Monitoring Training PDF

Monitoring
Training
and
Performance
in Athletes
This page intentionally left blank
Monitoring
Training
and
Performance
in Athletes
Mike McGuigan, PhD

Auckland University
of Technology
Auckland, New Zealand HUMAN KINETICS
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: McGuigan, Mike, 1971- author.
Title: Monitoring training and performance in athletes / Mike McGuigan.
Description: Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, [2017] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016021011| ISBN 9781492535201 (print) | ISBN 9781492535393
(e-book)
Subjects: | MESH: Athletic Performance--physiology | Physical
Fitness--physiology | Stress, Physiological
Classification: LCC RA781 | NLM QT 260 | DDC 613.7--dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2016021011
ISBN: 978-1-4925-3520-1 (print)
Copyright © 2017 by Mike McGuigan
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CONTENTS
Preface vii Acknowledgments ix
1 Why Monitor Athletes? 1

Stress Response to a Training Session 3
Adaptation to a Training Program 4
Risk of Overreaching, Overtraining, Sickness, and Injury 6
Importance of Individualized Monitoring 7
Conclusion 12
2 Research Tools for Athlete Monitoring 13

Basic Statistical Tools for Practitioners 14
Descriptive Statistics 15
Reliability 20
Validity 24
Meaningful Change 27
Correlation and Relationships 33
Presentation of Results 34
Qualitative Analysis 40
Conclusion 41
3 Physiological Effects of Training Stress 43

General Adaptation Syndrome Model 44
Fitness-Fatigue Model 45
Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation Model 50
Applications of the Models 51
Fatigue Continuum 51
Overreaching and Overtraining 53
Interdisciplinary and Multifactorial Approaches to Avoid Overtraining 64
Conclusion 68
4 Quantifying Training Stress 69

Measurement Tools 69
External Load 70
Internal Load 78
Conclusion 101
5 Measures of Fitness and Fatigue 103

Neuromuscular Fatigue 104
Heart Rate 113
v
vi Contents
Hormonal and Biochemical Markers 116

Immunological Markers 126
Performance Tests 129
Conclusion 134
6 Current Monitoring Practices

and Technologies 135
Monitoring Practices in Sport 135
Monitoring Technologies 140
Data From Monitoring Technology 147
Applications of Monitoring Technology 149
Conclusion 155
7 Integrating Monitoring With Coaching 157

Art and Science of Monitoring 157
Monitoring Data Within a Training Session 160
Providing Monitoring Feedback to Athletes 164
Barriers to Effective Athlete Monitoring 168
Conducting In-House Monitoring Projects 169
Conclusion 172
8 Athlete Monitoring Guidelines

for Individual Sports 173
Individual Sport Athletes 174
Monitoring in Individual Sports on a Budget 174
Monitoring With Training Diaries 175
Applying Monitoring in Individual Sports 176
Reporting One Week of Monitoring for an Athlete 183
Modifying Training Based on Monitoring 185
Considerations for Monitoring Athletes in Individual Sports 187
Conclusion 188
9 Athlete Monitoring Guidelines

for Team Sports 189
Team Sport Athletes 189
Monitoring in Team Sports on a Budget 190
Applying Monitoring in Team Sports 191
Monitoring System for Team Sports 196
Reporting One Week of Monitoring for a Team Sport 196
Modifying Training Based on Monitoring 198
Considerations for Monitoring Athletes in Team Sports 200
Conclusion 201
References 203 Index 249 About the Author 253

PREFACE
Monitoring systems for athlete training environments. This book will help prac-
and performance are becoming common- titioners ask better questions about the
place, particularly in high-performance rationale and uses for athlete monitoring
sport programs. This has corresponded while challenging them to consider how
with an explosion in research in this to use monitoring data to inform the pro-
area as well as in information on blogs gramming and coaching of their athletes.
and other social media platforms. Practi- Chapter 1 sets the scene by answering
tioners are increasingly asked to collect, the question “Why monitor athletes?”
analyze, and interpret information on Chapter 2 presents a variety of simple
their athletes. Despite all of these devel- analysis techniques for investigating
opments, practitioners are without a individual monitoring data in detail.
resource that provides an evidence-based In chapter 3 the physiological effects
summary of current best practices for of training stress are explained, as
athlete monitoring. Monitoring Train- are the concepts of overreaching and
ing and Performance in Athletes links the overtraining. Methods for monitoring
research- and science-based concepts of training stress and measures of fitness
athlete monitoring with practical strate- and fatigue are presented in chapters 4
gies to use with athletes and clients. and 5. Chapter 6 reviews practices cur-
This book will appeal to sport coaches, rently used in athlete monitoring, along
strength and conditioning coaches, with technology. Blending the art and
sport scientists, physical therapists, and science of coaching has particular impor-
athletic trainers working across a range tance for monitoring, and these princi-
of sports and athletes from secondary ples are addressed in chapter 7. Finally,
school to professional levels. It provides a chapters 8 and 9 provide guidelines,
thorough overview of the contemporary approaches, challenges, and solutions
evidence in athlete monitoring as well as for monitoring athletes in individual
examples of best practice from high-per- and team sports, respectively. Case stud-
formance sport. A unique feature is the ies and examples throughout the book
blending of rigorous scientific evidence show how the information can be used
with the art of coaching to provide a in practice.
one-stop shop for anyone overseeing The information currently available on
an athlete monitoring program. Practi- athlete monitoring can be overwhelm-
tioners will learn the science underlying ing. This text provides relevant and
athlete monitoring approaches, general practical information that practition-
principles of application, and how best ers can use to make
to implement these methods in practice. an impact on their
All of this has been done without losing athletes’ preparation
sight of the realities of working in sport and performance.
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First, I would like to thank the many ath- athletes who have been participants in
letes and coaches I have had the opportu- these studies. Also, thanks to all the
nity to work with over the years. I don’t wonderful colleagues and postgraduate
think it would be possible to write a book students I have worked with—in par-
on athlete monitoring without significant ticular, Mike Newton, Stuart Cormack,
interactions with athletes, coaches, and David Tod, Matthew Sharman, Sophia
practitioners from a range of sports. In Nimphius, and Nic Gill.
particular, I had the opportunity to work I have also been fortunate to have had
with three world-class coaches. Waimar- several excellent mentors. I was lucky
ama Taumaunu, Ruth Aitken, and Jean- enough to work with and learn from three
Pierre Egger, thank you for the insights of the best researchers in the world in the
and conversations. areas of athlete training and monitoring.
I would also like to thank Roger Earle, Carl Foster, Robert Newton, and William
Melissa Zavala, Karla Walsh, and all Kraemer have been extremely generous
the team at Human Kinetics behind the with their time over the years, and I will
scenes for their help throughout the pro- always be thankful for their support.
cess of developing and writing this book. Finally, and most important, thanks to
I have been involved with many my family. My wife, Kathryn, and daugh-
research projects on athlete monitoring ters Rachel, Emma, and Nicola inspire me
over the years. Thank you to the many every day.
ix
Why Monitor
1
Athletes?
Athlete monitoring has become an practitioners need at least a basic under-

integral component of total athlete standing of these technologies. Added
preparation. Elite sporting programs that to this is the increasing body of research
do not do some type of monitoring are on athlete monitoring. Practitioners’
rare; most invest substantial resources challenge is to avoid collecting data for
in monitoring systems. Also, many new no reason but to instead use all of this
technologies and companies target the information to help their athletes better
athlete monitoring market. As a result of their performances.
these developments, sport coaches, sport Historically, there has been a great deal
scientists, and strength and conditioning of interest in quantifying the training of
practitioners need to be familiar with the athletes (32). For many years, coaches
principles of athlete monitoring, starting have been systematically recording the
with a good understanding of the reasons training of their athletes using training
for doing so. diaries. Track and field coach Clyde Little-
Over the last several decades, sport field (1892-1981) and swimming coach
scientists have been collecting a great James “Doc” Counsilman (1920-2004)
deal of information about athletes. For were known to keep detailed records of
example, monitoring athletes using the training and competitions of their
technologies such as global positioning athletes and to adjust their training
systems (GPS) and accelerometry is now programs based on this information (4).
widespread in elite sport. As a result, In fact, research from the 19th century
2 Monitoring Training and Performance in Athletes
documents strength and fatigue responses from British statistician George Box:
(although not in high-level athletes) (36). “All models are wrong, but some are
Systematically monitoring the physiolog- useful” (5). The models in this book
ical and psychological variables related to provide a starting point for discussions
performance helps practitioners measure of key concepts. As shown in figure
the effectiveness of their training pro- 1.1, the ultimate outcome in sport is
grams and decide how to revise or update performance. To have any effect on an
those programs. Recent times have seen athlete, a monitoring program needs
frequent discussions in the media and a to have performance as its underlying
steady stream of research on the topic. consideration. Traditionally, physical and
As noted, practitioners need to under- psychological factors were monitored.
stand the reasons for monitoring ath- However, technical and tactical compo-
letes and how to use the information to nents are extremely important to overall
improve their performances. Buy-in on athletic performance. The monitoring
the part of both athlete and practitioner program attempts to quantify factors
will also increase the effectiveness of any such as training dosage (also known as
monitoring program. load), variables of training, and lifestyle
Figure 1.1 depicts monitoring issues factors (e.g., sleep, nutrition, life stress).
and how monitoring helps athletes. Subsequent chapters address these fac-
When examining the figures in this tors and methods for monitoring them.
book, keep in mind an important quote A solid understanding of these factors
What is
worthwhile How to use
Statistical monitoring? monitoring
tools information
Why Monitoring Integrating

monitor? monitoring and
coaching
Athlete
Dosage Response
• Physical
• Training and • Psychological • Performance
competition load
• Technical
• Life load
• Tactical
Figure 1.1 Monitoring issues and how monitoring helps athletes.
E6859/McGuigan/F01.01/554417/mh/kh-R2
Why Monitor Athletes? 3
and how they are related is the basis of is, the longer the recovery period must
a good athlete monitoring program. be (51).
Two important factors to assess when
determining the stress response to train-
Stress Response to a ing sessions are training readiness and
nontraining parameters.
Training Session
How an athlete ultimately performs is the
Assessing Training
result of the accumulation of individual Readiness
training sessions. Thus, a key purpose Monitoring helps determine the impact
of monitoring is to evaluate the stress of individual training sessions on ath-
response to individual training sessions, letes’ physical performance states and
which are the building blocks of the training readiness. Many practitioners
overall training program. Practitioners assess the training readiness of their ath-
need to know how hard their athletes letes at the beginning of training sessions
are working in both training sessions and to determine whether they need to make
competition. adjustments to the session. For example,
One of the challenges facing practi- an athlete experiencing excessive fatigue
tioners is the plethora of methods and might benefit from a reduction in inten-
technologies available for monitoring sity. However, evidence supporting the
athletes. A method can be as simple and use of a specific test to assess training
cheap as measuring the duration of the readiness is lacking. Rather than relying
on a sophisticated test, practitioners may
session and keeping a record of the ele-
do something as simple as asking the
ments of the session in a training diary
athlete “How do you feel?” This type of
(32). More complicated and expensive
subjective information has been shown
methods include analyzing biochemical
to be very effective for monitoring the
markers such as cortisol (a stress hor-
well-being and fatigue levels of athletes
mone) and measuring athlete move-
(50). Subjective monitoring methods and
ments using GPS and inertial sensors. wellness scales are discussed in more
However, expensive does not necessarily detail in chapter 4. A combination of
mean better; simple tools often provide subjective and objective measures often
as much, if not more, information than provides an overall picture of the ath-
more sophisticated methods (50). lete’s readiness for the training session.
Practitioners also need to know the Training readiness can be assessed
effect of physiological loading on athletes using high-velocity movements such
during and following training sessions. as vertical countermovement jumps or
The relationship between the training drop jumps. The practitioner establishes
dose and the athlete’s response largely a baseline result from when the athlete
determines the adaptations to the train- is in peak condition and uses it as a
ing program as those sessions accumulate benchmark for subsequent assessments.
(14). An athlete’s return to a state of If, for example, an athlete falls 10%
homeostasis is affected by the training or more below the peak performance
dosage. The greater the training stress value, the practitioner may adjust the
session. Some practitioners use high- needs to be considered. Research has

force movements such as isometric shown that factors such as stress can play
mid-thigh pulls or isometric squats as a role in the risk of developing injury
monitoring tools. Decrements in force (30, 37). One study in the United States
production (e.g., greater than 5%) could found that university American football
indicate the need to change a training players were at greater risk of develop-
session. Movement screening and observing injury during periods of academic
ing athletes during the warm-up provide stress (37). This was in addition to high
key information about their readiness levels of physical stress from increased
for training sessions. Practitioners also training and playing loads. Practitioners
use manual therapies such as massage or need to be aware of not only the physical
joint manipulation to determine athlete demands on their athletes but also other
readiness; however, research evidence stressors.
for the efficacy of this type of approach An interesting question to consider at
is lacking. this point is what practitioners should
Another monitoring tool that is becom- do when a monitoring tool reveals sig-
ing more widely used for assessing train-
nificant levels of fatigue. Should the
ing readiness is heart rate variability
session continue as planned, or should
(HRV) (46). HRV provides informa-
it be modified? The answer depends on
tion about the neural influence on the
several factors. It might be appropriate
heart—in particular, the regulation of
to continue with the training session as
the sympathetic nervous system. HRV
planned during a heavy training block.
is discussed in more detail in chapter 5.
However, if the session is close to a major
One benefit of methods such as HRV is
that they are noninvasive and data can competition, it might be more appropri-
be collected at rest using smartphone ate to use a reduced training load (the
applications (19). An increasing body of measure of total training stress experi-
research is emerging in this area, pro- enced by the athlete) or even to drop
viding guidelines for the use of HRV in the session altogether. These concepts
training monitoring (47). are explored in more detail in chapter 7.
Assessing Nontraining Adaptation to a

Parameters
In addition to measuring the acute
Training Program
response to the training session, mon-
itoring systems allow practitioners to One of the fundamental reasons for mon-
measure what is happening outside of itoring athletes is to gauge their progress
training and competition (e.g., nutrition, in response to a training program. A
hydration, sleep, and wellness). This practitioner may decide to test athletes
gives practitioners the full picture of at the beginning of a training cycle and
what is affecting athletes’ performance. then again at the end. This can provide
The total stress on the athlete—not just valuable information about the response
the stress of training and competition— of the athletes to that particular block of
training. However, if the window of time prescribing training based on measures of

between these testing periods is too long strength such as 1RM, then, will need to
(greater than 6 weeks), the practitioner regularly monitor the athletes’ strength
might miss crucial information about levels. A relatively simple way to do this is
the athlete’s responses. Pretesting and to use training loads to estimate the ath-
posttesting is the standard way of gauging letes’ maximal strength. Other capacities
an athlete’s progress because it does the such as power might be more challenging
following: to measure. In terms of exercise prescrip-
tion, regular monitoring should allow the
• Provides objective data on the effects practitioner to make informed decisions
of the training program based on how the athlete is responding to
• Assesses the impact of a specific type the training program. With other physi-
of intervention cal capacities such as aerobic endurance,
• Helps the practitioner make informed fast adaptations can occur, particularly in
decisions about changes to the train- less-trained athletes with a low training
ing program age (8). Gathering regular feedback about
how the athlete is adapting can help the
• Identifies the physical strengths and
practitioner adjust the training program
weaknesses of the athlete
to optimize that adaptation.
• Maximizes the practitioner’s and Regular monitoring gives practitioners
athlete’s understanding of the needs detailed information for reporting pur-
of the sport poses. Sport is a results-driven business,
• Adds to the body of knowledge on and although an effective monitoring
high-performance athletes system does not guarantee success, it
can certainly contribute. Monitoring data
However, physical capacities such as also assists practitioners working in elite
strength and power can change rapidly, sport with reporting and accountability.
particularly in developing athletes and Objective information helps to build a
those with a low training age. Research case for the effectiveness of a program.
has shown a great deal of variability in For example, a strength and conditioning
how much untrained people can increase practitioner may be able to demonstrate
muscular strength following a resistance that the program changed athletes’ phys-
training program (18, 33). A classic study ical characteristics, reduced injury rates,
by Hubal and colleagues (33) showed that and contributed to competitive perfor-
1-repetition maximum (1RM) strength mance. This could be especially impor-
gains could change up to 250% (range = tant during an end-of-season review of
0-250%) following 12 weeks of progres- the strength and conditioning program.
sive resistance training. Another study Although monitoring information may
by Bamman and colleagues (3) showed not guarantee staff retention, at least the
a large variation (0-60%) in muscular practitioner will know that he or she did
hypertrophy after 16 weeks of resistance everything possible to prove the worth of
training. Even in elite athletes, levels of the program and will have information
strength and power can increase across a that can be used to secure future oppor-
training cycle (1, 2). A practitioner who is tunities.
Risk of Overreaching, However, if the mismatch between

the cumulative training load resulting in
Overtraining, fatigue and the level of recovery contin-
Sickness, and Injury ues for an extended period, the athlete
may enter into an overtrained state.
Overtraining is a state characterized by
One of the major reasons sport invests so decrements in performance accompa-
much time in athlete monitoring systems nied by psychological disturbances that
is to keep athletes playing and reduce the remain for an extended time despite sig-
time lost to injury and illness. Particu- nificant reductions in training load (40).
larly in professional sport, in which so The restoration of the capacity to perform
much money is invested in players, those may take from several weeks to several
players need to be available to compete months. This has crucial implications
in the most important events. The goal of for the availability of athletes for major
athlete monitoring is to reduce the risk competitions. These important concepts
of overreaching, overtraining, sickness, are discussed in more detail in chapter 3.
and injury. Research has shown that As well as resulting in significant
high training volumes are not necessarily reductions in performance, excessive
the cause of maladaptation to training; training loads that result in prolonged
rather, the issue is how the athletes get fatigue can place athletes at a higher risk
to that point and how they have accumu- of injury and illness (30). This has very
lated the volume (21). The destination is serious implications for athlete monitor-
critical, but practitioners need to consider ing. A great deal of interest exists in how
the journey the athlete has undertaken to predict injury or illness in athletes. A
to get there. monitoring system that can help reduce
It is important to consider the rela- the risk of injury or illness would provide
tionship between the acute stimulus of significant performance benefits.
a single training session and the cumu- Figure 1.2 shows factors that can
lative effect of training (14, 31). Fatigue affect training load as well as contribute
is a normal and expected response to to overreaching, overtraining, illness,
training. Under normal circumstances and injury. A monitoring system needs
the athlete experiences acute fatigue to take these factors into account and,
in response to the training session and where possible, quantify them. Factors
recovers within a period of hours to outside of training and competition,
days. This acute fatigue, when followed referred to as life load, also need consid-
by adequate recovery, should result in eration: work demands, study demands,
adaptation and improved performance relationships, and the general stress
(14). Problems can arise, however, when of life. Training and competition load
a mismatch exists between the stress of are affected by factors such as volume,
training and recovery. Some practitioners intensity, duration, frequency, and type
induce a state of overreaching in athletes of exercise. The combination of training
by using intensified training. This can load and life load determines the acute
result in high levels of adaptation follow- response to the training session. As these
ing the supercompensation period. With sessions accumulate, athletes will expe-
the overreaching state a decrement in rience a chronic response to training. If
performance can last from several days a period of intensified training without
to several weeks (14). sufficient recovery occurs, a state of
Volume Environmental Genetics

Athlete Work
Intensity
Study
Mode
Relationships
Coach Life load
Training load
Duration
Stress
Injury Sleep Diet Life events

Acute
Illness response
Recovery
Adaptation
Chronic
response
If insufficient recovery
Overreaching
Continued insufficient recovery

High strain
and monotony
Overtraining
Figure 1.2 Factors that affect training load and their relationship to overreaching, overtraining, illness,
and injury. E6859/McGuigan/F01.02/554418/mh-R2
overreaching can occur. If this contin- training and competitions, and disturbed
ues, athletes could enter an overtrained sleep. Many tools for athlete monitor-
state (14). ing are discussed in more detail in later
When an athlete is suffering from chapters.
performance fatigue, it is important to
determine whether that fatigue is the
result of overreaching or overtraining.
Criteria for diagnosing overtraining syn-
Importance
drome, as well as exclusion criteria for of Individualized
the condition, have been developed to
guide practitioners (40). It is important to Monitoring
note that no single diagnostic tool exists
to identify overtraining syndrome. This An individualized approach to athlete
diagnosis can be made only by exclud- monitoring is critical to get the best
ing all other possible influences on the results from a training system. The
changes in performance and mood state relationship between training dosage
(40). Signs to look for include unex- and performance varies between ath-
plained underperformance, persistent letes, most likely as a result of factors
fatigue, increased perceived exertion in such as genetics, training history, and
psychological factors. This book focuses cortisol were also obtained. Integrated
on individualized approaches to monitor- monitoring systems that incorporate
ing athletes. Although most practitioners measures of training load, physiological
deal with groups of athletes, it is impor- systems, subjective wellness, and phys-
tant to focus on each athlete’s responses ical performance are becoming more
rather than just on the group’s results. commonplace in high-performance
Looking only at the average results for sport programs. In another study, Brad-
a group of athletes can result in missing ley and colleagues (6) tracked training
important individual responses. The load, nutrition intake, and physical per-
approach proposed here is no different formance in professional rugby union
from the approach used when designing athletes across a preseason. Tracking this
a training program. Rather than taking a type of information throughout a period
one-size-fits-all approach and creating a of training permits researchers to observe
generic program for a squad of athletes, trends across a group of athletes. This can
a strength and conditioning practitioner also be useful for answering questions
should take into account individual ath- practitioners might have. For example,
letes’ strengths and weaknesses (38, 45). Bradley and colleagues (6) were able
When implementing a monitoring to observe and make suggestions about
system, it is equally important to allow nutrition intake and training demands
for individual athlete variation. For for professional rugby union athletes.
example, some athletes tolerate increases
in training load better than others do
(23, 30). Monitoring individual athletes Monitoring for Injury Risk
allows practitioners to identify those who Monitoring training also has an impor-
are not responding to the training pro- tant role to play in the area of injury
gram. Solid evidence now demonstrates prevention (34). In particular, monitor-
that people have individual responses to ing has huge potential for uncovering
training (10, 33). This is true not only information about injury risk and its rela-
for physical capacities such as muscular tionship to training load. For example,
strength (33) and aerobic endurance several studies from contact sports such
(10) but also across a range of physical as rugby league (23-25, 35), rugby union
capacities and markers. Practitioners (15), and Australian rules football (12,
need to be aware of these differences 49) show a relationship between changes
to ensure a full understanding of total in cumulative training load and risk of
athlete preparation. injury. A study by Cross and colleagues
An increasing body of research now (15) showed that rugby players were at
includes regular monitoring data from a higher risk of injury if they had high
elite athletes (6, 9, 29, 41). For example, 1-week cumulative training loads or a
Buchheit and colleagues (9) monitored large week-to-week change in training
the fitness, fatigue markers, and running load. These are similar to observations
performance of Australian rules football made in other contact sports (35, 49,
players during a preseason camp. Over 14 56). Not only do excessive loads need
days the athletes were monitored using to be monitored, but also inadequate
ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and exposure to training load can be an
GPS during all training sessions. Daily issue (56). Being undertrained is often
measures of fatigue, sleep quality, muscle a bigger concern for many athletes than
soreness, stress and mood, and salivary being overtrained. In elite sport, the
issue is not necessarily the high volumes and colleagues (57) investigated the
of work themselves but rather how the neuromuscular, hormonal, and mood
athletes get to that point. The implica- responses in 14 professional rugby play-
tion is that by monitoring training loads ers following match play. At 60 hr post-
weekly, practitioners will be much better match, seven players had not fully recov-
informed about the changes in training. ered to baseline levels for peak power on
As a result, they can manipulate the pro- a vertical countermovement jump. How-
gram design to ensure that players are ever, the average results for the squad
not exceeding thresholds that put them of players revealed full recovery of the
at increased risk of injury (22). squad to baseline levels. Examining the
individual ratios of salivary testosterone
to cortisol demonstrated that at 60 hr
Monitoring for Illness postmatch, five players showed recovery
In addition to injury, athletes are at or a slight increase over recovery levels,
increased risk of developing illnesses whereas nine players showed a decrease,
such as upper respiratory tract infections ranging from −6% to −65%. Only by
during heavy periods of training (16, 44, monitoring each athlete’s response to
53). Not a great deal of research exists training and recovery will a full picture
on the relationship between training emerge. Postexercise recovery strategies
load and illness in team sport athletes could be individualized; for example,
(56). However, a number of researchers athletes who recover more slowly might
who investigated this relationship in use more aggressive and intensive recov-
mainly aerobic endurance–based sport ery strategies. Practitioners need to be
discovered increased susceptibility to mindful about balancing recovery and
upper respiratory illnesses after pro- adaptation and any negative effects asso-
longed strenuous exercise (28). Moni- ciated with excessive recovery in their
toring immune markers such as salivary athletes (43, 48).
immunoglobulin A (IgA) and cytokines
may hold some promise for identify-
ing athletes at risk of developing these Monitoring Training Load
illnesses (26-28). Prolonged and strenu- Individualized monitoring determines
ous bouts of exercise during training and the degree of agreement between the
competition have been shown to impair training load prescribed by the practi-
immune function (27). This can put ath- tioner and the load experienced by the
letes at greater risk of developing upper athlete. Research suggests that a lack of
respiratory tract infections as a result agreement often exists between practi-
of decreased levels of salivary IgA and tioners and athletes in terms of percep-
cytokines (27). Thus, monitoring these tion of the workload intensity (7, 20,
types of markers is logical. 42). Problems can occur when intended
easy sessions become hard sessions, and
vice versa, which can lead to adverse
Monitoring Recovery effects such as overreaching or a lack
Recovery strategies are an increasingly of adaptation. Using a systematic mon-
important part of high-performance pro- itoring system with objective measures
grams. Many studies have shown an indi- such as heart rate and GPS makes these
vidualized rate of recovery in response adverse effects less likely to occur. How-
to contact sport (57). For example, West ever, the true value of this information
emerges only from observing individual training errors when a mismatch occurs
responses. between the prescribed training load and
the athlete’s ability to tolerate it safely.
Avoiding such mismatches is possible
Monitoring Effects only when monitoring occurs on an indi-
of Training and vidual basis. These concepts are explored
Competition Schedules more in chapters 8 and 9.
It is exciting to see more data being
Monitoring athletes may also provide published about elite athletes (41, 54,
information about the impact of competi-
55). Sport science researchers have
tion schedules on individual player avail-
traditionally published research on rec-
ability (11, 39). This can be a particular
reationally trained athletes, which may
issue in sports with heavy competitive
have more limited application to athletes
schedules such as football (11, 17) and
in high-performance sport. One of the
baseball (52). Carling and colleagues (11)
challenges in this era is the increased
investigated the effects of match con-
use of data analytics or analyzing large
gestion on a professional football team
amounts of data to make conclusions
competing in domestic and European
and find patterns (13). Looking at this
competitions over a 4-year period. They
at the level of the individual athlete
documented the impact of players being
rested at key periods, which highlighted makes interpretation of data even more
how the coaching staff rotated and challenging. Practitioners now need skills
rested key players. The authors noted to process, interpret, and implement the
that the systematic monitoring of the tsunami of available information into
players during match recovery periods their programs (13). One important skill
using measures such as RPE, wellness, is being able to filter out information that
and recovery of muscle strength enabled is not important. Individual monitoring
practitioners to make evidence-based can add value to a high-performance
decisions on whether to rest players program by giving practitioners a more
from subsequent matches (11). McLean complete understanding of how the ath-
and colleagues (39) investigated the letes are tracking. Monitoring data can
neuromuscular, endocrine, and percep- then be used to aid decision making in
tual responses to varying durations of areas such as load management, training
recovery in elite rugby league players. program design and manipulations, and
The results showed that as a playing competition peaking. If done well, this
group the athletes tended to recover should increase athlete availability by
fully within 4 days of match play, but reducing incidences of injury and illness.
the results were highly individual. This Monitoring appears to be extremely
highlighted the need for practitioners important for athlete and practitioner
to use individual monitoring to make education by providing data to sup-
decisions about appropriate approaches port decisions and identify best prac-
to training and potential adjustments to tice approaches to athlete preparation.
training load, particularly in elite ath- Athlete and practitioner buy-in to the
letes. Monitoring can assist with reducing monitoring program is a fundamental
contributor to the system’s success. A Practitioners must always question

key aspect of any monitoring system is the reasons for gathering information in
that it must ultimately inform decision their monitoring programs. They must
making. Data that are not used are simply weigh the cost of the monitoring pro-
data collected for the sake of it. Athletes gram and consider the value of the infor-
in particular are less likely to take moni- mation (cost-benefit analysis). Chapter
toring seriously if they do not understand 7 describes a systematic process to help
why the information is being collected. with making these decisions.
INDIVIDUAL RESPONSES IN A SQUAD OF ATHLETES

In this example, a range of monitoring measures is presented for an elite international
squad of netball athletes. During a 10-day training camp, the coaching staff imple-
ments a monitoring system to assess how the athletes are responding to each training
session (two or three per day). The coaches want to adapt the training program across
the 10 days and detect early signs of overreaching, excessive fatigue, or both. The mon-
itoring program for the training camp includes measuring RPE (training load) and heart
rate during all training sessions as well as using daily wellness questionnaires (for
muscle soreness, sleep quality, fatigue, and mood), salivary cortisol (stress marker), a
drop jump test (neuromuscular fatigue), nutritional intake, and body weight measures.
One of the tests (drop jump) reveals little average change in neuromuscular fatigue
in the group of 20 athletes across the training camp (mean = −1.5%). However, a look at
the day-to-day variation of individual athletes for each test reveals a different picture.
Taking just one day of the training camp as an example, changes in drop jump results
from baseline range from −27% to +8%.
Meetings are held each evening with all of the coaches and support staff to discuss
the individual players’ data from the previous 24 hr. These meetings also include dis-
cussions about the coaches’ perceptions of how the players performed in training and
match play. Any injuries or limiting factors are also presented and discussed. Closely
examining each player’s response allows the coaching staff to see which players are
experiencing excessive fatigue and to make necessary adjustments to their training
loads. For example, the training load of an athlete who has exhibited excessive levels
of fatigue over the previous 1 to 2 days might be reduced for the next day.
Alternative methods or increased recovery could also be considered. It would also
be important for the coaches and support staff to delve deeper into any reasons for
excessive fatigue. Issues as simple as poor sleep patterns over the preceding days or
outside stresses in the athlete’s life could be contributing factors. All factors need to be
considered at an individual level.
Finally, this type of monitoring information can also be used in team selections. For
example, coaches can see which players cope well with the demands of back-to-back
matches played in similar formats to major competitions such as world champion-
ships.
Conclusion are occurring. If done effectively, it may

also be used to predict illness and injury
in athletes, thus minimizing the time
High-performance sport programs are that athletes miss training and, most
now investing a significant amount of important, competition. An effective
resources in athlete monitoring systems. monitoring system can reduce the risk
Therefore, it is critical that those work- of training errors resulting from a mis-
ing in sport understand why athlete match between the prescribed training
monitoring is important. Practitioners load and athletes’ ability to tolerate that
should monitor their athletes for com- load. This can only be done using indi-
pelling reasons. Athlete monitoring can vidualized athlete monitoring. Clearly,
provide information about areas such understanding the reasons for moni-
as acute response to a training session toring athletes will assist practitioners
and adaptations to a training program. in implementing effective systems that
Monitoring can also help determine can effect change in their sporting per-
whether overreaching and overtraining formance programs.
Research
2
Tools for Athlete
Monitoring
Because athlete monitoring generates Traditional statistical methods are

a great deal of data, practitioners need often not the most appropriate for
research tools to help them analyze the analyzing data in sport environments
data effectively. Statistics is the science because they focus on the group rather
of collecting, classifying, analyzing, and than the athlete. Traditional methods
interpreting numerical data (8, 39). address statistical significance, whereas
Practitioners are typically not familiar practitioners are more interested in prac-
with or overly enthusiastic about statistical or clinical significance. Fortunately,
tical analysis, but it can help them make contemporary techniques, which pro-
use of monitoring information. A basic vide helpful insights into how athletes
understanding of statistical concepts is respond to training and competition,
important, particularly for those who are becoming more widely used. These
use statistics on a regular basis. Prac- methods enable practitioners to take into
titioners must be aware that applying account many of the issues they face
research tools incorrectly can result in in sporting environments. This chapter
misinterpreting data and making incor- provides simple explanations of these
rect conclusions. methods and examples of how these
contemporary methods can be used in though they may not always need all of
practice. Although a basic understanding them. These tools are discussed in more
of these statistical methods is sufficient detail throughout this chapter.
for most practitioners, a more in-depth Two branches of statistics are descrip-
understanding can be useful. Practition- tive and inferential (39). Descriptive
ers who invest time in learning about statistics provide a summary of data
these techniques in greater detail can be and are a good starting point for ana-
richly rewarded. More technical expla- lyzing monitoring data. They are simply
nations are available (21). a way to describe the data. Inferential
statistics allow one to use a random
sample taken from a population to
Basic Statistical Tools make inferences about that population.
Recently, scientists and practitioners
for Practitioners in sport science have made increasing
use of magnitude-based approaches,
What are the basic statistical tools practi- which can be more practical because they
tioners can use to enhance their athlete address the meaningfulness of change to
monitoring (8)? Figure 2.1 depicts the athletes (2). Practitioners may be more
basic tools that all practitioners should interested in understanding whether a
have in their monitoring toolboxes, even change in a monitoring variable is prac-
Effect size
Z-scores Meaningful
change
Correlation Research Typical

tools error
Graphing Descriptive
data statistics
Qualitative
approaches
Figure 2.1 Statistical toolbox for athlete monitoring.

