Learning and Teaching PDF

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LEARNING AND TEACHING
UNIT I CONCEPT of Learning
Learning is a key process & is necessary for all educational process. It

pervades everything we do and think learning plays an important role in the
languages we speak, our customs & beliefs. It involves ways of doing things
in an individual attempt to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new
situations. It is a progressive change in behavior as individual reacts to a
situation in an effort to adopt his behavior effectively to the demands made
upon him. Thus learning is change in behavior.
Definitions of Learning:
Crow & Crow: ‘Learning is acquisition of knowledge, habits and

attitudes. It involves new ways of doing things in order to overcome
obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It enables the person to satisfy
interests to attain goals.’
Henry Smith: ‘Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the

strengthening or weakening of old behavior as a result of experience.’
Wood worth defines learning as-
“Any activity can be called learning as far as it develops the individual

(in any aspect, good or bad) & makes his behavior & experiences
different from what would otherwise have been”.
Thus,
¾ Learning may be defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior.

¾ Learning may be defined as the acquisition of knowledge attitudes, skills
& ways of thinking.
¾ Learning is the permanent change in behavior for better or worse which
results / occurs as a result of practice & experience.
Above definitions have 3 important elements:
1. Learning is a change in behavior for better or worse.
Dr.Mary George Varghese, Asst. Professor MES Pillai College of Education

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2. It is a change that takes place through practice & experience.
3. Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively permanent

i.e. it must last for a long time. Exactly how long cannot he specified, but
we usually think of learning lasting for days, months, years in contrast to
temporary, behavioral effects.
Thus learning is a complex process. It is a process by which all organisms,

as a result of its interaction in a situation acquires a new mode of behavior
which tends to persist and affect his behavior in the future. Thus learning
takes place when an organism reacts to a situation. It consists of certain
changes in behavior or adjustments and this type of behavior is utilized to
some degree in other situations.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
1. Learning is a process which is continuous & it never stops at any

phase. It is a lifelong process hence learning starts from birth & ends
only with the death of an individual. Hence we can say that learning
proceeds from womb to tomb. E.g. when a child takes birth he first
learns to cry for food, and at each phase of life at every step the child
learns to walk, run, talk, write alphabets etc.
2. Learning is the process which leads to mental growth of an individual.

The growth takes place along with the learning.
3. Basically when learning takes place the individual learns to

adjust&adopt with the environment.
4. Learning is purposeful. Though learning takes place at every place & at

every moment all the learning are not useful. Hence those learning
which are useful & meaningful are learnt.
5. Learning is active process. Learning by doing is the best part of learning

e.g. it becomes easy for the science students to learn the concepts in
science when they perform practical.

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6. Learning takes place individually& as well as socially e.g. When a

seminar or workshop is conducted, then all the members of the group
learn to share their thoughts, each one learns something new from the
other individual.
7. Last but not the least learning brings about the change in the behavior
in individual e.g. a child is always taught values & manners, & due to
this teachings, a child learns to respect their elders & teachers, learns
to speak politely etc, which bring about the change in his behavior as
the child grows.
Steps in the Learning Process
Learning is a process and knowing the various aspects of learning helps the
teacher in ensuring & making the learning effective.
1. Need: Learning takes place as a result of response to some stimulation.

Unless the individual has some unsatisfactory need or derive which
causes him to act in an attempt to satisfy the need, no learning will take
place. When the need of the learner is strong, the learner sets definite
goals for achievement of his needs & this makes learning more concrete.
E.g. A student, who wants to score a good grade, starts working right
from the beginning.
Need should be made by the teacher by creating interest. The teacher

should also help the child in setting attainable goals for himself.
2. Readiness: Every child is not ready to learn at a particular time. The

child needs physical & mental maturity in order to learn. There should be
mental & physical willingness to learn. We tend to pay less attention to
this type of maturity. Many a time, we impose learning situations on a
child before he is ready.
E.g. Public speaking cannot be taught to I std. child.
3. Situation: Learning depends on the situation provided at school & at

home. In school, the learning environment should be conducive or

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congenial. The teacher’s attitude should be encouraging & the teacher

should use suitable teaching methods & techniques. The type of situation
provided by the teacher contributes towards the speed & quality of
learning. E.g. Special methods can be provided depending upon the age
of the child. In K.G. classes, training is generally given by the play way
method.
4. Interaction: The child with is needs & goals learns to interact in a

learning situation. Interaction is a process of responding to a situation
and getting a feedback from it. Interaction may be in the form of
observations, emotional reactions, verbal reactions or physical reactions.
Teacher should find ways & means to involve the students in the learning
activity / process.
5. Exploration of the situation: Exploration is the way the learner

explores / interprets the stimuli in the environment. The correct
responses cannot be determined at once. They require to be thought over;
i.e. the whole situation needs to be explored. After trial & error, the
learner comes to the right solution.
6. Perception: Perception is to give some meaning to what you are seeing.

Sensing + Meaning = Perception. Each one perceives the environment
differently. As a teacher, one wants the class to perceive uniformly, so the
teacher should use visual aids, diagrams, etc. Because of the individual
differences among the students, each student perceives whatever is
taught, differently, so teacher should cater to the need of every
individual.
7. Response: Response is the actual outcome of the learner. It is the

outcome of interaction, exploration & perception of the situation. He may
give a trial by direct attack to overcome the barrier in his way.
8. Reinforcement: If the response is successful in action, in satisfying the

need, that response is reinforced and on subsequent occasions the
individual will tend to repeat it.

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9. Integration: Learning implies the selection & organization of correct

responses. The last step of the learning process consists in integrating
the successful responses of the individual’s previous learning, so that it
becomes part of a new functional whole.
Factors Affecting Learning
ATTENTION
Attention is the major aspect involved in all the mental activities. We must
attend before we know, feel or act. It is a characteristic of conscious life. It is
the concentration of consciousness upon one object rather than another.
Definition of Attention- J.S. Ross: ‘Attention is a process of getting an

object of thought clearly before the mind.’
Dum Ville: ‘It is the concentration of conscience upon one object rather
than upon another. It is essential element in all creative activities.’
Attention
(Focus of Consciousness)
There are 2 fields of attention
Inattention
(Margin of Consciousness)
When we focus our attention on any object, other things lie in the margin of
consciousness.
For e.g. When we are sitting in a train and reading a book, we are so
engrossed in reading that the movements of the wheels of the train, the
noise of the people around us or the sounds of the hawkers etc. does not
disturb us because they lie in the margin of consciousness while reading
was in the focus of consciousness.

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Objects are continually passing from the margin to the focus and vice versa.
What was clear at one moment is dim the next and what was but dimly
noticed, becomes distinct. The marginal experiences are at any moment
ready to enter into consciousness. For e.g. we can put aside the book which
we were reading & listen to the sound of the wheels of the moving train if we
want to. Thus, the mind selects out those elements which are to form the
focus. So attention is selective.
Because of this selectivity, a person can get himself absorbed in a task. The
so-called absent minded professor is not really absent minded, but on the
other hand he is so engrossed with some problem of interest, that all other
details of life are forgotten.
The psychological problem is to find out why we are likely to attend to

something more than others and what kind of things are likely to catch &
hold attention. There are many stimuli competing with each other and we
must know what factors control our attentions.
Factors that control Attention
I. Objective / External Factors:Are those conditions affecting attention

which is concerned with the environment.
1. Intensity:A strong stimulus is more likely to be noticed than a weak

one, like a loud noise to a whisper or a bright light to a dull lamp.
2. Size: A large object will draw attention more readily than a small one.
Writing should be of appropriate size on the black board. A big
advertisement or a tall building easily attracts our attention.
3. Repetition: Very often in the classroom, the teacher respects the

content or makes the child repeat by doing drill work. This helps in
attracting attention.
For e.g. the alarm bell of a clock would go unnoticed if it strikes only
once.

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4. Change: To attract attention, change should not be a gradual one but

a sudden one. A speaker modulates his voice to attract the attention
of his audience.
5. Movement: A moving object readily catches attention a child’s

attention is always attracted by a moving toy rather than by a steady
toy. In a classroom, showing a film or T.V. helps in captivating the
attention of the students.
6. Contrast: Anything that is different from its surroundings is likely to

stand out and catch the eye. E.g. Use of colored chalks for writing /
underlining on the black board.
7. Novelty: Anything that is new, novel as well as strange attracts

attention. The teacher should make use of Novel ideas, sides, films &
videos. Incorporation of new technology & new methods of teaching
helps to capture attention.
8.Variety: Variety means using various methodologies to retain

student’s attention.
9. Mysteriousness: It is evident that when an element of mystery enters

normal or common place behavior, attention is directed towards it at
once.
II. Subjective / Internal Factors:
Those conditions of attention which are within the individual are called
subjective factors. They are:
1. Motives – like hunger, thirst, sex, anger etc

2. Interest
3. Mindset / Attitude
4. Moods
Interest is the most important factor because we attend to those objects
in which we are interested. Without interest, teacher fails to arouse
attention & sustain it.

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∴Interest & Attention are 2 sides or the same coin.
Mc Dougall defines interest as “Latent Attention” and attention as

“Interest in Action”.
Types of Attention:
Attention can be divided into groups namely Non- Voluntary or Non-

Volitional & Voluntary or Volitional.
Attention
Involuntary Voluntary
(Non-Volitional) (Volitional)
Enforced Spontaneous Implicit

Explicit
(Instincts) (Sentiments)
9 When we attend naturally, easily spontaneously & without effort

attention is said to be involuntary or non volitional e.g. when there is
a loud sound we hear it without effort. This stimulus forces itself upon
us & we pay attention. The quality of intensity & attracts attention.
This type of attention is determined by instinct & therefore it is called
enforced, involuntary or non-volitional attention.
9 Attention which has been aroused by the sentiments is described as
spontaneous non-volitional attention. This is due to the frequency of
sentiment or interest. In spontaneous attention we attend easily to the
stimuli, without any effort.
The teacher must build up in his children sentiments of love for the subject
of study. To do this in the beginning the teacher will have to turn to the
instincts like self assertion, constructiveness, acquisition (to possess) & later
turn to the spontaneous type of attention though instinct & hobbies.

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Voluntary or Volitional Attention:
There are many attentions in which we attend to an object only after making
an effort. This type of attention is sustained, active & forced and can be
divided into two types Implicit & Explicit. Certain attention is imitated by a
single act of will which can be sustained for a long time like swearing of an
oath. This type of attention in called implicit volitionalattention. Implicit is
by a single act of will. We have the next type of explicitly volitional attention
which requires many repeated acts of will & this is known as explicit
volitional or voluntary attention. E.g. child playing, coming late to the class
when teachers.
E.g. A child needs to be reminded again and again about his examinations,
so that he can make up his mind and attend to his duties.
In classroom teaching, attention in the beginning is volitional, but by linking

the subject matter to instinct or sentiment, attention becomes spontaneous
and thus non-volitional.
An infant has to pay volitional attentions in actions like walking or pulling

on a dress, but once these habits are formed, attention becomes non-
volitional.
Educational Implication
1. As the span of attention of the student is very short, hence teacher

should start from very simple concepts and then proceed to the very
difficult / complex concepts.
2. Matter should be presented in the form of meaningful pattern or a group

since mind has a tendency to apprehend complex wholes.
3. Fluctuations of attention can be minimized by the proper use of stimulus

for e.g. Modulation of voice, use of teaching aids etc.
4. The teaching aids should be used at the proper time and not displayed in
advance to avoid division of attention.

