have its own
body and its own system of courts.
legislative
The Dissatisfaction of the Nonvegians. The Norwe-
gians soon began to weaken the bonds of the union.
They could not forget that the union had been forced
upon them. That the union with Sweden afforded their
country greater security they cared less for than to
win complete independence. Mutual suspicion arose,
and neither party could fully understand the other.
With each passing year they were brought nearer to
the separation. The chief Norwegian leader in this
agitation was the great nationalist and poet Bjorn-
stjerne Bjornson. He expressed his hatred of the
union in a couplet which may be rendered into English
thus :
"The pact 'neath which we agonize

We hate and we anathematize."
The Dissolution of the Union. On June 7, 1905, the

Norwegian Storthing began the revolution by deposing
their king, Oscar II, and declaring the union dissolved.
By this time the Swedish people were thoroughly

disgusted with the union squabble. There was a com-
mon sentiment among them that a union supported by
force was not worth much. But on the other hand, the
Norwegians should not alone dissolve a union that both
had formed. Sweden should also have its say in the
matter. This sentiment was expressed at the Riksdag
summoned by the king. This Riksdag declared that
Sweden was willing to have the union dissolved if the
Norwegians would agree to certain demands on the
part of the Swedes.
Thereupon Swedish and Norwegian delegates met

for negotiation at Karlstad. These negotiations were
long drawn out, and at one time they were nearly
broken off, and war clouds seemed to hang threaten-
ingly over the Scandinavian Peninsula. Finally, how-
ever, both parties signed the Karlstad agreements.
The Norwegians agreed to discontinue the fortifica-
tions they had begun along the Swedish border. The
territories on both sides of the line
were to be a neutral
zone, in which no military operations were to be under-
taken. Future disputes were to be submitted to the
Hague Court of International Arbitration. By these
provisions Sweden had received the recognition and
guarantees of future security which the Riksdag de-
manded. A new Riksdag assembled, which accepted
the Karlstad agreements and declared the union dis-
solved, 1905.
Foreign Relations 389
B. FOREIGN RELATIONS BEFORE AND AFTER THE

WORLD WAR
Policy of the North during the War. The World War
taught the three Northern peoples that they belonged
together and that in unity there is strength. Thou
they escaped the direct burdens of the war, they were
not exempt from its ravages. Many of their merchant
vessels engaged in lawful traffic, bound for their home
ports with goods greatly needed, were attacked and
sunk, ships, men, and all others were captured, taken
;
to a foreign port, and there detained. These and other

violations of the rights of neutral nations led the three
Scandinavian nations to feel the need of mutual sup-
port. Hence. Gustav V of Sweden invited the Scan-
dinavian kings to meet at Malmo in December, 1914.
There the kings agreed on plans for a rational ex-
change of goods and on other measures for the relief of
economic difficulties which the war occasioned in the
North. They also agreed on united neutrality. Later
new meetings were held by representatives of the three
governments, and measures were agreed upon for the
good of the Scandinavian North.
Some Good Results of the War. As one happy result
of the war, Finland, after severe trials, freed itself
from Russian despotism and was recognized as an in-
dependent state. Its people had, however, to endure
the most terrible of all evils that can happen to a coun-
try, the horrors of civil war.
To the Danes likewise the war brought a great, a
long desired good fortune. At the Peace Conference of
Versailles, 1919, the great powers England, France,
United States, and Italy agreed that the people of

Schleswig should by a plebiscite decide whether they
would belong to their old fatherland or to Prussia.
The result was that the northern part of Schleswig
returned to Denmark.
One would fain believe that for mankind as a whole
the terrible lessons of the war may not have been given
in vain, and that in future disputes between nations
the voice of reason may triumph over hate and vio-
lence. One would also hope that the League of Nations,
to which all three of the Scandinavian kingdoms be-
long, may prevent at least the civilized part of man-
kind from again staining themselves with human blood
in another war. But there yet remain many disturbing
elements in the world.
CHAPTER XXVI
EPILOGUE
A. SWEDES OUTSIDE OF SWEDEN

Significance of Language. Nothing contributes more
largely to cultural affinity among people than a com-
mon language. Acultural relationship exists between
those who and understand the Swedish
speak, read,
language wherever they may dwell. There are nine
million people speaking the Swedish language. Of
these three million live outside of Sweden.
In Europe and Other Lands. Of these nearly half a

million dwell in lands beyond the Baltic that were once
8'ivedes Outside of Sweden 391
Swedish possessions. Others live in various parts of

the world outside of Europe. Most of these are found
in North America : in the United States and Canada.
Immigration to the United States. Swedish immi-

gration to the United States began in real earnest near
the middle of the nineteenth century, and after the
close of the Civil War, in 1865, for over a quarter of
a century it was very large.
These immigrants settled almost wholly in the north-
ern states, where the climate corresponds more nearly
to that of their old homeland. Most of them founded
homes in the Middle West, where the bulk of them
turned to agricultural pursuits. Many of them also
helped to build up the cities of the Northwest. They
and their descendants now form a substantial part of
the population of Chicago and Minneapolis and of
many other cities. Chicago now has the third largest
population of Swedish extraction of any city, exceeded
only by Stockholm and Gothenburg. Some of the earlier
and much of the later immigration also settled in. the
East, in New England, New York, and Pennsylvania.
Adaptability of the Swedes. These immigrants have

found very little difficulty in adapting themselves to
the political and social conditions in the United States,
for these conditions are much the same as those they
were accustomed to in their mother country.
Organizations. Among their many organizations, re-
ligious and
social, the Evangelical Lutheran Augustana
Synod ranks first, numbering more than a third of a
million people.
B. THE SWEDISH SETTLEMENTS ON THE DELAWARE

The Founding of New Sweden. Sweden was the
third of the four European nations that established
colonies within the original territory of the United
States. In 1626 Gustavus Adolphus organized and
chartered a trading company with the immediate ob-
ject of colonizing the western shores of Delaware Bay
and River, for the purpose of developing Swedish
commerce and spreading the gospel of Christ among
the heathen inhabitants of the land. But owing to the
king's participation in the Thirty Years' War and his
death at Lutzen in 1632, the plan was for a time aban-
doned. It was, however, soon renewed by Chancellor
Oxenstiern, regent of the realm under the young queen,

Christina. But several years elapsed before the project
could be put into effect. In the meantime King Charles
I had relinquished England's claims to the land the
Swedes were to colonize.
The First Expedition. This set sail from Gothenburg

in the fall of 1637 under command of Peter Minuit.
It consisted of a ship of war, the "Key of Calmar," and
a smaller vessel, the "Bird Griffin," with crew and
passengers, and laden with provisions, ammunition,
and merchandise suitable for trade with the natives.
They first landed, in the spring of 1638, near the site
of the present town of Lewes, Delaware, at what
they
called Paradise Point. From there they
proceeded up
the bay till it narrowed into the mouth of the Delaware.
A small tributary on the west side they named Chris-
tina Creek. This they ascended a short distance to the
place now occupied by the city of Wilmington.
The Settlements on the Delaware 393
The First Settlement. There they located, purchased

a few acres from an Indian chief, and erected a small
inclosure, which they named Ft. Christina. Within this
inclosure a storehouse was built and later a chapel.
Fresh bands of colonists arrived from time to time,
bringing with them new supplies, merchandise, cattle
and other domestic animals.
Treaty with the Indians. The colonists entered into
a friendly treaty with the Indians and purchased a
large tract of land from them, extending along the
west side of the bay and river from Cape Henlopen to
Trenton Falls. This territory was named New Sweden.
Friendly relations with the Indians were ever main-
tained by the Swedes, and this policy was afterwards
pursued by William Penn.
Government of the Colony. Peter Minuit remained
as commander at Fort Christina until his death. His
successor, Peter Hollander, administered the govern-
ment for nearly two years and then returned to Swed-
en. He was succeeded by John Printz, who was ap-
pointed governor in 1642. The new governor took
possession of the Island of Tinicum in the Delaware,
nine miles southwest of Philadelphia. There he built
a fort and a brick residence, and from there directed
the affairs of New Sweden for ten years, after which
he, too, returned to Sweden, leaving the affairs of the
government in the hands of his son-in-law, John Pape-
goya, as vice governor. He was succeeded by John
Rising, who arrived in 1654. He established his resi-
dence at Christina. With him came an engineer, Peter
Lindstrom, who has furnished us a map of New Swed-
en of that day.
A History of Sweden. 2<i.
In the meantime the Dutch had built Ft. Casimir on