Research Tools for Athlete Monitoring 15
tically meaningful rather than statistically

significant. That is, can the change be
Classification of Data
applied practically in the sporting envi- Administering performance monitoring
ronment? Statistical measures of central tests and recording the results are rel-
tendency, variability, percentile rank, atively straightforward aspects of any
smallest meaningful change, effect size, athlete monitoring program. However,
and standard scores all can be useful for an understanding of the types of data is
monitoring a group of athletes, but more necessary to ensure that the results are
important is monitoring the athletes in evaluated correctly. Rating scales used in
the group. athlete monitoring include rating of per-
ceived exertion (RPE), Profile of Mood
States (POMS), Recovery-Stress Ques-
Descriptive Statistics tionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport),

and Daily Analysis of Life Demands for
Athletes (DALDA). Some of these scales
Descriptive statistics summarizes or use numerical data, some use verbal
describes a large group of data and is descriptors, and others use simple check-
used when all the information about a lists (39). Data generated from athlete
population is known. For example, if monitoring can be generally grouped into
all the members of a squad of athletes four categories: nominal, interval, ratio,
are being monitored, statements can be and ordinal.
made about the entire team with the use
of descriptive statistics. The categories of Nominal Scale
numerical measurement in descriptive
A nominal scale is used to group ath-
statistics include central tendency, varia-
letes into categories (3). Examples are
bility, and percentile rank. In the sections
classifying athletes as men or women or
that follow, these terms are defined and
by position, such as quarterback or wide
examples of how to calculate the values
receiver in American football.
and scores are presented. At the most
basic level, descriptive statistics such
as mean and standard deviation can be
Interval Scale
used to report monitoring data. How- An interval scale has equal intervals or
ever, at times these may not be the most units (6). There is no absolute zero, so
appropriate statistics or convey enough negative scores are possible. An example
meaningful information. Practitioners of an interval scale is temperature meas-
often also use simple statistics such as ured in degrees.
minimum (lowest data value), maxi-
mum (highest data value), and range (the Ratio Scale
difference between the maximum and A common type of scoring used in ath-
minimum, which represents the overall lete monitoring is the ratio scale (6). It
spread of the results) when reporting possesses an absolute zero, is based on
monitoring data. However, the first step order, and has equal distances between
is to have a solid understanding of how points. Measurements such as distance,
to classify types of monitoring data. time, and force are based on ratio scales.
Ordinal Scale Mode

Sometimes referred to as a rank order The mode is the score that occurs with
scale, an ordinal scale ranks scores rather the greatest frequency (8). If each
than providing any indication of the mag- numerical score appears only once, there
nitude of difference (3). For example, an is no mode. If two or more scores have
ordinal scale might rank scores from top the greatest frequency, then all of these
to bottom or highest to lowest. scores are modes. The mode is most
useful for informing the practitioner of
a score that occurs most regularly. The
Measures of Central mode is generally regarded as the least
Tendency useful measure of central tendency for
Measures of central tendency are values athlete monitoring.
about which the data tend to cluster. The
three most common measures of central Variability
tendency are mean, median, and mode.
Practitioners often want to know the
spread of data around the center of the
Mean distribution. The degree of dispersion
The mean refers to the average of the of these data points within the group
scores (i.e., the sum of the scores divided is called variability (3). Two common
by the number of scores) (8). This is the measures of variability are range and
most commonly used measure of central standard deviation.
tendency. Because it uses all the data
values of the sample, it provides infor- Range
mation on the entire sample. However, The range is the difference between
the mean, or average, is greatly affected the smallest (minimum) and the larg-
by the presence of extreme values (also est (maximum) data values or scores.
called outliers). This represents the overall spread of the
scores. The advantage of the range for
Median practitioners is that it is easy to under-
The median is the middle score when stand. The major disadvantage is that
a set of scores is arranged in increasing it may not be an accurate measure of
order of magnitude (8). When there is variability because it uses only the two
an even number of scores, the median is extreme scores and therefore is greatly
the average of the two middle scores. Half affected by outliers. For this reason, the
of the scores fall above the median, and range has limited application in practical
half fall below the median. In some cases, settings. For example, the range could
the median is a better measure of central be the same for a group with widely
tendency than the mean because of the dispersed results as for a group with
distribution of the scores (e.g., a few ath- narrowly dispersed results and a single
letes in the group have very high or very extreme result (i.e., one athlete achieves
low scores). Extreme scores can raise or a particularly high or low score). How-
lower the squad mean to the extent that ever, the range can be useful for show-
it does not adequately describe the status ing the spread of scores for a particular
of most of the athletes. measure in the group of athletes.
Standard Deviation About 95% are within 2 standard devi-

ations, and 99.7% are within 3 stand-
The standard deviation is a measure of
ard deviations of the mean. Although
the variability of a set of results around
many statistical calculations are based
the mean (3). A small standard devia-
on this normal distribution, practition-
tion indicates that a set of data values
ers are often dealing with nonnormal
is closely clustered around the mean. A
large standard deviation indicates a wider distributions in athlete monitoring. In
dispersion of the data values around the fact, this curve almost never occurs in
mean. Generally, the mean and standard real-life data. What this means is that
deviation are reported alongside each a certain amount of error is built into
other as mean ± standard deviation (e.g., all statistical techniques; practitioners
77.5 ± 6.7 kg could be the descriptive should be mindful of this when using
statistic reported for the body weight of these methods.
a group of athletes). Reporting a sum- The normal curve is a frequency histo-
mary of a squad of athletes in this way gram (a graph that plots data according
is a good way to show the group average to the frequency of occurrences) that
while also providing some indication demonstrates that the greatest number of
of the spread of the data. The standard scores occurs in the middle of the curve
deviation is most useful when the data and fewer and fewer scores occur out to
values are normally distributed, forming the sides (figure 2.2). A normal curve
a bell-shaped curve as shown in figure with a long, low tail on the left is called a
2.2. negatively skewed curve. When the tail
The normal bell-shaped curve is the of the curve is on the right, it is referred
foundation and starting point of many to as positively skewed. Outliers can
statistical techniques (3). As figure 2.2 change the shape of this curve. This
indicates, when data are normally dis- is a common occurrence in many ath-
tributed, about 68% of the scores are lete monitoring situations, particularly
within 1 standard deviation of the mean. because practitioners often deal with
0.13% 2.15% 13.59% 34.13% 34.13% 13.59% 2.15% 0.13%
Percentile 0.1 2.3 16 50 84 97.7 99.9

Standard deviation –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
Z-score –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
T-score 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Figure 2.2 Normal frequency distribution curve.

E6859/McGuigan/F02.02/554420/mh-R2
small sample sizes. For example, coaches More advanced techniques for ana-
often deliberately modify training so that lyzing data can provide some inter-
programs include heavy and light weeks esting information about the patterns
or days. These periods of loading and of athlete monitoring data. Using data
unloading are examples of extreme but mining can give a more in-depth math-
important outliers that need to be taken ematical description of patterns. Data
into account. mining refers to the process of deeper
Standard deviations (and the degree exploration using analysis techniques
of skewness) are often calculated using of large data sets that practitioners typ-
a spreadsheet. However, a basic under- ically encounter in athlete monitoring.
standing of how they are calculated is Looking at the clustering of group data
useful for understanding these measures. according to similarities in the data is
Following are steps for calculating the one approach. At the simplest level,
standard deviation of a group of data: the clustering can consist of classifying
athletes by position, playing standard,
1. Calculate the deviation of each score or level of experience.
from the mean by subtracting the
mean from each raw score (actual
score obtained by the athlete). Z-Scores
2. Square each deviation score. The extent of unusualness of a data
3. Sum all of the squared deviations. point is determined by calculating the
z-score—the number of standard devia-
4. Divide the sum by N − 1 to get the
tions away from the mean. The z-score is
variance.
an example of a standardized score and
5. Take the square root of the variance is useful in athlete monitoring because
to find the standard deviation. it provides much more information than
For example: just the raw score (42). Practitioners can
use the z-score to express the distance
Resting heart rates for an athlete over of any athlete’s result in standard devi-
8 days = 55, 62, 57, 51, 62, 65, 71, ation units from the mean. When scores
58 beats/min are transformed into z-scores, normally
distributed z-scores have a mean of 0
Mean = 60.1 beats per min, so the and a standard deviation of 1 (see figure
deviation score for each day = −5.1, 2.2). The z-scores will range between −3
1.9, −3.1, −9.1, 1.9, 4.9, 10.9, −2.1 and +3. The z-score indicates how many
standard deviations below or above the
Squared deviation scores = mean the athlete’s score is. For exam-
26.01, 3.61, 9.61, 82.81, 3.61, ple, a z-score of +1.5 would indicate
24.01, 118.81, 4.41 that the athlete’s score is 1.5 standard
deviations above the mean for the group
Sum of all the squared deviations = of athletes.
272.88 The z-score can be calculated as fol-
lows:
272.88 ÷ (8 − 1) = 38.98 Z-score = athlete’s score −
group’s mean score ÷
Square root of 38.98 = 6.24 beats/min group’s standard deviation
For example, if an athlete has a result response to a training intervention (i.e.,

of 55 watts/kg for peak power during a pretraining versus posttraining), but they
vertical countermovement jump, and can also be used for regular athlete mon-
the mean and standard deviation for the itoring. An advantage of this approach
group are 60 watts/kg and 5 watts/kg, is that it takes into account large differ-
respectively, the preceding equation can ences in the rank order of the scores.
be used to determine the z-score for that Standard difference scores can be cal-
athlete as follows: culated by finding the difference between
the premeasure and postmeasure for
Z-score = 55 − 60 ÷ 5 = −1.0 each athlete and then dividing it by the
In other words, the athlete’s score is 1 standard deviation of the difference score
standard deviation from the group mean. or using a baseline standard deviation
Because the z-score is negative, the ath- (32). The standard difference scores can
lete’s score is 1 standard deviation below then be sorted by rank and plotted on
the group mean. a graph. A more in-depth discussion of
standard difference scores and methods
of calculation is available (32). Here is
T-Scores how the standard difference score could
T-scores, which are derived from z-scores, be calculated for an athlete who scored
are essentially modified z-scores. Calcu- 23 out of 40 on a wellness questionnaire
lating the t-score requires multiplying and who, the week before, scored 28 out
the z-score by 10 and then adding 50. of 40 with an established baseline stand-
Practitioners and athletes often find ard deviation of 3:
t-scores easier to understand than
Standard difference score =
z-scores because they are always positive
posttesting value − pretesting value ÷
values. T-scores generally range from 20
baseline standard deviation
to 80; 50 represents the mean score (see
figure 2.2). If an athlete has a z-score of
= 23 − 28 ÷ 3
−1.5, the t-score would be calculated as
follows:
= −1.67
T-score = −1.5 × 10 + 50 = 35
T-scores are not used as widely in athlete
monitoring as z-scores are. Practitioners Percentile Rank
could use them if they believe the coach An athlete’s percentile rank refers to the
and athlete would understand them percentage of athletes being monitored
better. who scored below that athlete. As with
calculating the median, percentile rank-
ing requires arranging monitoring results
Standard Difference Score in order from lowest to highest (also
Standard difference scores are z-scores known as arranging the data ordinally).
derived from a change in the variable. For example, if an athlete is ranked in
These scores help identify athletes who the 50th percentile, 50% of the group
have had large changes in a particular produced scores below that athlete’s
measure. The standard difference scores score. Norms based on large samples are
can help practitioners track changes in sometimes expressed in evenly spaced
percentiles. This approach is more

useful for testing capacities such as
Reliability
muscular strength and endurance and
tends to be less widely used for athlete Three vital considerations for practition-
monitoring. ers when developing protocols for moni-
toring athletes are the reliability, validity,
and sensitivity of the tools. Monitoring
Effect Size is useful only if the tools are repeatable
Effect size is one of the most useful (reliability), measure what they are
statistics for practitioners (11). It supposed to (validity), and can detect
allows the data to be reported as a change in the athlete (sensitivity).
standardized metric that can be under- These components often are discussed
stood regardless of the measurement interchangeably, but they are factors that
scale used. It is a very insightful need to be considered individually when
method for reporting changes in mon- selecting monitoring tools for athletes.
itoring variables and highlights the The reliability of the monitoring tools
practical significance of any changes; is often considered the most important
more complicated methods rely on factor because it affects the precision
statistical significance, which is much of the monitoring of athletes (1). For
more difficult to understand. A variety example, in elite athletes the degree of
of methods can be used for interpret- change in many of the measures can be
ing effect sizes (see the section Using very small; practitioners working with
Effect Size). this population need a reliable monitor-
ing tool. When measuring the wellness of
Confidence Limits athletes using a questionnaire on a daily
Confidence limits (or confidence basis, the practitioner needs to know
intervals) are the range within which what change on the measurement scale
the actual score from the monitoring would indicate a meaningful change.
tool will fall. They provide meaning- When performing any type of moni-
ful information about how large the toring, establishing the reliability of the
change or difference is and whether method is crucial. One approach is to
it is increasing or decreasing (19). A look at current research to see whether
common approach is to use 90% or researchers and practitioners have found
95% confidence limits, which means the measure to be reliable using statistics.
that the value will most likely fall However, practitioners must also try to
within this range 90% or 95% of the establish the reliability of monitoring
time. In other words, they represent tools with their own groups of athletes.
the practitioner’s level of confidence For example, there may be differences in
that the true value in the group of reliability between developmental and
athletes is contained within the spec- elite athletes. Research across a range
ified interval. When using 95% con- of sports and athlete populations seems
fidence limits, if a practitioner did the to suggest that this is the case (28, 29).
monitoring 100 times, the athlete’s In one study, high school athletes in the
score would fall within that interval United States were shown to have higher
95 times. variability on jump monitoring variables
compared to university-level and elite monitoring variables with athletes (15).

athletes (28). This provides a direct measure of the
A variety of methods for measuring amount of error associated with the test.
reliability are available to the practi- Measurement error refers to variation
tioner. The most common are corre- in the monitoring tool from any source.
lations, typical error of measurement, Therefore, it includes factors such as
coefficient of variation, and change in equipment error and the biological vari-
the mean. Practitioners do not need to ation of the athlete.
use all of these methods; calculating the
typical error of measurement and sub-
sequently determining the coefficient of Coefficient of Variation
variation (expressed as a percentage) is The coefficient of variation (CV) is an
a good starting point. important type of typical error of meas-
urement. The CV refers to the typical
error expressed as a percentage of the
Correlations athlete’s mean score for the monitoring
Measures used in athlete monitoring need tool. This can be useful for calculating
to be repeatable. Retest reliability refers the reliability of monitoring tests, and it
to how reproducible a measurement is. is recommended that practitioners use
All things being equal, the measurement this for all their monitoring tools. The CV
of an athlete on day 1 should be the same
can be used to look at the consistency of
as the measurement on day 2. A test–
differences between athletes. The more
retest correlation is a common method
common approach is to calculate the CV
for measuring reliability. Correlation is a
using the team average.
statistical method used to determine the
The typical error can be calculated as
magnitude of the relationship between
follows:
two variables. A correlation of 1.0 means
that a perfect relationship exists between Standard deviation of difference scores
two variables; 0.0 represents no relation- ÷ square root of 2
ship whatsoever. Pearson correlation
coefficients and intraclass correlation To calculate the CV, the following equa-
coefficients (ICC) are used for quanti- tion can be used:
fying retest reliability. Of the two, ICC CV = 100 (standard deviation ÷ mean)
is the more suitable measure, especially
when tests are repeated more than twice Practitioners can use this approach to
(a desirable approach when establishing calculate typical error for all the meas-
retest reliability and when monitoring ures used in their monitoring batteries.
athletes). Online spreadsheets can be From this they can determine whether
used to calculate measures of reliability the changes seen as a result of training
(16). are meaningful. Online spreadsheets can
be used to calculate typical error and
Typical Error CV (16). The typical error and CV can
be expressed relative to the meaningful
of Measurement change calculation to give insight into the
Typical error of measurement is a very sensitivity of the test (discussed in the
useful method for assessing changes in sidebar Testing for Reliability on page 23).
Change in the Mean Practitioners should be aware of other

sources of interrater differences as well,
The change in the mean is another meas- such as variations in calibrating technolo-
ure of reliability that has two components: gies, how the athletes are prepared for the
random change and systematic change. monitoring, and how the monitoring test
The random change in the mean is due to is performed. For example, in a vertical
sampling error. The systematic change is the
countermovement jump test, differences
nonrandom change in the value between
could occur based on the type of warm-up
trials that can be the result of factors such
the athletes perform prior to the test. Per-
as athlete motivation. One way to calculate
sonality differences may result in different
this is to perform a paired t-test between
testers motivating athletes to different
the pairs of trials. A t-test is a statistical
degrees. For example, larger interrater
test that allows a comparison between two
variability may occur if an intern performs
means. A paired t-test can also be used
some of the monitoring tests and the head
when comparing groups of athletes who
strength and conditioning coach performs
have been monitored more than once with
others.
repeat testing. This test can be performed
using Excel or a variety of statistics pro-
grams.
Intrarater Reliability
Intrarater reliability refers to the consist-
ency of scores in repeated tests conducted
Maximizing Reliability by a single tester. Poor intrarater reliability
Practitioners should use monitoring tools can be a result of inadequate training in the
with small learning effects (i.e., the degree monitoring methods, a lack of concentra-
to which athletes are familiar with them). tion, or an inability to follow standardized
Athletes should have at least four familiar- procedures for calibration, athlete prepa-
ization trials to reduce any learning effects. ration, and test administration. One easy
The differences between two sets of mon- way to reduce this variability is to ensure
itoring results can be a result of several that those performing the monitoring are
factors including interrater and intrarater well trained in all aspects of the assessment.
reliability.
Interrater Reliability Reducing

Interrater reliability refers to the degree Measurement Error
to which different people conducting the Measurement error can be reduced by
monitoring agree in their test results over paying attention to the likely sources of
time or on repeated occasions. Using a error and using appropriate methods and
clearly defined scoring system and asses- analysis techniques to reduce error. When
sors who are trained and experienced with developing a monitoring system, investing
the test are essential to enhance interrater time early on to identify sources of poten-
reliability. For example, if the quality of tial error and coming up with strategies
movement in an overhead squat is being to minimize these can go a long way in
used as a monitoring tool at the start of a enhancing the quality of the system. In
training session, it is important to have clear addition, practitioners can improve relia-
and accurate monitoring criteria. In an ideal bility and validity to reduce error in mon-
world, the same practitioner should perform itoring by making monitoring conditions
the monitoring of the group of athletes. as consistent as possible. Following are
guidelines to use with monitoring that • Perform the monitoring under

involves some type of physical test: the same environmental condi-
tions as much as possible. Because
• Ensure a consistent and adequate environmental conditions can
warm-up before the test. be controlled best indoors, attempt
• Provide consistent instructions and to perform monitoring indoors
verbal encouragement. if possible. Recording the envi-
• Perform the monitoring test at the ronmental conditions (e.g.,
same time of day to reduce the temperature, humidity) can be
effects of diurnal variation (38). useful.
TESTING FOR RELIABILITY

An important first step when implementing a monitoring program is to establish the
reliability of the measures. Let’s say, for example, that a vertical countermovement
jump test is one of the monitoring tools. The practitioner would like to use the test to
track jump height in the group of athletes at the start of the week as an indicator of
training readiness. The tests are repeated on 4 days at the same time of day. Practition-
ers should always aim for more than one repeat test to determine the reliability of their
measures.
The following mean results are obtained from the group of 12 athletes:
Day 1 = 60 cm
Individual results for day 1 were 61, 55, 58, 67, 49, 65, 60, 54, 57, 63, 68, and 58 cm. The
mean is calculated by taking the sum of the results (715) and dividing by the number
of athletes (N = 12) to give a mean of 59.6 cm. The standard deviation of these scores is
5.6 cm.
Day 2 = 62 cm
Day 3 = 64 cm
Day 4 = 64 cm
The difference scores are 2 cm (62 cm from day 2 minus 60 cm from day 1), 2 cm
(64 cm from day 3, minus 62 cm from day 2), and 0 cm (64 cm from day 4 minus 64 cm
from day 3), and the standard deviation of these difference scores is 1.2 cm.
The typical error is then calculated as the standard deviation of the difference scores
divided by the square root of 2, or 1.2 ÷ square root of 2 = 0.85 cm.
The CV can be calculated as 100 times the standard deviation of the results
(days 1 to 4) divided by the mean of the results (days 1-4). In this example the CV is
100 × 1.9 ÷ 62.5 = 3.0%.
In an ideal situation the reliability would be calculated based on results from multi-
ple athletes and using several time points. The time of day the testing occurs would be
consistent. Also, the practitioner would try to replicate the conditions under which the
monitoring test is used in practice and aim to have at least 10 athletes complete the
reliability testing (more is even better!). The practitioner would also try to establish the
reliability of the tests across various cohorts of athletes if working in different sports
and with different levels of development (e.g., youth athletes versus more experienced
athletes). Using this approach, it should be possible to build up an in-house database
of reliability measures, including typical errors and CVs for the monitoring tests used.
• Provide plenty of familiarization the practitioner may never know the

trials to reduce learning effects. As true status of the athlete or the effect of
previously suggested, provide at training sessions. Monitoring methods
least four trials. need to be good enough to detect any
• Standardize the premonitoring changes in the status of the athletes.
conditions (e.g., sleep, nutrition,
training) as much as possible in
the period leading up to the mon- Validity
itoring.
Validity deals with determining whether
What Is Acceptable the monitoring tool assesses what it is
supposed to assess (i.e., is it accurate?).
Reliability? For example, does a method chosen to
A commonly asked question in athlete track fatigue provide a valid measure of
monitoring is “What is an acceptable fatigue? Validity also deals with the issue
level of reliability for a measure?” In of how well the monitoring tool relates
short, the answer is that practitioners to the athlete’s competition performance.
should use measures that are as reliable As with reliability, several types of
as possible. Although no preset standards validity exist, including ecological valid-
for acceptable reliability measures in ity, construct validity, face validity, con-
athlete monitoring are widely adopted, it tent validity, and criterion validity. The
is often suggested that ICC values above types of validity most critical for athlete
0.75 may be considered reliable; this monitoring are construct and ecological
index should be at least 0.90 for most validity. These have to do with whether
monitoring applications. Practitioners the variable being monitored has any
can use a category system to determine application to the setting in which it is
the level of reliability, in which >0.90 is collected. Another important consider-
considered extremely high; 0.70 to 0.90, ation is whether the variable is theoret-
very high; 0.50 to 0.70, high; 0.30 to ically linked to a factor such as athlete
0.50, moderate; and <0.30, low. Practi- fatigue and training load (see chapter 4).
tioners and scientists often use arbitrarily
chosen targets for the CV of less than
10%. It is not clear how appropriate Ecological Validity
this target is for athlete monitoring, Ecological validity refers to how well
and it would seem to be a fairly liberal the monitoring tool relates to actual ath-
interpretation (1, 38). Where possible, lete performance and how well the find-
practitioners should use monitoring tests ings can be applied in real-life settings.
with extremely high reliability. Aiming Ecological validity is particularly impor-
to have the CV below 5% has also been tant when looking at research studies of
suggested (42). Again, the reliability of athlete monitoring. Consider the recom-
the test should be as high as possible. mendation that practitioners wait 30 min
High reliability is a prerequisite for following a training session before taking
monitoring minor yet significant changes the session RPE measure to get a global
in an athlete and for measuring the effect rating of an athlete’s perceived exertion
of a training program on a team. If the (see chapter 4). Thirty minutes is a long
reliability of a monitoring tool is poor, time to ask athletes to wait around after
a training session to provide more mon- However, a vertical countermovement

itoring information. However, research jump test to monitor swimmer fatigue
by Singh and colleagues (35) has shown might not have high face validity because
that 10 min is sufficient, which increases coaches and athletes may question the
the practicality of this monitoring tool. relevance of this movement for their
sport (this does not mean it is not a useful
test of neuromuscular fatigue, though).
Construct Validity If the monitoring tool has face validity,
Construct validity refers to overall the athlete is more likely to respond
validity, or the extent to which the test to it positively. The assessment of face
actually measures what it was designed validity is generally informal and quali-
to measure (3). Construct validity also tative. However, it is important because
refers to the test’s ability to represent it creates athlete buy-in. For monitoring
the underlying construct (the theory tests, face validity is particularly desir-
developed to organize and explain some able based on the assumption that the
aspects of existing knowledge and obser- athlete performing the monitoring test
vations). It is also a measure of the test’s wants to do well and will theoretically
ability to discriminate between groups of be more motivated by a test that serves
athletes. For example, the POMS ques- a valid purpose and appears to measure
tionnaire is used to measure the overall something that is relevant.
construct of mood. The construct valid-
ity of the POMS questionnaire refers to
how well it measures what it purports Content Validity
to measure (i.e., the athlete’s mood). Content validity refers to expert assess-
Another example is using session RPE ment that the monitoring tool measures
to represent the global perceived exer- what it claims to measure (6). A test for
tion by matching the average of RPE athlete assessment that has high content
measures taken during the session (see validity includes all the abilities needed
chapter 4). Other forms of validity (e.g., for a particular sport or sport position.
face validity, content validity, criterion- For a practitioner creating an athlete
referenced validity) are secondary and monitoring system, content validity
provide evidence for construct validity. helps to determine the components that
Given a choice between two valid athlete need to be included to ensure validity.
monitoring tests, practitioners should The practitioner should list the compo-
consider the simplicity and economy of nents to be assessed and make sure they
test administration. are all represented in the monitoring
battery. Although the terms face validity
and content validity are sometimes used
Face Validity interchangeably, the former relates to
Face validity is the appearance to the the appearance of validity to nonex-
athlete, coach, and other practitioners perts, whereas the latter refers to actual
that the test measures what it is purported validity.
to measure (6). For example, a wellness
questionnaire that contains questions
about fatigue and sleep quality would Criterion Validity
likely have high face validity for coaches Criterion validity refers to the rela-
and athletes for monitoring fatigue. tionship between the scores on a test
and scores on a criterion measure (3). A enable them to predict how athletes will
criterion measure is a test that is widely respond to a given training stimulus.
accepted as a gold standard and valid test. Even more important is optimizing con-
For example, the gold standard test for ditions to achieve peak performance in
body composition is dual X-ray absorpti- competition.
ometry. Criterion validity can be divided A crucial aspect for criterion validity
into two parts: concurrent validity and is choosing a suitable criterion measure.
predictive validity. Concurrent validity Obviously for sport, performance in the
refers to the validity of a test for meas- event would be a well-accepted criterion
uring a construct at a particular time. measure. In sport science, well-estab-
In most cases, the test is correlated with lished criteria such as laboratory-based
another, more accurate measure of the measures of body composition and 1RM
construct that is not feasible in most sport can be used. However, in athlete moni-
situations. An example is comparing a toring less consensus is available on what
performance test and competition perfor- constitutes gold standard measures for
mance. It would be difficult to conduct things such as training load and fatigue.
a performance test such as a 3-km time For example, researchers have studied
trial on the day of competition. Predic- the validity of methods such as session
tive validity refers to the ability of a test RPE relative to other measures of train-
to predict some construct or outcome ing load such as heart rate–based meth-
in the future (6). This type of validity is ods (12, 43).
important for athlete monitoring because Figure 2.3 shows a validity correlation
it deals with future performance, which between peak force produced during an
is fundamental in sport. Obvious areas isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) test and
in which this would have application 1RM squat. The high correlation (r = .90)
are injury prediction and fatigue mon- and the linear correlation in the scatter
itoring. Practitioners and coaches are plot suggest that these two tests measure
always interested in valid tools that will a similar construct. This indicates that
300
R2 = 0.8079
250
200
1RM squat (kg)
150
100
50
0
500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000
IMTP peak force (N)
Figure 2.3 Validity correlation of IMTP versus 1RM squat.

E6859/McGuigan/F02.03/554421/mh-R2
both proved similar information and thus the nature of the athlete population and
either could be used. It should be noted the test selected (27, 38). Practitioners
that for a test to have high validity, it need to determine the typical error of
needs to have high reliability. However, measurement and CVs for the monitor-
a test can be highly reliable but not valid. ing tests they use.
Different factors can affect the validity A meaningful change is an important
of athlete monitoring. A key considera- consideration when monitoring an ath-
tion is to reduce the effect of potential lete’s level of preparation. By determin-
confounding variables (13). Areas that ing the smallest meaningful change, the
practitioners often overlook include practitioner can calculate the amount of
instructions on how to perform the change that will indicate that the athlete
monitoring test, the consistency of verbal is not responding positively to the train-
encouragement, the number and gender ing stimulus or is becoming excessively
of observers, and even music played fatigued.
during the monitoring (13). A good strat-
egy is to keep the conditions as consistent
as possible whenever monitoring is per- Determining the Smallest
formed. A spreadsheet available online Meaningful Change
can be used to calculate validity (21). The smallest meaningful change can
provide helpful insight, especially when
used to compare athletes at similar per-
Meaningful Change formance levels. In this context, smallest
meaningful change refers to the degree
The sensitivity of a monitoring tool refers of change required to determine differ-
to its ability to detect small but impor- ences between competitors in a specific
tant changes in performance or an aspect event. For example, in the 100-m final
such as fatigue. This relates to both reli- at the Olympics, what is the difference
ability and validity. Practitioners need to between fourth place and getting a
determine the worthiness, or the mean- medal? This comparison approach has
ing, of a change in the monitoring tool been investigated using several athlete
results. Meaningful change is defined populations (25) and involves calculat-
as the smallest practical change that is ing the value of the CV for elite athletes
important (18). In other words, is the in the particular event. Similar concepts
change in the measure provided by the can be applied to athlete monitoring.
monitoring tool meaningful? A reliable Research has shown that practitioners
monitoring tool may provide consistent want to be confident about measuring
results, but if it is not sensitive to changes approximately half the value of the
in the athlete’s performance, its value is smallest meaningful change when test-
questionable. ing elite athletes (19). Practitioners can
Practitioners must know how much calculate the smallest meaningful change
change constitutes practical data about for the monitoring tools that are specific
both the athlete and the group of ath- to the type of athletes they are working
letes. This requires evaluating the size of with. Table 2.1 shows examples of CVs
the change in the context of unrelated from studies of a variety of sports (25).
factors that may have affected the out- Practitioners can use these results as a
come of the test. This process depends on guide, but they will get a great deal more
TABLE 2.1 Typical Coefficients of Variation for Some Sport Events

Sport Event Gender Variability
Athletics Track Combined 1.1
Field Combined 1.4
Rowing Combined 0.9
Track cycling Sprint/pursuit Combined 1.2
Time trials Combined 0.8
Swimming Combined 0.8
Weightlifting Snatch Men 1.9
Clean and jerk Men 2.0
Total Men 1.7
Snatch Women 3.6
Clean and jerk Women 3.7
Total Women 3.3
Data from Malcata and Hopkins (25).
value from their monitoring programs if or CV of the monitoring test. That way
they take the time to establish their own the practitioner can be confident that any
criteria. change is not simply due to the error or
It is also important to put the smallest noise associated with the test. Another
meaningful change in the context of the approach is to simply apply the CV of the
reliability of the monitoring tool. Prior test as the benchmark for a meaningful
to doing this, the smallest meaningful change. Multiplying the CV by a factor
change can be calculated using the fol- of 1.5 or 2 can be a way to be certain of
lowing formula (19): a real change in the monitoring measure
(42). It is important to work out these
Smallest meaningful change =
scores of smallest meaningful changes
0.2 × between-athletes standard
using the same (or a similar) population
deviation
of athletes, in addition to using as many
The 0.2 refers to the smallest mean- athletes as possible. This ensures that
ingful, or important, effect statistic outlying, or extreme, scores do not have
(see the section Using Effect Size) (19). too great of an effect on the overall score.
Between-athletes standard deviation Practitioners can also apply a set of
refers to the standard deviation that has criteria when looking at these values.
been calculated for a group of athletes. It For many years the Australian Institute
is also possible to use the standard devi- of Sport rated tests as “good” if the tech-
ation for a single athlete using a series nical error was less than the smallest
of monitoring test results. meaningful change. If the typical error
Ideally, the smallest meaningful change was approximately the same as the
should be greater than the typical error smallest meaningful change, the test
was rated as “OK.” Finally, if the typical For example, mean vertical squat
error was much higher than the smallest jump velocity for week 1 is 2.94 m/s
meaningful change, the test was rated as and the standard deviation is 0.19 m/s.
“marginal.” These ratings can give the For week 2 the mean is 3.04 m/s and
practitioner some indication of the use- the standard deviation is 0.23 m/s. The
fulness of the test. Practitioners should equation would be as follows:
be aware that just because a test has poor
reliability does not mean that it has no Effect size = 3.04 − 2.94 ÷ 0.19 =
value. The sensitivity of the test may 0.53
be of more concern when the measures It is also possible to use the pooled
of interest undergo large changes. For standard deviation in the calculation
example, recent work has suggested that (9). In the preceding example the
some variables during jump monitoring pooled standard deviation is 0.21 m/s,
(e.g., eccentric rate of force develop- so the calculation would look like this:
ment) may be sensitive to fatigue despite
having large typical errors that exceed Effect size = 3.04 − 2.94 ÷ 0.21 =
the smallest meaningful change (28). 0.48
Practitioners can use either approach
Using Effect Size as long as they are consistent in the
As alluded to earlier, using standard- application and do not switch between
ized change or difference can reveal the methods, which will give slightly dif-
degree of change observed with mon- ferent results.
itoring tools. Effect size can be useful No clear guidelines exist about what
for calculating performance changes constitutes a smallest meaningful differ-
following a training program or for ence or change with this measure, but
comparing groups of athletes (11). It can 0.2 has been suggested (19). Several
also be used in day-to-day or week-to- scales have been provided to compare
week athlete monitoring. For example, the magnitude of the effect (9, 19). The
a practitioner could use effect size to original classification system proposed
compare jump velocities in a group of by Cohen suggested <0.2 as a trivial
athletes from week 1 to week 2. This effect, 0.2 to 0.5 as a small effect, 0.5
measure, also known as Cohen’s effect to 0.7 as a moderate effect, and >0.7 as
size, is useful in meta-analyses to assess a large effect (9). However, these are
the magnitude of differences or changes somewhat arbitrary and don’t need to
in the mean in different studies (9). be rigidly followed. The scale suggested
Effect size is similar to a z-score. With by Hopkins and colleagues (19) has
this method, the practitioner expresses become more widely accepted, and the
the difference, or change in the mean, reference values for small (0.2), mod-
divided by the between-subjects standard erate (0.6), large (1.2), and very large
deviation using the following formula: (2.0) can be a useful starting point for
practitioners.
Effect size = mean 2 − mean 1 ÷
Consider a group of athletes that
standard deviation 1
has a week 1 mean broad jump result
where 1 and 2 = day, week, or time point of 205 cm (standard deviation of 9.7
1 or 2. cm); a week later the mean broad jump
petition season, a practitioner should

TABLE 2.2 Classification Scale compare test results against a value that
for Effect Sizes represents a relatively fatigue-free state
in the athlete.
Magnitude Effect size
Trivial <0.2
Small 0.2-0.6 Understanding Meaningful
Moderate 0.6-1.2 Change in Athlete-
Large 1.2-2.0
Reported Questionnaires
Very large 2.0-4.0
In addition to physical performance
Extremely large >4.0
tests, questionnaires and subjective
Data from Hopkins et al. (19).
responses of athletes are commonly used
for monitoring. However, determining
what constitutes a meaningful change
in these athlete-reported questionnaires
result is 208 cm. The effect size would be is challenging (see chapter 4). Wellness
calculated as follows: (208 − 205) ÷ 9.7 questionnaires often require subjective
= 0.31. The practitioner would interpret ratings on a scale that broadly repre-
the effect size of 0.31 as a small effect, sents categories from poor to excellent.
or change, from week 1 to week 2. Table A potential problem with interpreting
2.2 shows a suggested scale for classifying scores on these scales is that athletes can
the effect sizes (calculated as difference give automated responses, particularly if
in the means) that could be used for ath- they are answering these questions on a
letes with varying degrees of experience. regular basis. Problems can sometimes
Another key point is that small effects occur with athletes who regularly report
can have large consequences in athlete high or low values despite having had the
monitoring. More in-depth discussions scales explained in detail and following
of effect sizes and their application are correct anchoring procedures. Anchoring
available (9, 11, 23). procedures involve providing a series of
verbal cues prior to beginning the ques-
tionnaires so the athletes understand the
Comparing to Baseline ratings (see chapter 4).
Determining whether a monitoring vari- Solutions to these problems with ques-
able has changed depends largely on the tionnaires have been suggested (10).
baseline value it is being compared with. One is to determine the degree to which
Practitioners must have multiple baseline each athlete’s response is above or below
values with which to compare athletes’ normal. Another solution is to compare
results. Having multiple baseline meas- the athlete’s result on that day to a value
ures also improves the reliability of the that represents what the athlete regularly
measure. However, comparisons must reports. This had been done by using a
be meaningful, particularly when mon- modification of the z-score or standard
itoring for athlete fatigue. For example, difference score, calculated as follows
during an intensive period of the com- (10):
TESTING FOR MEANINGFUL CHANGE