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5. It should not be expected that students write in good handwriting as well

as maintain speed since the latter will suffer at the behest of the former.
6. Note of summary should be given only after explanation is over, so as to

avoid division of attention between of listening to the teacher and writing.
This will not affect the concept formation.
MOTIVATION
It comes from the Latin word ‘movers’ which means ‘to move’ or to ‘initiate’.
Thus motivation can be represented by a cycle consisting of (i) a need or a
drive which (ii) arouses instrumental behavior & in turn (iii) results in
achieving a goal.
Need
Goal Instrumental
Behaviour
According to Goods:- “Motivation is the process of arousing, sustaining &

regulating activity”
Crow & Crow:- “Motivation is considered with the arousal of interest in

learning & to a great extent is basic to learning”.
Locke:- proposed that “will” always initiates action in man which is

determined by some pressing uneasiness (Desire).
“Motivation is the outcome of motives”.
Gates & others:- “Motives are conditions either physiological or

psychological within the organism that disposes it to act in certain ways”.

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Maslow:- Motivation is constant, never ending, fluctuating & complex & is

an almost universal characteristic of particularly every organism state of
affairs”.
Thus Motivation is an intrinsic phenomenon in which one is activated /

energized, interest is aroused or a behavioral change occurs in a direction
towards the achievement of goal.
Need indicates ‘a want’ or condition of lack or deficiency in organism.
Drive is ‘an urge’ or some tension produced.
Motives are factors or circumstances that induce a person to act in certain

way.
Motives
Physiological Psychological
Personal Social
I. Physiological Motives: - Are those motives that are essential for the
survival of the organism. These are also known as innate motives an
individual possesses them from birth. There are also primary derives
(basic) which are unlearned & common to every animal & necessary to
sustain life e.g. Hunger drive, thirst drive, sex drive.
i. Hunger Drive:- Arises due to deprivation of food there is an imbalance

of the glucose levels in the blood which forms the bases of

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carbohydrates i.e. glucose level decreases & thus there is a basic

derive to satisfy that need.
ii. Thirst Drive: - Arises due to need of water. The level of salt (sodium
chloride) is the blood falls below a certain point, giving rise to thirst
drive so that we may drink water in order to maintain biochemical
balances within the body.
iii. Sex Drive: - This is important for survival of the species while hunger
& thirst drive are for the survival of the individual himself.
The sex derive results due to the hormones in both males

(testosterone hormones) & females, (estrogen hormones), in differing
quantities of every species.
II. Psychological Motives: - There are acquired motives & sometimes

they are modifications of physiological motives.
They are further categorized into 2 groups: Personal & Social motives.
i. Personal Motives: - Are motives seeking their origin in the individual

himself e.g. every individuals has interests, attitudes, etc. Some of the
personal motives fear & aggression are dealt here:-
a. Fear: is a complex motive & aims at avoiding or exampling the source of

fear is important motivation in dealing with the hazards in our
environment. Fear in turn is associated with pain for e.g. one who is
bitten by a dog, learns to the afraid of it and avoids it whenever he sees
any dog close to him.
b. Aggression: Results from non fulfillment of other motives which
produce frustration. This frustration sometimes gets converted into
aggression. It is a means of coping with emplacement attractions.
Children when punished severely for their aggressive behavior, behave
aggressively even with their dolls.
ii. Social Motives: - Man is a social being & his wishes, desires; ideas
are the outcome of the society in which an individual acquires their through

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mutual interaction. These motives are availed in each & every member of the
society. Two of the prominent social motives are.
a. Achievement: - Here the desire to perform with excellence is prominent

while achievement motivation has social aspects; it is also termed as
ego integrative motive. It is abbreviated as need for achievement (n-Ach)
& is deeply rooted in our culture. Individuals high in n-Ach function
best in competitive situations & are fast learners, self confident, the
responsible, relatively resistant to outside social pursuers.
b. Affiliation: It is actually an important sentiment related with the
feeling that an individual is a part of a group. Fear & anxiety are closely
related to the affiliation motive. Affiliated behavior takes various forms
from extremes, depending through ordinary companionship &
friendship, to the loyalty & devotion of happily married couples. For
example, children who are raised in close- knit families, show a
stronger affiliation motive than those coming from more loosely knit
families. Neglected children or destitute, on the other hand, may lack
intensity of the affiliation motive.
Pleasure of working leads to motivation
Types of Motivation
Motivation
Intrinsic Extrinsic
(Internal) (External)
Intrinsic Motivation / Internal Motivation

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It is self motivation i.e. when an individual recognize an activity as self

rewarding & derives satisfaction from the activity. The motives come from
within the person & external pressure is unnecessary.
Play is a good example of interestedly motivated behavior. One need not

force / bribe a child to play. They play because they want to.
Intrinsic motivation is the urge to learn for the sake of learning. When a
child considers activity such as reading to be source of pleasure, he is
motivated intrinsically to read.
Extrinsic Motivation / External Motivation
In extrinsic Motivation, the reward lies outside the activity & also outside of
the person. When a child studies for the sake of a good remark or rank or a
reward / scholarship, he is motivated extrinsically. He pursues the activity
not for its own sake but for the sake of some external reward.
E.g. when the child does not show any interest in an activity, teachers
should make use of extrinsic motivation such as rewards, honors etc. But
incentives we rewards prizes are not a substitute for interest.
Intrinsic motivation is from within & hence better & persistent, so teacher
should try & motivate intrinsically.
Motivation in the class – Classroom Techniques
Provision for motivation in the school will depend on a no of factors. There

are certain conditions which may prove useful in creating motivation.
1. Maturation & Motivation: It is not wise to stimulate a child for activities

before he is physically, socially & mentally mature. We expect our
children at 3 ½ years of age to be able to read & write the alphabets. A
little deviation on the part of a child from the standard or class would

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render problem to the child’s growth & therefore should be avoided. To

make the children learn something beyond their level of may bring
feelings of frustration & failure which later inhibit the mental growth &
reduces the rate of learning. On the contrary, properly planned
curriculum & teaching according to the age and the mental level of the
children will in meaningful to them. They get interested & therefore get
involved in such learning because they see some purpose or goal in their
work & ways to achieve them.
2. Effective Repetition - Hedonistic Principle: Repetition has been used
as a method of learning by teachers. In ancient India when books were
not available, scholars memorized whole books. Mechanical repetition
does not lead to good learning. But if done with understanding, effectively
& meaningfully, then one gets satisfaction from such actions & voluntary
repetition is possible. The hedonistic principle of pleasure leads to
repetition & to satisfaction. The law of effect therefore comes into
operation. The bond between the stimulus & response strengthens giving
rise of pleasure i.e. connections which are made in the brain gets
strengthened due to frequent repetition and this is turn leads to effective
learning. The pupil tends to repeat & willingly works further due to which
feels a sense of satisfaction. ∴ Satisfaction in any activity provides
further motivation to perform par excellence in that particular act.
3. Active Participation: Students tend to do better when there is active
participation. The school should therefore plan activities like cultural
activities so that pupils get interested & motivated.
4. Emulation: There is a lot of competition nowadays in education. Pupils
tend to imitate & this tendency can be utilized to motivate the students.
E.g. good pupils can motivate others to become equally good &
competition may be either within individuals or in group.
5. Group Work: We are trying to build a society on the spirit of

collectiveness. It is the duty the teacher to stimulate the spirit of selfless
work for the good of the group as an individual. Such activities bring out
noble qualities which leads the society in the healthy environment. E.g.

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social service, team work, in fighting shyness & also allowing pupils to
organize & manage their own activities like exhibitions, excursions, etc.
6. Evaluation & feedback: Proper evaluation of work is necessary for

effective motivation. The present system of exams in spite of its
drawbacks motivates pupils to work. Sound internal assessment provides
motivation to learn. Information regarding the pupil’s progress should be
given from time to time. It is the awareness of ones successes leads
pupils to work for further. Testing has to be given from time to time.
7. Teacher- pupil relationship: There should be a good relationship
between the teacher and the pupil in order to motivate the pupils to
work. Pupils should have individual contact with teachers outside the
classroom. The teachers should also accept his pupils and this leads to
better understanding & motivation.
8. Value of learning: The teacher should highlight the value of learning
among his pupils. They should realize that ‘knowledge is power’ and can
be helpful in life and will make them successful. The importance of
learning should be related to the future life of the pupils.
9. Success & Failure:Both these concepts / aspects play an important role
for building or developing the personality of an individual. It is said that
thee should be always on equal share of success and failure. A learner or
any individual should have a greater level of success so that he is highly
motivated. The teacher should try to help the learner to know his
potentials capabilities and goals to be set which can be achieved an
individual has to experience success in one area or another.
10. Rewards & punishment: The prospects of getting rewards like prizes,
degrees serve as a definite motive for work. These are positive in
character as they realize talents & qualities and tend to develop them
further a pupil may to get a first rank is class. Rewards are more
effective than punishment. In the past, physical punishments was order
of the day the class generally had a masters one to teach & one to
maintain discipline punishment may be in form of caning and
humiliation. Punishments are of a negative character and based on the

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fear of basing prestige, rejection implicit or physical pain. Extreme

punishment can kill the timeline, resourcefulness and the spirit of
thinking fear of in an exam is a negative motive because pupils work
not for the of learning but because of the fear of failure & rejection.
Such negative negatives lead to a verity of antisocial such as espying,
quarrelling, bribery and later lead pupils to grow into undesirable
citizens. Punishment may be in the form of finding faults but this type of
punishment proves useful because they motivate pupils to work in
desired lines. It is better to scold boys who are bright & extrovert. The
question therefore is not whether reward or punishment is good or bad
but in the careful use in the class.
11. Co-curricular Activities: Sports, clubs, dramas, debates, etc. play
an important role in motivating students to work therefore the school
should provide many activities so that students are able to such
activities that interest them these activities develop interest & stimulate
the talents they motivate the students to learn & work on their own e.g.
Children interested in service may join service duct & conduct
experimental work.
12. Progressive Methods of Teaching: The teacher should use new
modern methods to create interest like programmed teaching, team
teaching & the discussion method, project method, heuristic method of
teaching. These methods are child- centered and based on important
psychological principles.
13. Use of Teaching – Learning Aids: The teacher should introduce
various aids and devices of teaching, for example, audio- visual aids,
radio, computers, etc. to create interest in learning. These will motivate
children in grasping and digesting new learning.
Maslow’s Theory of Hierarchy of Needs
This theory was proposed by Maslow a clinical psychologist in an attempt to

understand human personality & motivation he developed on literarily of
needs that has to be satisfied by individual. He strongly felt that when one

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need is satisfied, the higher order needs emerges which operates our life. He
has classified the needs into basic or lower order needs & higher order
needs.
Self
Actualization
Psychological
Needs (Secondary
Self Esteem
Needs)
Love & Belongingness
Safety Needs Physiological

Needs (Primary
Needs)
Physiological Needs
1. Primary / Physiological Needs: - These are the most potent of all and
considered as the basic / elementary needs as they are hunger, thirst,
sex, pain, fear, anger, curiosity which are unlearned. These needs relate
to the survival and maintenance of human life. For e.g. as the society
becomes complex, his needs cannot be met readily as they are by
animals. In a city, a man cannot satisfy his hunger by picking up the
first edible thing available and eat. To satisfy his hunger, he must buy
food with money, which he has to earn. So the biological need- hunger
drive can be satisfied only by the passion of money. Thus simple needs
and drives are modified into secondary needs and resultant drive. The
deprivation of the basic needs motivates an individual to do some activity
in order to satisfy those needs.
For e.g. the need to rest when tired, thirst makes person aware of need
for water. Educational implication: The teacher must realize that
effective learning is possible only when the physiological needs of pupil