the west side of the Delaware a few miles below Ft.
Christina. This fort was captured by John Rising.
It was kept by the Swedes, was strengthened and im-
proved, and named for the day of its capture Ft.
Trinity.
The Fall of New Sweden. The energetic Peter Stuy-
vesant, then governor of New Netherlands, fitted out
an expedition for the conquest of New Sweden. Charles
X Gustavus, whose reign (1654-1660) was filled with
continuous wars with Poland and Denmark, failed to
protect his possessions in the New World. Governor
Rising was compelled to capitulate in 1655, and New
Sweden came to an end. The Dutch held the country
for nine years, when they in turn had to surrender to
the English in 1664.
In the articles of capitulation it was provided that
the Swedes were not to be disturbed in their posses-
sions, nor in their religion, and that they should have
the privilege of maintaining a pastor. Governor Rising
returned to Sweden the same year.
Extension of Swedish Settlements. In 1648, ten
years after the erection of Fort Christina, a settlement
was made about fifteen miles further up the river,
calledUpland by the Swedes, now known as Chester,
Pa. Governor Printz had already taken possession of
Tinicum Island and there built a fort and official resi-
dence. These were the first settlements made by Euro-
peans in the present state of Pennsylvania, nearly
forty years before the arrival of William Penn.
Between the Delaware and the Schuylkill, on the
present site of Philadelphia, another settlement was
made and a congregation established, known in the rec-

ords of the time as Wicaco. Opposite this settlement
on the west side of the Schuylkill another one was
made and a mission established at Kingsessing, and
about fifteen miles further up the Schuylkill was Upper
Merion. In all these places Swedish churches were
established. To the north and northwest of these
places there were other smaller Swedish communities.
In New Jersey settlements were made and congrega-
tions organized and churches built at Raccoon Creek,
or Swedesboro, and at Pennsneck. There were besides
several smaller Swedish settlements in New Jersey.
Early Religious Work. The first pastor, Reorus Tor-

killus, arrived at Christina with the second expedition.
A place of worship was erected within the fortifica-
tions at Christina. After a little more than three years
of faithful service he died. His remains rest un-
der the southern end of the Old Swedes' Church at
Wilmington. His successor, Rev. John Campanius,
arrived in the colony together with Governor Printz.
He seems to have located at Tinicum, where a church
was built, which served the congregation for over fifty
years. He remained in the colony for five years, and
was untiring in his work among the scattered congre-
gations and communities. In addition to his regular
duties as preacher and pastor, he began mission work
among the Indians. He learned their language and
translated Luther's Small Catechism into their tongue.
He prepared also a vocabulary of the Delaware lan-
guage. This catechism with the vocabulary was pub-
lished at the expense of Charles XI, in 1696, and five
hundred copies were sent over to the colony.
During the Swedish government

latter years of the
were sent out, Israel Holgh,
of the colony four pastors
Lars Lock, Matthias Nertunius, and Peter Hjort. Of
these the first named returned home after a brief stay,
the last two arrived at the same time as Governor
Rising. In 1655, after the capitulation, they together
with Governor Rising returned to Sweden, leaving only
Rev. Lock to care for the scattered Swedish congrega-
tions. This he continued to do until his death in 1688-.
With advancing years and failing strength, however,
he found impossible to serve all the congregations
it
alone. The congregation at Wicaco, therefore, called

the Dutch Lutheran pastor, Rev. Jacob Fabritius, as
their pastor, in 1677. A block-house, erected nine years
before, was converted into a church, and there, on
Trinity Sunday of that year, he preached his first ser-
mon. Five years later he became blind, but continued
in the work to the time of his death.
The Coming of William Penn. The grant of Penn-

sylvania and Delaware to William Penn, and his ar-
not materially affect the condition
rival, in 1682, did
of the Swedes. In a letter to England the year after
his arrival, he writes concerning the settlers already
well established in his province: "The Swedes inhabit
the freshes of the river Delaware. There is no need of
giving any description of them, who are better known
in England than here. They kindly received me,
. . .
who were few before the people

as well as the English,
concerned with me came among them. I must needs
commend their respect to authority, and kind behavior
to the English. They do not degenerate from the old
friendship between both kingdoms. As they are a peo-
pie proper and strong of body, so have they fine chil-

dren, and almost every house full rare to find one of
;
them without three or four boys and as many girls;

some six, seven, and eight sons. And I must do them
the justice to say, I see few young men more sober and
industrious."
At the Close of the Seventeenth Century. After the
capitulation to the Dutch, Sweden seems to have en-
tirely forgotten her people in the New World for a
period of forty years. When her attention was again
called to the shores of the Delaware, it was to a mission
and not to a colony. When Rev. Lock died and Rev.
Fabritius, on account of age and infirmity, was unable
to serve the congregations, divine services were still
held in the churches, readers were appointed, hymns
were sung, and sermons were read. The attendance,
however, was small, composed mostly of older people.
Appeals were made both to Sweden and to Holland for
pastors, but no response came.
Arrival of Andrew Printz. A
young man named
Andrew Printz, a nephew of the early governor, John
Printz, made a visit to the settlements of his country-
men on the Delaware. He was heartily received by
them. Visits from Sweden were then very rare. He
made himself well acquainted with the conditions
among the settlers, and on his return to Sweden he
communicated this information to the postmaster John
Thelin at Gothenburg. Thelin was deeply moved by
this recital and appealed to King Charles XI in behalf
of his people on the Delaware. Encouraged by the
king, Thelin wrote a long letter asking the people over
there to furnish full particulars and to tell their needs
and their wishes, assuring them of the king's willing-

ness to furnish them the needed help.
This letter brought great joy to the settlements. It

was answered by Charles Springer. This notable man
had been in the service of the Swedish ambassador in
London, had there been abducted, carried to Virginia,
and sold as an indentured servant for five years. While
there he heard of his countrymen on the Delaware, and
as soon as he was liberated, he went to them. He was
a man of high character, good education, and earnest
piety. He soon became a leader at Christina, as reader
he conducted the services in the church, and was now
urged to answer Thelin's letter.
In this letter a full account is given of conditions in
the settlements, the fertility of the soil, the occupation
of the people, their relation to the Indians, the Dutch,
and the English. Two pastors were asked for and a
goodly supply of books: Bibles, Postils, Handbooks,
Devotional books, Catechisms, and Primers. They
promised to support the pastors and to pay for all the
books.
In response to this letter three clergymen were sent :
Andrew Rudman, Eric Bjork, and Jonas Aur6n. The

two were to serve as pastors, and the last named
first
was sent by the king to make a survey of the land,

prepare a map of it, study the conditions of the coun-
try and then return and report to the king. The books
were sent as a donation from the king. In this dona-
tion were included five hundred copies of the Indian
Catechism translated by Campanius and not published
untilnow. Aur&n's report was never made, for before
the missionaries reached America the good king had

passed away.
Gloria Dei Church, Philadelphia.
Arrival of the Missionaries. These missionaries

reached their destination near the end of June in 1697.
"The joy of the people at our arrival I can not ade-
quately describe/' wrote Bjork in a letter to Sweden.
Rudman became pastor at Wicaco, and Bjork located

at Christina.
The Building of Two Noted Churches. With noble

enthusiasm and willing sacrifice, the people set about
to raise funds for the erection of a substantial church
at Wicaco. The same was done at Christina. There the
construction was begun in 1698 and completed the next
year. The church was built of granite and was sixty
feet long, thirty feet wide and twenty feet high. It was
dedicated on Trinity Sunday, July 4, 1699, and received
the name of Holy Trinity Church. It is now known as
the "Old Swedes' Church" of Wilmington.
The building of the church at Wicaco was delayed

for some time owing to dispute as to its location. This
dispute having finally been amicably settled, the build-
ing went rapidly forward. The size of the church was
the same as that of Trinity at Christina. The founda-
tion was of stone and the superstructure of brick. The
church was dedicated on the first Sunday after Trinity,
July 2, 1700. It received the name of Gloria Dei. It is
located in the southern part of Philadelphia.
Establishment of a New Pastorate. Shortly after

this a third pastorate was established. It consisted of
two congregations on the Jersey side of the Delaware :
one at Raccoon, or Swedesboro, and the other at Penns-

neck. Each congregation had its own church, frame
structures. In 1784, during the pastorate of Nicholas
Collin, a fine brick church, sixty by forty feet and thir-
ty feet high, was erected at Raccoon.
A Bright Period in the Swedish Mission. With the

coming of the two pastors, Rudman and Bjork, a bright
period opened to the Swedish Lutheran Mission on the

Delaware, extending down to the American Revolution.
The had a
mission
faithfuland energetic
friend and spokesman
in Dr. Jesper Svedberg
for a long period of
nearly forty years.
When he was appoint-
ed bishop of Skara by
Charles XII, in 1702,
he was given the gen-
eral supervision of the
Swedish mission in
America. This posi-
tion he held to the
time of his death in
1735. Warm friends
and supporters of the
mission were also the Bishop Jesper Svedberg.
successive archbish-
ops, the Uppsala chapter, and the kings. During the
period of seventy-nine years (1696-1775) no less than
thirty pastors were sent over to the mission.*
The Language Question. For over a hundred years

the Swedish language was used almost exclusively in
the churches of the Swedish mission. But gradually
* One of the
most noted of these pastors was Provost Israel Acrelius, who
wrote a detailed history of New Sweden to the year 1756, when, on account
of ill health he returned to Sweden. The work was dedicated to Queen Louisa
Ulrica by the author and published by him in Stockholm in 1759. It has been
translated into English by Dr. William M. Reynolds and published by The
Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
itbecame necessary to use the English, in part, as most

of the young people knew no other language. By the
intermarriage of the various nationalities the English
language alone survived. During and after the Ameri-
can Revolution very few church members, except the
very old, understood any Swedish at all. When English
services were held in the churches of the mission, the
Episcopal form of worship was used, as the Swedish
liturgy had not been translated into English. The
young people became accustomed to this service and
liked it. During his career, Dr. Collin had eight Epis-
copal assistants. As English Lutheran pastors could
not be secured, the congregations called Episcopal pas-
tors, some of whom were of Swedish descent. Rev. J. C.
Clay, the successor of Dr. Collin as rector of Gloria
Dei for thirty-two years, was of Swedish descent on
his mother's side.For a long time these churches, thus
left to themselves, remained independent of any de-
nominational church connection. But, under the cir-
cumstances, it was natural that they should all, one by
one, finally affiliate with the Episcopal Church.
The End of the Swedish Mission. In 1788 Rev. Lars