Let’s say you are interested in calculating the smallest meaningful change in rela-
tive peak power on a vertical squat jump test. Ten athletes complete the testing and
get scores of 66, 49, 56, 65, 61, 54, 53, 69, 62, and 55 watts/kg. The between-athletes
standard deviation is 6.5 watts/kg. The smallest meaningful change for this test is 6.5
× 0.2 = 1.3 watts/kg. For the purposes of monitoring, you round this down to 1 watt/kg.
On a repeat test the following week, you would consider a change in the test results
of greater than 1 watt/kg to be meaningful. In the follow-up testing of the group 1
week later, the athletes get scores of 68, 50, 56, 62, 58, 54, 51, 66, 62, and 53 watts/kg.
Immediately, you can identify which athletes have experienced a meaningful change
based on the calculations. For example, athlete 1 went from 66 to 68, indicating a
positive change, whereas athlete 4 went from 65 to 62, indicating a negative change
(remember that any athlete with a change greater than ± 1 watt/kg would be consid-
ered to have had a smallest meaningful change). You can also perform an effect size
calculation on the two time points to give an indication of the magnitude of change in
the group.
Week 1: Mean = 59; standard deviation = 6.5
Week 2: Mean = 58; standard deviation = 6.3
So the effect size would be calculated as 58 − 59 ÷ 6.5 = −0.15, indicating a trivial ef-
fect (see table 2.2). This is a good way to look at how the group of athletes as a whole
has responded to the week of training.
You could also simply compare the typical error of the test against the change in
the test measure. For example, if the observed change is greater than the typical
error, this can be rated as a real change (this could be an improvement or a decline
depending on the measure). Where the observed change is less than the typical error,
the measure can be considered stable. You don’t just have to concern yourself with
smallest meaningful change. It is possible to apply these principles to an evaluation of
the magnitude of moderate and large meaningful change. Here you would use mod-
erate effect size (0.6) or large effect size (1.2) to perform the calculation.
(Current score − baseline score) ÷ What this score does is convert the
standard deviation of individual athlete’s score to a standard deviation
baseline scores from the baseline. Practitioners can set
their own thresholds to determine how
where the standard deviation of baseline many standard deviations are practically
scores could be made using scores col- important. It has been suggested that
lected during the preseason phase. For a threshold z-score of >1.5 is effective
example, a practitioner working in the for identifying scores considered to be
National Football League in the United at risk (10). This is based on the fact
States could use the results collected that it represents 1.5 standard devia-
during the 4 weeks in which preseason tions away from the baseline score. A
games are played. survey of monitoring practices in high-
performance sport found that some prac- The analysis can be quite sophisticated,
titioners used 1 standard deviation as a but it essentially involves calculating a
threshold for monitoring (37). However, moving average of the data and looking
more research is needed to confirm the for patterns. Because a great deal of noise
validity of this approach. Practitioners and variability is often associated with
also have the option of maintaining a monitoring data, methods such as time
fixed baseline throughout the monitor- series analysis can help to control for
ing year or of having a rolling baseline this and allow for a systematic analysis
against which to compare results. of patterns.
In one study Chiu and Salem (7)
tracked power produced in repetitions
Assessing Chronic Change of clean pulls to determine systematic
Practitioners are often faced with the patterns and reduce variability. Let’s say
challenge of determining the importance a practitioner is interested in monitoring
of between- and within-athlete change. peak power (in watts) during a bench
Although the response of the athlete is throw on a weekly basis and obtains the
of primary concern, looking at a lack of following values over the course of 12
change or change of a different mag- weeks: 850, 903, 901, 876, 834, 904,
nitude in comparison to the group can 977, 1,011, 800, 911, 876, and 923. To
also provide insights (10). For example, calculate a moving average, the practi-
as part of the periodized program, the tioner would calculate the mean values
group mean of a monitoring variable may as appropriate. To do a 3-point moving
suggest an overreached state in response average, the practitioner would do the
to a heavy loading phase. However, one following:
athlete’s results from one point to the
next may have remained stable. If the Week 1 = 850
group members are showing fatigue, the
lack of response in an individual may Week 2 = 877 (mean of weeks 1 and 2)
suggest that the athletes are responding
differently to the loading phase. Thus, Week 3 = 885 (mean of weeks 1-3)
appropriate adjustments may need to
be made. Week 4 = 893 (mean of weeks 2-4)
A more advanced technique for inves-
tigating change in a monitoring variable Raw values could be plotted on a graph
is time series analysis (5). It is used along with the moving average values.
extensively across many disciplines but Another technique for identifying
has received relatively little attention in trends in monitoring data is split middle
athlete monitoring. It involves calculat- analysis (36). This can be useful for
ing a moving average to analyze time looking at trends in athletes. It involves
series data, thus allowing practitioners to splitting the data into halves based on
determine when performance is increas- days or weeks and then determining the
ing or decreasing (7). Athlete monitoring median for each half. The practitioner
is suitable for time series analysis because takes the first 50% and then the second
it consists of time series data with a sys- 50% and determines the median for each
tematic pattern and random noise (5). period. These two medians can then be
plotted on a graph that includes all the

data points to visualize any trend in
Correlation and
the results. For example, results from a Relationships
wellness questionnaire over the course
of 4 weeks could be plotted on a graph. Practitioners are often interested in rela-
However, doing this every day will result tionships between monitoring variables.
in a great deal of data, and the graph may As discussed briefly in the section on reli-
appear very noisy. Median values for ability, correlation is a statistical method
weeks 1 and 2 and weeks 3 and 4 could used to establish the degree of relation-
be calculated to reveal any general trend ship between two variables. For exam-
in those two data points. ple, a strength and conditioning practi-
Identifying sudden changes in athlete tioner might want to know whether a
monitoring measures can also be useful. relationship exists between peak force
Stone and colleagues (36) proposed that produced during an isometric squat and
using statistical process control can some measure of fatigue during a train-
provide valuable information for iden- ing session. Measuring the magnitude of
tifying spikes in monitoring variables. the relationship can be relatively simple
Statistical process control is used exten- to do. However, correlation is often a
sively in other fields such as business and misunderstood concept and should be
manufacturing as a method of quality used with some caution with monitoring
control (26). By calculating means and systems. Although practitioners often
standard deviations and graphing this associate correlation with causation, the
information, including thresholds for two are fundamentally very different. It
standard deviations (e.g., ±2), the prac- is possible to find a relationship where
titioner can visualize extreme scores. none exists. Table 2.3 shows how the
strength of correlations between two
Acute Versus Chronic variables can be interpreted and used as
a guide. The strength of the relationship
Monitoring is represented by an r-value, which
Another athlete monitoring approach
that is becoming more widespread
involves looking at the ratio of acute
to chronic monitoring variables. For
example, investigators have compared TABLE 2.3 Classification Scale
absolute training load performed in 1 for Correlation Coefficients
week to average chronic training load
over 2 to 4 weeks (4, 22). This acute-to- Correlation
Magnitude
coefficient
chronic workload ratio can be calculated
simply by dividing the acute workload Small 0.1
for 1 week by the average for any given Moderate 0.3
number of weeks (22). Z-score calcula- Large 0.5
tions are also useful here for identifying Very large 0.7
thresholds such as low and high athlete Extremely large 0.9
workloads (22). Data from Hopkins et al. (19).
can range from −1.0 (a perfect negative a statistical technique or model that is
relationship) to 1.0 (a perfect positive used to explain variability in one variable
relationship); 0 indicates no relationship. based on one or more other variables (3).
It is also possible to square the r-value By using this technique, it is possible to
to calculate R-squared, also known as predict or estimate an athlete’s score on
the coefficient of determination. This one measure based on his score on one or
is a measure of the amount of varia- more other measures. Taking the exam-
bility in one variable that is explained ple in figure 2.3, it is possible to predict
by another. It is usually expressed as a the athlete’s 1RM based on the results of
percentage by multiplying by 100. If we the IMTP test. However, the accuracy of
take the example from figure 2.3, the this estimate depends on how good the
correlation between 1RM squat and peak relationship and model are because of
force on the IMTP was r = .90. Therefore, the variability. Regression calculations
R-squared = 81% (.90 × .90 × 100). This can be made using Excel or statistical
means that 81% of the variability in the software. Modeling, in relation to mon-
1RM squat is explained by the variability itoring training load using methods such
in the IMTP. Because most of the variabil- as training impulse (TRIMP), is discussed
ity in each test is explained by the other, in chapters 3 and 4.
only one is needed because they essen-
tially measure the same thing. However,
the calculation also shows that 19% of
the variability is accounted for by other
Presentation
variables. There may be aspects such as of Results
differences in the type of contraction
(i.e., dynamic versus static) that could An important first step when dealing
account for this. with monitoring data is to take the time
Sample size is also a potential issue to organize and summarize it. The pro-
when calculating correlations; sometimes cess of attempting to discover the mean-
misleadingly high relationships can be ing within the data is critical. Once this
seen with small sample sizes. However, front-end work is done, a monitoring
this can also be an issue with very large system can be implemented that will
data sets, or “big data,” in which false provide the most valuable information
relationships can be found. Practition- about the athletes.
ers should be careful when interpreting Exploratory data analysis using the
these relationships and be aware that methods described previously can be
correlation does not necessarily indicate useful for identifying patterns, trends,
causation. Exploring relationships in and relationships in the data. This ini-
these large data sets with more advanced tial step should also involve visualizing
techniques may be more appropriate. the monitoring data in some form. Dis-
Exploring relationships between only playing the data in a graph provides a
two variables is rather simplistic given visual summary of the information that
that sport performance is affected by may be easier to interpret than num-
multiple factors. When exploring rela- bers. The practitioner can see whether
tionships between data, practitioners can any patterns exist. For example, are the
use more advanced techniques such as results in the group of athletes tending
regression and modeling. Regression is to increase, decrease, or stay the same?
It is also valuable to look for any outliers coaches. It is not enough to have devel-
or clear exceptions to the pattern of the oped a reliable and valid monitoring
data. This can indicate the presence of battery, collected data, and determined
interesting cases in the results or simply whether the changes are meaningful.
an error in the data. A good knowledge To assist with the interpretation of the
of what typical numbers look like and a results, the practitioner also needs to
usual range for the variable are critical assess the magnitude of the change,
here. Some practitioners just accept the taking into account the reliability and
numbers produced by a piece of tech- sensitivity of the test. Then it is impor-
nology, which can be problematic. Once tant to present the results in a way that
graphical representations of the data are coaches and athletes can understand.
created, numerical summaries and con- Otherwise, the information is unlikely
cise descriptions can be produced. to make a difference in the performance
of the athlete.
Reporting can be done in several ways
Graphing Monitoring Data and using a combination of methods.
A good first step when analyzing mon- Typically, numbers alone are not very
itoring data is to graph the results in helpful or well understood by coaches
some way. For example, z-scores lend and athletes. Graphing data may reveal
themselves well to being presented in trends in the results or large changes in
graphs. This can help practitioners com- the monitoring variables that make sense
pare physical capacities and decide which to these key stakeholders.
areas to modify in a training session, an The main types of graphs practitioners
overall training program, or both. The use are line graphs, bar graphs, scatter
approaches discussed in this chapter need plots, stem and leaf plots, radar plots,
to be combined with a strategic approach and pie graphs (33). Many research
to the presentation of the results to papers report results using traditional
GUIDELINES FOR CLEAR REPORTS

ON MONITORING DATA
A key part of the reporting process is giving the results to coaches and athletes in a
timely manner. Just as poor presentation of testing data can limit the potential for
improving athlete performance, taking excessive time to deliver the information to
the key stakeholders can have a negative impact. Monitoring data need to be report-
ed as quickly as possible so that practitioners have time to implement changes in the
training and correct any identified issues. Ideally, reporting would involve some type
of real-time feedback. To have any chance of informing practitioner decision making,
monitoring should occur immediately following the training session. In some instanc-
es the reporting and analysis of monitoring data can occur within the session itself.
For example, velocity-based training can add greatly to the value of power training in
the gym. Practitioners should aim to provide monitoring reports that are meaningful
and timely and that provide specific recommendations for coaches and athletes.
line graphs or bar graphs. However, these Following are guidelines to follow
are not always ideal for looking at mon- when putting together a graph:
itoring data. Scatter plots, line graphs,
histograms, and stem and leaf plots are • Put all of the data into some type of
very useful for looking at the overall table format or spreadsheet.
distribution of data (44). Histograms • Choose the most appropriate format
are generally used for large amounts of for presenting the data (using the
data (see figure 2.4 later in this chap- previous guidelines).
ter). Line graphs can show trends or • Create a concise title that describes
abrupt changes in monitoring data (see what the graph is showing.
figures 4.4 and 4.8 in chapter 4). With • Decide which variables are plotted
small numbers of athletes (<50), the best on the respective axes, and select
option is to show the full data set. Scat- an appropriate scale for each axis.
ter plots are a great way to visualize the
• Write appropriate descriptions for
relationship between two variables (see
the axes.
figure 2.3).
• Include the units of measurement
used for each axis.
Creating Figures • Plot the data points using graphing
and Tables software (or even go old school and
The following general guidelines can help draw by hand).
practitioners design effective figures and Several methods for analyzing athlete
tables: monitoring information have been pre-
• Ensure that visuals are suitable for sented. The following sections address
users; think about the target audi- additional key considerations.
ence (in most cases, coaches and
athletes). Percentage Change
• Make the message clear. A simple percentage change calculation
is a popular way to present monitoring
• Include important information. results. Following is the formula:
• Make data values visually clear.
Percentage change = [(postmeasure −
• Make visuals easy to read and
premeasure) ÷ premeasure] × 100
understand.
• Avoid “chartjunk,” or clutter in the For example, the power output for a
graph. Chartjunk refers to anything track cyclist is 1,911 watts in week 1 and
in a figure that does not add any- 1,866 watts in week 2. The percentage
thing to the key information being change calculation is as follows:
conveyed (41). Percentage change =
• Value importance over beauty. The [(1,866 − 1,911) ÷ 1,911] ×
key message and readability should 100 = −2.4%
be primary considerations.
This could also be reported along with
Many resources are available to help the noise of the test (expressed as typical
practitioners improve data presentation error or CV) and the smallest meaning-
(41, 44, 45). ful change. When extreme precision is
required for interpretation, spreadsheets by the standard deviation to show the

available online can be used to discover relative change is discussed in an ear-
the exact chances that the observed lier section. These numbers have little
change in the monitoring variable is impact unless put into context. Radar
greater than the smallest meaningful plots or histograms are often a good way
change (20). to present z-scores visually to coaches
and athletes. The advantage of present-
Likely Limits ing these statistics as graphs is they can
Another useful approach is to use likely demonstrate where the athlete falls
limits or confidence limits for the true within the group. When monitoring a
value of the monitoring variable. The range of measures, graphing the z-scores
simplest way to report likely limits is to using radar plots or histograms provides
use the observed change plus or minus a pictorial representation of the athlete’s
the typical error (15). For example, an strengths and weaknesses relative to the
athlete has changed by +3%, and the group. This can be a useful tool for iden-
typical error of the test is ±1%. If the tifying areas that need to be addressed.
smallest meaningful change was 1.5%, Determining whether the athlete is
then a positive change likely occurred excessively fatigued or not responding
since the last test. This is because the to the training stimulus as expected ena-
change seen in the athlete’s result is bles the practitioner to make appropriate
greater than both the typical error and adjustments to the program.
the smallest meaningful change. Impor- Figure 2.4 shows a weekly athlete
tantly, the smallest meaningful change is monitoring profile that includes meas-
greater than the typical error. ures of IMTP, reactive strength (from
It is possible to perform simple calcula- a drop jump), sleep quality, soreness,
tions of confidence limits. For example, fatigue, overhead squat movement
these can be calculated for technical rating, global positioning system load,
error of measurement by multiplying the and saliva cortisol. The profile provides
value by 1.96 (rounding up to 2 makes a snapshot of the athlete from that week,
the calculation even simpler). This rep- from which the practitioner may con-
resents ±2 standard deviations based clude that the excessive muscle soreness
on the normal distribution curve. The and some indications of fatigue and stress
results can then be interpreted using may require attention.
qualitative terms such as possibly harmful, Practitioners often use z-score radar
very likely, substantially positive, and unclear plots to show the results of one-off
but likely to be beneficial (19). This type of monitoring and testing. However, an
magnitude-based inferences approach is important part of the athlete monitoring
becoming more widely used in athlete process is retesting and comparing the
monitoring. Spreadsheets are available results to previous results. Problems can
that can precisely calculate confidence arise when testing groups if particular
limits and the associated clinical chances athletes are not available for monitoring
(17). as a result of injuries or other commit-
ments. With small sample sizes (common
Z-Score Plots in high-performance sport settings), a
Using z-scores by calculating the athlete’s particularly strong (or weak) athlete in
score minus the average score divided a particular monitoring test can result
2
Isometric Reactive Sleep Soreness Fatigue Overhead GPS Saliva
midthigh strength quality squat load cortisol
1.5
pull rating
0.5
Z-score
–0.5
–1
–1.5
–2
Figure 2.4 Athlete monitoring profile. E6859/McGuigan/F02.04/554425/mh-R2
in significant changes in means, stand- Modified z-score = (athlete’s score −

ard deviations, or both. This can make benchmark score) ÷ standard deviation
the results more susceptible to extreme
values, or outliers. Figure 2.5 shows the z-scores for an
An alternative approach can be to use athlete monitored using this approach.
modified z-scores by determining bench- The monitoring program includes meas-
mark means and standard deviations for ures of neuromuscular fatigue (vertical
the monitoring tests. Practitioners can countermovement jump mean power),
determine these benchmarks, or targets, wellness (a questionnaire), training load
based on sources such as published liter- (RPE × session duration), injury risk
ature on a similar population, previous (movement screen tests), and immune
testing data with that group or similar status (salivary IgA). The team average is
athletes, discussions with other support the average of all the z-scores, so this will
staff, and feedback from the coaches. always equal zero using the traditional
Over time the practitioner should be able calculation. The practitioner can set
to build a database of historical data on benchmarks depending on the relative
the athletes. This allows for more sophis- importance on particular aspects of the
ticated analysis using categories such as monitoring program.
playing position and training age. Once Athletes can also be monitored over
these benchmarks are determined, the time for monitoring variables, as shown
modified z-scores can be calculated as in figure 2.6. In this plot, the athlete’s
previously described but with the slight results are graphed over 3 weeks of a par-
modification of using a benchmark score ticularly heavy training block to observe
rather than the squad or team average, the changes in the monitoring areas. The
as follows: practitioner may observe that the pro-
Neuromuscular Neuromuscular
Athlete Week 1
fatigue fatigue
2 Team average 2 Week 2
1.5 Benchmark 1.5 Week 3
1 1
0.5 0.5
Immune 0 Immune 0
status –0.5 Wellness status –0.5 Wellness
–1 –1
–1.5 –1.5
–2 –2
Injury Training Injury Training

risk load risk load
Figure 2.5 Comparison of an athlete’s monitor- Figure 2.6 Monitoring an athlete over time using
ing profile to the team average and benchmarks E6859/McGuigan/F02.06/554427/mh-R1
a radar plot for physical capacities.
E6859/McGuigan/F02.05/554426/mh-R1
using a radar plot.
gressive increase in loading is resulting z-scores confusing, for example, could

in negative outcomes and make nec- use an alternative such as a standard ten
essary adjustments (e.g., introduce a (STEN) score, which reports results from
deloading week). 1 to 10. These can be calculated from
These graphs allow the practitioner z-scores or the original monitoring data.
and coach to visualize the changes in To calculate STEN scores, practitioners
variables over time. It is important to can use either this formula:
note that for some measures a negative
z-score would be produced by athletes STEN score = (z-score × 2) + 5.5
who performed better on a monitoring or this one:
test. A good example of this is meas-
ures of speed over 20 m, in which a STEN score = [(monitoring result −
faster (shorter) time would be better. mean monitoring result) ÷
To standardize the radar plots when standard deviation) × 2] + 5.5
using measures such as speed and body
Consider an athlete who scores 23 out
composition, the practitioner can mul-
of 40 on a wellness scale (1-10 scale for
tiply the z-score by −1. More in-depth
four items: stress, muscle soreness, sleep
discussions of the use of z-scores are
quality, and fatigue). The mean for the
available (31).
group is 32 out of 40, and the standard
Standard Ten Scores deviation is 4.5, so:
Numerous other methods can be used to STEN score = [(23 − 32) ÷ 4.5) × 2] +
present monitoring data. Those who find 5.5 = 1.5
Creating Spreadsheets interviews, focus groups, and observa-

tions. The reality is that these meth-
The problem with many statistical pro- ods are routinely used by practitioners
grams (e.g., Statistical Package for the
anyway. With some additional planning,
Social Sciences [SPSS], Statistical Anal-
practitioners may be able to gain even
ysis System [SAS]) is that learning to
more useful data from these practices.
use them to their full potential requires
a significant investment of time. Because
practitioners tend to be short on time, Interviews
mastering statistical software packages Athlete interviews can be structured,
may not be feasible. However, for most, unstructured, or semistructured. Struc-
spreadsheets are sufficient. Spreadsheets tured interviews present set questions
can provide very powerful analyses, and without any deviations based on the ath-
a program such as Excel should be able letes’ responses. At the other end of the
to do everything a practitioner requires spectrum are unstructured interviews,
for the purpose of athlete monitoring. which begin with a general question
They also allow practitioners to visualize (e.g., How are you feeling today?) and
their data using graphs. Several resources proceed from there. Semistructured
provide further information on how to interviews are somewhere between
get the most value from spreadsheets these two approaches; practitioners
(24, 42). have some questions they would like
to ask, but they may change them and
the direction of the interview based on
Qualitative Analysis the athletes’ responses. Semistructured
interviews allow practitioners to delve
The research techniques discussed in deeper into the responses while also
this chapter are mainly quantitative giving athletes leeway to discuss aspects
in that they deal with measurements that interest them.
in the form of numbers. However, a Conducting quality interviews is
range of qualitative techniques are also an important skill and should include
available to help practitioners analyze recording the sessions. Ideally, this would
their athletes’ training and performance involve taking notes and getting an audio
(39). Mixed-methods approaches, which recording of the interviews for further
combine quantitative and qualitative analysis after completion. Listening is
methods, are also gaining in popularity. even more critical than asking the ques-
It could be argued that magnitude-based tions. A good interviewer needs to know
inferences are an example of this because when to stay quiet and just listen to the
they use both numerical data and quali- responses. Data obtained from these
tative descriptors. Mixed methods benefit interviews can help practitioners deter-
from the strengths of both quantitative mine things such as athlete readiness for
and qualitative approaches to obtain a training. Solid evidence shows the value
more complete picture of athlete behav- of subjective information for athlete
ior. monitoring (34). Asking athletes how
Three types of qualitative data collec- they feel before the start of a training
tion can be used for monitoring purposes: session can provide important insights
into their current states of well-being. Although some believe that quali-
Qualitative analysis methods such as tative analysis is a less rigorous, less
finding common themes in the athletes’ scientific approach than quantitative
answers, also known as thematic content analysis, this is not the case. A range of
analysis, may also be used (30, 40). data analysis techniques can be used to
analyze the information obtained using
qualitative methods (39). Qualitative
Focus Groups approaches can provide rich insights
Focus groups are really just extended into athlete monitoring systems.
interviews with a larger number of ath-
letes. Generally, they are conducted with
5 to 10 people and an interviewer acting
as a discussion facilitator. Focus groups
Conclusion
can be a useful approach for getting
detailed information about the opinions Practitioners have a range of monitor-
and thoughts of athletes in a group. ing tools available to them. Statistical
These sessions should also be recorded in measures of central tendency, variabil-
some way, and the interviewer should be ity, smallest meaningful change, effect
skilled in the art of facilitating, listening, size, and standard scores are useful for
and asking relevant questions. Qualita- monitoring the responses of a group
tive analysis methods can also be used of athletes as well as the individuals
and important themes identified in the within the group. Practitioners should
athletes’ answers (40). always use monitoring tools with the
highest reliability and, to improve reli-
ability, always adhere to strict and con-
Observations sistent protocols. Monitoring tools also
Observation is a routine part of what need to be valid and sensitive to change
most practitioners do with their athletes. in the athletes. Although the choice of
Two main types of observations are used the monitoring tool is important, the
in qualitative analysis: participant and presentation of the results to coaches
nonparticipant observation. With par- and athletes is perhaps even more
ticipant observation, the practitioner is critical. Practitioners should use pres-
an active participant in the scene being entation methods that are meaningful
observed, whereas with nonparticipant and always consider how the data can
observation, the practitioner is removed be used to affect athlete performance.
from the group to make objective obser- Graphs can be an effective way to rep-
vations. Whichever approach is used, resent the monitoring data and can help
recording the observations in some way identify trends and patterns. Underpin-
is important (e.g., checklists, field notes). ning any analysis method should be the
Detailed field notes help practitioners potential for the information to affect
remember important things they have decision making. Using a mixed-meth-
observed. By noting personal aspects ods approach to athlete monitoring
such as thoughts, feelings, evaluations, in conjunction with appropriate data
and learnings during training sessions, analyses should allow practitioners
practitioners also facilitate their own and coaches to make informed, evi-
self-reflection (14). dence-based training decisions.
Physiological
3
Effects of Training
Stress
Fundamental to the understanding of and decreased performance. Consensus

athlete monitoring is an appreciation statements have been written about the
of the physiological effects of training overtraining syndrome (71). Researchers
stress. To optimize their training pro- have also recently focused on the con-
grams, practitioners need a solid under- cept of unexplained underperformance
standing of the dose–response relation- syndrome in elite athletes (10, 63). Effec-
ship and how athlete preparation factors tive management of the dose–response
affect this relationship. Optimizing the relationship is at the heart of what the
dose–response relationship is a delicate practitioner is trying to achieve in train-
balance that requires practitioners to ing; that is, to optimize athletic perfor-
accurately titrate the amount of train- mance. A clear understanding of how
ing. An imbalance can result in negative specific training dosages elicit specific
responses, decreased performance, and responses is a good starting point and
maladaptations. Athlete monitoring should help practitioners improve their
should help practitioners make more training programs.
accurate adjustments to avoid neg- Several models explain the physiolog-
ative outcomes such as overtraining ical effects of an acute training stimulus:
the general adaptation syndrome model performance. Optimizing this relation-

(101), the fitness-fatigue model (4), ship requires a solid understanding of the
and the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-ad- GAS. The model is based on the stages
aptation model (106). These models the body, or physiological system, goes
highlight general and specific factors through following some type of stimulus.
related to physiological stress monitor- In general, this model proposes that all
ing. All three recognize that excessive stressors result in a similar response and
fatigue without adequate recovery can that stress can be considered a disruption
result in maladaptations, particularly of the body’s homeostatic state.
decreased performance. In extreme cases Figure 3.1 outlines the GAS model.
of extended periods of fatigue, func- Upon the application of a stimulus or
tional overreaching and nonfunctional stress, the body enters the shock or alarm
overreaching can occur, as can the most phase, which results in training fatigue.
severe condition—overtraining. A good Acute fatigue is a normal and expected
appreciation of these models will help short-term response to the training stress
practitioners more fully understand the and an important part of the training
physiological effects of training stress. process. If adequate recovery follows this
initial stress, the second phase, known as
the resistance phase, occurs, in which the
General Adaptation system returns to baseline, or homeosta-
sis. It is during this return to homeostasis
Syndrome Model that physiological adaptations are made.
This ensures that the training stimulus
The seminal work of Canadian physiol- applied in the future does not disrupt the
ogist Hans Selye, the general adaptation athlete to the same degree (43). For the
syndrome (GAS) model, forms the basis third phase, known as supercompen-
of many discussions regarding the mon- sation, to occur, an adequate recovery
itoring of physiological stress (100, 101). period must follow the training stimulus.
As outlined in chapter 1, the aim of train- Supercompensation refers to a return to a
ing is to provide a stimulus that improves level that exceeds the baseline, resulting
Phase 1: Alarm or Phase 2: Resistance Phase 3: Phase 4: Overtraining

shock (initial (adaptation occurs) Supercompensation (if stressors continue
response to stress) (new level of at too high level and
adaptation) insufficient recovery)
or performance performance performance performance
Figure 3.1 Model of the general adaptation syndrome.

Physiological Effects of Training Stress 45
in an increased performance capacity. is very complex. A wide range of factors

To ensure optimal training adaptations and interactions occur during training
and benefits, the next training stimulus that make it difficult to analyze the
must be imposed during the supercom- training adaptation response. Practition-
pensation phase. Insufficient recovery ers must keep in mind that the impacts
can lead to a final phase characterized by of stressors are additive and that other
decreased performance and eventually factors can affect the athlete’s ability to
overtraining. respond and adapt to the stressors that
Although the GAS model does not result from the training (5, 66). Tra-
cover all aspects of the response to stress, ditional concepts of homeostasis need
it is useful for explaining the adaptive to take into account the multifactorial
response to an acute training stimulus. It nature of athlete training. Specifically,
is worthwhile noting that the GAS model practitioners need to understand how
is not a linear response. All athletes expe- athletes perceive the stress and how
rience fluctuations within days, between their training histories affect how they
days, and across microcycles (generally cope with it.
7-10 days).
Problems can arise in the GAS when
a secondary training stimulus is applied Fitness-Fatigue Model
too early. The result can be excessive
fatigue, which can lead to training mal- We have already noted that fatigue is an
adaptations. This could eventually result expected and desired part of the process
in decreased performance and, in severe of training athletes. Although physi-
cases, negative consequences such as ologists typically define fatigue as the
overtraining as depicted by phase 4 in decline in peak muscle force or power
figure 3.1. Alternatively, if no secondary in response to acute exercise (11), this is
training stimulus is applied during the a rather simplistic definition. Fatigue is
supercompensation phase, any training actually a holistic phenomenon affected
adaptations may be lost as the athlete by many factors (11, 57). Practitioners
returns to pretraining homeostasis levels. need to consider fatigue in sport per-
The delicate balance between overload formance more holistically given that it
and underload is extremely important affects athletes’ physical capacities, tech-
for practitioners to manage. An effective nique, decision making, and psychology.
athlete monitoring system can inform the
practitioner about the training fatigue
and adaptations occurring in athletes. What Is Fatigue?
Although the GAS model is a simple Fatigue can be categorized as central
representation of how training adapta- or peripheral. Central fatigue refers to
tions occur, it provides a good starting diminished motor drive from the central
point for understanding the effect of nervous system (brain and spinal cord);
acute training stimuli. The problem with peripheral fatigue is due to changes that
oversimplification, though, is that it can occur directly in the muscle and impair
cause practitioners to miss several key the contractile processes (11). At the
aspects in their understanding of athlete peripheral level, many factors increase
monitoring. The reality is that the effect or decrease in the body and inhibit
of training dosage on training adaptation physiological processes sufficiently to
impair performance. Often referred to the underlying mechanisms of fatigue,

as putative factors (11), these include an increased awareness of them can be
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), phospho- useful.
creatine (PCr), adenosine diphosphate Fatigue can be quantified in sport by
(ADP), inorganic phosphate (Pi), lactate, using a variety of methods (11). These
hydrogen ions, ammonia, muscle glyco- include mean or peak power output;
gen, blood glucose, potassium, sodium, time or speed; total work; forces applied
chloride, changes in calcium handling, to force plates, pedals, or oars; and peak
magnesium, cytokines, reactive oxygen forces produced by individual muscles
and nitrogen species, dehydration, ser- with voluntary effort (maximal vol-
otonin, hyperthermia (high core body untary contractions). Low-frequency
temperature), and hypoxia (decreased fatigue, a type of fatigue often of interest
oxygen). to practitioners, is a result of high-inten-
The extensive study of central fatigue sity, high-force, repeated stretch–short-
in recent years has led to the develop- ening cycles or eccentric contractions
ment of the central governor model. (52). The twitch interpolation tech-
The basic idea behind this model is that nique, in which an electrical stimulation
an internal controller manages muscle is superimposed on a maximal voluntary
force and exercise via decreased motor contraction, has also been widely used in
drive (nervous system input to the research studies to assess low-frequency
muscle) and fatigue sensations primarily fatigue (11). Subjective measures such as
via perceived exertion (85). In essence, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) can be
the athlete’s central nervous system is used to rate fatigue for the whole body
responsible for dictating how much force and specific areas or body parts (e.g., the
is applied in a given situation. This con- lower body). Modifications of the RPE
cept is still widely debated. What is clear scale have also been used to rate breath-
is that fatigue in sport is task dependent. ing difficulty. Numerical scales that can
For example, the main factors causing be used include the traditional Borg 6-20
fatigue are different during an all-out scale, a 10-point category ratio scale, a
sprint than during prolonged submax- session RPE scale, and a 0-100 RPE scale
imal exercise. Fundamentally, much is (see chapter 4).
still not understood about fatigue. Excel- A negative outcome of athlete mon-
lent reviews are available that discuss itoring is that practitioners become so
the physiological basis of fatigue in more focused on the fatigue aspect that they
detail (11, 22, 38, 57). do everything in their power to reduce
it as much as possible. This is a mistake
because fatigue is a natural and necessary
Measuring Fatigue piece of the training puzzle. Overempha-
Measuring fatigue in sport competition sizing recovery strategies can blunt the
and training can present challenges adaptations to training (27, 94, 95). A
because of its multifactorial nature. Lab- complete lack of stress can be a problem
based studies have provided scientists similar to overreaching and overtraining
with some great insights into the mech- in that it results in a lack of adaptation
anisms of fatigue. Although practition- and can lead to decreased performance.
ers are commonly less concerned about This is also a feature of the GAS model
discussed previously. Evidence supports

this concept; research studies have
shown a nonlinear dose–response rela-
Fitness
tionship between training load and stress Preparedness
Stimulus
markers (74, 96). A recent study showed
that at both low and high training loads,
Fatigue
indicators of stress increased in athletes
(74). Some of the responses seen with
low loads were similar to those seen with
extremely high loads in a group of elite
Figure 3.2 Relationship between fitness and
female futsal (a modified form of foot-
fatigue. E6859/McGuigan/F03.02/554429/mh-R1
ball) players (74). Athlete monitoring
assists in achieving the correct loading
balance to optimize adaptations.
The interaction between them results