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have been met for e.g. a hungry child who comes to school will not be
able to perform effectively till his needs are satisfied. Indian schools
provide mid-meal, play periods etc.
2. Safety Needs or Security Needs: - As the basic need are satisfied, the
safety needs arises for the individual. These needs relate to the
economic and physical security, law & order i.e. a need to have safe,
secure & conducive life.
For e.g. any loss or set back, threat to our freedom or status, our faith &
primary, makes us feel insecure.
Educational Implication: Child education great emphasis is laid on

security need of children, i.e. of a school is well organized, discipline is
consistent, teachers approach is fairly predictable then young will imbibe
a sense of security.
These are two primary needs, unless are satisfied, we will not be
motivated to satisfied the secondary needs/higher order needs.
3. Love & Belongingness or Social Affiliation Needs: - As soon as the

safety needs are met, an individual proceeds to making intimate
relationship with the other that of loving others & being loved by other.
He is motivated towards satisfying the desire to the wanted or to be a
part of the society. Socializing is one of those reasons why many
individuals (especially older people) go to work, and why people generally
work better in small groups where they can develop affiliations that are
important to them. E.g. need for love, affection, affiliation, acceptance,
and belongingness.
Educational Implication: The teacher by his gentle and kind treatment

builds up a strong motive power for learning and school work.
4. Self-Esteem Needs: - This need emerges as a result of love &

belongingness. If refers to self respect, status & fame, success etc. It is
the need to feel the sense of self worth. This needs relate to the
awareness of self- importance and recognition from others. E.g. need for

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self- image, self- confidence, self- respect, status, recognition prestige,

attention, and respect from others. Our ambitions are gently influenced
by this need & we try to make our life worthwhile so that one can receive
recognition & praise from our fellow beings.
Educational Implication: - In the school thee is a system of grades,

honors, prizes thus providing recognition to large variety of talents,
activities, like debates, recitation, games. Since parents believe that their
sons and daughters are trying to earn a better status in life through
education it always, posited for the teacher to appeal to this mourn in
Indian scrods through praise encouragement and appreciation.
5. Self-Actualization Needs: - Morris- “It is a desire to make the best one

can out of our self”.
It is the highest need of the system & the most evolved motive. It is the
hardest to fulfill. It is a state in which one knows & understands his
worth & realizes his potentials & talents to the maximum possible extent.
A sense of mastery or perfection is attained.
Thus, Maslow’s theory reveals that all our activities or motivation is

directed towards qualification of needs which secondary needs. It shows
that without satisfaction of the more basic needs, human growth is
limited. E.g. need to grow, sense of fulfillment, maximum self-
development, personal achievement, self realization.
A hungry child who comes to school will not be able to perform effectively
because his physiological needs have not been fulfilled.
Teachers should to help the students by supporting & encouraging their

performance.
Merits of Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
1. It is simple to understand and has an intuitive appeal.

2. It recognizes the spectrum of human needs and indicates how
humans are motivated in their work behavior.

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3. Its basic proposition that deprivation of a need dominates behavior

seems to be quite sound.
4. It provides some guidance to teachers and educational
administrators.
5. Identification of unfulfilled needs among the various learners can
help to resolve many problems related to learning.
6. Designing of measures to satisfy unsatisfied needs as a means of
motivation.
7. Designing of measures to arouse new higher level needs.
MATURATION
Maturation comes with learning and not necessarily with age.
View of Boring, Longfeld & Weld: ‘Maturation means growth and

development that is necessary either before any unlearned behavior can
occur or before the learning of any particular behavior can take place.
View of Garry & Kingsley: ‘Maturation is the process where by behavior is

modified as a result of growth and development of Physical structures.
Riesen – “Maturation is necessary but not a sufficient condition for life.”
Thus, Maturation is essentially a process of modification from within, an

innate ripening or development of the capacities of the organism.
9 Both learning and maturation are inter- related, interdependent, the
one aiding or retarding the other.
9 Maturation depends upon hereditary endowment and provides the raw
material for learning and determines the more general patterns and
sequences of individual’s behaviors. But without practice, development
would not take place through maturation alone.
9 There are certain phylogenetic functions which are common to the race,
like walking, crawling, sitting, creeping etc, which are mostly due to
maturation and less due to learning.

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9 There are other onto-genetic functions which are due to the individual
only like swimming, cycling etc. They are mostly due to learning and less
due to maturation.
9 Individual differences in attitude, interests, ambitions and personality
patterns are not due to maturation alone, but due to maturation and
learning. If development is the result of maturation alone, then there
would not have been individual personalities.
Difference between Maturation and Learning
Maturation Learning
• Based on heredity • Based on environment

• Automatic process • Planned process
• Age limit • No age limit
• Related to individual potential • Related to activities and
capacities experiences
• No need of practice • Need of practice
• No need of motivation • Need of motivation
• All situations helps in attaining • Only conducive situations
maturity
Educational Implications
Maturation and learning are inter- related and inter –dependent, keeping
this in mind a teacher should plan various teaching- learning activities.
It helps parents and teachers to know what and when to begin learning
process.
Interrelationship between maturation and learning establishes a ‘Time-
Table’ for learning. Thus any attempt to teach a child at too early a period
of development, may result in his learning bad habits or wrong ways of
learning either of which results may greatly handicap him in later life.
Thus if learning precedes maturation there is more wastage of time and
energy.

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Learning should begin when the child is ready to learn. But if the child is
ready to learn and he is not given proper guidance or training, his
interest is likely to waive.
Kolb’s Learning styles
• Kolb expressed this “cycle of learning” as four – stage cycle of
learning, in which ‘immediate or concrete experiences’ provide a base
for ‘observation and reflections’.
• These ‘observations and reflections’ are assimilated and distilled into
‘abstract concepts’ producing new implications for action which can
be ‘actively tested’ in turn creating new experiences.
• Kolb’s model therefore
works on two levels:
• 1. Concrete Experience – (CE)
• 2. Reflective Observation – (RO)
• 3. Abstract Conceptualization – (AC)
• 4. Active Experimentation (AE) – and a four type definition of learning
styles, (each representing the combination of two preferred styles like-
-------
• 1. Diverging (Feeling and Watching - CE/RO) – Able to look at things
from different perspectives.
• 2. Assimilating (Watching and Thinking – AC/RO) – Assimilating
learning preference is for a concise, logical approach- more interested
in ideas and abstract concepts.
• Cont---
• 3. Converging (Doing and Thinking - AC/AE) - Solve problems and
will use their learning to find solutions to practical issues.
• 4. Accommodating (Doing and Feeling – CE/AE) – Use other people’s
analysis and prefer to take a practical experimental approach.
• Educational Implications:
• Active Experimentation
• Reflective observation
• Laboratory Group Work

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• Individual Problem solving

• Examinations- Multiple choice- deductive reasoning—
--Gardener’s Theory of
Multiple Intelligence:
Gardner believes that eight abilities meet these criteria:[3]
• Spatial
• Linguistic
• Logical-mathematical
• Bodily-kinesthetic
• Musical
• Interpersonal
• Intrapersonal
• Naturalistic
He considers that existential and moral intelligence may also be worthy of

inclusion.[4]
The first three are closely linked to fluid ability, and the verbal and spatial
abilities that form the hierarchical model of intelligence[5]
Logical-mathematical
This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning and numbers and
critical thinking. While it is often assumed that those with this intelligence
naturally excel in mathematics, chess, computer programming and other
logical or numerical activities, a more accurate definition places less
emphasis on traditional mathematical ability and more on reasoning
capabilities, recognizing abstract patterns, scientific thinking and
investigation and the ability to perform complex calculations.[citation needed]
Logical reasoning is closely linked to fluid intelligence and to general ability
(g-factor).[6]
Spatial
This area deals with spatial judgement and the ability to visualize with the
mind's eye. Careers which suit those with this type of intelligence include
artists, designers and architects. A spatial person is also good with puzzles]
Spatial ability is one of the three factors beneath g in the hierarchical model
of intelligence.
Linguistic
This area has to do with words, spoken or written. People with high verbal-
linguistic intelligence display a facility with words and languages. They are
typically good at reading, writing, telling stories and memorizing words along

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with dates. They tend to learn best by reading, taking notes, listening to
lectures, and by discussing and debating about what they have learned
Those with verbal-linguistic intelligence learn foreign languages very easily
as they have high verbal memory and recall, and an ability to understand
and manipulate syntax and structure. Verbal ability is one of the most g-
loaded abilities.
Bodily-kinesthetic
The core elements of the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are control of one's

bodily motions and the capacity to handle objects skillfully. Gardner
elaborates to say that this intelligence also includes a sense of timing, a
clear sense of the goal of a physical action, along with the ability to train
responses so they become like reflexes.
In theory, people who have bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should learn

better by involving muscular movement (e.g. getting up and moving around
into the learning experience), and are generally good at physical activities
such as sports or dance. They may enjoy acting or performing, and in
general they are good at building and making things. They often learn best
by doing something physically, rather than by reading or hearing about it.
Those with strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence seem to use what might be
termed "muscle memory", drawing on it to supplement or in extreme cases
even substitute for other skills such as verbal memory.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include: athletes, pilots,
dancers, musicians, actors, surgeons, builders, police officers, and soldiers.
Although these careers can be duplicated through virtual simulation, they
will not produce the actual physical learning that is needed in this
intelligence.[8]
Musical
This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and music.
People with a high musical intelligence normally have good pitch and may
even have absolute pitch, and are able to sing, play musical instruments,
and compose music. Since there is a strong auditory component to this
intelligence, those who are strongest in it may learn best via lecture.
Language skills are typically highly developed in those whose base
intelligence is musical. In addition, they will sometimes use songs or
rhythms to learn. They have sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, meter, tone,
melody or timbre.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include instrumentalists,

singers, conductors, disc jockeys, orators, writers and composers.
Interpersonal

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This area has to do with interaction with others. Interpersonal intelligence is

the ability to understand others. In theory, individuals who have high
interpersonal intelligence are characterized by their sensitivity to others'
moods, feelings, temperaments and motivations, and their ability to
cooperate in order to work as part of a group. According to Gardner in How
Are Kids Smart: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom, "Inter- and Intra-
personal intelligence is often misunderstood with being extroverted or liking
other people..."[10] Interpersonal intelligence means that one understands
what people need to work well. Individuals with this intelligence
communicate effectively and empathize easily with others, and may be either
leaders or followers. They typically learn best by working with others and
often enjoy discussion and debate.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include sales, politicians,
managers, teachers, counselors and social workers.[11]
Intrapersonal
This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities. This

refers to having a deep understanding of the self; what your strengths/
weaknesses are, what makes you unique, being able to predict your own
reactions/emotions. Philosophical and critical thinking is common with this
intelligence. Many people with this intelligence are authors, psychologists,
counselors, philosophers, and members of the clergy.
Naturalistic
This area has to do with nurturing and relating information to one’s natural
surroundings. Examples include classifying natural forms such as animal
and plant species and rocks and mountain types; and the applied knowledge
of nature in farming, mining, etc. Careers which suit those with this
intelligence include naturalists, farmers and gardeners.
Existential
Some proponents of multiple intelligence theory proposed spiritual or

religious intelligence as a possible additional type. Gardner did not want to
commit to a spiritual intelligence, but suggested that an "existential"
intelligence may be a useful construct.[12] The hypothesis of an existential
intelligence has been further explored by educational researchers.[13]
Ability to contemplate phenomena or questions beyond sensory data, such

as the infinite and infinitesimal. Careers or callings which suit those with
this intelligence include shamans, priests, mathematicians, physicists,
scientists, cosmologists, psychologists and philosophers.
• Use stronger intelligence to understand the content of any topic.