Girelius of Christina and Rev. Nicholas Collin of
Wicaco in a letter to the archbishop expressed the
opinion that the Swedish mission must gradually come
to an end, stating that the congregations desired
thenceforth to elect their own pastors. Thereupon the
archbishop, Uno von Troil, suggested to the king, Gus-
tavus III, that the two pastors still remaining in the
mission should be recalled on the same conditions as
former pastors. By letter of May 26, 1789, the king
approved the suggestion. In consequence of this act
Eev. Girelius returned to Sweden in 1791. Dr. Collin,

however, remained as pastor of Wicaco (Gloria Dei)
till his death October 7, 1831.
Thus ended the Swedish Mission on the Delaware.

Nineteen years later, Swedish congregations were
established inAndover and Moline, Illinois, by new
bands of immigrants from Sweden. Thus the Swedes
on the Delaware could almost touch hands with the
Swedes on the Mississippi.
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LEADING EVENTS IN SWEDISH HISTORY
A.D.
Beginning of the Viking Expeditions Circa 800

St. Ansgar's first visit to Sweden, at Birka Circa 830
St. Ansgar's second visit to Sweden Circa 853
Founding of Novgorod, Russia, by Rurik Circa 862
Battle on the Fyris Plain. Victory of Eric the Victorious.
Circa 990
Battle of Svolder Circa 1000
Baptism of Olov Lapking at Husaby Springs Circa 1008
Extinction of the early royal line Circa 1060
Period of the Stenkil Family Circa 1060-1125
Period of the Sverker and 'Eric Families Circa 1130-1250
Church Council in Linkoping 1157
St. Eric's Crusade to Finland 1157
The Death of St. Eric 1160
Archiepiscopal See established at Uppsala 1164
Founding of Stockholm 1187
Church Council in Skeninge (Celibacy of the Clergy) 1248
Birger Jarl's Second Crusade to Finland 1250
Period of the Folkung Family 1250-1371
Establishment of the Swedish Cavalry (Taxfree Nobility) 1280
Third Crusade to Finland (Torgils Knutsson's) 1293
Death of Torgils Knutsson. The Hatuna Game 1306
The Nykoping Banquet '(Gastabud) 1317
Election of Magnus Ericsson at Mora 1319
First Union of Norway and Sweden 1319
Abolition of Slavery 1335
Sweden's first National Law (Rural) 1350
Visitation of the Black Death 1350
Papal Sanction of St. Birgitta's Cloister Order 1370
(Forced from Albert of Mecklenburg.)
First royal declaration of rights 1371
Battle of Falkoping. Victory of Margaret 1389
Coronation of Eric of Pomerania, a united act of the three
kingdoms 1397
War of Liberation under Engelbrektsson 1434
First general regularly constituted Riksdag met at Ar-
boga, Jan. 3, 1435
Karl Knutsson (Charles VIII) chosen king 1448
Norway united with Denmark 1450-1814
Flight of Karl Knutsson. Christian I chosen king 1457
Civil War. Karl for a second and third time king 1463-1470
On the death of Karl Sten Sture the Elder elected Regent
at Arboga Riksdag 1470
Battle of Brunkeberg, victory of Sten Sture the Elder
over Christian 1 1471
409
Founding of Uppsala University 1477

Battle of Brannkyrka, victory over Christian II by Sten
Sture the Younger 1518
Massacre of Stockholm 1520
War of Liberation under Gustavus Vasa begun 1521
Gustavus Vasa elected regent at Vadstena 1521
Surrender of Stockholm. Entrance of Gustavus Vasa 1523
Final dissolution of the Union 1523
Gustavus Vasa unanimously chosen king at Riksdag in
Strengnas June 6, 1524
Translation of the New Testament by Olavus Petri and
associates 1526
The Riksdag of Vesteras 1527
The fall of the commercial dominion of Liibeck 1537
The Dacke Insurrection 1542-1543
The Vesteras Succession Act. Sweden became a hereditary
monarchy 1544
Death of Gustavus Vasa. Succession of Eric XIV 1560
Deposition and Imprisonment of Eric XIV 1568
His brother John III succeeded to the throne 1568
The Northern Seven Years' War 1563-1570
The Peace of Stettin 1570
Controversy over the Liturgy, adoption of the Red Book. 1577
.
Death of Eric XIV 1577

Election of Sigismund to the throne of Poland 1587
Death of John III 1592
The Convention of Uppsala under the lead of Duke Charles 1593
The Coronation of Sigismund as king of Sweden 1593
Estrangement of the Council from Duke Charles and the
Estates 1595
The Battle of Stangebro. Flight of Sigismund 1598
Deposition of Sigismund by a Riksdag at Stockholm 1599
The Linkoping Slaughter (Blodbad) 1600
The Norrkoping Succession Act 1604
War with Russia begun 1609
War with Denmark begun (known as the Kalmar War) . . 1611
Death of Charles IX. Succession of Gustavus Adolphus. . 1611
Peace with Denmark at Knared 1613
Treaty of Stolbova with Russia 1617
First Riksdag Regulations adopted 1617
War with Poland. Siege and Capture of Riga 1621
Scene of the Polish War moved to Prussia 1626
Truce for six years between Sweden and Poland at Alt-
mark 1629
Sweden entered the Thirty Years' War 1630
Gustavus Adolphus landed in Poxnerania 1630
Fall of Magdeburg under Tilly May, 1631
Battle of Breitenfeld Sept. 7, 1631
Leading Events 411
Gustavus Adolphus in winterquarters at Mainz 1632

Battle of Liitzen. Death of Gustavus Adolphus. .Nov. 6, 1632
.
Administration of Axel Oxenstiern 1632-1644

Reign of Christina 1632-1654
Battle of Nordlingen 1634
Settlement of New Sweden at Christina, Delaware 1638
Personal Rule of Christina 1644-1654
Treaty of Bromsebro with Denmark 1645
Treaty of Westphalia 1648
Abdication of Queen Christina 1654
Accession of Charles X Gustavus Bipontine Family 1654
War with Poland 1655
New Sweden under
Pall of the Dutch 1655
New War with Denmark 1657
Crossing of the Belts 1658
Treaty of Roskilde 1658
Renewed War with Denmark 1658
Death of Charles X Gustavus 1660
Reign of Charles XI 1660-1697
Government under a board of regents 1660-1672
Treaty of Oliva with Poland 1660
Treaty of Copenhagen with Denmark 1660
Founding and Opening of the University of Lund 16-38
Establishment of National Bank 1663
Charles XI declared of age 1672
War with Denmark (Declaration by Christian V) 1675
Battle of Lund 1676
Treaty of Lund 1679
Inquiry into the mismanagement of the Regents and the
Council 1680
Resumption- Acts 1680, 1682
Absolutism established 1682
Death of Charles XI 1697
Reign of Charles XII 1697-1718
Opening of the Great Northern War 1700
Battle of Narva 1700
War against Augustus of Poland and Saxony 1702-1706
The treaty of Altranstadt 1706
Battle of Poltava (Charles fled to Turkey) 1709
Capitulation at the Dnieper 1709
The Battle of Helsingborg. Victory of Magnus Stenbock 1710
The Kalabalik in Bender 1713
Charles XII returned home after five years in Turkey 1714
Surrender of Stralsund. Charles escaped to Sweden 1715
The Siege of Fredrikssten. Death of Charles XII. Nov. 30, 1718
Abolition of Absolutism. Election of Ulrica Eleonora as
queen 1719
Treaty of Stockholm with England-Hanover Nov. 20, 1719
Treaty of Stockholm with Prussia Feb. 1, 1720

Transfer of the crown to Frederick of HesseCassel
March 24, 1720
Treaty of Fredriksborg with Denmark June 14, 1720
Administration of Arvid Horn 1720-1738
Treaty of Nystad with Russia Aug. 30, 1721
New General Code of Laws 1734
Fall of Arvid Horn. Triumph of the Hat Party 1738
War with Russia 1741-1743
Capitulation of Helsingf ors 1742
Treaty of Abo. Choice of Adolph Frederick as Crown
Prince 1743
Hostile attitude of Russia. Founding of Sveaborg by
Ehrensvard 1749
Death of Frederick 1 1751
Accession of Adolph Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp 1751
Unsuccessful attempt of the Court at a Coup d'Etat 1756
Sweden's unsuccessful part in the Seven Years' War. .1757-1762
Fall of the Hat Party 1765
Reign of Gustavus III 1771-1792
First Coup d'Etat of Gustavus 1772
War with Russia 1788-1790
The Anjala Conspiracy 1788 '.
Second Coup d'Etat. Absolutism restored 1789