Relationship Between in the change in performance follow-
Fitness and Fatigue ing the stimulus (4). However, multiple
aspects (listed at the start of this section)
Fatigue can best be conceptualized as
of these fatigue and fitness components
existing on a continuum. Where it falls
ultimately determine the level of athlete
on the continuum depends on factors
preparedness (13). It has been proposed
including the following (16):
that aspects such as the cumulative effect
• Cumulative effect of the training of load and fatigue, recovery deficit, and
load the severity of fatigue symptoms explain
individual responses in athletes (13,
• Cumulative level of neuromuscular
37). Similar models have been proposed
and mental fatigue
that describe athlete performance as a
• Level of deficit in recovery complex process dictated by individual
• Length of time the fatigue has accu- responses and characterized by a range
mulated of factors and their interrelationships
• Severity of the fatigue symptoms (87, 88).
Figure 3.2 shows the relationship

between fitness and fatigue that under- Mechanisms of Fatigue
lies the monitoring of physiological stress Neuromuscular fatigue can be a result
in athletes (37, 106). This model depicts of changes at the level of muscle (i.e.,
how the relationship between fitness and peripheral fatigue) or of failure of the
fatigue affects athlete readiness (13, 37). central nervous system to drive the
The original idea, based on work from motor neurons sufficiently (i.e., central
Banister and colleagues, is that athlete fatigue) (34). The parasympathetic and
performance is related to the difference sympathetic nervous systems appear to
between fitness and fatigue (4, 12). In play a role in fatigue. The sympathetic
this model, the two components are nervous system controls the fight-or-
represented as positive (fitness) and neg- flight response. The parasympathetic
ative (fatigue) physiological functions. nervous system is responsible for
downregulating the systems of the (11). Downregulation (a decrease) of the

body. It has been suggested that the fit- various receptors and decreased catecho-
ness effects in the fitness-fatigue model lamine release both decrease nervous
appear to be primarily neural, whereas system function, which affects the neural
the fatigue effects are both neural and aspect of fatigue. Integrative physiologi-
metabolic (13). cal approaches to addressing fatigue are
Neural mechanisms are many and important because multiple mechanisms
varied, but they appear to involve the and systems contribute to the condition.
peripheral nervous system. They can Lactate is one of the most measured
occur via decreased autogenic inhibi- variables in studies of fatigue. However,
tion (reduced excitability of contracting experts have moved on from the notion
or stretched muscle), coactivation of that lactate accumulation is responsible
intrafusal fibers (muscle spindles that for fatigue. The evidence now shows that
detect the degree and rate of stretch of a rather than causing fatigue, lactate is a
muscle), and activation of the neuromus- necessary result of fatigue and actually
cular complex (13, 34). The sympathetic has some ergogenic effects in terms of
nervous system, once activated, results in helping to restore force (11)—another
an increased release of stress hormones good example of correlation not mean-
such as norepinephrine, epinephrine, ing causation! One consistent finding is
and cortisol. The activity of the central that overtrained athletes have decreased
nervous system increases through upreg- maximal lactate concentrations, whereas
ulation (increased cellular content) of submaximal values remain unchanged or
receptors and increased catecholamine are slightly lower (114).
(stress hormone) release.
The metabolic component of fatigue is
primarily due to decreased storage and Postactivation Potentiation
use of energy stores such as adenosine Postactivation potentiation (PAP)
triphosphate and phosphocreatine. In refers to the short-term enhancement
addition, increases in the intramuscu- in performance following a specific
lar levels of inorganic phosphate seem conditioning activity (e.g., to increase
to cause peripheral fatigue by reducing muscular strength, power, or speed). PAP
maximal cross-bridge function, the sen- shows how fitness and fatigue interact
sitivity of myofibers to calcium, and the and some of the underlying mechanisms
release of calcium for the sarcoplasmic behind them (47, 99). The two principles
reticulum (11). The resulting intramus- that explain the PAP response are the
cular acidosis reduces muscle force and phosphorylation of myosin light chains
shortening velocity (which decreases and the increase in the recruitment
power). Lowered muscle glycogen results of high-threshold motor units (47). A
in less calcium being released from the decrease in skeletal muscle pennation
sarcoplasmic reticulum. It has been pro- angle has also been proposed as a mecha-
posed that this combined with feedback nism (65). The classic idea is that the bal-
to the central nervous system contributes ance between PAP and fatigue results in
to increases in RPE and central fatigue performance enhancement. That is, the
potentiation represents the fitness effect, specific aspects of this part of the pro-
and there is also the associated fatigue gram would help to optimize the PAP
effect. This relationship between fitness responses and potential adaptations.
and fatigue and the subsequent increase A recent study has cast some doubt
in performance has been observed in on the notion that underlying mecha-
several studies with athletes (112). The nisms of the central nervous system are
positive balance between PAP and fatigue responsible for the potentiating effects
is thought to be a result of potentiated of acute exercise on subsequent perfor-
muscular contractile activity (93). mance (109). Psychological effects could
An example of using PAP in strength
play an important role in performance
and conditioning practice is to have
enhancement, which could be partially
athletes perform some type of explosive
explained by the athlete’s perceived state
exercise following a heavy set of back
squats (99). The practitioner could pre- of readiness. A detailed understanding
scribe three sets at 90% of 1RM for 3 of these underlying mechanisms is not
repetitions. At the completion of each important, although it does help in
set, the athlete rests for several minutes making decisions about critical features
and then performs a set of three verti- of a monitoring system. What is clear is
cal countermovement jumps. The PAP that these fitness and fatigue effects can
response results in greater jump heights give some insight into useful monitoring
and theoretically a greater training tools for measuring aspects thought to be
response. responsible for fatigue.
A great deal is still not understood Short-term training studies provide
about the mechanisms that explain these further support for the fitness-fatigue
performance effects and the interaction model. Differential responses of strength,
between the fitness and fatigue com- power, and speed have been shown
ponents of PAP. Evidence shows that in studies of overtraining in resistance
stronger athletes have a greater poten- training, which confirms that there are
tiation response (which is an indicator differences in the responses to stress (13,
of the fitness effect) and less fatigue 31, 32). These studies have not involved
than weaker athletes do (14, 99). This is
athletes completing high volumes of
because stronger athletes have a greater
resistance exercise but rather athletes
capacity to overcome fatigue because
training at near-maximal intensities. One
of their ability to tolerate higher load-
ing, and they experience performance study showed that 3 weeks of high-inten-
enhancement earlier than weaker ath- sity resistance training of three sessions
letes do (99). Because fatigue has a neg- per week of near-maximal back squats
ative influence on the PAP response, the resulted in decreases in speed but no
timing of the recovery period between change in strength levels (32). This work
activities is vital. Practitioners need to also highlights the fact that total work is
consider the protocol used to elicit PAP not the only important factor in acute
and the characteristics of the individual responses; training load and relative
athlete (93). Monitoring training and intensity are also critical factors.
Stimulus-Fatigue- this period after recovery and adaptation

are completed, the performance and
Recovery-Adaptation preparedness of the athlete will continue
to decline. In this model this process is
Model sometimes referred to as a state of invo-
lution (37).
The stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adapta- In the stimulus-fatigue-recovery-ad-
tion model describes a general response aptation model, the magnitude of the
following the application of a training stimulus plays a significant role in deter-
stimulus (figure 3.3) (37, 106). As with mining the length of the recovery-adap-
the other models discussed, the appli- tation period. Manipulating the length of
cation of the training stimulus results the recovery-adaptation period is one of
in acute fatigue. High perceived fatigue the fundamental tenets of periodization
is generally not an issue with athletes (37, 113). An effective athlete monitor-
as long as it is followed by an adequate ing system should enable the practitioner
period of recovery. In this initial stage, for to gather objective information about an
the 24 to 36 hr following the acute stim- athlete’s responses to training and make
ulus, often no performance decrement adjustments accordingly. For example, if
occurs (71). The degree of accumulated the magnitude of a training stimulus is
fatigue is proportional to the magnitude larger than normal, the athlete will expe-
and duration of the workload experi- rience more fatigue and will need more
enced by the athlete. A performance time for recovery and adaptation (106).
supercompensation ensues as long as Only by having objective measures of
recovery time has been sufficient. If no an athlete’s fatigue will the practitioner
new training stimulus is applied during know the effect of the load on the ath-
Stimulus
Training Fatigue
load
Accumulation Recovery
of loading
Return to Super-
homeostasis compensation
Peaking Involution
Preparedness
and performance
Figure 3.3 Stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation model.

E6859/McGuigan/F03.03/554430/mh-R2
lete. One strategy to address this is to mones such as testosterone, cortisol, and
alternate heavy and light training days growth hormone to variations in acute
to offset extended periods of high fatigue training variables and training volume
and the associated delay in recovery and and intensity (19, 59, 60).
adaptation. Alternatively, the practi- The fatigue and fitness effects are inde-
tioner can reduce the training stress to pendent of each other, but their overall
cause less fatigue and hasten recovery effect is cumulative (see figure 3.2). Of
and adaptation. However, in some peri- most concern with regard to monitoring
ods, such as preseasons, athletes need to are fatigue effects; they result from the
be able to tolerate high levels of loading training stimulus, but they can also affect
to prepare for competition. a number of systems (13). A good exam-
ple is the immune system, which can
suffer negative consequences as a result
Applications of a large cumulative fatigue effect (35).
The manipulation of acute training
of the Models variables goes a long way in determining
athlete adaptation. Practitioners need
The GAS, fitness-fatigue model, and effective monitoring systems to be con-
stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation fident that they are applying the appro-
model have some clear applications for priate training dosages to manage fatigue
practitioners. Fundamental to all of them while optimizing adaptation and recov-
is the need to achieve a balance between ery. Again, the goal here is not to remove
the training stimulus level, the effects fatigue but to monitor and manage it so
of fitness and fatigue, and the degree of that immediate adjustments can be made
adaptation and recovery. The GAS model to the training program.
proposes that the total work alone is
responsible for the responses, regardless
of the magnitude of the stimulus (13). Fatigue Continuum
In the fitness-fatigue model, both the
total amount and the magnitude of the Many factors contribute to the acute
stimulus contribute to the postexercise response to a training stimulus (see figure
response. As stated previously, multiple 1.2 in chapter 1). The athlete’s response
factors and fitness-fatigue effects contrib- to the training dosage can be thought of
ute to adaptation (13). The GAS model, as existing on a continuum with several
which was mainly based on a theory variables having the potential to make an
of a general response of the endocrine impact. Practitioners sometimes struggle
system to stress, makes a clear distinction to distinguish between optimal adapta-
between the fitness and fatigue effects tion due to correct program design and
(101). However, experts now agree that maladaptation due to too much training
hormonal responses vary based on the load and excessive fatigue. If recovery
mode of training (19). Resistance train- following the acute training stimulus
ing is a good example: Several studies is inadequate, the athlete will move
have shown differential effects of hor- along this continuum to a point where
decreased performance or negative stress and stress-induced cortisol release

consequences such as overreaching and and resting levels of cortisol (46). Stress
overtraining occur (71). Because no can affect the body’s recovery processes
clear point exists at which normal train- in different ways. For example, during
ing adaptations meet negative outcomes periods of high stress, the body’s ability
or maladaptations, it is useful to think to heal has been shown to be compro-
of fatigue as occurring on a continuum. mised (115).
The transition from normal adaptation A body of research evidence suggests
to maladaptation is gradual, and in fact that during periods of high stress, ath-
a state of overreaching is necessary to letes have a reduced ability to adapt to
improve performance (figure 3.4). Rec- training (5, 95, 107, 108). For example,
ognizing these transitions early can help chronic psychological stress results in
prevent the overtraining syndrome. blunted responses to resistance training;
This is why choosing monitoring tools one study revealed that chronic mental
that are reliable, valid, and sensitive to stress had an impact on the rate of muscle
changes in fatigue is so important. recovery from heavy resistance training
Chronic stress is another important over a 4-day period (108). During peri-
factor that practitioners need to con- ods of high stress (e.g., exam periods for
sider when assessing athletes’ physio- university athletes), practitioners need
logical responses to training (55, 95). be mindful of maximizing athlete recov-
In their conceptual model, Kentta and ery by adjusting their training programs
Hassmen (55) consider the total process accordingly.
of stress and recovery, including critical Increased risk of illness and injury can
factors such as the acute magnitude also occur during periods of high stress
of total stress, the degree of stress the (66). A variety of questionnaires are
person can tolerate, and the actual available for monitoring athletes’ stress
total recovery from the stress. People levels (see chapter 4). Factors such as
appear to differ greatly in their ability to nutrition and athletes’ perception of the
handle stress. One recent study showed training stress have also been suggested
a strong relationship between individ- as having a significant influence on the
ual differences in neural responses to fatigue continuum (63).
Functional Nonfunctional
Acute fatigue Overtraining
overreaching overreaching
Figure 3.4 Overreaching and overtraining theoretical continuum.

E6859/McGuigan/F03.04/554431/mh-R1
Overreaching Prevalence
and Overtraining of Overreaching
and Overtraining
The majority of the research literature Current evidence suggests that the prev-
supports the concept that overreaching alence of overreaching and overtrain-
and overtraining exist on a continuum ing can be moderate to high in athletic
(71). Although the fatigue caused by a populations. Matos and colleagues (68)
stimulus can lead to adaptation, inad- classified athletes as overreached or
equate recovery after the stimulus can overtrained based on being fatigued on a
result in maladaptation. This maladap- daily basis with significant decrements in
tation involves the hypothalamic-pitui- performance lasting from several weeks
tary-adrenal axis and all other hypotha- to several months. Their study found that
lamic axes (71, 72). The hypothalamus 29% of youth athletes experience symp-
plays the critical role in the brain of reg- toms of nonfunctional overreaching and
ulating the central responses to stress and overtraining and that athletes competing
training. It also integrates the metabolic, in individual sports are at greater risk
nervous, and hormonal signals. The bal- because of the higher volumes of training
ance between stimulus and recovery is (37% of individual sport athletes versus
critical to ensure appropriate adaptations 17% of team sport athletes) (68). Higher
to training. risk is also seen in those competing at
During periods of overreaching, mon- the elite level: 37% of national-level
itoring can help practitioners avoid athletes and 45% of international-level
decreased performance in their athletes. athletes experience symptoms. Morgan
The terminology used in this area can and colleagues (78) found that 64% of
be inconsistent and confusing, however. male and 60% of female elite middle-dis-
Terms such as staleness, burnout, and tance runners reported experiencing
intensified training are sometimes used symptoms during their careers. A study
interchangeably with overreaching and of British athletes (national and Olympic
overtraining. When a period of reduced level) reported a prevalence of symptoms
performance as a result of overload of 15% to 35% in men and 4% to 15%
training occurs, the athlete has entered in women (58). A small-scale study of
a state of functional overreaching (3). elite swimmers monitored for 6 months
Nonfunctional overreaching is defined reported an incidence of 21% (48). The
as unplanned fatigue and decreased per- results from all of these investigations
formance following an extended period show that high-level athletes across
of overload training with inadequate a range of sports and ages experience
recovery (83). The overtraining syn- overreaching and overtraining regularly.
drome is the final stage of the fatigue Studies of overreaching and over-
continuum and is defined as large dec- training can be difficult to perform in
rements in performance and associated athlete populations. Because of the
psychological disturbances that can last negative consequences of overtrain-
from weeks to months despite extended ing in particular, attempting to induce
periods of rest and reductions in training this condition in athletes is unethical.
load (see figure 3.4) (71). Very few longitudinal overreaching and
overtraining studies have been conducted so much about tapering and peaking
in elite athletes; most of the evidence has for competition is still not understood.
been garnered from acute investigations. One of the issues with tapering is ath-
Another problem with these types of letes’ highly individualized responses
studies is the small number of athletes to it. Current research on tapering has,
available (76, 83). Further, the majority for the most part, used individual aer-
of the studies focused only on individ- obic endurance athletes; only a small
ual aerobic endurance athletes (48, 61, number of studies have been done on
62). Some research (18, 97) has been team sport athletes (18, 81, 91). A recent
completed with team sport athletes, but study of elite triathletes demonstrated
very few investigations have been done the importance of monitoring training
with purely resistance-trained athletes. to avoid negative outcomes as a result
Many descriptive athlete monitoring of overreaching (3). The athletes in the
studies have been conducted across a functionally overreached state performed
number of sports (15, 18, 20, 51). These worse after a 2-week taper than did those
types of investigations can provide prac- defined as “acutely fatigued” as a result of
titioners with fascinating insights into training. This highlights the importance
how monitoring is occurring in different of monitoring the tapering period. For
sporting environments (69, 84). Gener- example, an athlete who is fatigued may
ally, though, these tend to be observa- require a longer tapering duration and
tional studies, which can have limited greater reductions in training load (81).
scope and application for scenarios such Related to tapering are the areas of
as overtraining (9, 111). detraining and reduced training. Buch-
heit and colleagues (8) studied the
effects of a 2-week detraining period in
Functional Overreaching elite Australian rules football players.
Functional overreaching can be a planned During this period the players under-
strategy to increase athletic performance. went a nonsupervised reduced training
Practitioners commonly use it to improve program. Various measures of muscular
the physical capacities of athletes, par- strength and cardiorespiratory endur-
ticularly those with a high training ance revealed either increases or no
age. Tapering is a good example of how changes at all. Even longer periods of
effective monitoring of overreaching detraining can result in further improve-
can optimize peaking in athletes. The ments in certain physical capacities.
taper, a critical part of the periodization Loturco and colleagues (64) investigated
plan, involves reducing overall training the effects of a 28-day taper in four elite
volume while maintaining the intensity pole vaulters. Although this was a small
to bring about a peak in performance due sample size, the study showed signifi-
to the supercompensation effect (113). A cant improvements in the rate of force
well-designed taper typically results in development and acceleration after the
performance gains of about 3% (range training cessation period. A classic study
= 0.5-6%) (81), which can mean the by Andersen and Aagaard (1) showed
difference between winning and losing. that an extended period of detraining
Of the many aspects of designing a resulted in an overshoot of myosin heavy
training program, the taper causes prac- chain IIX isoforms, which could explain
titioners the most problems because the large increases in power and rate of
force development that were seen (1, 2).

What appears to emerge from this body
Nonfunctional
of research is that typical tapering periods Overreaching
may be quite conservative and that they The time taken to recover from normal
could be lengthened to maximize athletic performance is the major factor that
performance. However, only by regularly distinguishes functional overreaching
monitoring variables related to perfor- from nonfunctional overreaching (71).
mance throughout the program and Nonfunctional overreaching is associated
tapering period can practitioners garner with periods of reduced performance,
this information from athletes to help psychological distress, and hormonal
them introduce more optimal strategies. disturbances. It is often viewed as a pre-
Functional overreaching is generally cursor to the overtraining syndrome.
reversed when an adequate period of An athlete who has reached a state of
recovery of 1 to 3 weeks is provided (62, nonfunctional overreaching is generally
71). This allows for the so-called rebound underperforming and feeling excessively
effect, which theoretically allows the fatigued, and the symptoms last from 2
athlete to perform at greater capacity. weeks to 6 months (68).
However, issues can arise because func-
tional overreaching can compromise Research Studies
competition performance in the short on Nonfunctional Overreaching
term. Therefore, the timing and duration The process of nonfunctional overreach-
of any functional overreaching during a ing is far from well understood. In addi-
training program is critical. tion to research with athletes, research
Functional overreaching strategies are with tactical and military personnel has
often more effective with advanced and also provided some interesting insights
elite athletes, perhaps because they need in this area. A range of monitoring tools
them to continue making gains in perfor- can be used for detecting nonfunctional
mance. The flip side is that such strategies overreaching (16-18, 83). Nederhof
put athletes at greater risk of moving far- and colleagues (83) examined a range
ther along the fitness-fatigue continuum of monitoring tools (see chapter 4) in
toward maladaptation. Athletes’ toler- three case studies of elite speedskaters,
ance for higher training loads increases including the Recovery-Stress Question-
throughout their careers, but the need naire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport), Profile
to be closely monitored becomes even of Mood States (POMS), a reaction time
more important. With respect to func- test, and responses of the adrenocorti-
tional overreaching, practitioners need cotropic hormone (ACTH) and cortisol
to take a risk–reward approach. Athlete to two bouts of maximal cycling. Clear
monitoring enables them to make more differences were found between the
informed decisions about when to use three athletes (one classified as non-
overreaching approaches during perio- functional overreached, one recovering
dization and what to adjust to ensure from nonfunctional overreaching, and
improved performance occurs while one healthy). The RESTQ-Sport, reac-
avoiding moving athletes farther along tion time task, and two-exercise protocol
the continuum toward nonfunctional appear to be promising tools for diagnos-
overreaching. ing nonfunctional overreaching.
Coutts and colleagues (18) investigated followed by a suppressed response to the

markers of overreaching in team sport second bout (73). This suggests an initial
athletes (rugby league) undertaking hypersensitivity of the pituitary with
heavy training loads. A group of players exhaustion, downregulation following
deliberately overreached for 6 weeks the second bout of exercise, or both (71).
followed by a 1-week taper period. The When considering the hormonal
short taper period allowed for supercom- responses to exercise during these tests,
pensation in running performance, verti- practitioners should take into account
cal countermovement jump height, and the variability of these measures. The
.
VO 2max and reduced muscle damage. hormonal axes being monitored need to
The glutamine-to-glutamate ratio was be considered within the context of their
the only biochemical marker sensitive interaction. For example, the hormonal
enough to distinguish functional from responses during exercise will have an
nonfunctional overreaching. Interest- impact on the hormonal responses during
ingly, the study also showed that non- recovery (71). Because these hormonal
functional overreaching can occur with axes function in parallel, it is critical to
only relatively small increases in training measure their levels during exercise and
load above usual levels of training. This after recovery. This is the rationale for
highlights the importance of having using a two-exercise approach. How-
accurate measures of training load in ever, it does have its drawbacks, which
addition to tools that can identify over- include logistics, demands on the ath-
reaching. lete, and the expense of the hormonal
analysis. Using this type of monitoring
Exercise and Hormonal Tests with a large group of athletes would be
challenging; it may be better to reserve
for Nonfunctional Overreaching it for high-priority athletes identified as
The two-protocol exercise test has been at risk of nonfunctional overreaching or
used in the study of overreaching and overtraining.
overtraining in athletes (71, 72). The Hormone levels related to the hypo-
theory behind this protocol is that it thalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis have
provides an indirect measure of hypo- been shown to be disturbed during over-
thalamic-pituitary-adrenal reactivity. reaching (97, 98). Specifically, levels of
Typically, two bouts of maximal exercise, ACTH, cortisol, and growth hormone
separated by 4 hr, are performed, and a have decreased following overreaching
variety of hormonal responses are meas- (72, 98). The testosterone-to-cortisol
ured. The test can be used to distinguish ratio has also been proposed to have
between functional and nonfunctional potential as a marker (see chapter 5 for
overreaching as well as overtraining (73). more details), but the results are less
A nonfunctionally overreached athlete compelling (28-30, 76). The idea is that
displays a more pronounced neuroen- testosterone represents the athlete’s
docrine response to the second bout of anabolic status and that the cortisol rep-
exercise than does an athlete in a state of resents the catabolic status. Reports of
functional overreaching (73). An over- reduced levels of cortisol with long-term
trained athlete exhibits an extremely training can be found in the literature
large hormonal response to the first (36), although these findings are not
bout of exercise, but this is generally consistent (98).
In a study of elite junior football play- also measured but did not demonstrate
ers, athletes who were underperforming any usefulness as a marker of training
showed psychological and hormonal stress. Mood disturbance, determined
changes consistent with nonfunctional using questionnaires such as the POMS,
overreaching (98). Levels of resting appears to be one of the best markers of
growth hormone were reduced, and nonfunctional overreaching. Halson and
there was a decrease in postexercise colleagues (42) found a 28% increase in
ACTH. The suggestion is that the lower mood disturbance in elite cyclists after 2
levels of growth hormone reflect the weeks of intensified training. Mood dis-
reduced anabolic status of the athlete, turbances, neuroendocrine dysfunction,
and under stress, the lower levels of emotional changes, and disturbed sleep
ACTH are a result of disruption to the are all associated with nonfunctional
pituitary-adrenal axis (98). It is common overreaching. They are also indicators of
to measure these hormones, both at disturbance of the regulation and coor-
rest and in response to a bout or bouts dination function of the hypothalamus.
of exercise. However, the problem with Disturbed sleep patterns and increased
using these measures is the expense, the incidences of illness have been shown
logistics of collection, and the challenge in overreached aerobic endurance ath-
of providing real-time feedback to prac- letes (45). What is not clear from this
titioners. Also, a great deal of variability work is whether the disturbed sleep is a
exists with these measures, which limits result of increased training load causing
their usefulness for monitoring athletes the development of overreaching or a
for overreaching and overtraining. symptom of overreaching. Athletes in a
Given the importance of mood state state of nonfunctional overreaching also
in diagnosing overtraining, there has show deterioration in mood in addition
been interest in brain markers such to decreased performance (98). A classic
as brain-derived neurotrophic factor study by Morgan and colleagues (77)
(BDNF), which stimulates brain cell showed mood disturbances in female
growth and repair as well as the devel- swimmers following 4 weeks of overload
opment and maintenance of the nervous training, particularly increased anger and
system. A recent study investigated the depression. Simple tools for monitoring
relationship between plasma BDNF and athletes are invaluable for practitioners,
mood disturbance as a result of a period particularly if they can accurately assess
of intensified training (89). In a group of athletes’ position on the fitness-fatigue
eight well-trained cyclists, a 32% increase continuum and help them avoid moving
in mood disturbance occurred after just toward the severe state of overtraining.
1 week of intensified training, and this
was accompanied by a decrease in per-
formance. These were both restored after Markers of Overtraining
1 week of recovery, which indicated a The major difference between nonfunc-
state of functional overreaching. Plasma tional overreaching and overtraining
levels of BDNF increased following acute is the time it takes to restore normal
exercise during the intensified period, performance (71). Overtraining can be
but there were no clear relationships defined as being excessively fatigued
with the degree of overreaching post- and underperforming for longer than 6
exercise or at rest. Resting cortisol was months (68). One of the problems facing
practitioners is that, to achieve success, are discussed in more detail in forth-

athletes need some periods of heavy coming chapters. Some symptoms of
training loads (24). Athletes often train performance fatigue are unexplained
multiple times per day to achieve these decreases in performance, persistent
training loads. When an athlete is suf- fatigue, having to make more effort
fering from performance fatigue, it is during training, and disordered sleep
important to determine whether that (including quantity, quality, insom-
fatigue is the result of overtraining (71). nia, and nap frequency). To determine
In a consensus statement, Meeusen and whether overtraining is the cause of an
colleagues (71) state that the stress-re- athlete’s fatigue, a practitioner must
covery-adaptation model is too gen- first eliminate other possible causes.
eral. They suggest that a diagnosis of For example, diseases such as anemia,
overtraining syndrome requires specific Epstein-Barr virus, Lyme disease, diabe-
exclusion criteria focusing on clinical tes, and adult-onset asthma can cause
aspects, followed by nonclinical ele- performance fatigue, as can muscle
ments such as training volume, energy damage, cardiac problems, infectious
balance, nutrition, recovery strategies, diseases, allergies, injuries, and biolog-
and psychology (63, 71). Overtraining is ical abnormalities. Any recent illnesses
often considered the result of too much and associated symptoms should be
training; however, many other factors noted. Also, practitioners need to look
contribute to it, all of which practitioners at psychological and social factors and
need to take into account. whether the athlete has traveled exces-
Lewis and colleagues (63) suggested sively recently.
that the term overtraining syndrome Another factor for practitioners to
may cause practitioners to focus solely examine to rule out overtraining is
on training when the syndrome is mul- training errors. These could be the result
tifactorial. Practitioners tend to increase of more time spent training, a significant
the effort and frequency of training increase in intensity, training monot-
sessions in response to poor results. To ony, a high number of competitions,
avoid this, they need to understand the or exposure to environmental stressors
differences between overreaching and such as heat, cold, and high altitude. The
overtraining in athletes. Consistent use athlete’s training diary or log can be a
and application of terminology may good source for this type of information.
build better relationships between sport Decreased athletic performance is
coaches and sport scientists. It will also a key consideration and should be
educate practitioners and athletes about recorded in terms of the quantity and
the correct application of training load duration of the decrease. If possible,
and ensure adequate recovery to opti- practitioners should review any recent
mize performance. competition and training data, includ-
Various methods have been proposed ing perception of effort, heart rate, and
for detecting overtraining in athletes. global positioning system data. Heart
Ideally, practitioners would identify rate measures such as resting heart rate,
conditions that can lead to overtraining heart rate response to exercise, and
so they can make adjustments before heart rate variability (HRV) can help
the syndrome occurs. Several methods practitioners monitor for overtraining.
Mood disturbances should also be Biochemical, Hematological,

noted, including stress, anxiety, loss of
appetite, lack of libido, and disordered
and Immunological Markers
eating. Athletes may report suffering Biochemical, hematological, and immu-
from constant mental fatigue, increased nological markers have been proposed
irritability, and difficulty concentrating. for monitoring training that could lead
With female athletes, menstrual history to overreaching or overtraining (see
should be recorded, including menarche, chapter 5 for further details). Biochemi-
contraception, time of last period, and cal measures proposed include testoster-
frequency of periods. Medications and one-to-cortisol ratio, plasma glutamine,
a history of drug use are also worth creatine kinase, C-reactive protein,
noting. Nutrition information is vital and serum iron, ferritin, and transferrin.
can include typical daily food and fluid Hematological markers such as red blood
intake, timing, recent changes in diet, cell count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit
dietary exclusions, and the use of sup- could also be useful. Immunological
plements. Energy homeostasis, which markers suggested as valuable for mon-
is clearly important for training and itoring overtraining are blood leukocyte
adaptation, refers to the balance between counts, blood cytokines, salivary immu-
energy intake and energy expenditure. noglobulin A, and amylase. Cytokines
The International Olympic Committee such as interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis
offers guidelines in its consensus state- factor alpha have potential because of
ment “Relative Energy Deficiency in their important roles in immune function
Sport” because energy deficiency has and response to exercise (102).
been associated with decreased perfor- Measures of creatine kinase are good
mance in athletes (79, 80). Energy home- indicators of muscle damage and response
ostasis is also a particularly important to unaccustomed exercise, but no con-
factor in the female athlete triad (79). sistent patterns have been noted with
This refers to the combination of disor- respect to overtrained athletes (44).
dered eating and an irregular menstrual Coutts and colleagues (18) found sig-
cycle, which can lead to decreases in nificant increases in creatine kinase in
hormones such as estrogen and even- rugby league players following a 6-week
tually to losses in bone mineral density period of intensified training. Following
(79). Female athletes involved in sports a 1-week taper period, the athletes had
in which a leaner body composition is a significant return to baseline values
important for performance can be par- that was different from what was seen
ticularly at risk (79). Energy homeostasis with the other biochemical markers. This
can be monitored using measures of body was no doubt a reflection of the reduced
weight and body composition. amount of muscle damage associated
Once medical reasons have been with the reduction in training load. With
excluded, a diagnosis of overtraining overtraining, reductions in exercise-in-
syndrome can be made if the athlete duced levels of insulin-like growth factor–
continues to underperform despite con- binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3) have been
tinued rest and recovery (63). Diagnosis, reported (21). One study showed rela-
however, can be extremely difficult given tionships between levels of insulin-like
the wide range of symptoms across indi- growth factor 1 and IGFBP-3 and over-
viduals (92). training as estimated by an overtraining
questionnaire (21). Given the role of the tests could make a valid distinction
sympathetic nervous system, research- between athletes who were nonfunction-
ers are interested in the potential role ally overreached and controls (97). The
of catecholamines in overreaching and field-based performance tests included an
overtraining; evidence suggests that they interval shuttle run test for football play-
may be a useful marker (48). However, it ers and the Zoladz test for runners (118).
should be noted that these are not large- The results showed that with repeated
scale studies. field-based performance tests, perfor-
Chronic energy deficiency and the mance reduction was associated with
resulting glycogen depletion can amplify different mood profiles, blunted cortisol
the stress hormone response, which can responses, and decoupling of ACTH and
be a trigger for overtraining (71). Given cortisol levels. More research is required
the importance of the hypothalamus with larger cohorts of elite athletes to
in regulating energy homeostasis, dis- confirm the efficacy of these types of sub-
ruptions in energy balance can affect maximal performance tests for detecting
several key processes. This could indi- overreaching and overtraining.
cate inadequate recovery and potential One way to distinguish overreaching
overreaching. Hormones involved with from overtraining is to examine phys-
energy balance such as adiponectin and iological and biochemical responses
ghrelin have also been put forward as to exercise. One of the features of
potential markers of overtraining (53). overtraining is the reduced hormonal
Cytokines could be a marker of exces- response to exercise. As discussed ear-
sive fatigue and illness during nonfunc- lier, two maximal exercise tests have
tional overreaching (53). Proinflamma- been used with some success to distin-
tory cytokines have a wide range of roles guish these conditions (72, 73). Given
in the human body and are particularly that elite athletes often are required to
important in the immune response and train twice a day, this model can provide
signaling the hypothalamus (102, 103). insights into responses to training load.
Therefore, it is thought that they could Anecdotally, athletes suffering from non-
help in distinguishing between func- functional overreaching or overtraining
tional and nonfunctional overreaching have performance decrements during
(102, 103). Proinflammatory cytokines the second session of the day. Meeusen
have receptors in the hypothalamus and and colleagues showed that the ACTH
may be responsible for some of the symp- and prolactin responses to a second bout
toms of overreaching and overtraining of exercise and the subsequent time to
seen in athletes (53, 105). recover could distinguish between these
two points of the continuum (72). In the
Performance Tests case of an overtrained athlete, an over-
Overtraining ultimately results in shoot of ACTH in the first exercise bout
decreased performance. Performance was followed by a complete suppression
tests are vital for determining the exist- in the second exercise bout (73). The
ence of overreaching and overtraining in authors proposed hypersensitivity of the
athletes and can identify recovery from pituitary as an explanation. The use of
periods of intense training. In a study of two maximal exercise bouts appears to
elite youth athletes, researchers investi- have potential for detecting overreaching
gated whether field-based performance to prevent overtraining.
The issue with using these biochem- is not uniformly affected by overload
ical and physiological markers is the training (6). Resting heart rate, HRV,
time required to analyze and report and maximal heart rate may have some
the results. They can also be somewhat utility as markers of short-term fatigue.
impractical with large groups of athletes. The moderate degree of alterations in
Finding ways to reduce the time and these measures in response to chronic
physical demands of the tests would fatigue limits their usefulness. At pres-
make them more practical. A modifica- ent, though, the data suggest that these
tion has been to have athletes perform physiological measures have low sensi-
a 30-min bout of exercise, alternating 1 tivity for detecting differences between
min at 55% of maximal work and 4 min points on the fatigue continuum. Like
at 80% of maximal work. Two hours other measures, heart rate measures are
later the athlete performs a cycle to fully useful only when put in context
fatigue at 70% of maximal work (or for with other markers of overreaching or
a maximum of 30 min) (49, 50). Hough overtraining.
and colleagues (49) investigated salivary
testosterone and cortisol responses, along Cognitive Tests
with RESTQ-Sport scores, following The relationship between mental fatigue
an 11-day intensified training period. and physical performance has received
They found that the test was sensitive attention from researchers (67, 104). In
enough to highlight changes in salivary one study, 16 cyclists performed mentally
testosterone and cortisol following the demanding tasks prior to a cycling perfor-
intensified training period. Specifically, mance test (67). The group experienced a
they noted blunted responses in these 15% decrease in the time to exhaustion,
hormones following the exercise tests. and the mentally fatigued cyclists rated
Performance tests are discussed in more their perception of effort during the exer-
detail in chapter 5. cise as higher compared to those in the
control condition (67). Another study
Heart Rate Measures showed that mental fatigue impaired
Heart rate indices such as HRV are sport-specific skills such as running,
potential tools for monitoring athletes passing, and shooting in football players
for overreaching and overtraining (6). (104). Practitioners need to be aware
These measures have the advantage of of the relationship between physical
being very accessible in sport settings. performance and cognitive effort in ath-
Several studies have suggested some letes because it can have implications
value with this approach (62, 90). In for monitoring. Increased perception of
one study a group of highly trained tri- effort with training can also be a sign of
athletes showed evidence of parasympa- overtraining (41). Using RPE measures
thetic modulation of heart rate following during exercise testing and training can
functional overreaching (62). The use be a simple way to monitor for any signs
of HRV and other heart rate measures of overtraining.
is discussed in more detail in chapter 5. Psychomotor speed tests have shown
Heart rate recovery measures have also some promise for detecting nonfunc-
been investigated as potential markers tional overreaching and overtraining
of overtraining and overreaching. A (82). Advantages of these tests are that
meta-analysis suggests that heart rate they are easy to use and inexpensive.
They are based on the fact that during (110). The players were tracked across
periods of fatigue, cognitive function the preseason and competition period
and reaction time decrease. Psychomotor using RPE and wellness questionnaires.
slowness has been shown to be consist- Thresholds were identified for training
ently present during related conditions load, monotony (training variation), and
such as major depression and chronic strain that were predictors of illness. A
fatigue syndrome (82). Psychomotor reduction in overall well-being also pre-
speed has been impaired following 2 dicted illness. Modeling approaches such
weeks of overload training in trained as this, along with simple measures of
cyclists and functionally overreached wellness, can provide practitioners with
cyclists (82). A variety of apps for assess- valuable insights into the process of pre-
ing attention and reaction time hold dicting overreaching and overtraining in
some promise for the early detection of athletes.
overtraining. However, more evidence
is needed before any of them can be Immune Function
conclusively recommended in practice. As previously noted, studies of athletes
undergoing long-term training with high
Monotony training loads reveal suppressed immune
Evidence suggests that athletes under- function, which puts them at greater
going periods of highly monotonous risk of developing upper respiratory
training with little variation in training illnesses (117). Research on the immune
load are at increased risk of developing function of athletes classified as over-
overtraining syndrome (23). Interesting trained is lacking. However, anecdotal
research using racehorses showed that reports from practitioners suggest that
alternating hard and easy training days overtraining results in increased rates of
avoided overtraining (7). The horses infection (102). Other studies suggest the
responded as expected to progressive existence of this relationship (92). For
increases in training load. However, example, Reid and colleagues (92) com-
when the recovery days were made less pleted a clinical investigation of athletes
restful and the monotony of the training with persistent fatigue and recurrent
increased, the horses’ running perfor- infections. Their findings suggest that
mance decreased and they showed signs immune suppression and unresolved
of overtraining (e.g., decreased appetite). viral infections contribute to fatigue,
Results from studies with athletes sup- recurring infections, and decreased per-
port this idea (23, 24). The studies by formance. What is also interesting about
Foster and colleagues showed a strong their investigation is that the conditions
relationship between certain training and symptoms were not consistent across
indices and overtraining in athletes (23, the group, again supporting the concept
24). In a group of 25 athletes comprising of a multifactorial approach to athlete
primarily speedskaters, a high rate of monitoring. It does seem likely, based on
illnesses resulted when they exceeded the evidence, that athletes in a state of
thresholds for training strain (training nonfunctional overreaching or overtrain-
load × monotony). A recent study of ing would be at greater risk of developing
32 rugby league players confirmed this upper respiratory tract illnesses.
Sleep in athletes have ranged from actigraphy