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• teachers should structure the presentation of material in a style which

engages most or all of the intelligences
• Teachers must seek to assess their students' learning in ways which
will give an accurate overview of their strengths and weaknesses.
Unit- II
THEORY OF LEARNING
Theories of learning have been classified into two main schools:
1. Association theories and

2. Field theories.
According to association theory, man is like a complex machine. His
behavior is largely, if not entirely determined by his environment. His
purposes or goals are often irrelevant.
According to field theory, man is an energy system, an adaptive, purposeful

creature whose behavior is determined by the manner in which he perceives
his environment.
Association theories Field theories
Main proponents: Thorndike, Includes Gestalt’s theory, Lewin’s

Pavlov, Skinner, Hull. topological theory, and Tolman’s sign-
gestalt theory.
Stresses on S- R bond. Restructuring of cognitive fields.
Stresses on Analysis. Stresses on Integration.
Whole to part Part to whole
Simple to complex Perception of totality
Teacher - centered Child - centered

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PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY OF LEARNING
Classical conditioning was accidentally discovered around the

beginning of the 20th century by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov
was studying digestive process in dogs when he discovered that the dogs
salivated before they received their food. In fact, after repeated pairing of
the lab attendant and the food, the dogs started to salivate at the sight of
the lab assistants. Pavlov coined these phenomena as “psychic secretions."
He noted that dogs were not only responding to a biological need (hunger),
but also a need developed by learning. Pavlov spent the rest of life
researching why this associate learning occurred, which is now called
classical conditioning.
Our mouth waters on seeing ‘gulab jamun’ or seeing ‘chocolates’ or a

child associates dolls with pleasure.
Mouth waters at the name of tamarind, lemon and paani puri, sev
puri etc.
Similarly, the child develops aversion for a particular subject, just
because of the teacher’s stern attitude who teaches that subject.
The sight of stick/ rod creates fear in the mind of child if he has
actually been hit by it sometime or other.
Same way, if two girls have been seen together number of times,
seeing one reminds us of the other.
These all are illustrations of Associative Connections.
This idea of association has been the basis of conditioned response theory,
according to which learning consists in building up of new associative bonds
between a stimulus and a response. The simplest interpretation of this
phenomenon is that when two stimuli are presented repeatedly together, the
new one first, then the original- effective one, the new one also becomes
effective.

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In classical conditioning, an organism learns to associate one stimulus with

another. The organism learns that the first stimulus is a cue for the second
stimulus.
KEY CONCEPTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that elicits a response without conditioning
Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Automatic response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A neutral stimulus that when paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
elicits a similar response
Conditioned Response (CR)
A response that is learned by pairing the originally neutral conditioned
stimulus (CS) with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
The food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the salivation is the

unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog
learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned
stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation
after repeated pairings between the bell and food.
Dog – ringing of bell – No saliva
Dog – food – saliva
(Unconditioned stimulus/ (unconditioned response/
natural stimulus) (UCS) natural response) (UCR)
Dog – ringing of bell – food served – saliva
(Conditioned stimulus) (US) (Conditioned response)

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(CS) (CR)
Initially even if food is not served but bell is rung, the dog salivates. Thus
the dog is now conditioned. But if no food is served but bell is rung
continuously for few days in line, then over the period of time salivating
stops.

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Principles of Classical Conditioning
The theory of Classical conditioning emphasized by Pavlov gave birth to

number of important concepts and principles in the field of learning such
as:
A. Principle of Acquisition – The acquisition phase is the consistent

pairing of the CS (e.g. bell) and the UCS (food) that produces CR (salivation).
In the example above, this phase occurs when the dog begins to salivate at
the sound of the bell. Conditioning occurs more rapidly when the food
follows the bell by half a second.
B. Principle of Stimulus Generalization –
After an animal has learned a conditioned response to one stimulus, it may
also respond to similar stimuli without further training- for example, using a
different sounding bell.
C. Time lag or Factor - It means if there is time lapse between

unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and conditioned stimulus (CS), then required
response will not be obtained. E.g. when the child performs well in his
exams, but if the teacher instead of appreciating his effort immediately,
praises him after two months, the reinforcement will be of no use.
D. Principle of Extinction - The extinction phase is when the conditioned
response no longer occurs after repeated pairings without the unconditioned
stimulus. The dog’s response to the bell can be extinguished by repeatedly
presenting the bell (CS) without the food (UCS). The dog has not completely
forgotten the association between the bell and the food. If the experimenter
waits a day, the dog may have a spontaneous recovery of the conditioned
response and salivate again to the bell. E.g. if the child is not encouraged
after every proper act, then the child loses interest as well as motivation to
do better as the child feels neglected and less appreciated.
E. Principle of Discrimination
The opposite of generalization, discrimination happens when a conditioned
response does not occur when there is a difference between the presented
stimulus and the original conditioned stimulus. If Pavlov’s dog heard a bell

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with a different tone and was not awarded the unconditioned stimulus
(food), the dog would learn not to salivate to the second tone.
Conclusion:
Replacement of natural strong stimuli is possible with artificial stimuli.

Effect of conditioning is temporary.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
1. Discipline, good habits, virtues can be effectively learnt through the

process of conditioning.
2. Many of our fears and phobias may be traced back to some kind of
conditioning. When things and objects are associated with an unpleasant
experiences and a sort of generalization is made, phobia appears. Such fears
and phobias can be removed by de-conditioning.
3. Dislike for certain school subjects can be also be removed through
reconditioning by associating pleasant stimuli with them.
4. Use of audio- visual aids in teaching- learning process involves
conditioning theory. E.g. teacher shows the picture of cow along with written
word ‘COW’, teacher also spells the word, later even if there is no picture
shown to the child, the child associates the word seen with the picture.
5. Training of animals in circus is done with the help conditioning.
6. Conditioning is also used for developing positive attitude towards
learning, teacher and school.
7. In lower class teaching of alphabets, tables, counting etc is done through
conditioning. E.g. ‘A’ for Apple, counting with beads.
Cognitive Theories
David Ausubel: Verbal Meaningful Learning
Main Proponent of - verbal Meaningful Learning.
According to him learning should progress deductively i.e. from an
understanding of the general concepts to an understanding of specifics.
According to him connection must be made with the students existing
knowledge.
a. Great deal of interaction between teacher and student.

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b. Greater use of examples which may include drawings, diagrams or

pictures
c. It is deductive
d. It is sequential.
Advance Organizers
It is conceptual bridge between the new material and old knowledge.
(Advance Organizer Model)
Meaningful verbal learning involves internalization of the material presented

to the learner, which takes place through Progressive Differentiation
&Integrative Reconciliation. This is Reception Learning (RL) or Meaningful
Verbal Learning (MVL) because most of the understandings about the
concepts are presented, rather than discovered.
Progressive Differentiation:
More general and inclusive ideas of a discipline are presented first.
Gradually, step-by-step, the concepts are differentiated in terms of ‘details’

or ‘specificity’. As learning proceeds, the individual organizes the contents of
a particular topic in a hierarchy, with inclusive concepts at the apex &
subsume progressively less inclusive and more highly differentiated sub
concepts. Thus, progressive differentiation is facilitated.
Rationale: New ideas can be efficiently learnt and retained if more inclusive
concepts are already available in the cognitive structure to help
‘ideationalanchorage’.
Once the inclusive concepts are presented and organized within a learner,
new ideas are taken in and relationships are explored between ideas to know
similarities and differences. As a result, new learning takes place. This is
Integrative Reconciliation.
In meaningful learning, meaningful material enters the cognitive field and

interacts with (and gets subsumed under) a more inclusive, relevant system.
Hence, the existing cognitive structure is a major factor affecting MVL.
Hence, to facilitate learning, it is necessary to introduce appropriate

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subsumers and make them part of cognitive structure, prior to presentation

of the task. These introduced subsumers become advance organizers
(anchoring points) for the reception of new learning material. (E.g. Algebra:
Task: fundamental operations. Subsumer (advance organizer): operations of
like and unlike signs for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of
terms).
In case of unfamiliar material, an expository organizer (analogy) can be used

to facilitate ideational anchorage. E.g. ‘Systems Analyses. Subsumer:
Working of a factory.
In case of relatively familiar material, ‘comparative’ organizers / subsumers

can be used.
E.g. ‘Digestion & Respiration’ Organizer: Burning of fuel.
If appropriate subsumer is not available, then relevant subsumer can be

used.
E.g. Blue litmus is turned red by acids red litmus is turned blue by bases.
Reception Learning is not passive. The learner has to judge the new
knowledge, identify discrepancies with past knowledge & reorganize
knowledge into more inclusive concepts. This depends on learner’s
capability and motivation.
Educational Implications:
1. RL is important as most of school learning involves presentation of

concepts rather than their discovery.
2. Abstract concepts can be taught effectively by presenting subsumers and

help pupils grasp higher order relationships between abstractions.
3. Since MVL depends on critical ability and readiness to receive, teacher

should make use of the following pedagogical techniques: - precise and
accurate definition of concepts;- giving similarities and differences between
related concepts, and enabling learners to define in their own words.

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4. Since single concepts are easier to retain rather than to remember many
specific items, subsumption begins during cognition. Hence, clear, relevant
subsumers (advance organizers) should be provided.
5. When we teach separate chapters one after the other, children have to
learn details of the topic before acquiring inclusive subsumers as
generalizations. This adversely affects learning and retention.
Advance organizers (subsumers), therefore, facilitate meaningful learning

and its retention.
he outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind

creates from experience "generic coding systems that permit one to go
beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful predictions" (Bruner, 1957, p.
234). Thus, children, as they grow, must acquire a way of representing the
"recurrent regularities" in their environment.
So, to Bruner, important outcomes of learning include not just the concepts,
categories, and problem-solving procedures invented previously by the
culture, but also the ability to "invent" these things for oneself.
Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human capabilities
and "culturally invented technologies that serve as amplifiers of these
capabilities."
These culturally invented technologies include not just obvious things such
as computers and television, but also more abstract notions such as the way
a culture categorizes phenomena, and language itself. Bruner would likely
agree with Vygotsky that language serves to mediate between environmental
stimuli and the individual's response.
The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners (i.e., learning
to learn).
In his research on the cognitive development of children (1966), Jerome
Bruner proposed three modes of representation:
Enactive representation (action-based)
Iconic representation (image-based)
Symbolic representation (language-based)

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Bruner's Three Modes of Representation

Modes of representation are the way in which information or knowledge are
stored and encoded in memory.
Rather than neat age-related stages (like Piaget), the modes of
representation are integrated and only loosely sequential as they "translate"
into each other.
Enactive (0 - 1 years)
This appears first. It involves encoding action based informationand
storing it in our memory. For example, in the form of movement as a muscle
memory, a baby might remember the action of shaking a rattle.
The child represents past events through motor responses, i.e., an infant
will “shake a rattle” which has just been removed or dropped, as if the
movements themselves are expected to produce the accustomed sound. And
this is not just limited to children.
Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt,
operating a lawn mower) that they would find difficult to describe in iconic
(picture) or symbolic (word) form.
Iconic (1 - 6 years)
This is where information is stored visually in the form of images (a mental
picture in the mind’s eye). For some, this is conscious; others say they don’t
experience it. This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it
is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany the verbal
information.
Symbolic (7 years onwards)

This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code
or symbol, such as language. This is the most adaptable form of
representation, for actions & images have a fixed relation to that which they
represent. Dog is a symbolic representation of a single class.
Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified
etc., so the user isn’t constrained by actions or images. In the symbolic
stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in
other symbol systems.
Bruner's constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with new
material to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic
representation; this holds true even for adult learners. A true instructional
designer, Bruner's work also suggests that a learner even of a very young
age is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is
organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of Piaget and other
stage theorists.