The Viborg Gauntlet and the Victory at Svensksund 1790
Assassination of Gustavus 1792
Reign of Gustavus IV Adolphus 1792-1809
Sweden joined England, Russia, and Austria in Coalition
against Napoleon 1805
Treaty of Tilsit between Napoleon and Alexander of Russia 1807
War with Russiathe Finnish War 1808-1809
Treaty of Fredrikshamn Cession of Finland to Russia.. 1809
Deposition of Gustavus IV Adolphus 1809
New Constitution adopted 1809
Steam power introduced by Owen 1809
Reign of Charles XIII 1809-1818
Election of Marshal Bernadotte as crown prince 1810
War with Napoleon Battle of Leipsic 1813
Congress of Vienna 1814-1815
Union of Norway and Sweden confirmed by both countries 1815
Reign of Charles XIV John 1818-1844
Beginning of Modern Newspapers 1830
Opening of Gotha Canal 1832
Public School Act (Regulation of Public School) 1-842-1850
. . .
Reign of Oscar I 1844-1859

Abolition of the Guild System 1846
Visit of Fredrica Bremer to America 1849-1852
Beginning of railroad building 1855
Leading Events 413
Establishment of free trade 1855

Reign of Charles XV 1859-1872
Reforms of the Riksdag. Two elected chambers 1866
Reign of Oscar II 1872-1907
The Northeast Passage discovered by Nordenskiold . . 1878-1880
Triumph of the Protectionists 1888
New defensive system based on universal training 1891
Convention of Karlstad. End of the Union 1905
Haakon VII chosen king of Norway 1905
Reign of Gustav V 1907
Universal male suffrage established 1909
Proportional representation 1909
Woman suffrage established 1921
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Anderson, Rasmus B. Norse Mythology. S. C. Griggs & Co.
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Babcock, Kendric Charles The Scandinavian Element in the
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Fletcher, C. R. L. Gustavus Adolphus and the Struggle of
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Flom, George T. Introduction to "Fritiofs Saga." Augustana
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INDEX
Arboga, place of first Swedish Riks-
dag, 89
Abo, treaty of, 256
Abolition of Estates, 345 "Argus,Then Swanska" (The Swedish
Absalon, bishop and missionary, 63 Argus), 262
Absolutism, under Charles XI, 205; Armfelt, Gustav Maurits, 292
under Charles XII, 217-40; abolished, Art, 287, 376; painting, 376; sculpture,
241; resumed under Gustavus III, 379; architecture, 380
297; again abolished, 312 Art of printing, 93
Acrelius, Israel, pastor in New Swe-
Art of writing, 15; invention of al-
den, 401; historian of New Sweden, phabet, 15; runic alphabet, 16;
401 Asas, Northern deities, 24
Adlercreutz, Karl Johan, commander, Asgard, 23
306; victorious at Lappo, 308; de- Ask, 25
feated at Oravais, 309; arrests Gus- Atlantic, viking expeditions in, 37
tavus IV Adolphus, 311 Augsburg Confession adopted at Upp-
sala, 135
Adolf Frederick chosen heir to throne,
Auren, Jonas, surveyor of New Swe-
256; reign of, 268-78; royalty courts den, 398
peasants, 269; plots coup d'etat, 270; Aurora Association founded, 361
involved in Seven Years' War, 271;
Atterbom, Per Daniel Amadeus, poet,
Hats ousted after defeat, 273; new 361
Cap party in Russian intrigues, 274; Augustana Synod, 391
system of bribery, 275; national in-
dependence threatened, 275; agri-
cultural reforms, 276; mercantile
B
system abandoned, 277; industrial Balder, Norse god, 24, 26
crisis, 277; Baltic, a fresh-water lake, 2
Agriculture, earliest, 5; promoted, 116; Baner, John, commander, 160, com-
neglected, 167; reformed, 276; mod-
mander-in-chief, 172; death, 173
ern, 335
Bank of the realm founded, 197
"Aftonbladet," 328; Bellman, Karl Mikael, poet, 288
Aland, 20 Belts, crossing of, 190
Albert of Mecklenburg, puppet king, Bender, tumult in, 235
85; ruled by nobles, 85; deposed and Bergh, Richard, painter, 378
imprisoned, 86 Bergman, Torbern, chemist, 262
Alexander, I, tsar of Russia, 304 Bemadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules, mar-
shal of France, 316; chosen crown
Ahngsas, a new industrial city, 24U
Alstrom(er), Jonas, promoter of in- prince, 317;
dustry, 249;
Bernadotte Period, 335-90 ; economic
introduced potato as
staple food, 250 progress: in agriculture, 335,; in
stock raising and dairying, 336; in
Altranstadt, treaty of, 225
Ancestry of present Swedes, 2; race forestry, 337; in mining, 338; in
connections, 8 manufactures, 339; in water power,
Anckarstrom, Jacob Johan, regicide 340; in trade and transportation,
299 340; in canal construction, 340;
Anckarsvard, Karl Henrik, political political progress: abolition of the
four Estates, 343; new organization
leader, 327
of Riksdag, 345; tariff legislation,
Andreae, Laurentius, archdeacon, 110;
346; national defense by land and
chancellor, 111; dismissed as king's
sea, 347; suffrage extension, 348;
councillor, 119
Anjala conspiracy, 294; conclusion of, social progress: rights of woman,
298; surrender of Sveaborg last act political and social, extended, 349;
m tragedy, 308
temperance prompted, 352; labor
legislation, 354; people's pension act,
Ansgar, 40; childhood and youth, 41- 355; educational progress: public
archbishop of all Scandinavia, 44; school system established, 357; na-
established church in north, 45; first tional museums founded, 357
missionary to Sweden, 43; preach- Bernard of Weimar, commander, 171
ing in Birka, 44; second visit, 44; Berzelius, Jons Jacob, chemist, 353,
simple life, 46 381
Arab writer on Swedish vikings quoted,
Birchlegs (Birkebeiner), 74
01
"Bird Griffin," 392
419
Birger, (Magnusson), king, 71, 73 Catherine (Karin Mansdotter), queen,

Birger Jarl regent, 63, 65; his benevo- 130
lent legislation, 66; Sweden's first Catherine II, empress of Russia, 283
real statesman, 67 Catholic period, early, 57-65; late, 65-
Birgitta, 80-85; childhood and parent- 87
age, 80 ; visions, 81 ; marriage, 82 ; Cavalry for defense, 68
revelations, 82 ; asceticism, 83 ; vows, Cederstrom, Gustav, painter, 376
83; founded Vadstena cloister, 83; Celibacy enjoined on priesthood, 60
made pilgrimage to Rome, 84; Celsius, Anders, scientist, 262
protested against "Babylonian Cap- Celsius, Olof, scientist, 266
tivity" of pope, 84; canonized, 85 Characteristics of ancient race, 28 ;
Birka, chief city, 43 courage, 28; endurance, 28; skill in

Bjork, Eric, pastor in New Sweden, battle, 29;
398 Charlemagne, European emperor, 42
Bjornson, Bjornstjerne, poet and novel- Charlea IX, regent, 135 ; reign of, 139-
ist, 372 144; mining developed, 139; land
Black Death, Oriental plague, 77 improvement, 140; administration o
Black Sea, viking waters,. 35 economy and justice, 140-141 ; war
Blekinge, province, 20, 30 with Poland, 141; with Russia, 142;
Bo Jonsson Grip, chancellor, 85; Swe- with Denmark, 143 ;
den's richest lord, 85; tyranny of, Charles X Gustavus chosen heir to the
86 throne, 184; reign of, 186-194; the
Boberg, Ferdinand, architect, 380 Resumption Act, 188; war with
Bohuslan, province, 20 Poland, 188; first war with Den-
Bonaparte, Napoleon, emperor of mark, 189; crossing of the Belts,
France, 164, 302, 319, 320 190; invasion of Denmark, 191; ac-
Borjeson, John, sculptor, 379 quisitions by treaty of Roskilde, 191 ;
Bornholm, battle of, 143 second Danish war, 191 retreat from
;
Brahe, Per, Count of Visingsborg, 177 ; siege of Copenhagen, 194

quoted, 123, 184 Charles XI, reign of, 195-217; peace
BrSnnkyrka, battle of, 95 treaties with Poland, Denmark, and
Brask, Hans, bishop, 114 Russia, 195; misrule during regency,
Breitenfeld, battle of, 158, second bat- 195 ; education and character of
tle of, 174 Charles, 197 ; war with Denmark,
Bremer, Fredriea, champion of worn- 197; defeat at Oland, 200; snapper
man's rights, 350; author, 351 warfare, 201; victory at Lund, 202;
Bromsebro, treaty of, 176 regents called to account, 203; new
Bronze Age, 10-13; amber and fur resumption acts, 204; merciless con-
trade, 10; copper found, 10; beliefs, fiscation of estates, 205; absolutism
13; importation of bronze, 10; buna! established, 206; new naval defense,
customs, 13; inscription, 11; sun 206; "Gray Cloak," patron of the
worship, 12 peasantry, 207; church and educa-
BrunbSck Ferry, battle of, 104 tion promoted, 208 witchcraft courts
;
Brunkeberg, battle of, 92 abolished, 209; crop failures and

famine, 211
Charles XII, reign of, 217-240; train-
ing and adventures, 218; opening of
Campanius, John, pastor of Trinicum, the Great Northern War, 220 ; triple
395; missionary to Indians, 395; attack on Swedien, 220; Denmark
translated Catechism for them, 395; defeated, 221 ; war with Russia, 221 ;
prepared vocabulary of their tongue, victory at Narva, 222; war with