to simple questionnaires in which they
Sleep is consistently mentioned as one
rate the amount and quality of their
of the key elements of recovery for ath-
sleep.
letes. Monitoring of sleep is believed to
be important for preventing overtraining
syndrome. Evidence that athletes who do
Wellness Measures
not get sufficient quantities and quality Psychological and wellness question-
of sleep experience these conditions is naires can also be used to detect over-
lacking (40). One study suggested a rela- training in athletes (see chapter 4 for
tionship between the quantity of sleep more details). Stronger and more con-
and injury rates in adolescent athletes sistent relationships with overtraining
(75). Another recent study revealed that have been observed with these types of
functionally overreached triathletes had self-report measures. The POMS, Daily
a significant decrease in sleep duration Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes,
(−7.9%), sleep efficiency (−1.6%), and Feeling Scale, Perceived Stress Scale,
immobile time (−7.6%) during sleep Total Quality Recovery Scale, Training
(45). The sleep was monitored each night Distress Scale, and RESTQ-Sport tend to
using wristwatch actigraphy, and these be the most commonly used. These meas-
negative sleep patterns were reduced ures generally have good reliability and
during the subsequent taper phase. reflect the dose–response relationship of
Researchers have discovered well-es- training load (96). They also appear to be
tablished relationships between sleep sensitive to the symptoms of overreach-
deprivation and depressed immune func- ing and overtraining. Each questionnaire
tion and decreased work performance has strengths and weaknesses, which are
(33, 45, 56). In a study by Hausswirth discussed more in chapter 4.
and colleagues (45), of the nine athletes Another approach is to use symptom
with nonfunctional overreaching, five checklists in a training diary or log (48,
developed symptoms of upper respira- 77). A simple daily training log is a
tory tract infection. Also, the highest good starting point for getting detailed
rate of illness occurred during the final information about athletes’ training and
week of the overload period. This agrees other aspects of the program. Hooper and
with previous research showing a strong colleagues (48) had swimmers complete
relationship between athlete illness and training logs over a season to detect
periods of heavy training loads (116). symptoms of overtraining. The rating
Halson and colleagues (39) reported a scales included subjective ratings of sleep
greater sleep deficiency in a female sprint quality, fatigue, stress, and muscle sore-
cyclist who developed signs of overtrain- ness using a scale of 1 to 7; athletes com-
ing (persistently feeling fatigued and pleted them each morning upon waking.
underperforming for many months). The researchers classified the swimmers
Killer and colleagues (56) found that as “stale” (i.e., overtrained) based on a
just 9 days of intensified training in well- range of criteria. Blood markers were
trained cyclists decreased sleep quality, also measured in the study, including
mood state, and maximal exercise perfor- catecholamines, cortisol, creatine kinase,
mance. Approaches for monitoring sleep hemoglobin, hematocrit, erythrocytes,
and total leukocyte counts. Physiological or matches taking place. For example,
measures of heart rate, blood pressure, an athlete may be under more pressure
and lactate were also collected. in the final year of the Olympic cycle.
A recent study showed that a nega- Therefore, it may be prudent to be even
tive life event could have a significant more judicious about monitoring for
impact on athletes’ perceptions of stress additional stress and fatigue and make
and recovery (86). Negative life events the necessary adjustments. During a
include such things as being a victim of competitive team sport season, some
crime, serious illness or injury, and the matches may be more difficult and place
death of a close family member or part- greater demands on the athletes than
ner. Sixteen runners were investigated others. Practitioners may want to predict
using the RESTQ-Sport; changes were the difficulty of matches to help them
seen during the week of the negative guide the prescription of training loads
life event and also the week following. during the season (54). For example,
Interestingly, changes in performance during weeks in which matches or events
as measured by running economy sup- are particularly difficult, practitioners
ported the link between stress events and may reduce the training loads consid-
subsequent athletic performance. erably and incorporate more recovery
Environmental factors can also con- strategies. In the weeks leading up to key
tribute to overtraining (40), including matches, training loads could be reduced
high altitude, heat, and travel (causing in a way similar to the wavelike approach
jet lag) (25, 26, 40). Overseas training used with tapering. Research studies of
camps are a good example of where these the efficacy of these approaches would
issues could arise. Although such camps be enlightening.
are designed with the best of intentions,
they can create a perfect storm of factors
that could result in an increased inci- Interdisciplinary
dence of injury, overtraining syndrome,
or both. These factors include changes and Multifactorial
in nutrition, disrupted sleep patterns,
and environmental conditions different
Approaches to Avoid
from what the athlete is used to. Com- Overtraining
bined with the stress of increased training
volume, these factors create challenges What is clear from all this research is that
in terms of where athletes fall on the a battery of monitoring tools could help
fatigue continuum. A solid cost-benefit reduce overtraining syndrome in athletes
analysis needs to be conducted before (63). Interdisciplinary teams of support
undertaking these types of camps (see staff are best equipped to help athletes
the sidebar Individual Responses in a avoid overtraining and guide them back
Squad of Athletes in chapter 1). Prac- to peak performance following maladap-
titioners can then decide whether they tive conditions. The wide range of symp-
provide enough benefit to justify them. toms indicates that practitioners need to
Another important factor to take into consider many factors when diagnosing
account is the importance of the events overtraining. Position statements also
indicate that physiological responses and physiological and psychometric meas-

symptoms are highly varied and individ- ures were collected over 2 weeks. These
ual (41, 68, 70, 71). included training load, wellness ratings,
No single monitoring tool can provide salivary cortisol, and HRV measures prior
a completely accurate diagnosis of over- to training. Regular fitness testing was
training. Thus, practitioners are well done using the Yo-Yo intermittent recov-
advised to use a battery of tests to get a ery test and global positioning system
complete picture of the athlete and to measures collected from all sessions.
help them predict overtraining. A range Importantly, no injuries were reported
of long-term monitoring tools will also during the camp, and all players’ fitness
enable the practitioner to manage the levels improved. The HRV and wellness
athlete’s progression back to full training scores were sensitive to subtle changes in
(40). training load. The authors concluded that
Researchers have started to investigate a collection of heart rate, training load,
multifactorial approaches to overreach- and wellness measures could be used
ing and overtraining (61). Le Meur and to monitor training-induced changes in
colleagues (61) studied 24 triathletes fatigue and recovery status.
who were separated into an overload Hooper and colleagues (48) proposed
group and a normal training group. an interesting multifactorial approach
They used a multivariate approach that using a range of criteria to determine
looked at physiological, biochemical, “staleness,” or overtraining, in a group
cognitive, and perceptual measures of elite swimmers. The criteria were as
during 3 weeks of training. Following the follows:
training period, 11 of the athletes were
classified as being overreached based on • Failure to increase performance
decrements in performance. Discrimi- from early in the season to the end
nant analysis showed that eight variables of the season
could explain the majority of those in
• Failure to increase performance
the overtrained state based on variations
during national trials from previous
in heart rate and lactate on a maximal
best times
incremental test. The study confirmed
that a variety of monitoring variables is • Fatigue rating greater than 5 (on a
needed to prevent the transition from 7-point Likert scale) for more than
overreached to overtrained in aerobic 7 days
endurance athletes. The authors also • Comments in training diaries that
proposed that an overreaching index that athletes believed they were not
combines heart rate and blood lactate responding well to training
concentration changes after an intensi- • Noting an illness in the training log
fied training period could be useful for that was associated with a normal
detecting overreaching in athletes. blood measure such as leukocyte
One multifactorial study monitored count
18 elite football players’ fitness, fatigue,
and running performance during a Achieving all of these criteria was
preseason training camp (9). Several necessary for a diagnosis of overtraining.
Figure 3.5 shows an example of mon- can track the changes in training load
itoring for overreaching in a group of and see how performance and wellness
athletes; performance measures were (mood, fatigue, muscle soreness, sleep,
taken over 6 weeks during an overload and stress) are affected.
and taper phase. Measures of weekly Using a multifactorial approach with
load, wellness, and performance are a battery of monitoring tools is a sound
shown for both training periods. The way to establish whether an athlete is
graph shows that functional overreach- susceptible to overtraining. Because no
ing occurred and that a rebound in per- single measure can accurately predict the
formance occurred following the taper- existence of overreaching or overtrain-
ing week. By monitoring athletes with a ing, practitioners should investigate and
range of monitoring tools, practitioners use a range of monitoring tools.
7,000 Wellness Performance 10
Performance and wellness (arbitrary units)

6,000
8
5,000 7
6
Weekly load
4,000
5
3,000
4
2,000 3
2
1,000
1
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Weeks
Figure 3.5 Monitoring overreaching in athletes with performance and wellness

E6859/McGuigan/F03.05/554432/mh-R2
measures over time (7 weeks) during an overload and taper phase.
GUIDELINES FOR AVOIDING OVERTRAINING
Practitioners can use a variety of strategies to avoid overtraining syndrome and de-
creased performance in athletes (70). Prevention is the most important consideration
because the most viable strategy for addressing full-blown overtraining syndrome is
complete rest and recovery. Athlete monitoring, correctly embedded in a training pro-
gram, will go a long way in keeping athletes from developing overtraining syndrome.
The following strategies can help practitioners prevent overtraining in their ath-
letes:
• Have regular conversations with athletes and ask them how they feel.
• Keep a training diary to record the details of all training sessions and competi-
tions.
• Make adjustments to training loads when performance declines.
• Progressively increase the training load using carefully planned periodization to
avoid large changes from week to week.
• Avoid excessive monotony in training by alternating heavy and light days.
• Consider the intelligent use of rest days and training variety to avoid boredom
and monotony.
• Individualize training loads for each athlete based on tolerance level.
• Understand stressors that can be adding to the stress of training for the athlete
(e.g., life load events such as exams and relationships).
• Consider the role of environmental conditions such as heat, high altitude, and jet
lag with travel.
• Optimize recovery.
• Optimize sleep and rest strategies.
• Ensure adequate and balanced nutrition.
• Use wellness questionnaires to record athletes’ psychological and emotional
states.
• Make adjustments to training loads and frequency when an athlete exhibits ex-
cessive fatigue.
• Make a note of any illnesses, and be prepared to stop or reduce training to aid
recovery.
• Gradually transition the athlete back to full training loads after any periods of no
training.
• Use objective criteria for return to sport that takes into account the athlete’s toler-
ance for loading.
• Perform regular health checks with an interdisciplinary team that includes a phy-
sician, a physiotherapist, a nutritionist, and a sport psychologist.
67
Conclusion tional overreaching to overtraining.

All of these states are characterized by
decreases in performance but are defined
Several models attempt to explain the by the degree of recovery required. Early
acute response of athletes to training. detection of signs of nonfunctional over-
The GAS model, fitness-fatigue model, reaching is important because it allows
and stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adapta- the practitioner to adjust the training
tion model are all important to under- program before the athlete progresses
stand. Traditional concepts of homeosta- to overtraining syndrome. No single
sis in relation to stress should be modified marker can detect the progression from
to take into account the multifactorial functional overreaching to nonfunctional
nature of the acute physiological stress of overreaching to overtraining. Therefore,
training. The fatigue continuum provides practitioners should consider a range of
an overview of the progression of fatigue monitoring tools to create a full picture
to functional overreaching to nonfunc- of athletes’ fatigue levels.
Quantifying
4
Training Stress
To optimize an athlete’s adaptation to of the common measurement tools used

a training program, practitioners must to assess external and internal training
initially quantify the level of training load for athlete monitoring.
stress and the physiological responses to
that stress. Many subjective and objec-
tive research-based measurement tools
are available to guide training program
Measurement Tools
design and optimize training sessions.
Coaches, sport scientists, and strength Athlete training programs can be quan-
and conditioning practitioners need a tified in numerous ways. The training
good understanding of these measure- sessions within the training program can
ment tools to avoid using a tool just for be measured in terms of frequency (how
the sake of using it. Ultimately, the meas- often), intensity (how hard), duration
urement tool needs to help a practitioner (how long), and mode (type of exer-
make decisions about the athlete’s pro- cise). Training load can be quantified
gram. This chapter provides an overview as a measure of external load or internal
load. At its simplest, training load is the during two sessions but report different
product of session intensity and duration, perceptions of effort or have different
as follows: heart rate responses (internal load) in
the two tests. Research also suggests
Training load = intensity × duration
that athletes can experience different
Measures of external load look at internal responses to the same external
factors such as distance covered, athlete workload (66). Issues can arise when a
speed, and session duration. The increas- practitioner prescribes external loads for
ing use of microtechnology in sport a group of athletes without considering
(e.g., power meters, global positioning the individual differences in internal
system [GPS] devices, accelerometers) load, which can indicate fatigue and
has allowed practitioners to monitor ultimately adaptation. Practitioners need
external load in athletes during training to understand the difference between
and competition with accuracy and in external and internal load and how they
real time. interact in athlete monitoring.
Internal load refers to the physiologi-
cal stress on the athlete during training,
which is what largely determines the
adaptation to the training program. Heart
External Load
rate, rating of perceived exertion (RPE),
and lactate are examples of measures of External load measures are commonly
internal load. When monitoring athletes, used for quantifying training in aerobic
practitioners need to consider both exter- endurance sports and team sports. The
nal and internal load. Traditionally, train- increasing use of wearable technologies
ing has been prescribed using external has allowed for more systematic and
measures despite individual differences detailed information on the external
in response to external load (66, 76). load measures such as distance covered
For example, an athlete may generate and athlete speed (129). An example of
the same number of watts during two a measure of external load is a football
cycling tests (external load) performed player covering 9,725 m during a match.
EXTERNAL MEASURES FOR MONITORING

TRAINING LOAD
External training load refers to things such as weight lifted, total distance run,
and the number of sprints, impacts, and jumps performed in a training session.
Without this information, the practitioner cannot assign appropriate loads. Tech-
nology such as GPS, accelerometry, and power meters are now used widely to
provide objective measures of external load. Practitioners without access to this
type of technology can note what the athlete does in the training session (e.g.,
sets, repetitions, load, number of intervals, distance, time, length and number of
recovery periods). However, these measures do not provide information on how
the athlete is responding to the training load. This is why measures of internal
load are also important to monitor.
Quantifying Training Stress 71
Time–Motion Analysis of a series of satellites that send contin-

uous signals to GPS receivers, which can
Tracking sport performance and train- then be used to calculate the distance to
ing is a popular way to monitor athlete the satellites (106). By integrating the
fatigue and recovery (169). A range signals of the four satellites, the devices
of methods and technologies can be can calculate accurate distances and
used to perform time–motion analysis velocities. GPS devices used in sport pro-
in athletes, and wearable technologies vide information on distance and speed;
are now an integral part of many pro- the inertial sensors (accelerometers,
fessional sport environments. Simple gyroscopes, magnetometers) embedded
pedometers record the number of steps in the units provide additional detail on
the person takes by recording each time activities such as jumps and collisions.
the force sensitivity threshold exceeds GPS units can provide quantitative
vertical acceleration. However, because information on athlete performance,
pedometers cannot measure factors differences in position demands, and
such as change of direction and energy player movements during training and
expenditure, they have low applicability competition (162). Several reviews are
for athlete monitoring. available on GPS and its reliability and
Simple accelerometers are now validity (7, 42, 106, 162).
used widely for monitoring in train-
Inertial Sensor Technology Iner-
ing programs. Devices such as the
tial sensors can be worn or attached
Fitbit (www.fitbit.com), Jawbone UP
to equipment in a range of sports, in-
(www.jawbone.com/up), Microsoft Band
cluding swimming (129), team sports
(www.microsoft.com/microsoft-band),
such as rugby league (78) and Ameri-
and Garmin Vivosmart (www.garmin.com)
can football (183), and running (29).
provide data on heart rate, step count, This area of research is relatively new
energy expenditure, and sleep, although and expanding all the time, resulting in
research suggests a wide variation in many types of technology and process-
reported data (156). The small devices are ing procedures that make comparisons
often wristbands and can be integrated across studies difficult. The technology
with custom software for further analysis has huge potential to provide real-time
(156). Currently, research on their use feedback on key variables for athlete
and application for athlete monitoring is monitoring, and it has application for
lacking, particularly in terms of their reli- coaching. For example, inertial sensors
ability and validity. Research comparing could provide a swimming coach with
these devices or validating them against information about a swimmer’s veloci-
accepted research methods is particularly ties and accelerations during starts and
limited (52, 156). turns (129). Inertial sensors can also be
attached to sporting equipment such as
Global Positioning Systems boats, oars, and paddles to provide in-
The use of GPS and accelerometry tech- formation about the mechanical charac-
nology is becoming increasingly wide- teristics of performance during training
spread because it allows practitioners and competition. Devices attached to a
to measure a wide range of metrics in barbell during resistance training, for
athletes during both training and compe- example, can be used to determine bar-
tition. These navigational systems consist bell velocity (158).
Practitioners using inertial sensors practitioners with more information for

need to consider key issues such as athlete monitoring. Measures that appear
measurement range, sampling frequency, to be most commonly used for athlete
signal filtering, data storage and trans- monitoring are work rate (e.g., meters
fer, and battery life. The placement of covered per minute), load (usually some
the sensor is also important (11, 12); derivative of other variables such as
researchers have compared the results acceleration that are collected by the
of sensors placed on the upper back and technology), time spent in high-intensity
near the hip and discovered significant work ranges, and total distance covered
differences in some variables (11). Issues (169). The survey of professional football
can also arise with athlete compliance; clubs found the most common variables
some athletes dislike wearing these used for monitoring to be acceleration
devices, particularly on the upper back. variables, total distance, distance cov-
The development of smaller devices that ered at speeds greater than 5.5 m/s, and
can be incorporated into footwear and metabolic power (1). Other widely used
be completely nonobtrusive would help measures are the number of accelerations
alleviate these issues. and decelerations (92), impacts (41), and
GPS Systems In a survey of high-per- metabolic power (39).
formance sport practitioners, 43% of The information obtained from GPS
respondents indicated that they used devices can be used for a variety of pur-
GPS as part of their athlete monitoring poses. In terms of sport performance,
system (169). Another survey of pro- practitioners are often interested in
fessional football clubs from Australia, fatigue over the course of training and
Europe, and the United States (soccer) competition and athletes’ pacing strat-
found that 40 out of 41 clubs surveyed egies. Another common approach has
collected GPS data from every player been to assess athletes across levels of
during every training session (1). Time– performance (e.g., elite, subelite, youth).
motion analysis systems such as GPS and Position-specific information helps prac-
movement pattern analysis from digital titioners more accurately design training
video (e.g., Stats, http://stats.com) are programs that reflect the demands of the
becoming increasingly embedded in sport. Effective use of GPS data may help
elite sport programs. The modern GPS with the transition of youth athletes to
and accelerometry units are small and higher levels of competition. For exam-
light, which makes them easy to wear, ple, by knowing the running demands
noninvasive, and useful for monitoring of a position in a sport at the elite level,
athletes during training sessions. In ad- the practitioner can set specific targets to
dition, many sports are now allowing progressively overload an athlete safely
athletes to wear these devices during to reach those levels.
competition. As a result, a large amount Given the widespread use of GPS
of research on athletes’ external load devices, it is critical that practitioners
measures from GPS and accelerometry understand the benefits and limitations
has emerged in recent years (7, 42). of this technology. Microsensor devices
The evolution of GPS devices from such as accelerometers, magnetometers,
simply measuring distance covered to and gyroscopes have provided more
more sophisticated measures such as accurate measurements of the physical
accelerations and impacts has provided demands and activity profiles of sports.
These allow practitioners to calculate var- can also be defined using thresholds (e.g.,
iables such as collisions and impact (41), >2.78 m/s−2).
metabolic power (39, 97), and accel- Repeated bouts of high-intensity run-
erometer load (61). The accumulated ning in quick succession also interest
mechanical stress on the athlete, which is practitioners involved with team sports
calculated from the vector magnitude of (94). This could be defined as three or
accelerations, decelerations, changes of more high accelerations (e.g., >2.79
direction, and impacts, can be provided m/s−2), high speed (5 m/s), or contacts
by scores of metrics. These accumulated with less than 21 s of recovery between
load metrics are a feature of most com- efforts (9, 64).
mercial systems. For example, metrics Metabolic power is typically meas-
such as Player Load (Catapult, www ured as total energy expenditure (in
.catapultsports.com) and New Body Load joules) and average relative metabolic
(GPSports, http://gpsports.com) are gen- power (in watts per kilogram) (39, 68).
erated (37). Impacts can be determined These measures can be indicators of
from the summed accelerations from high-intensity distance covered and give
three planes (i.e., forward−backward, an estimation of energy cost (68). The
left−right, and up−down). These take measures obtained from GPS devices
into account impacts generated during can be expressed as absolute numbers
running, tackling, jumping, and collid- or relative to the time of the training or
ing. These measures have been shown competition.
to have moderate to strong relationships Reliability and Validity of GPS De-
with internal load such as session RPE in vices Many studies have investigated
sports such as football (69), Australian the reliability and validity of GPS devic-
rules football (66, 93), and rugby league es in sport for a range of measures such
(111). Measures of g-forces can then as distance, velocity, accelerations, and
be categorized according to zones (e.g., decelerations (92, 162). Research has
impacts ranging from light to heavy). been conducted to establish player pro-
High-speed running is also a measure files in a range of sports such as Amer-
that often interests practitioners. For ican football (183), rugby union (117),
example, a practitioner may define the rugby sevens (157, 178), rugby league
threshold for high-speed running as (41), Australian rules football (93),
>14.5 km/hr (9 mph or >4 m/s) and the field hockey (90), netball (37), cricket
threshold for very high-speed running (120), and football (177). By monitor-
as >19.1 km/hr (12 mph or 5.3 m/s). ing an athlete’s performance, a practi-
The speed zones used by researchers and tioner gains clearer insight about the
practitioners can vary greatly and appear sport’s demands and valuable informa-
to be sport specific (46, 78). Zones can tion to use when designing the athlete’s
also be determined for movement activ- training program. For example, because
ities such as walking (e.g., <2.0 m/s or running demands vary by position
0.45 mph [0.72 km/hr]), jogging (e.g., in a team sport, practitioners can use
2.1-3.5 m/s or 4.70-7.83 mph [7.61-12.6 the GPS data of each athlete to design
km/hr]), running (e.g., 3.6-5.5 m/s or position-specific training programs.
8.05-12.30 mph [13-19.8 km/hr]), and The reliability of a GPS device appears
sprinting (e.g., >5.5 m/s or 12.30 mph to decrease as the speed of the activity
[19.8 km/hr]). Maximal accelerations increases (88). Reliability is affected by
factors such as the sampling rate, veloc- speed running were still high, however.
ity, duration, and type of activity (7, 27). In general, the accuracy of GPS devices
The sampling rate refers to how many increases as the sampling rate increases.
pieces of data the GPS device collects per However, as the speed of the movement
second. For high-speed movements such increases, the reliability decreases.
as sprinting and impacts, high sampling Issues with validity and reliability also
rates are necessary. For example, a GPS exist concerning impacts and collisions
device with a rate of 10 samples per using the accelerometry data from GPS
second (or 10 Hz) may be sufficient for devices (41). Being able to accurately
measuring slower speeds, but a sampling quantify the impacts associated with
rate of 100 Hz might be needed to meas- the sport and monitor these during both
ure faster speeds. Practitioners working competition and training would greatly
in team sports in particular need to take benefit practitioners, but more research
many variables into account when their is required in this area.
athletes are using GPS devices in com- The validity of metabolic power meas-
petition. Factors such as team tactics, ures derived from accelerometry has yet
the quality of the opposition, environ- to be fully confirmed (39, 143). Changes
mental conditions, and team cohesion of direction and acceleration increase the
can greatly affect the data (76). The energy cost of sport activities and so need
intensity of match play might be higher to be taken into account when assessing
against a challenging competitor, which sport demands (143).
may be reflected in the amount of high-
speed running. Also, a playing style Application of GPS
that emphasizes defensive or attacking
aspects could result in differences in
and Accelerometry Data
total load on the players. One of the most important considera-
Given that a number of companies tions with GPS and accelerometry tech-
produce devices with GPS technology, nology is the sheer number of variables
studies have used different types of that can be obtained. Akenhead and
systems, which can make comparisons Nassis (1) identified 44 variables (not
difficult. Issues can also arise when including RPE and heart rate measures)
athletes in a single squad use different collected by practitioners. The fact that
GPS devices. To avoid between-device many of these variables can be reported
errors, athletes should consistently as absolute measures (total amount of
wear the same type of GPS device, as change or quantity) or relative measures
well as the same device from session (amount of change or quantity based
to session (89, 95). Also, practitioners on another factor such as time or body
need to be wary of comparing different weight) increases the complexity of data
types of GPS technology (147). Research interpretation. This raises the important
comparing different types of devices question of which variables to measure.
has found significant differences (95, Practitioners sometimes become enam-
147). One study compared 5 Hz and ored with variables such as distance
10 Hz units and found the 10 Hz units covered or running speed, but the real-
to be more accurate with less error for ity is that the value of some measures is
total distance, high-speed running, and questionable. For example, in many team
very high-speed running (147). The sports, more-skilled teams run less than
coefficients of variation for very high- less-skilled teams (85, 148).
GPS REPORT FROM A TRAINING SESSION

GPS devices are very helpful for monitoring training load. A great deal of data can be
collected in real time to make sure athletes achieve training targets and make needed
adjustments during the workout. Practitioners need to determine the optimal way to
collect real-time data and then feed it back to the coach and athlete. Commercial GPS
devices typically come with their own reporting tools that practitioners may be able to
modify to report the most pertinent information. Reports should focus on three to five
measures that are most important to the coach and athlete so as to not overwhelm
them with unnecessary information. Another layer of data with other measures can
be gathered to obtain an overview of the external load for the training session. This
combined with internal load measures such as heart rate and perceived exertion re-
veals a complete picture of the effect of the training load on the athlete.
Player name: Athlete A

Position: Center (netball)
Session type: Team training
Measure (units) Target Result

Duration (minutes) 60 63
Distance at speed >5 m/s (meters) 500 577
External load metric (arbitrary units) 700 719
Accelerations (number) 50 57
Heart rate at 85-96% (% of session duration) 80 84
Comments: All targets achieved for the training session. No extra work required.
GPS devices have a potential role study of American football players at the
in injury prevention. Using GPS data, Division I college level, Wilkerson and
Murray and colleagues (134) found colleagues (185) found that inertial sen-
that injury rates in rugby league players sors provided information on injury risk
were affected by the amount of recov- by tracking load degree and variability.
ery between matches. Gabbett and col- Using time–motion analysis data in con-
leagues (60, 62, 63, 65) investigated the junction with speed thresholds based on
relationship between training load and maximal testing is becoming increasingly
injury in rugby league players using GPS common (110). One of the limitations of
data. Excessive preseason and in-season GPS is the use of arbitrary or generalized
training loads were shown to increase the speed zones when assigning a target run-
risk of soft tissue injury (60). By estab- ning speed to an athlete, which is gen-
lishing thresholds for individual athletes, erally not recommended. Prescribing an
practitioners can more effectively moni- individualized speed threshold is better
tor them for increased risk of injury. In a because it provides valuable information
about the athlete’s response to the tar- ple, pacing is critical (44). The real-time
geted speed (34, 110). One study found information provided by power meters
that using a speed threshold of 5 m/s is valuable for informing coaches and
underestimated the amount of high-in- athletes about the effectiveness of pacing
tensity running in elite female rugby strategies during training and competi-
sevens players (34). tion. Also, long-term monitoring of var-
GPS and accelerometry can also help iables such as power output can provide
practitioners explore the relationships valuable information about adaptation
between match performance, physical and performance (136, 142). Figure
capacity, and fitness (7). Studies have 4.1 shows a track sprint cyclist’s power
examined these relationships in team output and cadence on a weekly basis for
sports (127, 128). Monitoring these 1 year. Technology such as the Wattbike
aspects of performance has important (www.wattbike.com) can also measure
implications for the physical prepara- right- versus left-foot pedaling power (45,
tion of athletes by identifying the crit- 137).
ical aspects of match performance and
how they relate to the athlete’s physical
capacity. By identifying key aspects of
Resistance Exercise
performance, practitioners will know Technological devices such as linear posi-
which tests to perform and, as a result, tion transducers and accelerometers, which
which physical capacities to target in the measure force and displacement to calcu-
training program. late total work, can be used to determine
external load during resistance exercise.
However, this may be too time consuming
Power Meters and logistically difficult for most practi-
Cycling has been at the forefront of tioners. A starting point is to record the
athlete monitoring; instrumentation number of exercises, repetitions, and sets
has been widely used for many years. in a training diary and then calculate the
These systems allow for continuous number of repetitions performed during
measurement of power output and other the training session (74). For example, if
variables such as speed, acceleration, a powerlifter completes 5 sets of 5 repeti-
cadence, average power, peak power, tions in 5 exercises in a training session,
and normalized power (91). A training the number of repetitions is 125. However,
stress score calculated from a power this method, although very simple, does
meter reading provides a single measure not reveal the work performed because
of overall training load based on nor- the loads lifted for the five exercises were
malized power output and an intensity not included in the calculation.
factor from lactate threshold (181),
which is the blood lactate concentration Volume Load
or exercise intensity at which an athlete To take into account the workload in the
can sustain high intensity of effort for session, practitioners can calculate the
only a set time (101). volume load (total number of repetitions
Power meters can be useful for ath- multiplied by the load) (74, 167). Several
lete monitoring in a variety of ways. approaches can be used to calculate the
In aerobic endurance sports, for exam- volume load:
2,500
2,000
Power output (watts)

1,500
1,000
500
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51
a Weeks
140 E6859/McGuigan/F04.01a/554457/mh-R2
135
130
125
RPM
120
115
110
105
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51
b Weeks
Figure 4.1 (a) Power outputs and (b) cadence of an elite track cyclist over a 12-month period.
E6859/McGuigan/F04.01b/554458/mh-R1
Volume load (lb or kg) = For example, an athlete whose 1RM is

number of sets × number of repetitions 150 kg performs 5 sets of 3 repetitions
× weight lifted (lb or kg) using 85% of 1RM.
For example, an athlete performs 4 sets Volume load (kg) = 5 × 3 ×
of 8 repetitions with 80 kg. (0.85 × 150) = 1,912.5 kg
Volume load (kg) =
4 × 8 × 80 kg = 2,560 kg Training Intensity
Another method, expressed in terms of Training intensity can be calculated by
the athlete’s maximal capacity, uses the dividing volume load by the number of
percentage of 1-repetition maximum repetitions, which represents the average
(74): load lifted across the training session
(74):
Volume load (kg) = number of sets ×
number of repetitions × Training intensity = volume load
(% of 1RM × 1RM) (kg or lb) ÷ total repetitions
For example, an athlete performs 2 sets comes are related to the internal load,
of 10 repetitions with 50 kg in exercise which includes both the psychological
A and 3 sets of 5 repetitions with 80 kg and physiological load imposed on the
in exercise B. athlete. Monitoring internal load pro-
vides important information on how the
Volume load (kg) for exercise A =
athlete is adapting to training. Meas-
(2 × 10 × 50 kg) = 1,000 kg ures such as heart rate and RPE are the
most common methods of monitoring
Volume load (kg) for exercise B = internal load (76); practitioners also
(3 × 5 × 80 kg) = 1,200 kg use subjective ratings of wellness (160).
Blood markers such as lactate and phys-
.
Total repetitions = (2 × 10) + (3 × 5) = iological measures such as VO2 are also
35 repetitions considered internal load measures.
Training intensity =
(1,000 kg + 1,200 kg) ÷
Rating of Perceived
35 repetitions = 62.9 kg/repetition Exertion
When monitoring resistance training, Perception of effort is commonly used
to monitor training in athletes and can
practitioners must keep records of the
be used to determine exercise intensity
sets, repetitions, and loads lifted. They
(22, 51). Many factors contribute to
must also use one method consistently.
the perception of effort during exercise,
including hormone concentrations,
neurotransmitter release, muscle mass
Internal Load recruited, substrate concentrations,
psychological characteristics, environ-
Measurements of external load may not mental conditions, and personality traits
provide an accurate description of the (22). The RPE scale was designed by
physiological stress on the athlete during Gunnar Borg to measure interindividual
training and competition. Fitness out- differences in perceived exertion (22).
INDIVIDUALIZATION OF INTERNAL MEASURES