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• SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

( social cognition learning model)
• Lev Vygotsky
Born in 1896 in Western Russia
Died in Moscow in 1934
Author of Thought and Language
A theory of how children learn…
• About Lev Vygotsky
• A pioneering psychologist
• Author
9 6 volumes from his Psychology of Art (1925) to Thought and
Language [or Thinking and Speech] (1934).
9 interests in the fields of developmental psychology, child development,
and education.
9 His innovative work in psychology includes several key concepts:
psychological tools, mediation, internalization, and the zone of
proximal development.
His work : The psychology of art, development of higher mental
functions, philosophy of science and methodology of psychological
research, the relation between learning and human development,
concept formation, interrelation between language and thought
development, the study of learning disabilities etc.
• The social cognition learning model asserts that culture is the prime
determinant of individual development. Humans are the only species
to have created culture, Therefore, a child’s learning development is
affected in ways large and small by the culture–including the culture
of family environment.
Knowledge exists within culture
Language is the most important tool used to transmit knowledge
Language shapes thought

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Language is used to recognize, examine, and solve problems

Members of a culture collaborate to share knowledge
Language is necessary for learning
Learning precedes cognitive development
Cognitive development is the capacity to learn and solve problems
• Learning Theory Applied to Children
Children learn through social interaction
with others more knowledgeable in three ways:
Observing and imitating
Receiving instruction and following directions
Working collaboratively within a group
• Zone of Proximal Development
The difference between what a child can do independently and what
the child needs help from a more knowledgeable person to do.
• The zone of Proximal development (ZPD)
is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under

adult guidance and or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability
of solving the problems independently.
• Main emphasis on culture. (i.e. what to think and how to think).
• Emphasis on social factors. (surrounding culture, parents, peers etc.)
• Language is a primary form of interaction through which adults
transmit to the child, the rich body of knowledge that exists in the
culture.
• Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice.
(First on the social level and later on the individual level)
• The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) - refers to anyone who has a
better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner with
respect to a particular task process or concept.
Eg : a teacher, coach, parent or older adult, it could also be peers, a
younger person or even computers.

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•
• Social exposure to various cultures expands child’s port of
knowledge.
• Scaffolding: an instructor shows by example how to solve a problem,
while controlling the learning environment so that students can take
things step by step, expanding their base of knowledge without
excessive frustration.
• Reciprocal Learning: A highly successful teaching method, reciprocal
teaching provides an environment of open dialogue between student
and teacher.
Contextual factors affects children’s development. Contextual
means how people deal with their environment.
Curriculum--Since children learn much through interaction,

curricula should be designed to emphasize interaction between
learners and learning tasks.
Instruction--With appropriate adult help, children can often

perform tasks that they are incapable of completing on their
own.
Assessment-- What children can do on their own is their level

of actual development and what they can do with help is their
level of potential development. Assessment methods must
target both the level of actual development and the level of
potential development.
y SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - BANDURA
y “Social foundations of thought and action” in 1886
y Social learning theory
y Emphasis the impact of people on people.
y People learn from one another via observation, imitation & modeling.

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y This is a cognitive theory that emphasis the role of vicarious

experience in learning. (Observation of other people).
y Characteristics
y Changes in behavior through observation and imitation.
y Bandura believes that it is not always essential for children to have
their own spontaneous action reinforced in order to acquire a new
pattern of behavior.
y He suggests that both reinforcement and learning can occur in
children when their behavior matches that of another person.
y Observational learning
y Bandura believes that more observation of another person can be
sufficient to lead to a learnt response.
y His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new
information and behaviors by watching other people.
y The model can be anything that conveys information such as a
person, a film, T.V. a demonstration, a picture or instructions.
y Four processes
y Attention Process
y Retention Process
y Motor reproduction process (Behavioral Process)
y Motivational Process
y ATTENTION
y Without attention nothing will be retained.
y A person’s sensory capabilities influence what can be attended to.
y An observer’s selective attention can be influenced by past
reinforcement.
y Characteristics of the models.
y Similarity with the observer (same age, sex etc)
y Respected model (whom the model respects)
y High status of the model.
y Model – thought
y Attractive
y Effective models.

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RETENTIONAL PROCESS
y The ability to store information. remembering what you paid attention
to.
y The models behavior has to be encoded in memory. Only the observed
behavior may be encoded or an addition an explanation of why, how,
& when something is done is encoded.
y Encoding may be visual (i.e. mental pictures) and verbal (imaginable).
y MOTOR REPRODUCTION PROCESS (BEHAVIOURAL PROCESS )
• Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the
information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed.
Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and
skill advancement .
y Selecting and organizing the response elements.
y Refining the response on the basis of informative feedback.
y One may learn a great deal cognitively but be unable to translate that
information into behavior for variety of reasons
9 Lack of motor apparatus necessary to make a certain response, one
maturational level, injury or illness.
9 Lack of Skills
9 Lack of strength
MOTIVATIONAL PROCESS
y The motivational value of reinforcement or punishment like the
reinforcement theories.
y Reinforcement has 2 major functions creating expectations and
acting as an incentive for translating learning into performance.
y Kinds of reinforcement
y Direct reinforcement: This occurs when an individual watches a
model perform imitates the behavior and is reinforced (or punished) by
the model or some other individual

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y Vicarious reinforcement: The observer anticipates receiving a reward

for behaving in a particular way, because someone else has been so
rewarded.
y Self Reinforcement: The individual tries to meet personal standards

and does not depend on or care about other’s reactions.
Educational Implication
y Observational learning is vital for both development and survival.
Because mistakes can produce costly.
y Acquisition of behavior is possible through vicarious reinforcement.
y Response inhibition: from seeing a model being punished for the
response.
y Disinhibition: When a feared activity performed by the model is not
punished.
y Facilitation: When by performing a response, the model simply
increases the likelihood of the observe making a similar response.
y Creativity: Modeling can stimulate creativity by exposing observer to a
variety of models.
y Educational Implication
y Modeling can influence observer’s moral judgment and their emotional
responses.
y Observing a wide variety of situations that have common rule or
principle.
y Extracting the rule or principle from the diverse experiences.
y Utilizing the rule or principle in new situation.
y The basis of observationally derived rules, people learn among other
things, judgmental orientations, linguistic styles, conceptual schemes,
information processing strategies, cognition operations and standards
of conduct.
Vygotsky - Social Development Theory

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Lev Vygotsky was a Russian scientist. His theory of Social Cognitive

Development is complementary to Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. The
social cognition learning model asserts that culture is the prime determinant
of individual development. Humans are the only species to have created
culture, and every human child develops in the context of a culture.
Therefore, a child's learning development is affected in ways large and small
by the culture--including the culture of family environment--in which he or
she is enmeshed.
Major Thematic Thrust is:

1. Social Interaction plays an important role in the development of
cognition. i.e. he felt that social learning precedes development.
2. Main emphasis on culture which affects/shapes cognitive
development. (i.e. culture teaches the children both what to think and how
to think).
3. Emphasis on social factors.
4. Equally more emphasis on the role of language in cognitive
development.
5. According to Vygotsky, “every function in the child’s cultural
development appears twice First on the social level and later on the
individual level, i.e. first between people (inter-psychological) then inside
(intra-psychological).
6. The more knowledgeable other (MKO) - refers to anyone who has a
better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner with respect
to a particular task process or concept. The MKO is normally thought of is
thought of as being a teacher, coach, parent or older adult, it could also be
peers, a younger person or even computers.
7. The zone of Proximal development (ZPD) is the distance between a
student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and or with peer
collaboration and the student’s ability of solving the problems
independently. According to Vygotsky learning occurs in this zone.

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8. According to Vygotsky, language is a primary form of interaction

through which adults transmit to the child, the rich body of knowledge that
exists in the culture.
9. Interactions with surrounding culture and social agents such as
parents and more competent peers contribute significantly to a child’s
intellectual development.
1. Social exposure to various cultures expands child’s port of knowledge.

The more experiences the child has, the richer the world becomes.
o Scaffolding : Scaffolding requires that an instructor shows by
example how to solve a problem, while controlling the learning environment
so that students can take things step by step, expanding their base of
knowledge without excessive frustration.
o Reciprocal Learning: A highly successful teaching method, reciprocal
teaching provides an environment of open dialogue between student and
teacher.
o According to Vygotsky – Contextual factors affects children’s
development. Contextual means how people deal with their environment. It
is ability to size up a situation change it or get out of it. Vygotsky believed
that learning begins at birth and continues throughout all of life.
o Curriculum--Since children learn much through interaction, curricula
should be designed to emphasize interaction between learners and learning
tasks.
o Instruction--With appropriate adult help, children can often perform
tasks that they are incapable of completing on their own. With this in mind,
scaffolding--where the adult continually adjusts the level of his or her help
in response to the child's level of performance--is an effective form of
teaching. Scaffolding not only produces immediate results, but also instills
the skills necessary for independent problem solving in the future.
o Assessment--Assessment methods must take into account the zone of
proximal development. What children can do on their own is their level of
actual development and what they can do with help is their level of potential

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development. Two children might have the same level of actual development,
but given the appropriate help from an adult, one might be able to solve
many more problems than the other. Assessment methods must target both
the level of actual development and the level of potential development.
Unit- III
Expanding Horizons of Learning
• Learning for Transfer
Definitions
The application of skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes that were learned

in one situation to another learning situation (Perkins, 1992).
The ability to extend what has been learnt in one context to new
contexts. (Brandsford, Brown and Cocking, 1999)
Transfer of learning occurs when the learnerrecognizes common features

among concepts, skills, or principles;links the information in memory
sees the value of utilizing what was learned in one situation in another.
(Extra information for teaching, not to be asked in the examination)
Why is Transfer of learning important?
Assumption of education: what is taught in a course will be used in

relevant situations in other courses, in the workplace and out of school
Because the learning situation often differs from the context of

application, the goal of training is not accomplished unless transfer
occurs.
All new learning involves transfer based on previous learning .If there
were no transfer, students would need to be taught every act that they
would ever perform in any situation
Low Road (Substantive)Transfer

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Similar stimulus conditions trigger well-developed semi-automatic

responses .
Responses need not be mediated by mental representations.
Reflexive process which underlies near transfer.
Eg. Driving a truck when one knows how to drive a car.
High Road (Procedural)Transfer
Mindful abstraction from the context of learning , a deliberate search for

connections.
Looks for patterns , principles, known data.
Not reflexive but mindful.
Demands time and mental exploration.
Accomplishes far transfer.
Eg. A chess player may apply basic strategies to investment practices or

policies
Group Dynamics,
It has been commonly observed & also established through various

experimental studies that there are differences in the behaviour of
individuals when they are alone & when they are together with group
,behaves quite differently than what he would otherwise do. As a member of
a group, he exhibits group behaviour. When two or more people come
together it is known as Group. A Psychological group is one on which people
come together to attain a common goal & the relations among the member
are interdependent- each members behavior influences the behaviour of the
others in the group.

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According to Mill, “A unit composed of two or more persons who come

together to achieve a specific purpose & consider a contact meaningful is a
GROUP.”
Bass approached the definition of group in the angle of motivation &

satisfaction of needs.
Bogurdas defines a group as, “A collection of two or more persons with

common interest, stimulating each other having common loyalty &
participating in to common activities.
Characteristics of Group – (LIC. COM)
1. Leadership: - According to Carter, a leader is a person who is able to lead

the group towards the attainment of the goal. The teacher helps the
students in the attainments of the goals. In that sense, the teacher is the
leader of the classroom group.
2. Interdependency/ Common Interest: - The members of group have

common and well defined goals, interest and ideals. Every member tries to
attain the goals set down by the society (i.e. teachers & parents) e.g.
members of rotary club have a common aim of social work for the benefit of
underprivileged. The behavior of one member of a group influence that of the
other and in this way his own behavior is influenced, this type of
relationship is also known as psychological relationship.
3. Cohesiveness (Oneness): - There is the sense of oneness in the group

because of the similarity in interest. A member looks upon other as related
to him. In this way, good feelings, devotion, faithfulness, adjustment,
suggestion & imitation are developed amongst the students.
4. Conformity (Comply by the rules set within the group): - The members of
the group have to adhere the rules set by the group. The actions of members
are controlled by the group. All the member of the group follow the ideals &
traditional of the group.