395 Poland, 223; capture of Lemberg,
Canal construction, 341 224; Charles ousts August II and
Caps party, origin of, 253 has Stanislaus appointed king, 225;
Cap party, Younger, 274; foreign poli- war with Russia renewed, 226; Ma-
cy of, 274 zeppa's proposed alliance, 228; de-
Carelians converted, 71 feat at Poltava, 229; campaign
Carlson, Fredrik Ferdinand, states- against Danes, 233; retreats to Tur-
man and historian, 357 key, 234; Turkish-Russian war, 234;
Casimir, John, Count Palatinate, 186 outstays his welcome, 235; driven
Caspian sea sailed by vikings, 37 from Bender, 235 ; returns home, 236 ;
Castles, 70, 177-80 country depopulated and destitute,
Catechism in Delaware Indian lan- 237; war in Norway, 239; king shot
guage, 395 down at Fredrikssten, 240
Catherine (Jagellonica) , queen, 134 Charles XIII, duke and regent, 300,
Index 421
312 ; reign of, 312-24 ; under new con- I

D
stitution, 312; new law of succes- Dacke, Nils, leader of revolt, 120; re-
sion, 314 lations with Emperor Charles V, 120
Charles XIV John (Bernadotte) ; crown Dahlberg, Eric, 190, 193
prince, 317; regent as Charles John, Dalin, Olof von, poet and historian,
318; Napoleon's interference with 262; his Swedish History. 263
trade with England, 319; allied Danielsson, Anders, peasant, political
against Napoleon, 320; defeats leader, 328
French, 321; joins in "Battle of the Danish Baltic dominion begun, 64;
Nations" at Leipsic, 321; victory ended, 65
due to his strategy and plan of cam- Danish dominion in England ended, 39
paign, 321 invades Denmark, 321
; ;
Danish settlements, 20
Norway ceded to Sweden, 322; Nor- Danish vikings in England, France,
way, dissatisfied, declares independ- Germany, 39
ence, 323; reign of Charles XIV De Geer, Louis, minister of state, 343
John, 324-31 period of reaction,
;
Deities, Northern, 23-24; Balder, 24;
325; triumph of liberalism, 329 Prey, 23; Freya, 24; Frigg, 24;
Charles XV, reign of, 331-2, (also un- Heimdall, 23; Hela, 27; Idun, 24;
der Bernadotte Period) opposed
;
Mimer, 23; Mighty One, the 26;
abolition of Estates, 344 Njord, 23 ; Oden, 23 ; Surt, 25 Thor,
;
Charles (Christian) August, 314; 23

elected crown prince, 315; accidental De la Gardie, Jacob, general, 142, 148
death of, 315 De la Gardie, Magnus, chancellor, 181,
Chester (tTpland) settlement, 394 regent",196
Chivalry, 69 Delaware settlements, 392-403, Chris-
Christian I, of Denmark, 89, 90 tina, Island of Tinicum, 393;
393;
Christian II, king of Denmark, 94; Upland (Chester), 394; Wicaco, 395;
first attack on Sweden, 95; treacher- Kingsessing, 395; Upper Merion,
ous negotiations, 95; second attack, 395 ;Swedesboro, 395 ; Pennsneck,
96; captured Stockholm, 97; crowned 395
king of Sweden, 97 ; perpetrated mas- Dennewitz, battle of, 321
sacre of Swedish nobles, 97 ; earned Diets of Lords (Herredagar) 69 ,
name of Tyrant, 98; effort to crush Dnieper river, viking route, 35

Danish nobility, 106; his benevolent Don river, viking route, 39
legislation at home, 106; deposed, Dragon ships, 33
exiled, and imprisoned, 106 Dutch Republic, 133
Christian IV, 144, 152
Christian V, 197
Christiania fjords, 20
E
Christianity introduced, 40, 45 Earl Birger (Birger Jarl), 63
Christina, queen, 154; reign of, 170- Earliest implements in Denmark, 1
184; Thirty Years' War, 170-175; Earliest inhabitants, 1 came over Den-
;
Danish war, 175; territorial gains. mark, 1

176 ; great concessions to nobles, 178 ; East Gothland, province, 19
,her court, 181; her favoritism and "Eastway" viking routes, 34
'extravagance, 1S1-1S3; abdication, Edda, Elder or Poetic, 26
184; departure, 186 Education, 169, 208; modern education-
Christina (Fort Christina), 393 al progress, 356
Church cult and customs, 58 Ehrensvard, Augustin, army engineer,
Clason, Gustav, architect, 380; builder 258
of Northern Museum, 380 Eidsvold, Assembly at, 323
Clay, J. C., rector of Gloria Dei, 402 Elfsborg ransom, 148
Collin, Nicholas, last pastor in New Elizabeth, empress of Russia, 257
Sweden, 400 Emigration to America, 391
Contest of Christians and pagans, 55 Embla, 25
Continental System, 304 Engelbertsson, Engelbert, liberator and
Copenhagen, siege of, 194 regent, 88, 89; murdered, 89
Copper Company, 166 England unified as kingdom, 40;
Copper discovered in Sweden, 10 raided by vikings, 39
Council of Linkoping, 59 Eric, duke, son of Magnus Ladulis, 71
Council of Skeninge, 60 Eric of Pomerania, ruler of Scandi-
Counter-Reformation, 132 navian union, 88
Cronstedt, Karl 0., commander, 307 Eric Segersall, 46 king of Swedon, 47
;
Crusades, 61-65; Swedish, 61; against Eric XIV, reign of, 127-30; character-
pagan, Finns, 62; Danish, 63 ized, 127; murdered 'tie Stures, 129;
Customs, ancient, 28-30; slavery, 29
forced to abdicate, 129; marriage, of Hats, 259 ; foreign trade developed,

130 261; cultural development, 262-8
Eric the Lisper and the Lame, 65 Frederick VI, 321
Eric the Saint, king of Sweden, 62 Fredrika Bremer Association, 351
Ericsson, John, inventor, 342; his Fredrikshamn, treaty of, 309
propeller revolutionized navies, 382 ; Fredrikssten, siege of, 239
his Monitor contributed to Lincoln's Freedom of the press, 286, 314; strug-
triumph, 382; honored after death gle for, 328
by U. S. government, 381; by Swe- French Revolution, 302 ; States Gen-
den, 384 eral, 302; National Assembly, 302;
Ericsson, Leif, discoverer, 31 National Convention, 303
r
Ericsson, Magnus, chosen king, <4; Friedland, battle of, 304
united Sweden and Norway, 75 :
Frey, Norse god, 23, 26, 56
abolished slavery, 76; established Freya, Norse goddess, 24
code of laws, 76; union dissolved, Frigg, Norse goddess, 24
77; king dethroned, 80 "Fritjofs Saga" by Tegner, 367
Ericsson, Nils, railway builder, 342 Froding, Gustav, poet, 373
Eriksson, Christian, sculptor, 370 Fryxell, Anders, historian, 366
Estates established, 68; abolished, 345 "Fury of the Northmen," 40
Eugene, Prince, painter, 378 Futhork, runic alphabet, 16
Exploration: discovery of Northcoast "Fylkeskonung," 20
Passage by Nordenskiold, 385; Tibet Fyris Plain, battle of, 48
and central Asia explored by l!cdin,
386
F Gange-Rolf (Rollo), 39
Fabritius, Jacob, Dutch Lutheran pas- Geijer, Erik Gustaf, poet and historian,
tor in New Sweden, 396 329, 365
Fairhair, Harold, 30 Geographical divisions, 19
Falkoping, battle of, 86 Germany, vikings in, 39
Falun copper mine, 66, 167, 338 Girelius, Lars, pastor in Christina, 402
Ferdinand II, emperor, 152 Glacial Period, 1
Fersen, Fredrik Axel von, thwarts Gloria Dei Church (Old Swedes'
royal plot, 271 Church), Philadelphia, 400
Fersen, Hans Axel von, aids French Gdrtz of Hols tern, baron, minister of
royalty in flight, 303; murdered, 316 finance to Charles XII, 238; issues
Finland, 20; ceded to Russia, 309; in- token money, 238 ; executed, 241
dependent, 389 Gdta Canal, Sweden's inland water-
Finspong iron works, 167 way, 341
Fleming, Klas, naval commander, 176 Gothic Society founded, 363
Flint implements, earliest found, 1 Gothland, 20, 30
Folkung family, 77 Goths, land of, 19
Forkbeard, Sweyn, conqueror of Eng- Greenland, ice covering, 1; colonized,
land, 39, 50 31
Fort Casimir taken, 894; recaptured, Griffenfeldt, Peder, chancellor, 199
394 Grip, Bo Jonsson, 85
Fort Christina, 393 Gross-Beeren, battle of, 321
France, vikings in, 39 Grundtvig, Nikolai, Danish bishop,
Frederick I chosen king, 241; reign father of the public school, 357
of, 243-268 ; power vested, in Estates, Gulf of Finland, 34
243; new code of laws, 245; ad- lustavian Hereditaments, 169
ministration by Chancellor Arvid Gustavus (Ericsson) Vasa, or Gustavus
Horn, 246 peace policy, and internal
;
I, 98-126; liberator, 98; escaped from
development, 248; rise of war party, Danish prison, 98; adventures in
252; chancellor forced out, 353; Hat Dalecarlia, 99; chosen commander of
and Cap parties, 253; war Policy Dalecarlians, 102; peasants' war of
revived, 253; Sinclair murder kindles liberation, 104 ; victory at Vesteras,
war spirit, 253; war on Russia de- 104 ; siege of Stockholm, 105 Gustavus
clared, 254; insubordination in the elected king, 105; his administration,
army, 255; capitulation of Helsing- 109, 116; introduced the Lutheran
fors, 256; failure of the war, 257; Reformation, 109-114; new faith
dominant influence of Russia, 257; established at Vesteras Riksdag, 112 ;
rally of Hat party, 258; national castles and strongholds of bishops
defense strengthened, 258; Tessin's confiscated, 114; defense of the
administration, 259; industrial policy realm, 115; agriculture promoted,
Index 423
116; mining industry improved, 117; H