Athletes’ internal responses are determined by a range of factors, including age,
training history, physical capacity, genetics, and injury history. As such, they are
unique.
We have already noted that the same external load can result in very different
internal responses for different athletes. For example, a defensive lineman in
American football and a marathon runner will have different perceptual and phys-
iological responses to performing a 315-lb (143 kg) squat. Also, different internal
responses can be found in the same athlete. For example, a middle-distance run-
ner just returning from an injury will have different internal responses to running
a 1,500-m time trial than she would have had before becoming injured.
It provides an overall subjective measure verbal anchors and numbers but with a
of perception of effort by integrating the greater range (0-100) (16). Some sug-
information from the muscles and joints gest that it is a more sensitive measure
(the periphery) with the information because of the wider range of numbers,
from the cardiovascular and respiratory which results in less clustering around
systems and the central nervous system the verbal anchors (53). The CR-100
(22). A variety of scales can be used to scale also equates to a percentage, which
measure RPE; one of the most common may make it more intuitively appealing
is the Borg 6-20 scale (21, 51). This scale to coaches and athletes (18, 53).
is linked to exercise heart rate; by adding When using RPE for the first time,
a zero to each number, it represents the practitioners should familiarize athletes
relative intensity of the heart rate in with the scale. This can involve explain-
beats per minute. ing what is meant by perceived exertion
The category ratio (CR)-RPE scale is and then anchoring the perceptual range
also widely used in athlete monitoring for the athlete. Verbal anchors gives the
(19, 51). The CR-10 uses values ranging athlete a reference point for what the
from 0 to 10 to measure RPE on a nonlin- values on the scale represent in terms of
ear scale (20). The verbal statements are intensity. Given that athletes are used to
placed on the ratio scale in such a way a range of exercise intensities, explaining
that each represents twice the intensity the perceptual range should be relatively
of the preceding statement (e.g., strong straightforward. For example, when
and very strong). On the CR-10 scale, 0 using the CR-10 scale, the athlete could
represents nothing at all and 10 repre- be asked to recall exercising at maximal
sents maximal exertion. exertion (RPE = 10) compared to being
Research has consistently shown a at complete rest (RPE = 0).
strong correlation between the CR-RPE Modifications of classic RPE scales
scale and physiological measures such as have also been developed with potential
heart rate and lactate (20, 138). However, application for athlete monitoring. For
evidence shows that this relationship is example, scales have been used to assess
not as strong as previously thought: A perceived exertion in various regions of
meta-analysis indicates the validity of the body (e.g., legs, lungs) (17). Also,
RPE as r = .62, .57, and .64 for heart rate, the increased interest in velocity-based
.
blood lactate, and VO2max, respectively training in strength and conditioning has
(33). The CR-RPE scales may be better for resulted in attempts to develop scales of
high-intensity exercise in which fatigue perceived velocity (13, 14). This would
involves nonlinear responses (e.g., team benefit practitioners who do not have
sports). RPE is often combined with other access to technology such as linear posi-
physiological measures such as heart tion transducers. Another approach has
rate, lactate, and session duration to pro- been to investigate RPE as an overall
vide a complete picture of internal load. measure of exertion and of the active
Another CR-RPE scale, with values muscles during a particular bout of exer-
ranging from 0 to 100 (CR-100), has cise (184). Perceived level of exertion
become increasingly used by practition- for respiratory effort has also been used
ers (16, 53). The Borg CR-100 scale is (5, 17, 70, 184). Weston and colleagues
also known as the centiMax scale and, (184) investigated the application of
like the CR-10 scale, also uses a set of differential RPE during Australian rules
football matches, including the demands calculated by multiplying the duration of

of the match, breathlessness, leg exer- the training session (including warm-up,
tion, and technical demands. Some have cool-down, and recovery intervals) by
proposed that these measures could be the training intensity as measured by the
more sensitive, but this benefit may not session RPE (55, 56):
offset the potential impracticability of
Session load (measured in arbitrary
using multiple scales. Another study
units or exertional min) = duration of
showed a negative correlation between
the session (min) × session RPE
the RPE in the lower body and overall
training volume on fitness measures in For example, if an athlete completes
professional football players (4). These a training session that lasts for 60 min
assessments of internal load can provide and rates the session as somewhat hard
interesting insights, but they must be (an RPE of 4), the session load would be
balanced against the added stress on the calculated as 60 × 4 = 240 arbitrary units.
athlete. In most team sports, sessions range from
about 300 to 500 units for lower-inten-
Session RPE sity sessions and from about 700 to 1,000
No ideal scale exists that can be used in units for high-intensity sessions.
athlete monitoring. Practitioners and Generally, studies have shown that
researchers have tried to use RPE meas- session RPE is the same as the mean of
ures in conjunction with other measures the RPE values collected during the train-
to monitor training load in athletes. The ing session (43, 116, 166). Practitioners
best example of this, and arguably the can be confident that the information
most widely used monitoring tool in obtained using session RPE is the same as
high-performance sport, is the session that obtained from multiple RPE meas-
RPE method. The session RPE asks the ures taken throughout the session.
athlete, “How was your workout?” It is To increase the reliability and valid-
important to note that the session RPE ity of session RPE, practitioners should
scale differs from the CR-10 scale (51) follow standard instructions and anchor-
in number range and verbal descriptors. ing procedures to familiarize athletes
The session RPE scale is as follows: 0 = with the scale (151). Studies have shown
rest, 1 = very, very easy, 2 = easy, 3 = moder- that session RPE determined using the
ate, 4 = somewhat hard, 5-6 = hard, 7-9 = CR-100 scale is a valid measure of inter-
very hard, and 10 = maximal (56). nal load in athletes, including football
The session RPE method, developed by (53) and Australian rules football players
Carl Foster, uses a nonexpert to question (163). Based on the current evidence,
the athlete (e.g., the athlete’s mother). the session RPE scale can be used inter-
A range of questions have been used in changeably with the 100-point scale
practice, but they appear to give essen- (53).
tially the same result (e.g., How hard Because the session RPE is a measure
was your session? How intense was of the entire session, it should not be
your session? How was your workout, taken immediately following the training
honey?) (54). The goal is to obtain the session (166). This is to avoid particu-
athlete’s global rating of the training larly hard or easy elements at the end
bout, which incorporates all aspects of of the training session having an impact
the session. The session load can then be on the overall rating of the session (54,
166). Research by Singh and colleagues r = .89 and r = .86, respectively. Ideally,
(166) showed that 10 min was sufficient practitioners would also record heart rate
time after completing the training to in these types of high-intensity sessions.
obtain the session RPE measure; meas- Several studies now support the use of
ures at this time showed no significant individualized approaches when moni-
difference from measures taken 30 min toring internal load (2, 141).
postsession. These findings have been The results of studies using session RPE
confirmed by other researchers (79, with resistance training are varied (79,
102, 175). Practitioners can be confident 102). Resistance training is a complex
that waiting 10 to 15 min following the combination of exercises in which many
training will provide valid measures of variables are manipulated depending on
session RPE. the goal. Training for developing muscu-
Session RPE has been validated across lar power is quite different from training
a wide range of exercise modes, activ- for developing maximal strength. Gener-
ities, and sports (43, 56, 57, 109, 116, ally, researchers have found that session
145, 168). It has been shown to be more RPE has acceptable validity and reliabil-
valid and reliable for measuring exercise ity for monitoring resistance training in
intensity in aerobic exercise when com- athletes; that is, session RPE increases
pared to heart rate–based methods (56). with increases in the intensity of train-
Researchers have also found that ses- ing given the same volume load and rest
sion RPE effectively reveals intensity periods between sets (43, 80). However,
during resistance training (i.e., lifting its validity for designing resistance train-
heavier loads with fewer repetitions was ing programs is less clear.
perceived as more difficult than lifting Singh and colleagues (166) compared
lighter loads with more repetitions) (43, power, strength, and hypertrophy pro-
168). Other methods have been proposed tocols and collected session and aver-
for using session RPE with resistance age RPE values for the sessions. When
training where training variables such as volume load
and rest periods between sets are manip-
Session load =
ulated, the session RPE is affected. A
number of repetitions × session RPE
study by Pritchett and colleagues (144)
If a weightlifter performs a session of 120 showed that training to failure with
repetitions and rates the session as hard 60% 1RM resulted in higher session RPE
(session RPE = 5), the session load would values compared to 90% 1RM. Kraft and
be 120 × 5 = 600 arbitrary units. colleagues (102) found that session RPE
Using session RPE across modes of was significantly greater when the rest
training has some limitations. Impel- between sets was decreased from 3 min
lizzeri and colleagues (87) found mod- to 90 s with a matched volume load.
erate to strong correlations (r = .50-.85) Work rate (weight lifted per unit of
between training load calculated using time) during resistance training has been
session RPE and heart rate–based meth- shown to be related to session RPE (79).
ods in football players. Other studies This has led researchers to develop RPE
have shown stronger relationships; Gab- scales that can be used to prescribe resist-
bett and Domrow (62) found correlations ance exercise. Also, an RPE scale that
between session RPE and heart rate and measures repetitions in reserve (RIR)
blood lactate in rugby league players of has been investigated (186). An RPE of
10 is equal to 0 RIR, indicating that no the session loads for the individual train-
more repetitions can be performed (i.e., ing sessions for the entire week. Train-
maximal effort); an RPE of 9 is equal to ing monotony is the variation of session
1 RIR, indicating that one more repeti- load over the week. It is calculated by
tion could be performed; an RPE of 8 is taking daily mean load and dividing it
equal to 2 RIR, indicating that two more by the standard deviation of daily load.
repetitions could be performed; down to This standard deviation can be calculated
an RPE of 1, which indicates that the set over the course of a microcycle from 7 to
required little to no effort (186). More 10 days. It could also be thought of as a
research is required to confirm the effi- measure of the sameness of the training.
cacy of these approaches. For example, if very little variation occurs
Session RPE could be used to prescribe in the training load from day to day, the
training by revealing to practitioners monotony would be high. This could be a
how athletes are perceiving the training case of low loads or high loads because it
stimulus. For example, consistently high refers simply to the variation or sameness
session RPEs during a period of training of the training.
could indicate the need to change the Training strain is the product of
training program. Lockie and colleagues monotony and the weekly load. Research
(109) investigated the use of session RPE has shown that during periods of high
for monitoring sprint and plyometric strain and monotony, athletes are at
training. The progressive overload used greater risk of illness and injury (15, 54,
in the training program was reflected 145). High strain is the product of high
in the session RPE values, supporting training load and high training monot-
the usefulness of the measure. Zones of ony. By monitoring the variables of load,
training intensity could also be used as a monotony, and strain over a period of
rough guide to training. Zones for session time, practitioners can determine indi-
RPE such as low (≤3), moderate (4-6), vidual thresholds of risk for overreaching
and high (≥7) have been used in research and overtraining. As explained in chapter
and practice (111, 130). Although the 3, athletes generally tolerate and adapt to
limitations of session RPE do need to be high training loads when recovery is suf-
acknowledged, its practical value and ficient. One study found that RPE alone
ease of use strongly support its use as part effectively monitored training load in elite
of athlete monitoring programs. How- Australian rules football players (179).
ever, its application for guiding training Interestingly, the authors found that the
prescription requires further study. session RPE method did not increase the
ability to predict illness or injury. The
Monotony and Strain study also showed the importance of
The session RPE measure of session load taking into account all aspects of training:
(duration × session RPE) is the most Monitoring just the field-based running
common way to use this metric. How- activities was not as effective at predicting
ever, other measures such as training illness or injury (179). The majority of
monotony and strain can provide val- research suggests that using session load is
uable information about athletes (54). a robust method for determining training
Weekly load is calculated by summing load in athletes (69, 111).
Relationships Between Session a combination of internal and external

load factors predicts session RPE in team
RPE and Other Measures sports better than individual measures
Research has shown that session RPE alone (69, 111). A study by Gallo and
provides essentially the same informa- colleagues (66) showed that factors such
tion as more objective physiological as years of competitive experience, play-
measures such as heart rate (54, 56). ing position, and fitness level mediate
Research by Foster (54) has shown strong the relationship between external load
relationships between session RPE and and session RPE load. This also highlights
summated heart rate zone scores (r = .75- that athletes’ characteristics influence
.90). In football players there were also their individual responses to training
very strong correlations between session and should be considered with athlete
RPE and heart rate zones (r = .50-.85) monitoring. Research provides further
(87). Another advantage of this method support for the concept of session RPE
is that collecting the information is easy as a valid indicator of training intensity
and inexpensive. Session RPE may be a (66, 87, 180).
more valid measure than heart rate for
high-intensity activities such as resist- Implementation of Session RPE
ance training. Some practitioners have attempted to
It has been reported that 80% to 90% apply session RPE to parts of the train-
of athletes give a single number from the ing session and remove the warm-up
session RPE scale (56). A small number of and cool-down from the calculations.
athletes insist on breaking up the session Although taking into account only the
and rating each part. This highlights the parts of a session in which the athlete
importance of educating athletes on the is actually training might improve the
purpose of the session RPE method. relationship with other measures of
Session RPE as a measure of internal external and internal load, doing so may
load has been used across a wide range of be challenging with large groups of ath-
sports. Team sports such as cricket (120), letes in team sport settings. Although this
Australian rules football (126, 130, 155), segmented approach to session RPE has
rugby league (111, 173), football (soccer been used by researchers (75), the ses-
in the United States) (3, 69, 87), basket- sion RPE measure is designed as a global
ball (131, 132), wheelchair rugby (141), rating of intensity. As such, practitioners
and rugby union (40, 117) have used are encouraged not to leave the warm-up
session RPE. Individual sports such as and cool-down portions of the workout
marathon running (113), cycling (154), out of the session RPE calculations.
tennis (71), diving (125), martial arts Researchers have also been interested
(73, 140), and swimming (180) have also in how session RPE relates to match per-
used this method, and it has been shown formance (8). Looking at acute training
to be reliable and valid in most cases. load thresholds can be useful for practi-
Wallace and colleagues (180) found a tioners, but it can be more informative
strong relationship between session RPE to look at session RPE relative to chronic
and distance covered (113) (r = .65) training over a previous mesocycle (e.g.,
during training in a group of elite swim- the previous 4 weeks). This approach has
mers. In fact, research has shown that been used to measure the training stress
balance by comparing the weekly load external load within the context of the
and strain to the average monthly load. environment the athlete is training in and
Something like a 4-week rolling average of using a mixture of internal and external
can be useful (84). Training stress would load measures to monitor training.
be negative when the current training
week exceeds the preceding 4 weeks’ OMNI RPE Scale
training load or strain and positive if it Pictorial representations of RPE have also
is lower than the average of the preced- been developed for a variety of modes of
ing 4 weeks (84). Research has shown exercise (151-153, 176). Specific scales
that a positive training stress balance for have been developed for running and
strain is a strong discriminator of match cycling exercise as well as for resistance
results in Australian rules football (8). training (151). These OMNI RPE scales
This further supports the importance can be a useful alternative for monitoring
of measuring strain as part of any load RPE in athletes (see figure 4.2). The OMNI
monitoring system (54). RPE scales have both verbal and exercise
Context is crucial when looking at mode–specific pictures along the 0-10
internal and external load measures. A scale. Linking pictures with verbal and
combination of measures should be used numeric scales has been shown to improve
to accurately quantify training stress the reliability of the tool (151).
across the range of activities performed
by athletes. The within-athlete differ-
ences and relationships between internal Heart Rate
and external loads should be determined Taking measures of heart rate is one of
for each athlete prior to implementing the most common ways to monitor exer-
the monitoring program. Practitioners cise intensity. Akenhead and Nassis (1)
should also establish baselines for ses- reported that 40 out of 41 professional
sion RPE for each training activity and football clubs collected heart rate data
intensity to add value to the monitoring. (in addition to GPS) from every player at
Weaving and colleagues (182) completed every training session. Heart rate moni-
a principal component analysis (a sta- toring enables practitioners and athletes to
tistical technique that reduces data to a accurately measure the relative intensity
set of primary variables) on measures of each bout of exercise and any associated
of training load in rugby league players recovery periods. Also, practitioners com-
performing different training activi- monly use heart rate to prescribe training
ties. During skill training, external load intensities based on the linear relationship
.
measures (e.g., total impacts and body between heart rate and VO2 across a range
load) explained the largest proportion of submaximal steady-state exercise work-
of training load variation. During speed loads (115). Limitations exist, however,
training, internal load measures (training when using heart rate to determine inten-
impulse and session RPE) explained the sities for intermittent exercise involving
greatest amount of variance. This high- short bursts of high-intensity maximal
lights the importance of considering the activity (38).
10
9 Extremely
8 hard
7 Hard
6
5 Somewhat
4 hard
3 Somewhat
2 easy
1 Easy
0
Extremely easy
E6859/McGuigan/F04.02a/554459/mh-R1
Warning
zone
10
9 Extremely
8 hard
7 Hard
6
5 Somewhat
4 hard
3 Somewhat
2 easy
1 Easy
0
Extremely easy
10
9 Extremely
8 hard
7 Hard
6
5 Somewhat
4 hard
3 Somewhat
2 easy
1 Easy
0
Extremely easy
Figure 4.2 Pictorial representations for the OMNI RPE scales for cycling, running, and resistance training.
E6859/McGuigan/F04.02c/554461/mh-R1
Reprinted, by permission, from R.J. Robertson, 2004, Perceived exertion for practitioners (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 11.
85
SESSION LOAD, MONOTONY, AND STRAIN
CALCULATION
Practitioners need to be mindful of how calculation methods affect the results of
their load calculations. Traditionally, they have relied on session load or RPE alone
for monitoring; adding in measures of strain and monotony can develop a full pic-
ture of what is happening with the athlete across the training cycle.
Figure 4.3 shows how the training load, monotony, and strain are calculated us-
ing the session RPE method. It is important to note that the way these calculations
are performed can have a significant impact on the results. Practitioners need to
decide how to approach rest days and be aware that most high-performance ath-
letes are training more than once a day (a factor that needs to be included in the cal-
culations). The practitioner can also include calculations of rolling averages across
the days and weeks to look at patterns emerging from the monitoring data (chapter
2). Also, practitioners need to be aware of the methods of calculation used when
comparing the results of the monitoring data to published research. Good practice
involves collecting information over a period of time, becoming familiar with the
scales, and using the same tool or tools consistently. Figure 4.4 shows a plot of
training load, monotony, and strain for an elite athlete over the course of a year.
Figure 4.3 Training load, monotony, and strain calculations

in an elite athlete.
Day Session type Duration (min) RPE Session load Daily average
Monday Gym 60 6 360 360
Tuesday Field 120 7 840
Field 75 6 450 645
Wednesday Gym 60 7 420
Field 120 8 960 690
Thursday Track 60 8 480
Field 120 6 720 600
Friday Gym 75 6 450
Field 150 7 1,050 750
Saturday Gym 90 7 6 30 630
Sunday Recovery 30 1 30 30
Total weekly load 6,390
Daily mean load 529.29
Daily standard 252.00
deviation
Monotony 2.10
Strain 13,419
The total weekly load is calculated as the sum of all the session loads. Daily mean load is then calculated by
taking the average of all the daily averages. Daily standard deviation is the standard deviation of those daily
averages. Monotony is calculated as daily mean load divided by daily standard deviation. Strain is calculated
as total weekly load multiplied by monotony.
86
16,000 Load Strain
14,000
Week load and strain (arbitrary units) 12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51
a Weeks
10 Monotony Average RPE

9
Monotony and RPE (arbitrary units)
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51
b Weeks
Figure 4.4 (a) Training load and strain and (b) monotony and RPE over the course of 1 year for an
elite athlete. E6859/McGuigan/F04.04b/554464/mh-R2
A range of heart rate monitors are Resting heart rate has been a popular
available for use in athlete monitoring. method for assessing training status
Standard heart rate monitors consist of for many years (103). Given that lon-
a transducer worn around the chest that gitudinal studies have reported a large
transmits wirelessly to a display. Others amount of variability in resting heart
use sensors on a wristband, fingertip rate (26), it appears to have a some-
meter, or smartphone. Monitors that use what limited use for athlete monitor-
a chest band, however, are more accurate ing. Heart rate recovery and heart rate
and valid (170). Heart rate monitors are variability are two common heart rate–
available from companies such as Polar based methods for athlete monitoring.
Electro (www.polar.com) and Suunto These are discussed in more detail in
(www.suunto.com). chapter 5.
Lactate TRIMP = D × (∆ heart rate ratio)

× e(b × ∆ heart rate ratio)
As discussed in chapter 3, lactate is one
of the most widely measured physiolog- where D = session duration, the constant
ical markers and can be an indication e = 2.718, and the weighting factor b =
of internal load. Portable systems and 1.67 for women and 1.92 for men (133)
the use of finger prick samples have and where ∆ heart rate ratio = (average
increased the utility of this measure. heart rate during exercise − resting heart
Issues still exist with obtaining regular rate) ÷ (maximal heart rate during exer-
samples from athletes during exercise to cise − resting heart rate).
enable accurate monitoring and training The weighting factor b is used to
prescription. Moreover, large intra- and emphasize the greater stress of high-
interindividual differences occur with er-intensity training and reflects the
lactate concentrations depending on generalized curve of exercise intensity
factors such as glycogen availability, and blood lactate (which is different for
environmental conditions, hydration, men and women) (133).
type of exercise, and sampling techniques Consider a male athlete who completes
(26). Recently developed systems that do a 60-min training session. During the
not require taking blood samples appear workout, his average heart rate was 150
to have good validity (23). In addition, beats/min and his maximal heart rate
near-infrared spectroscopy technology was 180 beats/min. At rest, his heart rate
has the potential to monitor lactate is 45 beats/min.
levels. The portable and noninvasive
nature of all of these technologies means ∆ heart rate ratio = (150 beats/min −
that they can be used in the field for ath- 45 beats/min) ÷ (180 beats/min −
lete monitoring. 45 beats/min) = 105 ÷ 135 = 0.78
D = 60 min, e = 2.718, and b = 1.92

Training Impulse
Practitioners are always looking for TRIMP = 60 × 0.78 × 2.718(1.92 × 0.78) =
ways to quantify and reduce training 60 × 0.78 × 4.47 = 209.20
to a single metric. A range of heart rate
measures can be used to quantify the An alternative approach to TRIMP
training impulse (TRIMP). Practitioners involves calculating an exercise score for
can think of TRIMP as the total training each training session (47, 57). Sometimes
load imposed on the athlete during the referred to as the Edwards method (47),
exercise bout (10, 31). It is based on a it involves multiplying the duration of
systems model approach that integrates the session by a multiplier determined
all the components of training into a by the intensity band or zone; the heart
single value. This mathematical model rate is expressed as a percentage of peak
can be used to describe and estimate the heart rate. For example:
effects of a training session or program
zone 1 = 50-60% HRpeak
on an athlete’s performance (26), but the
practitioner must know the athlete’s rest-
zone 2 = 60-70% HRpeak
ing heart rate and maximal heart rate.
TRIMP is calculated using the following
equation: zone 3 = 70-80% HRpeak
zone 4 = 80-90% HRpeak sation point (high intensity). Ventilatory

threshold refers to the break point in the
zone 5 = 90-100% HRpeak respiratory rate during incremental exer-
.
cise relative to VO2 (i.e., when breathing
This summated heart rate zone method suddenly begins to increase at a faster
can be calculated as rate) (101). The respiratory compensa-
.
TRIMP = (duration in zone 1 × 1) + tion point is reached at a higher VO2 than
(duration in zone 2 × 2) + the ventilatory threshold when hyper-
(duration in zone 3 × 3) + ventilation occurs (101). The method
(duration in zone 4 × 4) + of Busso and colleagues (30) simplifies
(duration in zone 5 × 5) the TRIMP equation by multiplying the
session duration by the average fraction
Consider a female athlete who com- of maximal aerobic power throughout
pletes a 90-min training session. During the exercise bout.
the workout she spends the following
durations in each zone: 1 = 14 min, 2 = Limitations of Heart Rate–Based
10 min, 3 = 49 min, 4 = 11 min, and 5
= 6 min.
Methods
Heart rate–based methods have several
TRIMP = (14 × 1) + (10 × 2) + (49 × 3) + limitations when used for determining
(11 × 4) + (6 × 5) = 14 + 20 + 147 + internal load. First, they require prac-
44 + 30 = 255 titioners to measure and monitor an
Borresen and Lambert (25) inves- athlete consistently, which is impractical
tigated the relationship between the when working with a large number of
Edwards method and session RPE for athletes. Also, athletes must wear heart
quantifying training load. The results rate monitors during exercise. Further,
showed that in athletes who spent a heart rate–based methods are not ideal
greater amount of their training time for modes of exercise such as resistance
performing higher-intensity activities, training and interval training. Busso
the heart rate–based methods overes- and colleagues (30) attempted to use a
timated training load; in athletes who TRIMP measure with weightlifters by
spent more time doing lower-intensity incorporating the percentage of 1RM and
activities, the session RPE method over- the number of repetitions rather than
estimated training load. Limitations of duration. Traditionally, though, TRIMP
the equations that use a weighting factor measures have been used with aerobic
are due to the range of heart rates within endurance activities. Practitioners also
an intensity band and the fact that a dif- require a level of technical ability to
ference of 1 to 2 beats/min can greatly accurately analyze and interpret heart
affect the result (25). rate data. Moreover, issues such as
Another option developed by Lucia technology failure can result in missing
and colleagues (112) is to use heart rate data, which limits the usefulness of the
zones that are below the ventilatory information.
threshold (low intensity), between the Despite these limitations, heart rate–
ventilatory threshold and the respiratory based methods can be valuable for mon-
compensation point (moderate inten- itoring training load in aerobic endur-
sity), and above the respiratory compen- ance activities. As a result, calculating
TRIMP and session RPE are now popular assessments can be very useful for deter-
methods of quantifying training load in mining athletes’ levels of stress (82) and
athletes. However, practitioners who identifying when they are at greater risk
are prescribing training sessions based of becoming ill or injured (160). Similar
on these measures need to ensure that to session RPE, the biggest advantage
they accurately quantify internal load. of wellness assessments is that they are
This provides further support for the rec- easy to implement and inexpensive. They
ommendation to use multiple methods should, however, be used in conjunction
when monitoring athletes. with other monitoring metrics such as
performance tests, physiological meas-
ures, and training load.
Wellness Assessments Many wellness questionnaires have
Practitioners and athletes commonly been studied in a range of athlete pop-
use questionnaires and training diaries ulations (76, 160). Questionnaires that
to quantify training (82). Because of assess mood state, training distress,
the subjective nature of these tools, it muscle soreness, life demands, recovery,
is important to evaluate their effective- and other aspects of athlete wellness
ness. Borresen and Lambert (24) found can be found in the literature (76, 160).
that 24% of athletes overestimated and Practitioners often use their own ques-
17% underestimated training duration in tionnaires because published question-
training diaries. Only 59% of the athletes naires have too many items and thus take
accurately reported the average training too much time to complete and analyze
duration for the week. Foster and col- and because they lack sport specificity
leagues noted a moderate relationship (169). Unfortunately, research into the
between the coach-prescribed training effectiveness of these custom-designed
load (r = .72), training duration (r = .65), questionnaires is limited.
and training intensity (r = .75) and what
the athletes actually did (58). As men- Mood State Questionnaires
tioned in chapter 1, coaches and athletes Mood state tools such as the Profile of
differ in their perceptions of what occurs Mood States (POMS) and the Brunel
in training and how hard the sessions are Mood Scale (BRUMS) (www.mood
(28, 58, 146, 180). Thus, practitioners profiling.com) are questionnaires that
should be somewhat cautious about rely- provide information about an athlete’s
ing on athletes’ self-reported information overall disposition and look at factors
to guide training prescription. such as tension, vigor, anger, depression,
Because each athlete’s response to and fatigue. The POMS questionnaire
training stress is unique, a variety of has 65 items that measure six moods, or
wellness measures have been developed. feelings: tension−anxiety, depression−
Typically, they ask athletes about their dejection, anger−hostility, vigor−activity,
levels of stress, muscle soreness, mood, fatigue−inertia, and confusion−bewil-
fatigue, motivation, coping, and sleep. derment (119). The athlete rates each
Questions about recovery and nutrition item on a 5-point Likert scale from 0
are often included as well. As discussed = not at all to 4 = extremely in terms of
in chapter 3, athletes who experience what best describes how they feel right
overreaching or overtraining have higher now. Research has shown relationships
mood disturbances. Therefore, wellness between training load and mood state
measured using the POMS questionnaire ures, including a POMS measure, using
(77, 150). line graphs (see chapter 2).
Practitioners should not rely on a The BRUMS questionnaire, derived from
single questionnaire to determine mood the POMS questionnaire, was developed
state because many factors can affect to provide a quick assessment of mood
the results. The advantages of the POMS state in adolescents and adults (171, 172).
questionnaire, particularly the short ver- This 24-item questionnaire uses the same
sion, are that it is easy to administer to a 5-point Likert scale as the POMS question-
group of athletes and a solid foundation naire, which has 65 items. Because the
of research supports its use (119, 160). average completion time for the BRUMS
Also, the POMS questionnaire is robust is only 1 to 2 min, it has good practical
enough that it is possible to examine application (105). It could be used, for
how an athlete answers a subset of the example, prior to training sessions or as
questions. For example, a practitioner a quick assessment of athlete mood state.
might be interested only in the responses
related to fatigue−inertia when monitor- Training Distress
ing an athlete’s fatigue level. Figure 4.5 The Training Distress Scale (TDS) assesses
shows a variety of internal load meas- training-related distress and readiness
80 10
9
Rating of perceived exertion
75
Resting heart rate (bpm)
8
70
7
65 6
60 5
55 4
3
50
2
45 1
40 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
a Weeks b Weeks
E6859/McGuigan/F04.05a/554465/mh-R2 E6859/McGuigan/F04.05b/554466/mh-R2
20
POMS fatigue (arbitrary units)
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
c Weeks
Figure 4.5 Measures of (a) heart rate,E6859/McGuigan/F04.05c/554467/mh-R2

(b) RPE, and (c) wellness in runners over a 12-week training block.
to perform (72). An advantage of this Figure 4.6 shows a VAS scale for pain.
short (22 questions) scale is that it On this 100-mm scale, the 0 represents
includes mood disturbance, stress, and no pain and 100 represents extreme, or
behavioral subscales. Plus, it assesses dis- unbearable, pain. A pain rating index
tress symptoms such as general fatigue, can then be calculated and the intensity
difficulties with concentration, sleep dis- of pain determined by the distance (in
turbance, changes in appetite, and phys- mm) of the athlete’s mark on the scale
ical discomfort (59). Athletes rate the from the left-hand side. A CR-10 scale
extent to which they have experienced for pain has also been used, which rates
the symptoms in the previous 24 hours the pain from 0 for no pain to 10 for
on a 5-point Likert scale with 0 = not at maximal pain.
all and 4 = extreme. The laboratory and Practitioners are often interested in
field-based validation studies on a range muscle soreness in a particular region
of athletes by Grove and colleagues (72) or regions of the body (e.g., the quadri-
showed that the TDS is a valid measure ceps or the whole lower body) and ask
of training and performance readiness athletes to rate soreness or pain in those
in athletes. areas. More complex questionnaires
investigate the multidimensional aspects
Muscle Soreness of pain such as sensory and emotional
Delayed-onset muscle soreness aspects. The McGill Pain Questionnaire
(DOMS), which occurs 24 to 48 hours consists of 78 words from which athletes
following a hard training session, is a select those that best describe their pain
natural and expected response in ath- (122). Cleather and Guthrie (36) com-
letes. The large body of research about pared the McGill Pain Questionnaire and
the causes of DOMS points to inflamma- the VAS for the pain rating of DOMS.
tion as the cause (83). Issues can arise They found no significant differences in
when DOMS limits the athlete’s training; the ratings of DOMS following resistance
there is evidence that training with sore training, suggesting no great advantage
muscles while trying to sustain a high for using the McGill Pain Questionnaire.
training load can lead to overreach- Practitioners using the VAS for rating
ing (121). Therefore, it is important to the intensity of training sessions can
monitor the degree of muscle soreness replace the terms in figure 4.6 with
in athletes. Visual analog scales (VAS) not intense at all and extremely intense.
are a common method used to measure Research suggests that the VAS and
DOMS (107, 139) and can also be used to CR-10 scale can be used interchangeably
assess training intensity (124, 135, 149). for measuring the intensity of training
No pain Moderate pain Unbearable pain
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 4.6 VAS for muscle soreness.
E6859/McGuigan/F04.06/554468/mh-R1
(135). Neely and colleagues (135) found analysis showed that the VAS was pref-
that the CR-10 and VAS scale could be erable over the CR-10 scale for rating
used to measure the degree of leg exer- pain (107). The VAS appears to be more
tion during cycling exercise in young sensitive and provides better resolution
men. The CR-10 appeared to be more for measuring pain, but the CR-10 scale
sensitive, although particularly at higher more effectively rates perceived exertion
levels of intensity possibly because of its (135).
ability to discriminate between the levels
with the use of the verbal anchors. The Wellness Inventory
session RPE scale has been compared to Wellness inventories can be used to
the CR-10 and VAS and shown to provide monitor athletes. Most gather ratings
the same information (124, 125). Rebelo of perceived muscle soreness, general
and colleagues (149) studied a modifica- well-being, fatigue, stress, and sleep;
tion of the VAS scale to assess training some also incorporate questions about
load in football players. Two scales were nutrition and recovery. An example is
used that ranged from no effort at all to the Hooper index, which uses ratings
maximal effort and not demanding at all to of fatigue, stress, muscle soreness, and
maximally demanding. They used this to sleep on a scale from 1 (very, very low, or
calculate session load by multiplying the good) to 7 (very, very high, or bad) (81).
VAS score by the duration of the session. Questionnaires may also include aspects
This method obtained the same informa- of illness by asking athletes whether
tion as the TRIMP calculation using the they are currently sick and listing some
Banister (see chapter 3) and Edwards common symptoms (e.g., runny nose,
methods. sore throat, cough) (173). Further, spe-
Palpation is also used to assess the cific regions of the body (e.g., low back,
degree of DOMS because athletes may quadriceps, hamstrings, calves, groin,
not notice muscle soreness without some upper body) can be rated for the degree
type of mechanical stimulus. It is possible of muscle soreness. The inventories often
to measure the pain objectively by using use Likert scales (e.g., 0 = a complete
a specially designed pressure probe to absence of soreness to 6 = severe pain) (86).
standardize palpation; this is commonly Most practitioners use self-designed
used in research studies (107). Studies questionnaires; a survey of high-per-
have shown that using a subjective pain formance sport practitioners suggests
assessment scale that ranges from 0 to that 80% use their own questionnaires
10 (0 = no pain, 10 = maximal pain) is as (169). Research has shown that these
accurate as using a probe (104, 164), questionnaires are sensitive to detecting
however. It is possible to use ratings of changes in measures of stress and fatigue
different regions of the body to obtain in elite athletes (118, 126, 160). Table 4.1
an accurate picture of where the DOMS shows an example of a wellness ques-
is occurring (107). tionnaire (118) for rating sleep quality,
Lau and colleagues (107) compared muscle soreness, stress, and fatigue; the
different methods of measuring muscle scores are summed to obtain an overall
soreness, including a VAS, a CR-10 scale wellness score. Lower scores indicate a
for pain, palpation at various sites, and better perception of overall well-being,
pressure-pain thresholds (pain map- and higher scores indicate a worse sense
ping), following eccentric exercise of of well-being. Z-scores or standard dif-
the elbow flexors. This comprehensive ference scores can then be calculated
TABLE 4.1 Wellness Questionnaire for Sleep Quality, Muscle

Soreness, Stress Levels, and Fatigue
1 2 3 4 5 Score
Sleep Very poor Poor Average Good Very good

quality
Muscle Very sore High Average Low Very low
soreness
Stress Very stressed High Average Low Very low
level
Fatigue Very fatigued High Average Low Very low
level
Total
(chapter 2). Custom-designed forms typi- recovery (100). One questionnaire asks
cally have 4 to 12 items that are measured athletes to record aspects of sleep in
using either 1-5 or 0-6 Likert scales (169). the morning upon waking (100). They
Questionnaires are easy to administer, are record how long it took them to go to
inexpensive, and provide quick feedback sleep (sleep latency) and whether and
to practitioners and athletes. for how long they woke up (referred to
Several modifications of wellness ques- as sleep fragmentation and wake after
tionnaires are available. A questionnaire sleep onset). The quality of sleep can also
by Chatard and colleagues (32) includes be rated using a Likert scale in which 1
eight items, and each question is assessed indicates very poor sleep and 5 indicates
on a 7-point scale from 1 = not at all to very good sleep. Activity monitors such
7 = very much. The items are training as actigraphs and wearable devices can be
exertion, sleep quality, muscle soreness, used to provide more objective measures
illness, concentration, training efficiency, of sleep, although their validity has been
anxiety or irritability, and general stress questioned (156).
(32). This questionnaire was developed
as a sensitive measure of training load Daily Analysis of Life Demands
and performance in swimmers (6). The
English translation of the French Society for Athletes
for Sports Medicine questionnaire (50) The Daily Analysis of Life Demands
consists of 54 items that require a yes or for Athletes (DALDA) questionnaire
no response. A total of more than 20 yes assesses athletes’ daily levels of stress
answers suggests excessive training load (figure 4.7), thereby providing a record
or overtraining (114). It also contains six of their psychological well-being and
items in which athletes rate their physical response to training. Part A includes
states on a VAS. questions about general stresses, and
Given the importance of sleep for part B covers stress-reaction symptoms.
athletes, questionnaires are available Each item is scored by marking worse than
that can determine this aspect of athlete normal, normal, or better than normal.
Figure 4.7 DALDA questionnaire.