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5. Organized structure: - The class room has a group as an organized

structure which is well defined .The class is homogeneous with respect to
age, subject, etc.
6. Motivation/ Mutual Obligation: - The degree of motivation or the

motivational level that exists among the members of the group should be the
same. It is such a power as keeps not only the members of the group
united but provides them with energy e.g. the relationship between the
children & parents in the family or the love of husband & wife. In spite of
differences, they have certain common aims, ideals & values. We-feeling is
developed leading to the development of affinity in the group. Social values
are also developed.
Meaning of Group Dynamics:
Group dynamics –Two things influence the group they are
i) Leadership ii) Group mind
The study of all these is called group dynamic.
It is a relatively new concept in socio – psychological field. Etymological

meaning of Group Dynamics: - Dynamics is derived from a Greek word,
which means Force. Group Dynamics stands for the forces operating in a
group.
Goods dictionary –“Group Dynamics implies an interactive psychological

relationship in which members of a group develop a common perception
based on feeling and emotions. These inter- stimulative relationships may be
described by the term Group Dynamics.”
Kreteh & Crutch - Group Dynamics implies changes that take place within
groups.
Cartwright & Zander – “Group Dynamics should be defined as a field of

inquiry dedicated to advancing knowledge about the nature of groups, the
laws of their development, and their inter relations with individuals, other
groups and institutions.”
Process of Group Dynamics: -

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• Forming - This is when a group first gets together. People tend to find out
about each other, consider purposes, brainstorm ideas and possible
structures for tasks and consider their own roles within the group. This is
usually a very sociable time in the life of the group.
• Storming - As the group begins to settle in and individuals get to know
each other, they may start competing for status and role in the group.
Disagreements occur and where some members may try to assert strong
opinions or leadership tactics, others may withdraw. If tensions are not
mutually dealt with at this stage, they tend to disrupt group communication
and activity, and most importantly, mutual respect for the roles of members.
To reach stages (c) and (d) conflicts need to be resolved.
• Norming - After the more tense stage of storming, the group usually
begins to settle as members have found a common approach to the task that
all agree upon or accept (this is where unsettled conflicts can be problematic
as they will probably reoccur later). Action plans begin to emerge and people
find space to begin working on tasks.
• Performing - This is the stage when the group achieves optimum
efficiency and work gets done. At this stage it is important to know the team
work strategies you are working with (Sharples, 1999: 71) that will best
utilize the expertise of each member. It is also useful be aware of time spent
on each task through a log or diary, so that possible conflicts do not
reoccur.
• Mourning - Having satisfactorily got through the group tasks, if the group
has been successful in working together, despite initial tensions and
conflicts, we often see members sad to leave each other. This is where
mutual respect and achievement is felt most significantly. Future individual
tasks may seem more mundane in comparison and in feedback it often
comes through that this has been a very memorable task in comparison to
others. Often sub-groups form from the larger groups to continue with
personal or professional development interests.
Teacher should know about group dynamics – (the below points answers
to why teacher should know about group dynamics and the same points can
also be written for how can teacher develop group dynamics in the
classroom)
S W I F T E A G L E
Socializes individual
Improves work efficiency

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Identify Stars & isolates
Friendship/co-operation
Thinking processes development
Reduces Enmity
To know abilities of everyone
Guidance/ Counseling
Helps to set legitimate goals
Encouragement
SOCIOMETRY
Sociometry is a quantitative method for measuring Social relationships. It

was first developed by Psychotherapist Jacob Moreno. Etymologically, the
word ‘Sociometry’ has originated from the Latin words
‘Socio ‘ - meaning ‘companion’ and
‘Metrum ‘- meaning ‘measure ‘.
The technique of Sociometry is very useful in the field of education in

evaluating the personal- social adjustment of a pupil. Sociometry is
concerned with how an individual is seen and accepted by his peers.
Sociometric techniques are often used by students while electing their

monitor, choosing sides for a game etc.,
This technique is used often by the teachers, too. A teacher knows that the
group of children with which she works is more than an aggregate of
individuals. Each group has structure and that there are patterns of sub-
groups, cliques and friendship. Some individuals are accepted by groups
and some rejected.
The essential point is to devise a series of questions that will elicit true
feelings about other members in his class.

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e.g.: i) Whom would you like to sit next to you in the class?
ii) Who is your best friend?
iii) Whom would you like to play with?
Some Sociometric techniques are: Guess Who type, Sociomatrix, Social

Distance Scale and Sociogram.
Uses of Sociometry:
Teacher can use Sociometry
• For organizing classroom groups

• To improve socio-emotional climate in the classroom
• To understand and improved the social structures of the classroom
groups
• To help those who have been isolated become more acceptable to their
peers.
• To study the effects of certain experiences on a group structure.
• To study the relationship between a group structure and factors like sex,
religion, colour, age etc
• To study the stability of a group structure
• To reduce group conflicts by improving communication between pupils
• To form groups for projects or Activity clubs
• In seating arrangements in the class.
Advantages of Sociometry:
• It is a method which is economical in both time and money, to obtain

information about personal – social adjustments of students.
• Using this method, early identification of children experiencing social
rejection and peer neglect is possible .Such students can be made more
acceptable to their peers
• This method helps the pupils to understand and build good peer
relationships, thus helping the students in social adjustment of the pupils.
• The patterns of friendship and rejection play an important role in
determining how the group reacts to learning situations, and to various
types of group management which teachers might wish to use.

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Understanding group structure is a step towards studying group dynamics,

and understanding group dynamics is a means to better group management
and curriculum development.
• This technique helps to maintain a healthy socio-emotional climate in the
classroom and minimizes group conflicts.
• It helps to form productive teams and is used in developing groups for
therapy and training.
• This method helps to identify leaders and hone leadership qualities.
• It is used to guide and counsel Leaders, Isolates and Rejects.
Sociogram: A Sociogram can be drawn to depict preferences of students.
Identify the cliques, isolates, stars, rejects, mutual pairs in the group.
Amit
Priti
Alex
John
Dia
Zakir Manish
Sangita
Jaya
Jaspreet
Activity No Name of the activity: Use of Sociometry in the Classroom
Background: A Sociogram is a charting of the inter-relationships within a

group. Its purpose is to discover group structure: i.e., the basic "network" of
friendship patterns and sub-group organization. The relations of any one
child to the group as a whole are another type of information which can be
derived from a Sociogram. A Sociogram value to a teacher is in its potential
for developing greater understanding of group behavior so that he/she may
operate more wisely in group management and curriculum development.

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Procedure:
Observations: here include the tables or the Sociogram
Conclusions:
Implications:
1. Early identification of children likely to be experiencing social rejection

and peer neglect is desirable
2. The patterns of friendship and rejection play an important role in
determining how the group will react to learning situations, and to various
types of group management techniques which teachers might wish to use.
Understanding group structure is but a step toward studying group
dynamics, and understanding group dynamics is a means to better group
management and curriculum development.
3. To understand peer relationships
4. For a healthier socio emotional climate
5. To form teams that will be productive
6. To help social adjustment of students
7. To identify leaders and develop their qualities
8. To guide and counsel leaders, isolates and rejects
Unit 4
Teaching for All
LEARNING DISABILITIES
Dyslexia
• The word dyslexia originated from Greek language
Dys-poor or inadequate, and
Lexis-words.
• Students with dyslexia may have
Difficulty with reading, spelling,
Understanding language to hear, or expressing themselves clearly when
speaking or writing.
According to world federation of neurology

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• “A disorder manifested by difficulty in learning to read despite

conventional instruction, adequate intelligence and socio-cultural
opportunity. It is dependent up on fundamental cognitive disabilities
which are frequently of constitutional origin.”
The hallmark of dyslexia is underachievement in writing and reading skills.
Children are born with dyslexia.
Dyslexia results from the differences in the structure and function of the
brain.
Characteristics
Problems with reading, accuracy, speed, and comprehension.
Repeated spelling errors.
Reversal of orientation of letters, e.g., b-d, w-m etc.and sequence of
letters in words, when read or write.
Errors in letter naming
Difficulty in learning and remembering printed words

Cramped or illegible handwriting
Difficulty in finding write words while speaking
Slow rate of writing.
Confusion about directions in space or time(right and left, up and
down,etc)
The following steps can be taken for helping dyslexics children,
The teachers and the parents must be trained for diagnosing the
dyslexics.
Teachers must develop effective learning strategies for dyslexics.
Those who are having persistent handwriting problems should be
encouraged to join up their writings.
Dysgraphia
• Is a learning difficulty resulting from the difficulty in expressing

thoughts in writing and graphing
• It can manifest itself as difficulties with spelling, poor handwriting and
trouble putting thoughts on the paper.
Characteristics
• Poor writing skills
• Illegible writing
• Inconsistencies; mixtures of print and cursive, upper and lower case,
irregular sizes shape or slant of letters.
• Unfinished words &letters
• Inconsistent position on page with respect to lines and margins and
spaces between words and letters
Strategies
• Encourage students to outline their thoughts.

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• Have students draw pictures of their thoughts.

• Have students dictate their ideas in to a tape recorder and then listen
and write them down later.
• Practice keyboard skills.
• Have a computer available for them to organize information and check
spelling
• Encourage students to talk aloud while writing.
• Give and allow students to begin projects early.
Dyscalculia
• Word comes from Greek and Latin ‘counting badly’

• Suffers specific arithmetic disabilities as result of damage to specific
regions of brain
• Can also occur developmentally as a genetically –linked learning
disability.
• Affects person’s ability to understand ,remember, and manipulate
numbers and number facts
• Refer specifically to the inability to perform arithmetic operations.
• Occurs in people across the whole IQ range.
• Difficult to differentiate between integers and letters
• Confusion in reading ‘5’ and‘s’ and ‘0’ and ‘o’ etc.
Strategies
• Help to identify his/her strengths and weaknesses.
• Parents, teachers and other educators work together to establish
strategies.
• Help outside the classroom.
• Use graph papers
• Begin with concrete examples
GIFTED CHILDREN
Having Hurst
z “The talented or gifted child is one who shows consistently remarkable

performance in any worthwhile line of Endeavour.”
Characteristics
The gifted child is

z Is an exceptional child
z Is superior in some ability or group of abilities
z Exhibits superior performance in the area or areas of his giftedness.
z Need not necessarily possess a very high IQ.
z He learns rapidly and easily ,and retains it without much drill

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z He knows about many things which most students are unaware.

z Has rich vocabulary marked by originality.
z Gifted is not only in academics but also in other spheres viz.
Music, dance, drama, mechanical work, games, sports etc.
Needs of exceptional children
z Need for knowledge and understanding

z The need for the creativity and ingenuity
z Need for the development of his exceptional ability
z Need for self –actualization or self expression.
Education of the gifted children
Separate schools
Ability grouping
Acceleration or double promotion
Enrichment programmes
y Unit 6: Learning Difference and Learning Needs of Diverse
Learners
a) Understanding social construction of disability, Gender and
Marginalized Learners and their Educational needs
y b) Concept & Strategies of Differentiated Instructions
y
y c) Research Implication: studies in the area of gender and disability
with reference to learning style and cognitive style and implication to
teaching
Diverse learners include students from racially, ethnically,
culturally, and linguistically diverse families and communities of lower
socioeconomic status.
B) Concept & Strategies of Differentiated Instructions
y Differentiated instruction is the way in which a teacher anticipates
and responds to a variety of student needs in the classroom.
y teachers differentiate by modifying the content (what is being taught),
the process (how it is taught) and the product (how students
demonstrate their learning).
y DI is an approach that takes its philosophy from the root of its name:
different. Every classroom of 25 students has 25 different
combinations of personality, interests, learning styles and background
knowledge about that content area.