commerce encouraged, 117 ; the Dacke Hague Court of Arbitration, 388
insurrection, 118; king's arbitrary Hakan Magnusson, king of Norway,
rule, 119 ; dismissed councillors, 119 ;
75, 8S
pillaged churches, 119; letters of Halland, province, 20, 30
king to peasantry, 120-122; auto- Hallstrom, Per, author, 373
cratic methods abandoned, 122; Suc-
Hamburg, commercial treaty of, 65;
cession Act adopted, 122 personal-
;
peace treaty of, 272
ity of King Gustavus, 123; his fami- Hanseatic League, 66
ly, 123; his old age, 124; his fare-
Haroldsson, Olaf (Saint Olaf), 55
well address, 124 ; his last will, 125 ; Harold 30
Fairfaair,
his death, 126
Hasselberg, Per, sculptor, 379
Gustavus II Adolphus, 145-170; early Hat party, origin of, 253; mismanage-
problems, 145; training and attain- ment by, 273; ousting of, 273
ments, 145; relation to his people. "Hatunaleken" (the Hatuna Game).
146; war with Denmark, 147; Elfs- 72
borg ransom, 148; war with Russia, Havamal, quoted, 23, 27, 28
148; war with Poland, 149, 151; Hazelius,Arthur, founder of Skansen
Thirty Years' War, 151-165; fare- and Northern Museum, 358
well to his people, 153; articles of Hedin, Sven, explorer, writer, 386; ex-
war, 155; death of king, 164; esti- plores Central Asia, 386
mate, 164; domestic administration Heidenstam, Verner von, poet and his-
of justice, 165; of commerce, 166; torian, 373
of mining, 167 of agriculture, 167 ;
; Heimdall, 23
of communications, 168 ; of educa- Hela, Norse goddess, 27
tion, 169; University of Uppsala Helsingborg, battle of, 233
promoted, 169; founding of New Helsingfors capitulates, 256
Sweden, 392 Herring fisheries at dresund, 64
Gustavus III, reign of, 279-300; char- Hierta, Lars, publisher of "Aftonbla-
acter and aim, 279; bloodless revo- det," 328
lution, 280; constitutional change, History of New Sweden by Acrelhn,
401
282; Russian threats and French
support, 283, currency reform, 284; "History of the Swedish People," by
trade restrictions removed, 285; Geijer, 366
torture abolished, 285; religious free- Hjarne, Urban, foe of witchcraft super-
dom for foreigners, 285; freedom of stition, 209; court physician, 211
the press, 286; brilliant court life, Hjort, Peter, pastor in New Sweden,
396
287; promotion of literature and art,
287; government monopoly of dis- Hogland, battle of, 294
tilleries, 290; brandy bane of nation, Hollander, Peter, governor of New
290; extravagance causes discontent, Sweden, 393
291; dissipation abandoned for con- Holmgard (Novgorod) founded by
quest, 292; war with Russia, first Northmen, 34
part, 293 ; treason in the army, 294 ; Horn, Arvid, chancellor, 246; reckless
attack by Denmark, 295; new revo- warrior, cautious statesman, 247 ;
lution, 296; war with Russia, second peace policy of, 248
part, 297; escape from Viborg, 297; Horn, Gustav, commander, 158, 160.
victory at Svensksund, 298; peace 171; taken captive, 172
with Russia, 298; assassination of Horn, Klas, naval hero, 143
the king, 299 Huss, Magnus, physician, 353
fi'istavusIV Adolphus, reign of. 300- I
311; character, 301; antagonism to Ibsen, Henrik, dramatist, 372
Napoleon, 304; sacrifice of Finland, Ice Age, 1; ended in Scandinavia, I
304; Finnish War, 305-310; Finland Iceland colonized, 31
ceded to Russia, 309; treaties with Idun, Norse goddess, 24
Denmark and France, 310; king Illumination, Age of. 360
deposed, 311; exiled in Switzerland, Ilmen, lake, 34
312 Inquisition, 132
Gustav V, reign of, 333-4; (also under Inscriptions on rocks, 11
Bernadotte Period) Union
International relations, 387-90;
Gutenberg, John, 93 with Norway, 387; during World
Gyllenstierna, Christina, 96, 98 War, 389; Finland made independent
Gyllenstierna, Johan, councilor, 202 state, 389; North Schleswig returned
Gymnasia founded, 169 to Denmark, 390
Invention: Ericsson's propeller, 382; three kings at Svolder, 49; Law-

Ericsson's Monitor, 3s2; Nobel's in- man Torgny, 52
veniion of dynamite, 384 Leipsic, battle of, 320
Ireland, viking expeditions to, 39 Lejonhufvud, Margareta, spouse of
Iron Age, 14; bog iron, 14; burial Gustavus Vasa, 123
mounds, 14; rune stones, 14; kings' Lemberg, capture of, 224
mounds at Uppsala, 14; runic writ- Leopold, Karl Gustav, poet, 288
ing, 15; remains, 16; Roman trade, Lewenhaupt, Adam, commander, 227;
16 retreat of, 227; capitulation of, 231;
died in Russian captivity, 232
J
Lewenhaupt, Charles Emil, comman-
JUrta, Hans, 312 der-in-chief, 255; executed, 257
Jesuits, Order of, 132 Lewes, Delaware, 392
John George, elector, 157, 172 Lie, Jonas, author, 372 -
John III, 130-135; characterized, 130; Life in the cities about 1560, 107-109;
counter-reformer, 132 ; liturgical trade their monopoly, 107; handi-
controversy, 132-134; crafts, 108
Joms vikings, 46 Liljefors, Bruno, animal painter, 378
Jonsson, Ture, 113 Liljencrants, Johan, minister of fi-
Jutland, 30 nance, 285
K Lindstrom, Peter, engineer, surveyed
Kalabalik of Bender, 235
Nev Sweden, 393
(tumult) Ling, Per Henrik, poet, founder of
Kalmar Sound, 20 Swedish gymnastics, 364
Karlfeldt, Erik Axel, poet, 373 Linkoping Massacre, 138
Karlskrona, new naval base, founded, Linne (Linnaeus), Carl von, botanist,
207 262, 264; wins European fame, 266
Karlstad pact, 388 Literature, 287, 860-376; Romanticism,
"Key of Calmar," 392 360; Gothic school, 363-68; Finnish
Kiel, treaty of, 321 school, 368; brilliant modern period,
King's Council established, 69 369-76; realism and idealism, 372
Kingsessing, 395 Lock, Lars, pastor in New Sweden,
Kellgren, Johan Henrik, poet and 396
editor, 288 Lodbrok, Ragnar, 28
Klingspor, Vilhelm Mauritz, com- Loke, Norse god of evil, 24
mander, 306; retreat under, 306 Louis the Mild, 43
Knared, treaty of, 148 Louise Ulrica, queen, 268
Kolmarden, 19 Loyola, Ignatius, 132
Knighthood, 69; ceremony of knight- Lubeck, commercial treaty with, 65;
ing, 70; tournaments, 70 seat of Hanseatic League, 66
Knut Viking king of England, Den-
Lund, treaty of, 202
mark, and Norway, 39 Lund, battle of, 202
Knutsson, Karl, (Bonde), 89; struggles Lutzen, battle of, 163
with Christian of Denmark, 91
Knutsson, Torgils, 71; beheaded, 72 M
Kronberg, Julius, painter, 374 Machine Age, origin of, 339; begun
in Sweden, 339
Magdeburg sacked, 157
Lacko castle, 179 Magnus Ladulas (Barnlock), 66;
Ladoga, lake, 34 reign, 67-69; legislation, 68; estab-
Ladulas, Magnus, reign of, 67; (See lished defense by armed knights,
Magnus L.) 68; established the four Estates, 68;
Lagerlof, Selma, novelist, 374 formed King's Council, 69
Lapking, Olof, 50, 52; first Christian Magnusson, Hakan, 75, 86
king, 55 Malar, lake, 43; locked up, 62
Lappo, battle of, 308 Mansdotter, Karin, 130
Larsson, Carl, painter and illustra- Margaret, queen of Denmark and
tor, 379 Norway, 86; ruler of Scandinavian
Law of West Gothland, 57 union, 87
Laws codified, 76; new code, of laws, Massacre of Protestants, 133
code of 1734, 245 Mazeppa, hetman of Cossacks, 228
Laws provincial, 56 Minuit, Peter, governor of New Swed-
League of Nations, 390 en, 393
Legends, 46-55; of Eric Segersall and "ity One, the, unnamed Norse god,
Styrbjorn Starke, 46; battle of
Index 425
Migration, the great, 17 kingdom, 323; chooses Charles XHI