Initials _________________ Trial day ____________________ Date ___________________
Circle the correct response for this moment: 1 = worse than normal; 2 = normal;
3 = better than normal.
PART A
1. Diet 1 2 3 6. Climate 1 2 3
2. Home life 1 2 3 7. Sleep 1 2 3
3. School/college/ 1 2 3 8. Recreation 1 2 3
work
4. Friends 1 2 3 9. Health 1 2 3
5. Sport training 1 2 3
Total
PART B
1. Muscle pains 1 2 3 14. Enough sleep 1 2 3
2. Techniques 1 2 3 15. Recovery between sessions 1 2 3
3. Tiredness 1 2 3 16. General weakness 1 2 3
4. Need for a rest 1 2 3 17. Interest 1 2 3
5. Supplementary work 1 2 3 18. Arguments 1 2 3
6. Boredom 1 2 3 19. Skin rashes 1 2 3
7. Recovery time 1 2 3 20. Congestion 1 2 3
8. Irritability 1 2 3 21. Training effort 1 2 3
9. Weight 1 2 3 22. Temper 1 2 3
10. Throat 1 2 3 23. Swellings 1 2 3
11. Internal 1 2 3 24. Likeability 1 2 3
12. Unexplained aches 1 2 3 25. Runny nose 1 2 3
13. Technique strength 1 2 3
Total
“A tool for measuring stress tolerance in elite athletes,” B.S. Bushall, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2(1): 51-66, 1990
Taylor and Francis, reprinted by permission of the publisher (Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandfonline.com).
The DALDA questionnaire can be rather, it is for tracking individual ath-

administered during the training year letes over the course of a year or season.
and is easily scored by the practitioner.
The results are best interpreted using Recovery Stress Questionnaire
graphs and can show trends in the ath-
lete’s ability to cope with training and
for Athletes
stress levels. Practitioners can use this The Recovery Stress Questionnaire for
information to plan subsequent train- Athletes (RESTQ-Sport), which pro-
ing sessions. The DALDA questionnaire vides a measure of perceived stress and
is not designed for comparing athletes; recovery in athletes (96), is one of the
most widely used questionnaires in Given practitioners’ concerns regarding

athlete monitoring (160, 169). It is the time required to complete question-
comprises 76 questions divided into 19 naires, using shortened versions of the
scales; 7 scales relate to general stress, RESTQ-Sport might be worth considering
5 relate to general recovery, 3 relate to (169). The original RESTQ-Sport is proba-
stress in sport, and 4 relate to specific bly more suitable for weekly application,
recovery in sport. The items are rated but practitioners should also obtain more
on a Likert scale ranging from 0 (never) regular insight into the wellness of their
to 6 (always). The sum of the stress and athletes. The Short RESTQ-Sport has 32
recovery scales is calculated along with items that cover physical, mental, emo-
the differences between them. Table tional, and overall aspects of stress and
4.2 shows an overview of the RESTQ- recovery (99). Subscales of particular
Sport scale. interest to practitioners (e.g., injury or
The RESTQ-Sport has been found to fatigue) may also be available. The Short
be sensitive to both acute and chronic RESTQ-Sport has been developed with
training load (160). Saw and colleagues eight items: physical performance capabil-
(160) found the fatigue subscale and ity, mental performance capability, emo-
three recovery subscales to respond to tional balance, overall recovery, muscular
both acute and chronic training load. stress, lack of activation, negative emo-
Collapsing the subscales into a single tional state, and overall stress. Each item
score for stress and recovery seems is rated on a scale from 0 (does not apply
to provide different information. This at all) to 6 (fully applies). The validity of
highlights for practitioners the impor- these questionnaires has been confirmed
tance of considering the subscales as in the literature (99). The results are best
well as the overall score when analyz- viewed in a figure to see the trends and
ing the results from this questionnaire. differences in the scales (figure 4.8).
6
Stress Recovery
5
4
Score
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Day
Figure 4.8 Athlete RESTQ-Sport scores over a preseason training phase.

E6859/McGuigan/F04.08/554472/mh-R3
TABLE 4.2 RESTQ-Sport Scale
Scale Scale summary
1 General stress Subjects with high values describe themselves as being frequently
mentally stressed, depressed, unbalanced, and listless.
2 Emotional stress Subjects with high values experience frequent irritation, aggression,
anxiety, and inhibition.
3 Social stress High values match subjects with frequent arguments, fights, irritation
concerning others, general upset, and lack of humor.
4 Conflicts/pressure High values are reached if in the preceding few days conflicts were
unsettled, unpleasant things had to be done, goals could not be
reached, and certain thoughts could not be dismissed.
5 Fatigue Time pressure in job, training, school, and life; being constantly
disturbed during important work; overfatigue; and lack of sleep
characterize this area of stress.
6 Lack of energy This scale matches ineffective work behavior such as inability to
concentrate and lack of energy and decision making.
7 Physical complaints Physical indisposition and physical complaints related to the whole
body are characterized by this scale.
8 Success Success, pleasure at work, and creativity during the past few days are
assessed in this area.
9 Social recovery High values are shown by athletes who have frequent pleasurable
social contacts and change combined with relaxation and amusement.
10 Physical recovery Physical recovery, physical well-being, and fitness are characterized in
this area.
11 General well-being Besides frequent good moods and high well-being, general relaxation
and contentment are also in this scale.
12 Sleep quality Enough recovering sleep, an absence of sleeping disorders
while falling asleep, and sleeping through the night characterize
recovery sleep.
13 Disturbed breaks This scale deals with recovery deficits, interrupted recovery, and
situational aspects that get in the way during periods of rest (e.g.,
teammates, coaches).
14 Burnout/emotional exhaustion High scores are shown by athletes who feel burned out and want to
quit their sport.
15 Fitness/injury High scores signal an acute injury or vulnerability to injuries.
16 Fitness/being in shape Athletes with high scores describe themselves as fit, physically
efficient, and vital.
17 Burnout/personal High scores are reached by athletes who feel integrated
accomplishment in their team, communicate well with their teammates, and enjoy
their sport.
18 Self-efficacy This scale is characterized by how convinced the athlete is that he/she
has trained well and is optimally prepared.
19 Self-regulation The use of mental skills for athletes to prepare, push, motivate, and set
goals for themselves are assessed by this scale.
Reprinted, by permission, from M. Kellmann and K.W. Kallus, 2001, Recovery-stress questionnaire for athletes: User manual
(Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 6-7.
97
Total Quality Recovery Scale is easy to implement and has practical

application.
Given the importance of recovery, moni-
Another recovery tool is the Perceived
toring this aspect of the athlete’s program
Recovery Status Scale, which assesses
may be useful (98). The Total Quality
changes in performance (108). The scale
Recovery scale is based on the Borg 6-20
ranges from 0 (very poorly recovered and
scale. According to Kentta and Hassmen
extremely tired) to 10 (very well recovered
(98), the primary aspects of this assess-
and highly energetic). One study showed
ment are perceived recovery and action
that this scale has the potential for
recovery. Athletes rate their recovery
monitoring recovery following heavy
over the previous 24 hours using the
resistance training (165). Scores of 0 to
question “What is your condition now?”
2 may indicate underperformance, which
The scale can also be adapted to the 0-10
makes this scale potentially useful as a
scale, as follows:
marker of training readiness. However,
Modified Total Quality Recovery Scale more research is needed in athletic pop-
ulations to confirm this (35).
0 Very, very poor recovery
1 Very poor recovery Guidelines for Wellness
2 Measures
3 Poor recovery The implementation of wellness meas-
4 ures determines whether the results
5 Reasonable recovery will positively affect an athlete’s train-
6 ing program (160). Saw and colleagues
completed a study of the factors that
7 Good recovery influence the implementation of well-
8 ness measures in sport (159). The study
9 Very good recovery involved semistructured interviews with
10 Very, very good recovery a range of athletes (n = 8), coaches (n =
7), and sport science and medical staff
To measure recovery, athletes score (n = 15) from a national sport institute
themselves in four main categories over in Australia representing 20 sports. The
the previous 24 hours: nutrition and authors found the social environment to
hydration, sleep and rest, relaxation be critical for helping with athlete buy-in
and emotional support, and stretching and coordinating those involved in the
and active rest. Points are given for each monitoring. The perceived connection of
aspect of questionnaire (20 points max- the questionnaire to athletes’ goals and
imum). A score of less than 13 indicates its contribution to their training were
incomplete recovery from training (98). particularly important motivators (159).
This system has been modified widely Practitioners must educate coaches and
and is used in many high-performance athletes about the need for honest and
programs. All systems award points for accurate answers in wellness question-
various recovery strategies and set a naires. This will help alleviate coaches’
target for each day or week. Very little concerns that athletes may give false
research exists on the effectiveness of this responses to either avoid training or
approach (103). However, the system hide illness or injury from the coaching
staff. Practitioners should never rely on a and valid. Also, athletes responding to
single questionnaire as the basis of their questionnaires are influenced by the
monitoring programs. The results from wording of the question and its context
any questionnaire need to be considered and format (159, 161).
in context with the results of other meas- Technology can help with the imple-
ures. Questionnaires that cover a wide mentation of questionnaires (159). Many
range of self-report measures but ask a practitioners have their athletes complete
smaller number of questions are ideal questionnaires on smartphones or tablets
(67, 160). Ultimately, practitioners need (1). Research conducted in the area of
to consider the design of the question- injury prevention and monitoring shows
naire and the factors that could influence the value of using technology in this way
the data (159). It is also important that (48, 49). Using apps and incorporating
the wellness measures be taken at the social media may also increase athlete
same time of day (103). buy-in and compliance.
The most useful measures appear to
be perceived muscle soreness, fatigue, Analysis of Wellness
wellness, and sleep duration and quality. Questionnaires
Measures can be collected on a regular A variety of methods can be used to
basis; one study reported that 55% of analyze the results of wellness question-
practitioners collect this information naires (see chapter 2). Likert scales are
daily (169). However, athletes required commonly used, and higher scores gen-
to answer the same questions every day erally indicate greater well-being. The
can develop questionnaire fatigue. Well- usual practice is to code the responses
ness measures collected during a period as numbers and then perform calcula-
of a regular training load to determine tions. Because of the categorical nature
the athlete’s normal variation can help of these types of questionnaires, the
practitioners determine appropriate types of calculations that can be used are
thresholds. It may not be appropriate limited. Analysis methods more mean-
to determine these thresholds during ingful than simply calculating the mean
periods of low loading or high loading are suggested. A survey by Taylor and
because these periods have been associ- colleagues (169) revealed that the most
ated with mood disturbances and poten- commonly used method was to observe
tial maladaptations (123). trends in an athlete’s data over successive
The time needed to analyze the ques- days and sessions.
tionnaires and provide feedback to ath- Some practitioners identify red flags
letes and coaches is another important that indicate meaningful changes in per-
consideration. Well-designed question- formance (e.g., ±1.5 standard deviation
naires should result in quality informa- away from the mean) (118). Others use
tion without placing great demands on a traffic light system with red, yellow,
athletes and practitioners. Before design- and green lights signifying set thresholds
ing their own questionnaires, practition- that indicate required actions. A red light
ers should consider the many validated might indicate the need for a certain
questionnaires available. They should be intervention, a yellow light might indi-
aware, however, that just because a ques- cate the need for a closer inspection of all
tionnaire has been designed and imple- monitoring data, and a green light might
mented does not mean that it is reliable signify that everything is fine and the
athlete can train as normal. For muscle (174). Figure 4.9 shows z-scores over
soreness, practitioners can use intrain- the course of a training camp for a team
dividual standard deviation values to sport athlete. A steady decline occurred
identify changes outside of the athlete’s in the wellness scores as a result of high
normal variation. training loads. Using the criteria of 1.5
The lack of research on practically standard deviations, this threshold was
meaningful changes in wellness ques- exceeded on days 8 and 9.
tionnaires limits practitioners’ ability to A fundamental consideration for
make informed decisions about impor- practitioners is what intervention to
tant thresholds and appropriate actions. implement once they have identified
They generally use wellness question- irregularities in athlete monitoring
naires to highlight potential problems data. This is discussed in more detail
with fatigue and recovery (169). Practi- in chapters 7 through 9. Using the
tioners would likely benefit from apply- example in figure 4.9, the practitioner
ing some of the statistical approaches could decide to reduce the training
covered in chapter 2. Guidance on load after day 8 of the training camp
appropriate analysis methods is particu- for this athlete. What is clear is that a
larly limited in high-performance sport practical application of these monitor-
settings (159). A threshold value of ±1 ing strategies should be undertaken on
can be used for wellness scales as a rough a daily and weekly basis using a range
guide for the smallest meaningful change of methods.
2
Overall well-being Fatigue Soreness
1.5
0.5
Z-score
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
–0.5
–1
–1.5
–2 Weeks
Figure 4.9 Tracking wellness in a training camp using composite wellness scores and identifying red flags.
E6859/McGuigan/F04.09/554474/mh-R2
Conclusion can provide valuable information on the

stress levels of athletes and their responses
to training load. This can then be useful
Practitioners monitoring athlete train- for detecting early signs of overreaching
ing should consider both external and or overtraining. In particular, measures
internal measures of load and accurately of mood disturbance (POMS, BRUMS),
quantify the training stress. GPS, acceler- symptoms of stress (DALDA, TDS), and
ometry, and power meters can be used to perceived stress and recovery (RESTQ-
measure external load. When designing Sport, Total Quality Recovery, Perceived
training programs, practitioners must Recovery Status Scale) are useful. How-
understand the effect external training ever, practitioners should use a combina-
load has on the internal responses of tion of internal and external methods of
their athletes. Measures of internal load monitoring training load to quantify the
such as heart rate, RPE, and TRIMP pro- physiological stress of training and com-
vide critical information about the ath- petition. They also need to consider how
lete’s response to stress. The subjective to analyze, interpret, and use this infor-
responses from wellness questionnaires mation to optimize athlete monitoring.
Measures
5
of Fitness
and Fatigue
Practitioners require objective tests to of their low portability into the field,
help them evaluate their training pro- expense, unsuitability for testing large
grams, assess their athletes’ training and groups of athletes, lack of sensitivity, and
competition workloads, and monitor poor reliability. An isokinetic dynamom-
their fatigue. However, no single marker eter, for example, would be beyond the
or test can do all of these things. Prac- budget of most sport programs and may
titioners must therefore include a range be logistically difficult to use to regularly
of measures of fitness and fatigue (e.g., monitor a squad of athletes. Monitoring
neuromuscular and wellness) in their tests must objectively measure fitness
athlete monitoring programs. and fatigue while being practically viable.
Many monitoring tests are used to This chapter outlines measures of fitness
assess athletes’ physical performance. and fatigue that can be used for athlete
Several types are also widely used in monitoring—specifically, neuromuscular
research studies with athletes (91, 97, fatigue; heart rate; biochemical, hormo-
194). However, many of these are not nal, and immunological markers; and
suitable for regular monitoring because performance tests.
Neuromuscular high displacements); fast stretch–short-

ening cycles (<0.25 s) occur in sprinting
Fatigue (short ground contact times and low
displacements).
Tests to detect neuromuscular fatigue are
widely used in high-performance sport Vertical Jumps
(1, 91, 194). Neuromuscular fatigue
Using vertical jumps to assess neu-
refers to the reduction in maximal vol-
romuscular fatigue in athletes is a
untary contractile force. As discussed in
common approach, and good evidence
chapter 3, it is a result of deficits within
now supports its efficacy (194). Taylor
the central nervous system, in the neural
drive to the muscle, or within the muscle and colleagues (194) found that 54%
itself. A large body of research addresses of respondents to a survey on athlete
the use of neuromuscular fatigue tests in monitoring in high-performance sport
sport (29, 38, 74, 91, 124, 210). How- used some type of vertical jump test. The
ever, because most were conducted in advantages of these tests are that they
laboratory settings, their reliability and are easy and not fatiguing; athletes gen-
validity have not been established in erally do not take issue with performing
sport settings. two or three jumps before a training ses-
Low-frequency fatigue is often of sion. Technological devices such as force
interest to practitioners (67). It is a result plates, linear position transducers, accel-
of high-intensity, high-force, repeated erometers, and contact mats can be used
stretch–shortening cycles or eccentric for these tests. Jump height can also be
(lengthening) muscle actions (104). It assessed using a vertical jump apparatus
can be directly assessed with muscle or or a tape measure. Smartphone apps that
percutaneous (through the skin) stim- provide information during jumps are
ulation using the interpolated twitch also available (5). Variables that can be
technique, which determines the acti- measured using this technology include
vation level of skeletal muscle during a force, velocity, and displacement (73).
voluntary contraction (27, 156). How- Specific measures such as jump height,
ever, because this method is not suited mean and peak power, mean and peak
for regular athlete monitoring in most velocity, and peak force are popular with
settings, other methods have been devel- practitioners (194). Other measures such
oped to indirectly assess low-frequency as the ratio of flight time to contrac-
fatigue in activities such as running and tion time can also be useful for athlete
jumping (41). These activities involve monitoring (39). Flight time represents
the stretch–shortening cycle in which the time from takeoff to landing, and
the muscle acts like a spring: Absorbed contraction time is measured as the time
energy is stored as elastic energy during from the start of the vertical jump to
the stretching phase and then recovered takeoff (38). The ratio of flight time to
during the shortening contraction. Both contraction time gives the practitioner
slow (long) and fast (short) stretch– insights into the movement strategies
shortening cycle activities are found in athletes use during jumps. Gathercole
sports. Slow stretch–shortening cycles and colleagues (73) suggested that rely-
(>0.25 s) occur in jumps performed in ing solely on output measures from jump
volleyball (long ground contact times and analyses such as jump height and power
Measures of Fitness and Fatigue 105
has limitations and that time-related Reliability and Validity

variables are more sensitive to fatigue.
Many research studies have been con-
Therefore, practitioners are encouraged
ducted to establish the validity and
to use more valid measures of fatigue
such as flight time to contraction time. reliability of jumps as indicators of neu-
Figure 5.1 shows a vertical counter- romuscular fatigue in athletes (38, 40,
movement jump performed by an ath- 72, 78, 100, 161). The general approach
lete on a force plate. The athlete stands has been to gather the measures from
on the force plate (or contact mat) with matches and then track the variables
hands on hips and is instructed to jump over the course of the year—especially
as high as possible with maximal effort. during the competitive season—to see
The depth of the vertical phase of the how they change during periods of load-
jump is self-selected. Alternatively, the ing and unloading (68). Cormack and
test can be conducted using a measuring colleagues studied the effects of Aus-
stick. It is also possible to measure jump tralian rules football matches on neuro-
height via smartphone apps (5). Having muscular fatigue (39) and also across a
athletes perform the test next to a wall competitive season (40). This was done
and mark with chalk the spots they reach after establishing the reliability of the
is another alternative. measures during single and repeat jump
Photos courtesy of Andrius Ramonas.
a b
Figure 5.1 Vertical countermovement jump of an athlete measured on a force plate: (a) starting position
and (b) jump phase.
tests (41). Following match play, force are more time efficient than repeated
plate testing revealed that the measures jumps and therefore are typically recom-
of 6 of 18 variables declined and the main mended (137). Repeat jump testing also
performance measure (jump height) tends to be less reliable in athletes (41).
remained stable. The time courses of the Loaded jumps can also provide a measure
changes in these variables following the of the athlete’s ability to tolerate exter-
match were also very different. nal load (137). Practitioners have the
The lack of sensitivity of jump height option of using an absolute (total) load
is interesting given that it is commonly or a relative (percentage of body weight
used in jump tests (46, 137). Studies or percentage of maximal strength) load
have found no changes in measures with this type of monitoring (137). Lab-
such as jump height during periods of oratory-based studies of the relationship
heavy training (31, 46). In many other between low-frequency fatigue and
studies, researchers have examined the changes in jump performance are not
use of jumps for detecting neuromuscu- conclusive, so practitioners should not
lar fatigue across a range of sports (40, rely on these measures alone for athlete
72, 75, 78, 100). Findings have been monitoring (67).
mixed, and little consensus currently Monitoring jump height during verti-
exists about which variables are the most cal countermovement jumps may indi-
sensitive to fatigue. In a study of elite cate the athlete’s 1RM in the squat (103).
female rugby sevens players, Gathercole Jimenez-Reyes and colleagues (103)
and colleagues (72) showed that varia- tested track and field athletes and estab-
bles such as flight time and jump height lished regression equations to use with
decreased with increasing fatigue. They jump height to determine their 1-rep-
also noted alterations in the jumping etition maximum (1RM) squat. Other
mechanics as indicated by changes in studies have determined that estimating
the time-dependent variables. The dis- 1RM from submaximal loads in various
parity of the findings is most likely due exercises is possible (102). Attempts have
to the wide range of equipment, testing also been made to use rating of perceived
protocols, sports, and athlete levels used exertion (RPE) to estimate variables such
in these studies. as power output during exercises (6).
Practitioners have tended to focus on However, more research is needed to
concentric aspects of jump performance. clearly establish the relationship between
However, the eccentric phase of the ver- perceived exertion and training loads.
tical jump can also provide critical infor- As a guide for training, however, it can
mation (42, 43). Given the importance be useful.
of the eccentric phase in stretch–short- Comparisons between bilateral and
ening cycle activities, this should not be unilateral jumps can provide additional
ignored by practitioners (42, 43). Look- information on asymmetries (137).
ing at the force–time curve in its entirety Awareness of an athlete’s asymmetries
provides a more complete picture of how may be important from both an injury
the athlete is performing (42). prevention standpoint and a perfor-
mance standpoint. In terms of perfor-
Jump Testing Protocols mance, Bailey and colleagues (3) found a
A variety of jump testing protocols can be significant negative relationship between
used in athlete monitoring. Single jumps the degree of asymmetry and jumping
performance in university athletes. Tech- exercise (95). A study by Randell and

nology that allows for the assessment of colleagues showed that athletes receiv-
jumps performed bilaterally but meas- ing real-time feedback using this type
ured unilaterally with dual force plate of technology achieved greater training
systems can reveal asymmetries (105). gains (175). Several reviews provide an
Specific asymmetries can be measured overview of the technology that can be
without requiring the athlete to perform used for athlete monitoring during resist-
single-leg jumps. Athletes undergoing ance training (10, 95).
rehabilitation, for example, can benefit When monitoring jumps and perfor-
from performing bilateral jumps because mance tests, practitioners tend to focus
they are less stressful than single-leg on the numbers. However, examining
jumps. and recording the athlete’s technique
The ratio of vertical jump height with can provide useful insights (72). This
countermovement to static jump height can be achieved by using measures that
can be calculated as the eccentric utili- indicate the jump mechanics such as time
zation ratio (138). Vertical static jumps to peak force and ratio of flight time to
are performed using a similar protocol contraction time.
to vertical jumps, but the athlete pauses Practitioners should consider conduct-
at the bottom of the jump for 2 to 3 s ing their own research to establish which
to remove the stretch–shortening cycle measures are most worth monitoring
enhancement. The eccentric utilization (see chapter 7). Common analysis meth-
ratio is calculated as follows: ods rely on the visual analysis of trends
or arbitrary thresholds (e.g., a 10% dec-
Eccentric utilization ratio =
rement) to identify fatigue (194). Meth-
vertical countermovement jump
ods outlined in chapter 2 are effective for
height ÷ vertical static jump height
analyzing this type of monitoring data.
Consider an athlete who jumps 48 cm Attempts have been made to assess
(18.9 in.) on a vertical countermovement training readiness with vertical coun-
jump and 45 cm (17.7 in.) on a vertical termovement jumps (32). In a study of
static jump: recreationally trained men, Claudino
and colleagues (32) used pretraining
Eccentric utilization ratio =
vertical countermovement jump testing
48 ÷ 45 = 1.07
to modify the subsequent plyometric
Variables such as jump height and session. They used minimal individual
peak power can be used in the calcula- difference in jump height, which refers
tion. A higher ratio represents a greater to the maximal variation of random error
contribution of the stretch–shortening (212). If the participants were identified
cycle (137). A low ratio could indicate as fatigued or their performance had
that the athlete needs to perform more improved, adjustments were made to the
stretch–shortening cycle work such as training program. If they were fatigued,
plyometrics. one set was removed from each exercise;
Technological devices such as linear if they had improved, one set was added.
position transducers provide informa- Although the results were not conclu-
tion on displacement and velocity and sive and the participants were relatively
give real-time feedback during a set untrained, evidence suggested that this
and during individual repetitions of an approach had resulted in performance
gains. More research is needed with and contact time can be used. It is also
higher-level athletes and with different possible to calculate the index as the ratio
types of training sessions. of flight time to contact time (139).
Reactive strength index =
Drop Jumps jump height (m) ÷ contact time (s)
Drop jumps, which are also used to Consider an athlete who performs a drop
monitor neuromuscular fatigue, have jump from a 40-cm (15.7 in.) box and
been found to have adequate reliabil- achieves a jump height of 0.45 m (17.7
ity (140). Because of the more reactive in.); the contact time was 0.298 s.
nature of drop jumps, they may be more
sensitive to fatigue (94). For testing, the Reactive strength index = 0.45 m ÷
athlete stands in an upright position on 0.298 s = 1.51
a box with hands on hips (figure 5.2),
In a modified version of the reactive
steps (not jumps) off the box with the
strength index, the ratio is calculated
dominant leg, drops onto the force plate between the jump height and the contact
or contact mat on both feet, and immedi- time during a vertical countermovement
ately does a vertical jump with maximal jump rather than a drop jump (112, 191).
effort. Suchomel and colleagues used a loaded
The instructions given to the athlete (20 kg, or 44 lb) and an unloaded verti-
should be standardized as much as pos- cal countermovement jump to calculate
sible (125). Asking the athlete to keep a modified reactive strength index (191,
ground contact time as brief as possible 192). The modified reactive strength
and to jump as high as possible is a good index was found to be reliable for dis-
strategy. The athlete can be told to think criminating between athletes from dif-
of the ground surface as a hot plate to ferent sports (192). Performing the test
ensure a short contact time. The height without boxes is an advantage because it
of the box used for this test can vary, removes the need for extra equipment.
but an intermediate height of 30 cm (12 Whichever calculation is used for the
in.) seems to be sufficient for monitoring reactive strength index, the practitioner
purposes with team sport athletes (94). must use the same protocol. It is also
A range of jump heights can be used to critical to be mindful of the testing pro-
develop a profile of the athlete and to tocol used in research studies in cases in
determine the athlete’s stretch tolerance which practitioners are comparing their
profile. The stretch tolerance profile is a results to published findings.
series of measures from drop jumps from
increasing heights resulting in greater
stretch. It provides another way of quan- Muscle Stiffness
tifying the athlete’s reactive ability. Muscle stiffness can also be used for
The reactive strength index can be athlete monitoring. At its simplest, stiff-
determined from drop jump testing ness refers to the relationship between
and has been proposed as a measure of force and the degree of deformation
explosiveness (155). It can be calculated and is related to stretch–shortening
in several ways, but typically it involves cycle activities (143, 215). High levels
measuring the ratio of jump height to of muscle stiffness have been shown to
contact time (155). A force plate, contact be related to increased soft tissue injury
mat, or device that measures jump height and repetitive stress (172, 209). Methods
Figure 5.2 Drop jump on a contact mat.
109
for assessing muscle stiffness include peak force. Peak force measures from iso-
the vertical hop, broad jump, and drop metric tests have been shown to be very
jump tests (144, 170). Vertical pogos and reliable; Coefficient of variation greater
jumping bilaterally with straight legs are than 2% have consistently been reported
other possible methods. The vertical hop (110, 197). Another advantage is that
test (unilateral) can provide an overall they also enable practitioners to test large
measure of lower-body stiffness. The groups of athletes in a more time-efficient
bilateral and unilateral tests can be per- manner than that provided by traditional
formed on a contact mat or force plate. 1RM testing. Maximal isometric testing
Often, they are performed using repeated correlates very well with 1RM for exer-
jumps (e.g., five in succession) (143). cises such as the back squat, deadlift, and
Unilateral testing can reveal differences power clean (7). Finally, isometric testing
between the limbs and stiffness imbal- is also relatively less fatiguing than 1RM
ances. In a repeat jump test, athletes testing, so it can theoretically be done
are instructed to perform the jumps in more regularly.
time with a metronome or to maintain a The isometric mid-thigh pull test is
steady frequency. The test generally has typically performed on a force plate with
adequate reliability but is not as reliable a fixed bar at mid-thigh height; two or
as other types of jump tests (127, 171). three trials are performed. Weightlifting
A common approach for calculating straps and tape can be used to help with
muscle stiffness is the Dalleau method grip, and the athlete should be instructed
(57). Alternatively, muscle stiffness can to push as hard and as fast into the ground
be calculated more simply as ground
as possible for 3 to 5 s. Instructions are
reaction force divided by displacement
important for this type of testing; research
of the center of mass (126).
shows differences in force production
depending on the type of instruction (90).
Force Production Providing 3 to 5 min of rest between trials
Monitoring measures of muscular is also recommended. However, evidence
strength and power can help with exer- suggests that shorter rest periods do not
cise prescription, provide sensitive and affect maximal force-producing capabil-
immediate feedback to practitioners, and ity (131). Peak force can be expressed in
determine whether an athlete’s train- absolute terms or relative to body weight,
ing adaptations have plateaued (140). which is known as ratio scaling.
Strength assessments include isometric Allometric scaling (53) takes into
tests, repetition maximum tests, and account the body size of the athlete and
dynamometry (139). can be used to compare across a range of
Isometric tests such as the isometric body sizes. Allometric scaling equations,
mid-thigh pull (86), isometric squat (7), which describe the relationship between
and isometric bench press (216, 217) body mass and other aspects such as mus-
can help with the regular assessment of cular strength (53), use an exponential
athletes’ strength. Isometric tests have factor in the calculation. The most com-
several advantages. First, they are highly monly used scaling equation uses a simple
reliable, particularly for variables such as power law function:
Performance variable = a × tivity is another important consideration

body massb (see chapter 2). The research findings
are somewhat inconsistent; no clear
where a is the scaling coefficient and b
evidence shows that peak force changes
is the exponent term, and both are esti-
mated from the data using regression. significantly in responses to acute train-
To simplify the process for practition- ing load and fatigue (39).
ers, the following formula can be used.
Appropriate estimated exponent terms Bilateral Versus Unilateral
can be found in the literature, such as Assessment
the article by Crewther and colleagues Grip dynamometry has been proposed
(53).
as a unilateral strength assessment for
Allometric scaled peak force = peak athlete monitoring (166). Grip strength
force ÷ (body mass0.67) assessments can be performed regularly
because they are less fatiguing than other
For example, an athlete with a body
mass of 90.5 kg (199.5 lb) generates a types of strength assessments. Whether
peak force of 4,218 N during the isomet- this test can be used as a direct measure
ric mid-thigh pull test. The equation is of training readiness is less clear, and
as follows: no definitive studies show this to be the
case.
Allometric scaled peak force = 4218 ÷ Unilateral testing allows for the assess-
(90.50.67) = 206.1 N
ment of imbalances between the right
Rate of force development can also and left sides of the body. Bilateral
be assessed as part of the isometric mid- asymmetry can be calculated as a ratio
thigh pull test. The rate of force devel- as follows:
opment refers to the rate of change in
the force–time curve and can be used as Bilateral asymmetry = strength of the
a measure of explosiveness in the ath- right side ÷ strength of the left side
lete (87). Obtaining reliable and valid For example, an athlete has the following
measures of an athlete’s rate of force
results on the unilateral leg press: right
development requires very strict control
leg = 1,973 N; left leg = 1,730 N.
of the testing conditions (e.g., straps
improve reliability). The method used Bilateral asymmetry = 1,973 N ÷
to analyze the rate of force development 1,730 N = 1.14
can make a large difference in the result
(87). Predetermined time bands can be The following equation can be used to
used (e.g., 0-50 ms and 0-200 ms) in express the imbalance as a percentage:
addition to calculating the average rate
Bilateral asymmetry = [(right leg −
of force development, but the reliability
of these measures is questionable (87). left leg) ÷ stronger leg] × 100
Instead, practitioners should use peak Using the preceding example,
force rather than rate of force develop-
ment for athlete monitoring because it Bilateral asymmetry = [(1,973 − 1,730)
has the highest reliability. The test sensi- ÷ 1,973] × 100 = 12.3%
Bilateral asymmetry assessments can supine position with the leg raised onto
also allow practitioners to calculate the the force plate. The sensitivity of the
degree of the bilateral deficit (137). test was determined by measuring the
The bilateral deficit can be calculated as isometric strength following match play
follows: and by measuring muscle soreness (132).
Bilateral deficit = [(strength of the right
side + strength of the left side) ÷
Dynamic Strength Index
bilateral strength] × 100 Combining measures from a variety of
monitoring tests can provide interesting
For example, an athlete has the following information on athletes’ neuromuscu-
results on the unilateral leg press: right lar status. For example, the dynamic
leg =1,973 N; left leg = 1,730 N; bilateral strength index has received attention
= 3,598 N. from researchers (197, 216, 217). Prac-
titioners have compared the isometric
Bilateral deficit = [(1,973 + 1,730) ÷
3,598 N] × 100 = 102.9% and dynamic force-producing capacities
of athletes to determine which aspect
needs priority in training programs. The
Force Measures for dynamic strength index is calculated as
Rehabilitation Monitoring the ratio of ballistic peak force from a
static jump to isometric peak force (186),
Various force assessments have been used
as follows:
as potential predictors of injury. Tests
such as the groin (adductor) squeeze Dynamic strength index =
test are used to monitor athletes (44, ballistic peak force (N) ÷
150, 179). The groin squeeze test is isometric peak force (N)
conducted in a supine position using a
sphygmomanometer between the legs, Consider an athlete who has the fol-
which are positioned at 45° (58). The lowing results during a static jump and
athlete squeezes the device as hard isometric mid-thigh pull, respectively
as possible for several trials, and the (2,042 and 2,811 N):
maximal pressure achieved is recorded Dynamic strength index = 2,042 N ÷
(58). A relationship between groin pain 2,811 N = 0.73
and lower-body strength levels on the
adductor squeeze test has been found in The dynamic strength index has been
athletes (150). Roe and colleagues (179) shown to be a highly reliable measure of
found decreases in adductor strength in strength qualities in athletes, and it can
youth rugby union players following be used as a guide for training emphasis
match play. As a monitoring tool this (197). A ratio of <0.6 could be an indica-
test appears to be reliable and sensitive tion that the practitioner should increase
to fatigue. the amount of ballistic training. A ratio
Recently, assessments that look at the of >0.8 could mean that the amount of
strength of the hamstrings have been maximal strength training needs to be
used (22, 132, 163). McCall and col- increased. Ratios can be useful, but prac-
leagues (132) investigated the reliability titioners also need to take into account
and sensitivity of an isometric lower-limb the magnitude of the result (186). By
hamstrings test in elite football players. tracking the strength values from week
The athletes performed the task in a to week across a season, they can observe
trends in the results of individual athletes

and compare them to the smallest mean-
Heart Rate
ingful change (see figure 5.3).
Physiological markers such as heart
rate can be used as objective markers
Considerations of fatigue (see chapter 4). Submaximal
for Neuromuscular exercise protocols and measures of heart
rate can provide valuable insights for
Fatigue Monitoring athlete monitoring. These approaches
The measures used to track athlete fatigue are increasingly used in both team and
demonstrate a diurnal rhythm (195, 196). individual sports (20, 23, 119). Heart
A study by Teo and colleagues (196) rate variability and heart rate recovery
showed clear changes in measures of can both be used to monitor fitness and
peak force and rate of force development fatigue.
during the isometric mid-thigh pull across
the day, and maximal values were found Heart Rate Variability
later in the day. Taylor and colleagues
Heart Rate Variability (HRV) is widely
(195) demonstrated that warming up used in sport to provide insight into an
extensively could remove some of the athlete’s readiness to train (169). HRV
diurnal effects, but they still existed for is a measure of the normal variation
most measures during vertical counter- in beat-to-beat intervals, and it can be
movement jumps. These monitoring tests determined using several indices. One of
should be conducted at the same time the more reliable is the natural logarithm
of day to control for these effects. As of the square root of the mean sum of
outlined in chapter 3, it is important to squared differences between adjacent
attempt to control as many of these factors normal RR intervals (Ln rMSSD) (168).
as possible when testing. Because neuro- Very simply, this is a measure calculated
muscular fatigue is just one type of fatigue over a period of time (e.g., 60 s), and the
in athletes, practitioners should not rely data are used to mathematically deter-
on this measure alone for obtaining the mine the beat-to-beat difference. The
full picture of how athletes are tracking. increased use of HRV for monitoring is
4,000 Positive meaningful Negative meaningful Peak force