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y A differentiated classroom would present students with choices in

terms of how to learn a concept, how to practice that concept and how
to show the teacher they know it.
y The planning is more time-consuming
y It meet the needs of all students.

y Strategies
Differentiate Through Teams
Heterogeneous grouping works, but sometimes homogenous grouping can
be an effective way to differentiate
y Reflection and Goal Setting
y students should be reflecting on their work and setting goals for
further learning.
y This is a great opportunity for them to set personalized learning goals
and for teacher to target instruction specific to the goals they set.
y Interest groups
y Independent study
y Varied Questioning strategies
y Reading buddies
y Varied Home assignments
y Small group Instruction
y Each learner possesses a diverse set of cognitive, social and emotional
assets, knowledge, skills, interests and preferences. These
characteristics interact to form a unique learner profile that changes
over time.
y Parents should have the knowledge to understand their child’s unique
learner profile and the tools to advocate for him/her.
y Education systems should define student success using
accountability frameworks with multiple indicators of academic
performance as well as measures of social and emotional wellbeing,
persistence and engagement.
• MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION (MCE)
• Five Dimensions of MCE

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• Implications of MCE in the Indian context

• Five Dimensions of MCE
• Dr. James Banks-
-Content Integration
-Knowledge construction
-Equity pedagogy
-Prejudice reduction
Empowering school culture and social structure
• Implications of MCE in the Indian context
• Explain in brief the Indian context
+
• Why MCE is important in the Indian context? Or Impact of
Multiculturalism in the Indian context
• Strategies which could be adopted
-Develop ethnic and cultural literacy
-Attitudes and value clarification
-Develop Multicultural social competence
-Promote educational equity
Module 3: Teaching: The Act and The Profession:

Unit 5: Teaching for Effective Learning:
Reflective Thinking:
y DEFINATION:
y "Active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed
form of knowledge, in the light of the grounds that support it and the
further conclusion to which it tends”
- Dewey (1933)
y Reflective thinking is a series of logical rational steps based on the
scientific method of defining, analyzing, and solving a problem.
y Educational Implications of reflective Thinking
y Being flexible.

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y Providing well- planned activities.

y Creating situations which will trigger thinking.
y Using variety of teaching aids.
y Exhibiting Positive Attitude.
y Encourage students to critically think and analyze information rather
than be passive recipients.
y New teaching techniques and methodology.
y Ask open ended questions.
y Discussions, brainstorming sessions
y Democratic environment.
y Encourage students to experience new things and to express their
feelings about it.
CRITICAL THINKING
y “Critical thinking is deciding rationally what to or what not to believe."
Norris
y “Critical thinking is careful and deliberate determination of whether to
accept, reject, or suspend judgment.” Moore and Parker
y CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS
y Identifying value statements
y Identifying points of view
y Determining bias
y Identifying fact and opinion
y Educational implications critical thinking
y The teachers should develop willingness amongst the students to
change one point of view as they continue to examine and re-examine
ideas that may seem obvious.
y Students should be involved in games
y Stimulate their imagination using images, half-told stories, snippets of
movies or TV shows, post-discussion of the entire story, movie or
show, a common hands-on activity or demonstration, or a statement
of a controversial issue or challenge.
CREATIVITY:

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Creativity implies the production of a ‘totally or Partially ‘novel

identity.
Creativity is the power of the human Mind to create new contents by
Transforming relations and thereby Generating new correlates thus,
we can describe crativity as
the capacity or ability of
an individual to create ,
discover or produce a new or
novel idea or object
,including the rearrangement
or reshaping of what is
already known to him which
proves to be a unique
personal experience.
• Creativity
• Is universal
• Is innate as well as acquired
• Produces something new or novel
• Is adventurous and open thinking
• Is a means as well as end in itself
• Carries ego involvement
• Rests more on divergent thinking than on convergent thinking.
• Has a wide scope.
• Cannot be separated from intelligence
• Not related with school achievement
• Creativity and anxiety often go together.
• Characteristics of creative children
• Careless and indifferent
• Bored in common situations and on routine tasks.
• Ill–motivated and unexcited
• Self-centred and non-accomodative
• Often introvertish and even rebellious
• Independent and wanting to do things differently
• Ready to take risks

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• Generate uncommon ideas and situations,things of rare quality and

beauty.
Wallas(1926)described creativity involves four different stages.
preparation incubation
inspiration verification
• Conscious work on the problem is initiated and continued.

• The problem is defined or analysed and the stage is set for its
solution.
• Facts and materials relevant to the solution are collected and
examined.
• Plan of action is formulated.
• Start working to the set plan.
• Deliberate or voluntary turning away from the problem.
• Characterised by the absence of activity.
• May rest, sleep or engage in other interesting activities.
• In the absence of any interference our unconscious begin to work
towards the solution of the problem.
• The things we experience or learn in the meantime may provide a clue
to the solution.
The thinker is often presented with a sudden appearance of the
solution.
Ilumination may occur at any time.
• During this stage the illumination is checked out to determine
whether the solution or idea which appeared through insight is
correct.
• Fresh attempts are even made to solve the problem .
• Or earlier solution needs slight modification to become workable.
• Freedom to respond.
• Opportunity for ego involvement.
• Encouraging originality and flexibility.
• Removal of hesitation and fear.

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• Providing appropriate. opportunities and atmosphere for creative

expression.
• Developing healthy habits among children.
• Using creative resources of the community.
• Avoidance of blocks to creative thinking.
• Proper organisation of the curriculum.
• Reform in the evaluation system.
• Use of special techniques for fostering creativity.
• Teaching by example.
Problem Solving refers to the mental process that people go through

to discover, analyse and solve problems.
y FACTORS
Functional Fixedness
Irrelevant or Misleading Information
Assumptions
Mental Set
y STEPS
1. Define the problem
2. Analyse the problem
3. Identify as many potential

solutions as you can
4. Choose the best solution
5. Plan of action
6. Implement the solution –

y STRATEGIES
• Analogy

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• Brainstorming
• Divide and conquer
• Hypothesis testing
• Lateral thinking
• Research
• Trial-and-error
y Meta-cognition:
y Meaning- Definition and analysis of definition
y Components &
y Strategies
y Meaning- two definitions and its meaning
y Components
y Three components
“Critical thinking is deciding rationally what to or what not to believe."
Norris, Stephen P
“Critical thinking is careful and deliberate determination of whether to

accept, reject, or suspend judgment.” Moore and Parker
“The process of determining the authenticity, accuracy and worth of

information or knowledge claims.” Beyer
"Broadly speaking, critical thinking is concerned with reason, intellectual

honesty, and open-mindedness, as opposed too emotionalism, intellectual
laziness, and closed-mindedness.”
Thus, critical thinking involves:
following evidence where it leads;

considering all possibilities;
relying on reason rather than emotion;
being precise;
Considering a variety of possible viewpoints and explanations;
weighing the effects of motives and biases;

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being concerned more with finding the truth than with being right;
not rejecting unpopular views out of hand;
Being aware of one's own prejudices and biases, and not allowing
them to sway one's judgment.
Critical thinkers: distinguish between fact and opinion; ask questions; make
detailed observations; uncover assumptions and define their terms; and
make assertions based on sound logic and solid evidence.
Uses of critical thinking:
9 "underlies reading, writing, speaking, and listening . . . the basic

elements of communication"
9 "Plays an important part in social change . . . institutions in any society -
courts, governments, schools, businesses - are the products of a certain
way of thinking."
9 "Helps us uncover bias and prejudice."
9 "Is a path to freedom form half-truths and deceptions?"
9 "The willingness to change one point of view as we continue to examine
and re-examine ideas that may seem obvious. Such thinking takes time
and the willingness to say three subversive words: I don't know."
Attributes of a critical thinker:
9 asks pertinent questions

9 assesses statements and arguments
9 is able to admit a lack of understanding or information
9 has a sense of curiosity
9 is interested in finding new solutions
9 is able to clearly define a set of criteria for analyzing ideas
9 is willing to examine beliefs, assumptions, and opinions and weigh them
against facts
9 listens carefully to others and is able to give feedback
9 sees that critical thinking is a lifelong process of self-assessment
9 suspends judgment until all facts have been gathered and considered
9 looks for evidence to support assumption and beliefs
9 is able to adjust opinions when new facts are found

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9 looks for proof

9 examines problems closely
9 Is able to reject information that is incorrect or irrelevant.
Reflective thinking
Dewey's definition of reflective thinking:
"Active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form

of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further
conclusion to which it tends".
Explanation: Reflective thinking is normally a slow process. It takes

considerable
time to work on inferring and combining. BUT by reflecting upon what we
have learnt:
- We will remember it far better.
This is higher form of thinking.
It aims at solving complex problems.

It requires reorganization of all the relevant experiences and the finding
of new ways of reacting to a situation or of removing an obstacle instead
of a simple association of experiences or ideas.
There is insightful cognitive approach in reflective thinking.
It takes all the relevant facts arranged in a logical order into account in
order to arrive at a solution of the problem in hand.
It links the information we possess into tighter network, thus helps to
remember the matter better.
It criticizes what one has learned and tries to expose weaknesses and
shortcomings.
y Metacognitive knowledge (also called Metacognitive awareness) is what

individuals know about themselves and others as cognitive
processors.

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y Metacognitive regulation is the regulation of cognition and learning

experiences through a set of activities that help people control their
learning.
y Metacognitive experiences are those experiences that have something
to do with the current, on-going cognitive endeavor.
y Strategies like:
y Self Questioning
y KWL Strategy – Know- Want to know – Learn (Outcome)
y PQ4R – Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite and Review.
y IDEAL – Identify, Define, Explore, Act, Look
Unit Six
Teaching As a Profession
• Professionalism: Concept & Principles; and Importance of

Academic Freedom
• Concept of Professionalism
• Wise: Professional teachers are those who have a firm grasp of the
subjects they teach, and are true to the demands of their profession.
• Socket: Professionalism in teaching means possessing a good
character, being committed to change and continual improvement,
having thorough subject and pedagogical knowledge and nurturing
the responsibility to collaborate with students, parents,
administrators and peers even beyond the classroom.
• Professionalism in teaching involves….
• Acting with integrity both in and out of the classroom
• Understanding and executing one’s responsibilities wrt subject
matter, students, and community
• engaging in behaviours that support learning, facilitate open
communication within in the classroom

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• Being proactive
• Demonstrating respect for students, parents, authority and peers
• Professionalism in teaching involves….
• Accepting the strengths and weaknesses of the students and
colleagues
• Helping them to build strengths and deal with their weaknesses
• Working towards quality assurance
• Adhering to the code of ethics
• Principles of Professionalism w.r.t teaching
1. Promoting the development of all students by
• Respecting their identity and culture
• Recognizing their strengths as well as individual needs
• Catering to their individual learning styles
• Providing opportunities for all to excel to the best of their capacity
• Principles of Professionalism
2. Delivering the most appropriate instruction to students by
• Arranging differentiated instruction for different learners
• Helping students set and achieve appropriate goals
• Being aware of best practices in ones area
3. Accepting responsibility for professional growth by
• Being committed to life long learning
• Undertaking research
• incorporating reflective practices
• Updating one’s knowledge and skills wrt both content and pedagogic
practices
• Being an active participant in professional bodies
4. Upholding personal and professional ethics by
• Being a responsible and ethical citizen in school and community