Miklagard (Constantinople), 35 king, 323
Milles, Carl, sculptor, 379 Norwegian vikings in Ireland, 39; in
Mimer, Norse god, 23 Scotland, 39
Mining industry, begun, 66; improved, Novgorod (Holmgard), 34
117;developed, 139, 167 Nykbping castle, 73; the Nyk
Mode of life, ninth century, 20-23; Banquet (Nykopings gastabud)
blood feuds, 22; hospitality, 22 Nystad, treaty of, 243
Monasteries and convents, 58; Al-
vastra, 59; Varnhem, 59; Vadstena,
83
Oden, Norse god, 23, 27, 56
Monitor, invention of, 382 Gland, 20; battle of, 200
Mounds, 14 Old Swedes' Church,
Mbrner, Gustav Fredrik, lieutenant, Wilmington,
395, 400; Old Swedes' Church, Phil-
(later major-general) 317; part in
adelphia, 400
choice of Bernadotte as crown
Oliva, treaty of, 195
prince, 317
Oravais, battle of, 30$
Myths, ancient Northern, 23; Asgard, uresund, 20; center of fish trade, 64
23; Ask, 25; Creation, 24; Embla, Oriental plague (the Black Death),
25; Loke, 24; Sleipner, 23; Norns, 77; ravages, 78
25; RagnarSk, destruction of the Origin of the cities, 107
world, 25; Valhall, 27; Valkyries, Ormen Korte, 51
27; Yggdrasil, 25; Ymer, 25 Onnen Lange, royal dragon ship, 51
Oscar I, reign of, 330-31; his liberal
N policies,330; change to conserva-
tism 331; (also under Bernadotte
Napoleon Bonaparte, 302; interferes
in Swedish affairs, 319; invades Period); promoter of temperance,
353
Russia, 320
Oscar H, reign of, 333; conflict with
Narva, battle 221
of,
Nertunius, Matthias, pastor in New Norway and peaceful dissolution
of the Union, 333; (also under Ber-
Sweden, 396 nadotte Period)
Neva, river, boundary, 34
New Ostbere, Ragnar, architect, 380;
Sweden, founding of, 392; ter- builder of Stockholm city hall, 381
ritory of, 393; fall of, 394
New Sweden mission ended, 402;
Owen, Samuel, industrialist, 339; in-
troduces steam power, 339
Lutherans succeeded by Episcopal
Oxenstiern, Axel, statesman, 150,
rectors, 402
161, 168; chancellor, 170; conduct
Newspapers, first, 169 of war, 172; in disfavor with Chris-
Njord, Norse god, 23 tina, 181
Nobel, Alfred B., engineer and in-
Oxenstjern, Jons Bengtsson, arch-
ventor, 384; founder of Nobel In-
stitute, 384 bishop, 91
Nobel Institute, 385; Nobel Prizes,
385 Palatinate family, 186
Noraberg, mining region, 66
first Papal dominion in Sweden, 59
Nordenskib'ld, Adolf TErik, explorer, Papegoya, John, vice governor of
385; discovers Northeast Passage, New Sweden, 393
386
Pappenheim, Gottfried von, comman-
NSrdlingen, battle of. 172 der, 160
Nordstrom, Karl, landscape
landsca painter, Paris attacked hy vikings, 39
379 Peasants freeholders, not serfs, 52
Normandy, a viking province, 39 freed from Danish oppression, 89
Norns, Norse goddesses, 25 Penn, William, 393, 396; his tribute
Norrkoping Succession Act, 170 to Swedes, 396
North America discovered, 31 Pennsneck, 395
North sea, Viking expeditions over, Persson, Goran, 127, 129
37 Peter the Great, 226; founder of St.
Northeast Passage discovered, 386 Petersburg, 226; Invades Baltic
Northern Museum founded, 358 Provinces, 226; defense by devas-
Norway, settled, 20; contest for, 90; tation, Peter's plan, 227
ceded to Denmark, 90; declared in- Petri, Laurentius, archbishop of Upp-
dependent kingdom, 323; chooses sala, 114; brother and coworker of
Christian Frederick king, 323; Olavus Petri in establishing Lu-
united with Sweden as independent theran doctrine, 114
Petri, Olavus, reformer, 110; student Rudman,. Andrew, pastor in New

under Luther, 110; preacher at Sweden, 398
Strengnils, 110; in Stockholm, 111; Rune stones, 14
translated New Testament into Runeberg, Johan Ludvig, poet, 368;
Swedish, 112; voluminous writer, "Fanrik Stals Sagner" his notable
112; published first Swedish hymn work, 368
book, 112; first Swedish historian, Runes, 16; Futhork, 16
112; dismissed "as king's councillor, Runic inscriptions, 16, 37; on marble
119 lion of Pireus, 36
Petty kingdoms, 20 Rus, Swedish vikings, settle Russia,
Piper, count and Commander, cap- 35
tive in Moscow, 232 Russia (Rusland) founded by Swed-
Platen, Baltzar von, canal builder, ish vikings, 35
341 Russian captivity of Carolinians, 231
Polhem, Christopher, inventor, 250; Rydberg, Viktor, poet and novelist,
promoter of home industries, 251; 369
planned inland waterway, 251
Poltava, battle of, 229
Pomeranian Wends, 75 Saint Bartholomew Massacre, 133
Possessions of Sweden at end of Saint Olaf (Haroldsson), 55
Thirty Years' War, 175 Sandels, Johan August, commander,
Postal service established, 168 308; campaign in Sav9laks, 308
Princeton, construction of, 382 Santesson, Bernt, councilor of com-
Printz, Andrew, visits New Sweden, merce, 341
397 Scalds, 23
Printz. John, governor of New Swed- Scandinavian union, 86, 87; dissolved,
en, 393 105
Protection and free trade, 347 Scheele, Karl Wilhelm, chemist, 262
Public schools established, 356; high Scheffer, Ulric, chancellor, 284
schools founded, 357 Schleswig repatriated, 390
Science: advancement in chemistry
by Berzelius, 381; promoted by
R Nobel Prizes, 385
Ragnarok, 25 Scotland, viking voyages to, 37
Ragnvald, earl, 53 Sergei, Johan Tobias, sculptor, 289
Reformation, Lutheran, introduced, Seven Years' War, 271; Sweden's
109-114 participation, 272
Religion of the North, 26: feasts, 26; Sigismund, 135-139, 149; his threat of
priests, 26; sacrifices, 26; warlike, Catholic restoration, 135; counter-
27, yule, 26 reformation intrigues, 137; strug-
Religious freedom, 285 gles with lords and Estates, 137;
Rehnskiold, field marshal, 229 defeated at Stangebro, 138; deposed,
Resumption Act, 188; resumption re- 138
newed, 204 Sinclair, Malcolm, murder of, 253
Reuterholm, Gustav Adolf, 300 Skane, province, 20, 30
Revolaks, victory at, 306 Skansen, national outdoor museum,
Rhymed Chronicle, 71, 212 founded, 357
Riga, capitulation of, 150 Skokloster, 180
Riksdag, first, at Arboga, 89; Estates Slavery in ancient times, 29 ; abolished,
established, 68; Riksdag of Streng- -
76
nSs, 105, 110; of Vesteras, 112; re- Sleipner, 23
organized, 345 Smaland, province, 20
Rising, John, captured Fort Casimir, "Snappers, 201
394 Snoilsky, Carl, poet, 371
Rollo (Gange-Rolf), viking chieftain, Sodra More, 179
39; defender of France, 39, made Society of Jesus, 132
duke of Normandy, 39 Sodermanland, province, 20
Roman trade, 16 Song of Creation, 24
Rosen, Adolf von, railway builder, South Sea Company, 166
342 Spegel, HSkan, archbishop, 208
Rosen, George von, painter, 376 Springer, Charles, leader in New
Roskilde, treaty of, 191 Sweden, 398
Roslagen, 35; "Rodrsland," 37 Stangebro, battle of, 138
Rudbeck, Olof, scientist and histori- Staket, archbishop Trolle's palace,
an, 215 rased, 95
Index 427
Stanislaus appointed king of Po-

land, 225 Tax-free knights, 68
Stenbock, Magnus, commander and Tegner, Esaias, bishop, poet, orator,
governor, campaigns against Danes 366; "Fritjofs Saga," his greatest
in Skane, 233; wins battle of Hels- work, 367
ingborg, 233 I Temple of Uppsala, 56; sacrificial
feasts, 56
Stettin, treaty of, 143
;
Tessin. Karl Gustav, chancellor, 259^

Stjernsund Factory, 251 Teutonic invaders from Scandinavia,
Stiernhielm, George, father of Swed-
18, gold treasures, 18
ish poetry, 212
Thirty Years' War, first period, 151-
Stockholm, fortress, 62; founding of 165; last period, 171-175
city, 63 Thor, Norse god, 23, 56
Stockholm Massacre, 97 Three kingdoms, rise of, 30
Stolbova, treaty of, 148 Tilly, Johann von, commander, 156,
Stone Age, 2-9; animals, 3; dwell- 158; death, 162
ings, 3; tools and weapons, 3; Tilsit, treaty of alliance at, 305
food, 4, 7; agriculture, 5; handi- Tinicum, 393
crafts, 6, 9; mode of life, 7; re- Tiveden, 19
mains, 8; religion, 9; tombs, 9 Topelius, Zacharias, poet, story writer,
"Stories from Swedish History," by historical novelist, 369
Tordenskjold, sea captain, 242
Fryxell, 366
Storrada, Sigrid, 50 Torgny, lawman, 52
Torkillus, Reorus, pastor at Christina,
Stralsund, 236; surrender of, 227
395
Strindberg, August, novelist, 372 Tors ten sson, Lennart, commander, 158,
Sture murders, 129
captive of âr, 173; commander-in-
Sture the Elder, Sten, 92; defeated chief, 173; campaign in Denmark,
Christian I in battle of Brunke- 176
berg, 92; his peaceful administra- Torture abolished, 285
tion, 92; promoted education, 93; Trade, in amber and fur, 10; with
with Jacob Ulfsson founded Upp- Rome, 16, 18; promoted, 117; for-
sala University, 93
eign trade developed, 261
Sture the Younger, Sten, 94; regent, Trelleborg-Sassnitz ferry route, 340
94 Troil, Uno von, archbishop, disecm-
tinues New Sweden mission, 402
Sture, Nils, 128
Trolllhatte Canal, 340
Sture, Svante, 129
Styrbjorn Starke, 46 Trolle, Gustav, archbishop, 94; de-
Stuyvesant, Peter, governor of New posed, 95
Netherlands, 394 Trondhjem, 20; cathedral of, 55
Sun worship, 12 Tryggyeson, Olaf, 49, 51; forced Chris-
Surt, 25 tianity on Norway, 49-50; defeated
Sveas, land of, 19 at Smolder, 52
Sveaborg, fortress and naval station,
founded, 258; surrendered by Cron-
stedt, 308 Uggla, Klas, naval commander, 201
Svedberg, Jesper, bishop of Skara, Ulfsson, Jacob, archbishop, 92; found-
208; bishop of New Sweden mis- er of Uppsala University, 93
sion, 401 Ulrica Eleonora, queen, 210; reign of,
Svensksund, battle of, 298 240; succeeded by her spouse, Fred-
Sverre, king of Norway, 74; educated erick I, 241; peace treaties and ter-
for the Church, 74; leader of Birke- ritorial losses, 243
beiner (Birchlegs), 74; wins crown, Union of Sweden and Norway, earliest
75 established, 75; under Margaret, 86,
87, 105 ; later union established, 323 ;
Svolder, battle of, 49*
dissolved, 388
Swedes in the United States, 391; University of Christiania (Oslo),
where settled, 391 founded, 322
Swedenborg, Emanuel, scientist, phil- University of Copenhagen founded, 93
osopher, seer, 262 University of Lund founded, 197
Sweden's period of greatness, 175, University of Uppsala, founded, 93;
179; end of, 240 promoted by Gustavus Adolphus, 169
Swedesboro, 375 Upland (Chester), 394
Swedish Academy instituted, 287 .
Uppland, province, 20
Upper Merion, 395 Visby, Hanse city, 70; seized and

Uppsala king supreme, 30 pillaged, 79; ransom extorted, 79
Uppsala Convention, 135; Lutheran Visingsborg castle, 177
Reformation reaffirmed, 136 Volga river, viking route, 35
W
Wachtmeister, Hans, 207
Vadstena cloister, 83 Waldemar Atterdag, 78; seized Visby
Valhall, 26 79 punished by Hanseatic League,
;
Valkyries, 27 30
VarfilS, peace of, 293 72, 73
Waldemar, duke, king,
Varangians, 36 Waldemar the Great, 63, 64
Vega, 386 Wallenstein, Albert von, commander,
Vener, lake (Vanern), 19 152 ; his plans threaten Sweden, 152 ;
Vesteras acts, 112-115; Succession Act, dismissal, 156, recall, 162; assassi-
122
nation, 171
Vetter, lake (Vattern), 19 Wallin, Johan Olof, poet, archbishop,
Viborg Gauntlet, 297 362
Vienna, Congress of, 323 Watt, James, inventor, 339
Viken (Bohuslan), 52 Wendish vikings, 63
Viking Age, 32-57; ships (dragons), West Gothland, province, 19
33; expeditions* and migrations: into Westmanland, province, 20
Russia; Holmgard (Novgorod) found-
"Westphalia, peace treaty of, 174
ed, 34 ; Rus settle and govern Rus-
"Westway" viking routes, 37
sia, 35; into Greek empire; Varan-
Wicaco, 395
gians serving emperor in Miklagard
Wieselgren, Peter, champion of tem-
(Constantinople), 35; into France;
perance, 352
Normandy a viking domain, 89; at- William the Conqueror, scion of vik-
tack on Paris, 39; contact with 40
ings,
Saracens (Arabs), 37; migration in-
Wittstock, battle of, 172
to England, 39; into Ireland, 39;
Wrangel, Karl Gustav, commander-in-
vikings on shores of Mediterranean chief, 174
Sea, 39; results of viking world Y
power: law, order, progress, not
only reign of terror, 40 Yggdrasil, the world-tree, 25
Viking expeditions, Swedish, 34; Ymer, father of giants, 25
Norwegian, 37; Danish, 39
Villages, growth of, 19
Vinland discovered, 31 Zorn, Anders, painter and etcher, 379

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105914

SWEDEN CARL GRIMBERG

translated and ^4dapted for the ^4m eric an

AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN

izOJGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN

textbooks has been followed. In translating the work

original, but have rather sought to reproduce in Eng-

age. In Havamal and other ancient poems rhyme was

Special thanks are due to Doctor Grimberg for the

NOTE This was the last work of Doctor Foss, completed

CHAPTER IX. REIGN OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS,

CHAPTER XL REIGN OF CHARLES X GUSTAVUS,

CHAPTER XII. REIGN OF CHARLES XI, 1660-1697 195

CHAPTER XIII. REIGN OF CHARLES XII, 1697-1718. . . 217

CHAPTER XV. REIGN OF ADOLPH FREDERICK,

CHAPTER XVI. REIGN OF GUSTAVUS III 279

CHAPTER XIX. REIGNS OF THE BERNADOTTE

C. Reign of Charles XV.

CHAPTER XXL POLITICAL AND SOCIAL PROGRESS. . 343

CHAPTER XXII. EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 35G

CHAPTER XXIII. LITERATURE 360

CHAPTER XXIV. ART, SCIENCE, INVENTION, AND

CHAPTER XXV. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 387

GENEALOGICAL TABLES OP SWEDISH RULERS 404

THE PEEHISTORIC TIMES

age the Scandinavian peninsula and the Danish islands

Inlets of the sea ex-

quired many days to go from one village to another.

in a near Alvastra, which at that time was a shal-

low arm of a lake. Here have been found remains of

cat, and the beaver. From the hard and tough

Generally, however, the stone-age people erected

Food, Clothing, and Occupation. The village huts

are now empty. It is the time of late summer. Most

feeding. In the adjoining woods a herd of grunting

Stone Mortar. Found in West Gothland. One-eighth size.

mony to this fact. There has also been found a stone

cracked the nuts with smaller stones, which have like-

peninsula by a system of traffic Actual 8ize>

as barter, or the exchange of goods, for money had not

triumphed and brought

Race Connections. The people thus described were

was easier than over the track-

fishing along the water routes

weapons used by the people

Sources of Knowledge of These Early Times. No

large masses of tools, utensils, and weapons, such as

Tombs from the Stone Age. There are also many

B. THE BRONZE AGE

The Introduction of Bronze. About four thousand

per made harder and more fusible by being alloyed

article after another found its way to the North. Little

where, and so they continued to be for thousands of

people offered furs and more especially

could fully understand the meaning