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• Protecting and empowering all students

• Following the code of conduct prescribed by the authorities and
administration
• Maintaining the dignity of the teaching profession
5. Committing oneself to maintaining high standards of professional
performance by
• Accepting responsibility for what happens in the classroom
• Initiating teamwork with peers and parents
• indulging in self reflection and self improvement
6. Contributing to nation building by
• Owning responsibility towards society and work to build a better world
• Addressing the needs of society through education
• Empowering students to be responsible citizens
• displaying commitment to justice and a zeal for social reconstruction
• Academic Freedom
Meaning:
• Academic freedom is the freedom to teach and do research in any area
without constraint, to discover and propagate new ideas no matter
how controversial
• Socrates and Galileo did not have this kind of freedom.
• A teacher from a West African country was dismissed when his
research found that the infant mortality in his country was much
more than the figures projected by the Government.
• One of the earliest initiatives to protect academic freedom was the
International Conference convened by UNESCO in 1950, in Nice,
where the universities of the world articulated three interdependent
principles for which every university should stand.
• the right to pursue knowledge for its own sake and to follow wherever
the search for truth may lead;
• the tolerance of divergent opinion and freedom from political
interference; and

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• the obligation as social institutions to promote, through teaching and

research, the principles of freedom and justice, of human dignity and
solidarity, and to develop mutually, material and moral aid on an
international level.
• January 2005, Report of First Global Colloquium of University
Presidents Columbia University, New York says
• Academic freedom benefits society in two fundamental ways. It
benefits society directly, and usually immediately, through the
impacts and benefits of applied knowledge, the training of skilled
professionals, and the education of future leaders and citizens.
• It benefits society indirectly and usually over longer periods of time,
through the creation, preservation, and transmission of knowledge
and understanding for its own sake, irrespective of immediate
applications.
• Importance of academic freedom
• It appeals to a higher value, the pursuit of truth . (Copernicus said the
earth moves round the Sun. He was opposed by the Church which
wielded much power at that time)
• Academic freedom is necessary to benefit human welfare which
depends on the discovery and propagation of new knowledge.
• Academic freedom helps faculty in addressing their academic
subjects, allowing them even to challenge conventional wisdom.
• Need for academic freedom
• Promotes knowledge construction through research
• Builds a fearless , just and equitable society
• Knowledge is preserved and transmitted
• With reference to India, Academic freedom is central to the future of
India’s higher education system in its efforts to develop a knowledge
economy based on the need for promoting intellectual capital and to
develop institutions of excellence comparable to the best anywhere in
the world.
• A word of caution when we speak about academic freedom….
• Academic freedom should not be an obstacle in the way of one’s basic
duty as teachers. Eg: pursue research but also perform your other
academic duties

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• Teachers are entitled to freedom in the classroom in discussing their

subject, but they should be careful not to introduce into their teaching
controversial matter which has no relation to their subject
• Evolving Roles of Teacher as: Instructional Expert, Manager,
Counselor and ‘Practitioner-Researcher’
• Roles of a teacher need to ‘evolve’ and gear to the changing times and
the changing needs of society
• Teacher as an instructional expert
• Content expert
• Knowledge of pedagogic practices
• Designer of effective learning experiences
• Sound knowledge of learner psychology
• Effective evaluator
• Techno savvy
• Curriculum designer
• Teacher as a manager
• Build a positive learning environment
• Teacher is an environmental engineer who organizes the classroom
space to fit goals and maximize learning
• Manager of human and material resources
• Manage and process records of marks, attendance etc
• Manage curricular and co curricular activities
• Teacher as a counselor
• Counsel regarding academic and personal issues
• Empower the individual to solve his/her own problems
• Guide regarding aspirations, choices, habits
• Provide vocational guidance
• Equips learners with life skills needed to handle one’s own life
• Teacher as a practitioner-researcher
Professional Competencies for Classroom Management:

Prevention, Intervention & Remediation

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• Prevention: (Establishing & Maintaining Effective Learning

Environment)
• teachers must clearly communicate what they expect of students,
• personally exemplify those expectations,
• consistently hold students accountable to meet them.
• Set clear and concrete rules. Have mature students prepare their own
rules
• Make all arrangements in advance if planning an activity
• Try to connect pupils’ needs, interests expectations with learning
• Plan in detail with back up plans for emergencies
• Anticipate problems and take preventive steps
• Offer limited choices
• Avoid triggers that can lead to misbehavior eg: long and boring work,
crowds, unnecessary delays
• Interact with the whole class not just a few
• Prevention: (Establishing & Maintaining Effective Learning
Environment)
• Intervention: (Rules and Consequences ,Stopping Misbehaviour, the
Need to Stop & Train)
• Keep students engaged… boredom can lead to misbehaviour
• Use positive I-messages (eg: I like the way Sneha is doing her work
quietly. I like the way Rajesh is helping his friend. I like the way
Manish is listening attentively. Avoid statements ‘Madhu don’t
disturb’)
• After the rules have been established, prompts/ instructions should
be used as reminders when children do not follow them right away.
(Eg: Raise your hand before speaking. ) Avoid long ‘speeches’.
• Intervention: (Rules and Consequences , Stopping Misbehaviour, the
Need to Stop & Train)
Two approaches to stop misbehaviour: (a)Rules-Ignore-Praise (Set rules,
ignore misbehaviour, praise the right behaviour) good for younger students
who are still learning rules . (b)Rules-Reinforce-Punish (set rules, reinforce
good behaviour, but punish wrong behaviour) effective for older students .
Remember punishment should not be insulting or harmful.

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The need to stop and train: when a student misbehaves use the situation as
a teachable moment. Stop the student and use the situation to train
him/her without any disrespect to the student.
• Remediation:(Developing Student Responsibility & Self-Control,
Remediating chronic Behavioural Problems, Gordon Model of Self-
discipline)
• Be firm, communicate expectations but at the same time demonstrate
support and caring
• Try positive behaviour modification strategies. Avoid punishment
…try alternatives such as temporarily taking away privileges.
• Chronic problems may need intensive measures and intervention of
specialists and parents.
• Some students who frequently misbehave do not believe that they can
ever do anything right. Experts suggest that such students need to be
trained to develop self control and accept responsibility for showing
positive behaviour. Eg: making a naughty student the class monitor
will help the student become responsible. Gordon’s Model of self
Discipline is a model that demonstrates how to help errant students
develop- responsibility and self control
• Gordon’s Model of Self Discipline
• Avoid over emphasis on rewards to discipline as they are
counterproductive. Students get concerned with reward rather than
good behaviour. once the reward is removed, they return to original
behaviour. Students used to rewards feel that they are punished if
they do not receive the rewards.
• Punishments do not work as they make students hostile .
• Classroom discipline is achieved by aiding students in acquiring an
inner sense of self-control
• To develop student self-control, teachers must give up their power
(controlling) authority and replace it with influence or persuasive
authority.
• Gordon believed in six elements of classroom discipline
1. Influence rather than control:
• Controlling activates student’s coping mechanisms (fight, flight, and
submitting) and cuts off communication
• Using non-controlling mechanisms do not cut off communication and
student cooperation.

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2. Preventive Skills
• Use preventive I-messages- to influence students’ future actions.
• Collaborative rule setting- students and teachers work together to
decide how to conduct themselves and come up with classroom rules
• Participatory classroom management- teachers share power with
students in making decisions. (classroom arrangement, rules,
activities, seating, etc.)
3. Decide who owns the problem
The individual who is effected by the problem is the one who “owns the
problem” making it their job to handle the confrontation.
4. Confrontive skills
Modifying the environment by enriching the place and eliminating
distracters.
Send I-messages regularly
Shifting gears (changing from a confrontive position to a listening position if
the student gets hostile)
5. Use helping skills
– Passive listening: the teacher shows he/she is listening by
verbal cues, but is mostly silent
– Door openers: invite students to discuss their problems
– Active listening: the teacher mirrors back what the students
says

6. Avoid communication roadblocks such as shouting, preaching, advising,
name calling, criticising, analysing child’s behaviour, comparing,
threatening etc .
Significance of Gordon’s Model:
• Respect for individual
• Enhances person’s self esteem

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75
• Suggests preventive skills to avoid misbehaviour. Hence very proactive

model
• Emphasis on developing self-control
• Discipline becomes the student’s responsibility

&Research Chembur

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1

UNIT I CONCEPT of Learning

Learning is a key process & is necessary for all educational process. It

Crow & Crow: ‘Learning is acquisition of knowledge, habits and

Henry Smith: ‘Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the

Wood worth defines learning as-

“Any activity can be called learning as far as it develops the individual

¾ Learning may be defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior.

1. Learning is a change in behavior for better or worse.

Dr.Mary George Varghese, Asst. Professor MES Pillai College of Education

2. It is a change that takes place through practice & experience.

3. Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively permanent

Thus learning is a complex process. It is a process by which all organisms,

1. Learning is a process which is continuous & it never stops at any

2. Learning is the process which leads to mental growth of an individual.

3. Basically when learning takes place the individual learns to

4. Learning is purposeful. Though learning takes place at every place & at

5. Learning is active process. Learning by doing is the best part of learning

Dr.Mary George Varghese, Asst. Professor MES Pillai College of Education

6. Learning takes place individually& as well as socially e.g. When a

Steps in the Learning Process

1. Need: Learning takes place as a result of response to some stimulation.

Need should be made by the teacher by creating interest. The teacher

2. Readiness: Every child is not ready to learn at a particular time. The

E.g. Public speaking cannot be taught to I std. child.

3. Situation: Learning depends on the situation provided at school & at

Dr.Mary George Varghese, Asst. Professor MES Pillai College of Education

congenial. The teacher’s attitude should be encouraging & the teacher

4. Interaction: The child with is needs & goals learns to interact in a

5. Exploration of the situation: Exploration is the way the learner

6. Perception: Perception is to give some meaning to what you are seeing.

7. Response: Response is the actual outcome of the learner. It is the

8. Reinforcement: If the response is successful in action, in satisfying the

Dr.Mary George Varghese, Asst. Professor MES Pillai College of Education

9. Integration: Learning implies the selection & organization of correct

Factors Affecting Learning

Definition of Attention- J.S. Ross: ‘Attention is a process of getting an

There are 2 fields of attention

Dr.Mary George Varghese, Asst. Professor MES Pillai College of Education

The psychological problem is to find out why we are likely to attend to

Factors that control Attention

I. Objective / External Factors:Are those conditions affecting attention

1. Intensity:A strong stimulus is more likely to be noticed than a weak

3. Repetition: Very often in the classroom, the teacher respects the

Dr.Mary George Varghese, Asst. Professor MES Pillai College of Education

4. Change: To attract attention, change should not be a gradual one but

5. Movement: A moving object readily catches attention a child’s

6. Contrast: Anything that is different from its surroundings is likely to

7. Novelty: Anything that is new, novel as well as strange attracts

8.Variety: Variety means using various methodologies to retain

9. Mysteriousness: It is evident that when an element of mystery enters

II. Subjective / Internal Factors:

1. Motives – like hunger, thirst, sex, anger etc

Dr.Mary George Varghese, Asst. Professor MES Pillai College of Education

∴Interest & Attention are 2 sides or the same coin.

Mc Dougall defines interest as “Latent Attention” and attention as

Attention can be divided into groups namely Non- Voluntary or Non-

Enforced Spontaneous Implicit

9 When we attend naturally, easily spontaneously & without effort