3,800 change change
3,600
3,400
Peak force (N)
3,200
3,000
2,800
2,600
2,400
2,200
2,000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Weeks
Figure 5.3 Maximal force measures over the course of a competitive season.
E6859/McGuigan/F05.03/554480/mh-R2
due to the improvements in the analysis measures (21, 169). For example, the
software and heart rate monitor hard- monthly changes in HRV measurements
ware as well as smartphone apps (see were not sensitive to performance
chapter 6). changes in handball athletes (21). Using
As discussed in chapter 3, the auto- a 7-day rolling average with elite triath-
nomic nervous system controls physio- letes was shown to be more sensitive
logical functions such as heart rate via than single measurements (167). In a
the interaction between the sympathetic study of Australian rules football play-
and parasympathetic nervous systems. ers, in which training loads changed
During training, heart rate responds to substantially, measures of HRV did not
periods of stress and rest in a nonlinear change (23).
manner. That is, heart rate increases For these measures to be useful for ath-
during high-intensity work (sympathetic lete monitoring, many assessment points
response) and then decreases during are needed to get a complete picture
periods of lower-intensity work or recov- of the athlete’s ability to cope with the
ery (parasympathetic response). Low training load. For monitoring purposes
HRV is an indicator of the sympathetic experts have recommended measuring
system driving the heart rate response, HRV for a minimum of 3 days per week,
which suggests that the athlete is not taking a weekly average, or using a roll-
tolerating the training load (20). Because ing 7-day average (169). This should be
the research on athletes is somewhat done over a longer period to obtain a
inconsistent, practitioners should not full picture of the athlete’s response to
rely on this single marker for athlete training. An increase in chronic HRV is
monitoring (169). associated with a positive response to
As discussed in chapter 3, findings training, and a decreased HRV indicates a
from investigations of HRV as a marker negative response to training (169). The
of overreaching and overtraining are HRV findings should be put in context
not clear (20). Indices such as Ln rMSSD with the training history of the athlete
have been shown to have better reliabil- and the current phase of training (20).
ity and can be used for assessments over a Figure 5.4 shows average HRV results
short period of time (2, 64). This requires for an athlete over a 12-week period
10 to 60 s of measurement with the ath- leading up to an important event.
lete lying in a supine position and can
be calculated using a spreadsheet (20).
It is important to establish a baseline of Heart Rate Recovery
typical values for athletes in addition to The recovery period after a bout of
collecting the information under con- exercise can be used as a monitoring
sistent conditions (e.g., when the athlete tool (118). Immediately after exercise,
wakes up). Practitioners should be aware the parasympathetic nervous system
that assessing HRV when an athlete is causes a rapid decrease in heart rate
standing will yield different results than (20); decrements in heart rate recovery
when the athlete is supine (185). have been suggested as an indicator of
Single measures of HRV have not been fatigue, detraining, or an inability to
shown to be useful for tracking fatigue in cope with the assigned training load (14).
handball players and triathletes because Conversely, improvements in heart rate
of the high day-to-day variation in the recovery can be an indicator of fitness
5.50 Positive meaningful Negative meaningful Ln rMSSD

change change week average
5.00
Ln rMSSD (ms)
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Weeks
Figure 5.4 Morning resting weeklyE6859/McGuigan/F05.04/554481/mh/kh-R3

HRV results for an athlete over a 12-week period.
improvements (13, 56). Researchers have Athletes cycle at a fixed intensity of

also found some evidence that heart rate 130 watts at 85 rpm for 5 min and then
recovery is a marker of overreaching (14); sit quietly for 5 min while heart rate
however, the findings are not consistent. is monitored continuously. Heart rate
Some research suggested that faster heart is averaged during the final 30 s of the
rate recovery is associated with worsening exercise bout. Heart rate recovery can
performance in athletes (198). Thomson be expressed as the absolute heart rate
and colleagues (198) found this to be the recovery (number of beats recovered in
case with trained cyclists and triathletes. a given time) and the relative difference
Another study revealed faster heart rate between the average heart rate in the
recovery and increases in RPE in the days final 30 s of the exercise and the heart
following an ultramarathon (129). This rate 60 s after the completion of the
again highlights the need for practition- exercise (120). This protocol can also be
ers to avoid relying on one measure for used for determining HRV measures. Its
athlete monitoring. Those using heart advantage is that it can be used as part
recovery as a monitoring tool should also of the warm-up during training sessions
use other measures such as RPE. and thus facilitate monitoring athletes
One of the issues with heart rate regularly.
recovery is the impracticality of using Researchers have also used the heart
it daily because it requires an exercise rate interval monitoring system (118).
performance test. The magnitude of the One protocol consists of four running
technical error in these types of tests has stages (8.4, 9.6, 10.8, and 12 km/hr, or
also been shown to be quite high (118, 5.22, 5.97, 6.71, and 7.46 mph) of 2 min
200). Also, the test conditions need to be interspersed with 1-min rest intervals
as consistent as possible to increase the (118). These can be preset by recording
utility of this test. an auditory signal. This test could be
Heart rate recovery can be calculated used in the warm-up because of its sub-
over varying periods of time (20)—for maximal nature and short duration (13
example, a submaximal 5-min cycle min). Heart rate is recorded 1 min after
followed by 5 min of recovery (200). the final running stage.
Heart rate recovery (%) = load (85). Practitioners considering these

(heart rate at 1 min recovery ÷ markers need to understand their func-
heart rate at end of stage 4) × 100 tions and exercise responses and their
limitations. Hormonal and biochemical
or
measures need to be made frequently
Heart rate recovery (%) = (at least weekly) to be of greatest value.
[(heart rate 60 s postexercise − Because many involve complicated and
heart rate average during exercise) ÷ expensive assays and expertise to ana-
heart rate 60 s postexercise] × 100 lyze the information, slow turnaround
of the results limits their usefulness in
Consider an athlete whose average exer- most athletic environments. Thus, they
cise heart rate is 173 beats/min; after 1 are not often used in high-performance
min of recovery, it is 136 beats/min. sport (1, 194). The survey by Taylor and
Heart rate recovery (%) = colleagues (194) indicated that less than
[(173 − 136) ÷ 173] × 100 = 21.4% 8% of practitioners use any form of bio-
chemical or hormonal monitoring. Aken-
head and Nassis (1) found slightly higher
Considerations for Heart usage in their survey of practitioners in
football: 24% had used blood analysis,
Rate Monitoring and 24% had used saliva analysis.
Monitoring heart rate is convenient and Research findings obtained in labora-
useful for practitioners. Measures of tories have limited applicability to elite
heart rate such as heart rate recovery sport. They do, however, provide an
and HRV can provide insights into factors important platform for the understand-
such as athlete fatigue and adaptation ing of hormonal responses to exercise.
to training (20). However, practition- Many researchers have attempted to
ers should be aware of the limitations overcome the limitations associated with
of these methods and their inability to laboratory-based studies by investigating
provide information on all aspects of hormone and biochemical responses in
the training process. Therefore, practi- sport settings (39, 40, 47, 71, 99, 130,
tioners should use them in conjunction 148, 154, 158). Even though many stud-
with other monitoring tools such as RPE. ies have been conducted, the responses of
Several excellent reviews are available hormonal and biochemical measures to
on the use of heart rate as a monitoring various types of exercise and sport vary
tool (11, 14, 20, 169). greatly. The responses of these markers
are directly influenced by regulatory ele-
ments such as training program design,
Hormonal and environmental factors (e.g., temperature,
Biochemical Markers age, gender), nutritional status, and psy-
chology (e.g., arousal level) (117).
A variety of hormonal and biochemical

measures have been used in athlete mon- Measurement Methods
itoring as markers of training stress (203, Mediums such as blood, saliva, and
208); they provide information about urine can be used for analyzing hor-
how athletes are adapting to training mones and other biochemical markers.
Because measures of blood and saliva repeated freezing and thawing of sam-
are often strongly related, practitioners ples.
often prefer saliva measures because
they are easier to obtain. For example,
the correlation between saliva and serum Hormone Monitoring
measures of testosterone and cortisol Although limitations exist with blood and
has consistently been shown to be high saliva measures of hormones, they can
(122, 153, 159, 204). These findings have provide information on athletes’ health
been confirmed in research reporting status (178). Hormones such as cortisol,
a strong relationship between salivary testosterone, and catecholamines can
and serum cortisol at rest (r = .93) and provide insight into the functioning of
during exercise (r = .90) (159). Lane and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis,
Hackney (122) investigated the associa- which has implications for the early
tion between serum and saliva analysis detection of overreaching and overtrain-
of testosterone in aerobic endurance ing (see chapter 3). Examining hormo-
athletes performing varying intensities nal responses to exercise can provide
of exercise. Their data showed strong a clearer picture of athletes’ adaptive
correlations, particularly at moderate states than looking only at resting (basal)
and high exercise intensities (r > .89). hormonal levels (208). However, resting
The main advantage of collecting saliva salivary hormone levels may give some
for athlete monitoring is its noninvasive- insight into workout performance by
ness compared to blood collection. Many individual athletes, with some research
athletes find blood collection stressful, suggesting that these levels potentially
which results in elevated levels of stress moderate training adaptations (48). The
hormones. Saliva samples also allow for
acute responses of the endocrine system
analyzing biologically active free hor-
during training and following training
mone levels (50).
sessions are related to the intensity and
Urine analysis is another relatively
duration of the exercise stimulus and to
noninvasive method for measuring cer-
the athlete’s physical condition (187).
tain hormonal and biochemical markers.
Hormones also appear to play a critical
Specific adaptations in the hypothalam-
role in mediating adaptations in elite ath-
ic-pituitary-adrenal axis can be investi-
gated by analyzing urinary cortisol and letes (88, 89). However, more research is
cortisone levels (82). It is important to required to determine these relationships
remember, however, that urine analy- and establish the role of hormone mon-
ses provide only a general indication of itoring for both predicting and tracking
hormone levels, and they can be time the effects of training programs.
consuming. Practitioners need to be mindful of
Whichever analysis method they use, issues that can arise with variability in
practitioners need to consider how they the assays. Variation can occur between
will store the samples. Hormones are the samples in the same assay (intra-as-
affected by temperature and should say variability) and between the assays
be stored in cool conditions as soon as (interassay variability). For example,
possible. Certain types of blood analysis hormones such as cortisol and testoster-
require the separation of plasma and one exhibit a circadian rhythm: Levels
serum. It is also important to avoid the typically peak around 1 hr after waking
and then progressively decrease through- been consistently demonstrated in the

out the day (196) (see figure 5.5). literature (213, 214). Part of testoster-
one’s role is as a driver of motivation
Testosterone to contribute to performance increases.
Testosterone is an anabolic hormone Crewther and colleagues (54) found that
responsible for many functions in the the testosterone response to a midweek
body, including growth, development, workout in rugby league players could be
and protein synthesis (208). The syn- somewhat predictive of the match result
thesis and secretion of testosterone on the weekend. A study by Beaven and
increases as a result of the effects of colleagues (8) showed a relationship
catecholamines, and the levels of testos- between salivary levels of testosterone
terone increase following an acute bout and strength gains in rugby union play-
of moderate- to high-intensity exercise ers. In female athletes, a relationship
(116, 117). Levels of resting testoster- has been found between self-selected
one are highly individual and can vary training load and levels of testosterone,
greatly across the competitive season in which suggests that testosterone levels
athletes (40). Therefore, practitioners are important in women (36). Resting
need to consider individual differences salivary testosterone concentrations
and establish a baseline when assessing have been shown to have a relationship
the usefulness of testosterone as a marker with strength and power performance in
for athlete monitoring. weightlifters (49). Because saliva reflects
An emerging body of evidence sug- the biologically active hormone, this
gests that testosterone responses can finding could be attributed to individual
be used to assess training and compe- differences in the target tissue response
tition readiness. Although traditionally to hormones, the result of training, and
it was believed that acute increases in genetic factors such as muscle fiber type
anabolic markers such as testosterone distribution, the target tissues’ capacity
are important for muscle hypertrophy to bind to the hormones, and the number
and performance gains, this has not of hormone receptors.
250 120
Salivary testosterone (pg/ml)
100
200
Salivary cortisol (μg/dl)
80
150
60
100
40
50
20
0 0
6 a.m. 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 6 p.m. 10 p.m. 6 a.m. 10 a.m. 2 p.m. 6 p.m. 10 p.m.
a Time of day b Time of day
Figure 5.5 Multiple measures of (a) testosterone and (b) cortisol over one day to show diurnal variation.
Taken together, the findings suggest cycle may provide windows in which
that monitoring testosterone levels in to maximize the response to training.
athletes could help guide training pre- A study by Nakamura and colleagues
scription. For example, how the athlete (152) showed different acute responses
responds to a particular type of workout to resistance training depending on the
may identify optimal sessions (9). Beaven phase of the menstrual cycle. Sung and
and colleagues (9) identified the hormo- colleagues (193) investigated the effects
nal responses of rugby union players to of strength training during different
four different workouts. They discovered phases of the menstrual cycle. The results
maximal gains when the athletes trained showed differential responses depend-
using the protocol that maximized their ing on how the loading was distributed
testosterone response. across the menstrual cycle. Specifically,
Relationships between testosterone follicular phase–based training resulted
levels and match outcomes in sport have in greater increases in muscular strength
also been found (54, 76, 77). Testoster- and hypertrophy (193). It should be
one seems to play important roles in noted that the majority of these studies
psychological aspects such as motivation, have used untrained or recreationally
which highlights its role in athletic per- trained participants rather than elite
formance (52). The use of priming work- athletes. Monitoring athletes’ menstrual
outs on the day of competition is spec- cycles as well as the medications they
ulated to aid performance by increasing are taking would provide practitioners a
levels of circulating hormones. Although picture of how this aspect of physiology
performance increases have been shown responds to training.
with these types of approaches, the clear
impact on match outcomes has yet to be Cortisol
demonstrated conclusively. Identifying Cortisol, a glucocorticoid that is released
workouts and approaches to training that from the adrenal cortex in response to
optimize adaptations to training could stress, has important roles in metabolism
be aided by monitoring these hormone and immune function (117). It is also
levels in athletes. considered a marker of catabolic status.
Testosterone levels in athletes can be Levels of cortisol are higher following
affected by a number of factors. In elite an acute bout of exercise and competi-
female athletes, oral contraceptive use tion (60, 117). The release of cortisol is
has been shown to affect levels of resting stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hor-
testosterone (51). This study also pro- mone (ACTH), which is secreted by the
vided some evidence of a reduced testos- hypothalamic-pituitary axis in response
terone and cortisol response to exercise to stress. The increase in cortisol occurs
and competition in elite hockey players approximately 15 to 30 min after adren-
taking oral contraceptives (51). These ocorticotropic hormone release (12).
findings could have implications for ath- Cortisol has many important functions,
letes’ responses to explosive exercise (28) including stimulating gluconeogenesis
and training loads (36). Menstrual cycle (a metabolic process that makes glu-
effects on athlete hormonal responses are cose from noncarbohydrate sources),
less clear, but taking them into account which results in sparing blood glucose
in athlete monitoring does appear to be and protein stores in the body. During
important (123). Certain stages of the metabolism, cortisol increases protein
MENSTRUAL CYCLE MONITORING

Practitioners working with female athletes should take into consideration the
menstrual cycle and its potential role in performance. Fluctuations in several
hormones (estrogen, progesterone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and luteinizing
hormone) occur over the course of a normal menstrual cycle (162). Research has
shown that exercise performance can vary during the menstrual cycle, although
the findings have not been consistent (152, 162, 180). Experts have suggested tak-
ing these variations into account when designing training programs, but it would
need to be done on an individual basis (180, 193). This may prove too time inten-
sive in team sports, but it may be possible in individual sports. The starting point
would be to track the menstrual cycle of the athlete using a training diary and
analyze the information relative to the subsequent performance in training and
competition. Of particular importance would be any menstrual cycle disturbanc-
es, because these can have negative effects on overall health and performance
(19).
breakdown in skeletal muscle and con- Testosterone-to-Cortisol Ratio

nective tissue, amino acid transport into Given that testosterone is an anabolic
the liver, glycogen synthesis in the liver, hormone and cortisol is a catabolic
and lipolysis (breakdown of lipids) (12). hormone, the ratio between them is
The cortisol response is related to the intuitively appealing as a monitoring
intensity, duration, and mode of exercise tool in sport. The research findings,
(117). One study showed a decrease in however, are mixed, no doubt because
resting levels of cortisol after 24 weeks of of the high degree of variability in these
aerobic endurance training (83). Inter- hormones in athletes (183) and because
estingly, the degree of the decrease in the interaction between them appears
resting cortisol was related to physical to be complex (59). High levels of both
function improvements in the partici- interindividual (between individuals)
pants. and intraindividual (within a single
Like testosterone, cortisol has also individual from sample to sample) vari-
been shown to be related to athletic per- ability are found with most biochemical
formance (37). Several research studies markers, which can limit their usefulness
have been conducted with respect to cor- for athlete monitoring.
tisol levels in athletes (59-62, 83, 160). Some have suggested that a high ratio
Given its importance as a stress hormone, indicates a more anabolic status in ath-
it is one of the most commonly measured letes, whereas a ratio reduced by more
markers in athlete monitoring. A study than 30% indicates a state of catabolism
by Cook and colleagues (37) showed (203). A low ratio is also believed to
differences in the levels of cortisol and be indicative of reduced adaptation to
testosterone in elite compared to nonelite training. A study by Edwards and Casto
female athletes. The higher levels could (60) showed that the resting level of cor-
indicate elite athletes’ greater capacity to tisol in female university-level athletes
handle high training loads. appeared to modulate the change in tes-
tosterone level in competition. Monitor- training has been shown to acutely

ing both cortisol and testosterone prior increase growth hormone levels (117).
to training and competition could give An important issue in monitoring growth
some indication of athletes’ readiness to hormone levels is the type of assay used
perform. (115). Many commercially available
assays detect circulating growth hormone
Epinephrine and concentrations. Growth hormone (and
Norepinephrine most hormones) exists as a family of
related proteins of different molecular
The catecholamines epinephrine and
weights and structures. Most traditional
norepinephrine (sometimes referred commercial assays measure one form
to as adrenaline and noradrenaline) are and therefore neglect many others.
released in response to stress and reflect More than 100 molecular isoforms of
the acute demands of exercise (12). circulating growth hormone exist, but
Catecholamine levels have potential as the traditional measurement approach in
a monitoring tool because they have the exercise literature has focused on the
important roles in force production, primary one, 22-kDa isoform (115). The
energy availability, and muscle con- relationships between growth hormone
traction (117). They also appear to be concentrations in the serum, growth
important for augmenting the effects of hormone signaling pathways, and long-
hormones such as testosterone (117). term changes in performance and body
An increase in catecholamine levels composition are not well understood.
during exercise appears to be related to As these relationships become clearer,
intensity (25). However, less is known the role of exercise-induced growth hor-
about the chronic responses to exercise. mone release may become defined, and
Epinephrine and norepinephrine have its use in biochemical monitoring could
properties that regulate homeostasis to be more useful.
meet the increased demands of muscle
force production, both before and during Insulin-Like Growth Factors
resistance exercise (69). In one study, Hormones such as insulin-like growth
athletes who maintained force produc- factor 1 (IGF-1) and insulin-like growth
tion throughout the exercise protocol factor binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3) have
had higher catecholamine concentra- been studied as markers of stress and
tions than those whose performances shown to increase with acute exercise
decreased (69). (63). Growth factors are important for
regulating many of the body’s processes
Growth Hormone involved with the anabolism of bone and
The response of the growth hormone– skeletal muscle (12). IGF-1, a polypep-
insulin-like growth factor 1 axis is tide produced by the liver, has an impor-
potentially useful for athlete monitoring tant role in mediating metabolic and
(117). Growth hormone has important anabolic responses (117). The IGFBPs
physiological functions, including stimu- act as carriers of IGF in circulation and
lating muscle hypertrophy by facilitating help to regulate their biological actions.
amino acid transport and stimulating It has been proposed that a reduction in
lipolysis (12). Exercise acutely stimulates resting IGFBP-3 can be used as a marker
growth hormone secretion; resistance of overreaching and overtraining (63).
The evaluation of alterations in the levels of leptin in rowers following high-in-

of total IGF-1 and its binding proteins tensity resistance training. A study by
may be of interest because they may Nindl and colleagues (157) revealed no
affect performance and reflect physical decrease in leptin concentration follow-
overload in athletes (63, 117). ing high-volume resistance exercise, but
The response of IGF-1 to long-term a delayed decrease may have reflected
training is not clear from the available the large disruption in metabolic home-
research (208). Short-term resistance ostasis caused by training. Jurimae and
training studies have reported no change colleagues (107) have shown a rela-
in the resting concentration of IGF-1 tionship between training volume and
(133), whereas other studies have shown plasma leptin.
significant elevations in resting IGF-1 As with all hormone measures, it is
(114). Overreaching resulting from an important to control for nutrient intake
increase in training volume and inten- and diurnal variations; these factors may
sity has been shown to reduce IGF-1 con- account for the differences seen in stud-
centrations but return them to baseline ies. Leptin has been shown to decrease
when normal training resumed over the under conditions similar to overtrain-
next cycle (174). ing when training volumes have been
high (107, 187). Resting levels of leptin
Glutamine and Glutamate are also reduced in aerobic endurance
Plasma glutamine and glutamate may athletes and decreased in postexercise
be useful markers of high training loads periods when levels of training stress are
(46). These amino acids have several high (108). This suggests that measuring
functions, including protein synthesis leptin levels may be useful in monitoring
and acid–base balance regulation. Similar training.
to testosterone and cortisol, the ratio of
these two markers may provide a meas- Adiponectin and Ghrelin
ure of training adaptation. Some research Adiponectin and ghrelin are both
evidence suggests that the levels change important hormones in the regulation
with training load and could suggest of energy homeostasis, but no strong
immune status (46, 93). Studies have evidence can be found for their utility
shown decreases in glutamine during in monitoring. Jurimae and colleagues
periods of high training loads, but find- (108) suggested that decreased levels of
ings with respect to this marker’s ability adiponectin postexercise during periods
to detect overtraining have been incon- of high training volumes could indicate
sistent (109, 145). Evidence suggests that heavy training stress.
the glutamine-to-glutamate ratio may be
sensitive enough to identify nonfunc- Considerations
tional overreaching (46). for Hormone Monitoring
Hormone monitoring has several advan-
Leptin tages. Many measures can be obtained
Leptin, a protein hormone, relays signals noninvasively using saliva and urine.
to the hypothalamus to regulate appetite Regular monitoring of hormones may
and energy balance, and it has roles in help practitioners implement appropriate
metabolism (208). Simsch and colleagues interventions such as reduced training
(187) reported decreases in resting levels loads or periods of rest aimed at recov-
ering hormonal status. However, they tomed heavy exercise, various enzymes
need to be mindful of several limitations and blood markers increase, including
of hormone monitoring. Factors that can creatine kinase. Measures of creatine
affect hormone concentrations include kinase are the most commonly reported
sampling conditions and sample storage. in the literature (182). The enzyme is
Nutritional intake can modify signifi- located inside muscle cells, but after
cantly either the resting concentration heavy exercise it can be released into
of some hormones or their concentration the blood. Thus, creatine kinase levels
change in response to exercise (117). In can reflect the degree of muscle damage.
female athletes the hormonal response However, although these levels are a
depends on the phase of the menstrual good measure of muscle damage and
cycle. Hormone concentrations at rest response to unaccustomed exercise, no
and following exercise are different. consistent patterns have been noted in
Practitioners should also be aware of overtrained athletes. Coutts and col-
diurnal variations in hormone levels leagues (46) found significant increases
and obtain samples at approximately the in creatine kinase in rugby league players
same time of day. Also, the reproduci- following a 6-week period of intensified
bility of some hormone analyses can be training. A 1-week taper period resulted
poor. Finally, hormone analyses can be in a significant return to baseline values,
time consuming and expensive, which which was not the case with the other
presents challenges for regularly moni- biochemical markers. This was likely
toring these measures. due to the reduced amount of muscle
damage associated with the reduction in
training load.
Biochemical Monitoring Creatine kinase can be used to assess
Many substances involved in the meta- muscle damage in athletes, but with gen-
bolic process (called metabolites) have erally large amounts of variability (85).
been studied with the aim of establishing However, because a clear relationship
their usefulness for monitoring training does not always occur between levels of
and performance (208). The following creatine kinase and performance, prac-
sections discuss some of these biochem- titioners should use caution when inter-
ical metabolites, specifically looking at preting the results. In general, the level
measures using blood assays. As with of creatine kinase increases in response
hormone monitoring, practitioners need to acute training load (208). Others
a basic understanding of the role of have recommended using levels of cre-
metabolites and their significance when atine kinase to assess recovery of muscle
considering them as monitoring tools. damage in the short term following
training or competition (45). Measures
Creatine Kinase of this marker may be of greater value
Exercise-induced muscle damage is during the preseason and training camps,
a normal response to heavy training when training loads are particularly high.
loads. Practitioners are therefore often However, the response of creatine kinase
interested in measuring the degree of to long-term training is not consistent,
muscle damage; subjective ratings of most likely because athletes have become
muscle soreness are one way to do this accustomed to the chronic training stress
(see chapter 4). In response to unaccus- (17). With this measure it is important
to establish a clear baseline from a large causes declines in plasma hypoxanthine

number of samples. Ideally, this should concentrations; the extent of the change
be done over several days to establish relates to the amount of high-intensity
the degree of variability in the athletes. anaerobic exercise (219). Because the
levels of hypoxanthine indicate metab-
Other Measures olism in skeletal muscle under anaerobic
of Muscle Damage conditions, this metabolite may provide
Other measures of muscle damage have insights into training adaptation (208,
been investigated and have potential use 219).
in athlete monitoring. Those that can
indicate the degree of muscle damage Red Blood Cell Function
include myoglobin, ammonia, uric acid, Markers of red blood cell function from
urea, and troponin (16). Measures such a standard blood panel count may have
as C-reactive protein and creatinine a role in monitoring. They include leu-
have also been investigated (208). Redox kocyte, hematocrit, hemoglobin, and
homeostasis and adaptation to training blood cell counts. Hematological changes
may be an important part of the stress– have been reported in overreached
adaptation response; some suggest the and overtrained athletes (92, 93, 177),
existence of an optimal dose of exercise although some studies have not shown
and production of reactive oxygen and any changes (47). Hooper and colleagues
nitrogen species (27). (101) found that neutrophil number gave
some indication of training staleness in
Alpha-Amylase elite swimmers during the early part of
Alpha-amylase is another potential the season. The body of research suggests
stress marker that is released along with that blood parameters such as blood
catecholamines and certain neuroendo- count, C-reactive protein, urea, creati-
crine secretory proteins (chromogranin nine, liver enzymes, glucose, ferritin,
A) in response to acute physiological sodium, and potassium are not capable of
stress (85). These are considered useful indicating overreaching or overtraining
markers of autonomic nervous system in athletes (177). Many of these markers
activity. In a study of elite track and field do not accurately represent physiological
athletes, the levels of chromogranin A changes before and after training (145).
decreased over the course of the presea- Despite these limitations, these mark-
son period, but no changes in alpha-am- ers do provide information on athletes’
ylase were seen (85). health status (145).
Hypoxanthine Considerations
Research has shown that hypoxanthine for Biochemical Monitoring
may be a useful indicator of training Practitioners would be wise to take into
status during some training phases (219). account many of the considerations men-
Hypoxanthine is a marker of anaerobic tioned for hormone monitoring. Many
metabolism and reflects the exercise-in- metabolites can be measured in a vari-
duced degradation and resynthesis of ety of mediums such as blood and saliva
protein in the muscle. Long-term training and, as discussed in chapter 6, sweat and
tears. As with hormones, large individual Practitioners considering a hormonal

responses to training exist in athletes, and biochemical monitoring program
which can make interpreting monitoring need to do the following:
results difficult. Practitioners also need to
consider the logistics of these measures, • Compare exercise-induced meas-
especially cost and the time needed to ures with baseline measures from
analyze the results. Table 5.1 provides a the same person.
summary of the primary hormonal and • Take diurnal variation into account;
biochemical markers that have potential collect samples at the same time of
in athlete monitoring. day.
TABLE 5.1 Functions, Advantages, and Disadvantages of Primary

Hormonal and Biochemical Markers
Marker Function Advantages Disadvantages
Testosterone and cortisol May indicate anabolic and Can be measured in saliva Analysis is costly.
catabolic balance. and blood. One of the Variability is high.
simplest assays.
Epinephrine and Have important roles in Indicate response to stress Require blood samples.
norepinephrine force production, energy and reflect acute demands Analysis is complicated
availability, and muscle of exercise. and expensive.
contraction.
Growth hormone Has a role in anabolic Can indicate differential Requires blood sample.
status and a wide range of response to forms of Analysis is complicated
metabolic functions. exercise. and expensive.
IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 Involved with anabolism of Can be measured in saliva Analysis is complicated
bone and skeletal muscle. and blood. and expensive.
IGFBP-3 may be reflective
of training load.
Glutamine and glutamate Glutamine-to-glutamate Are potential biochemical Require blood samples.
ratio indicates excessive markers of overreaching. Analysis is costly and time
training stress. consuming.
Creatine kinase Provides information on Has been widely Requires a blood sample.
muscle damage. researched, and evidence Analysis is costly and time
exists for its utility during consuming. Degree of
periods of heavy training variability is high.
loads.
Hematological measures Are standard clinical tests Are useful for determining Require a blood test. Have
of red blood cell count, health status. low utility for determining
hemoglobin, and leukocyte overreaching and
count. overtraining.
Data from Gleeson et al. (80); Meeusen et al. (145); Urhausen et al. (203); Viru and Viru (208).
• Exercise caution when comparing

results to previously published
Immunological
results because assays can produce Markers
very different data. Growth hor-
mone is a good example of this. Immune system measures can be used
• Analyze hormones and biochemical as an index of physiological stress in
markers in combination with other response to training load. As discussed
physiological and psychological in chapter 2, excessive training loads
measures such as RPE, wellness can result in the suppression of the
questionnaires, and exercise perfor- immune system and put athletes at risk
mance tests. of getting sick (80). Several markers can
• Keep in mind that circulating levels provide insight into the immune status
of hormones and other markers in of athletes. The most commonly used
blood and saliva, particularly at rest, and researched are immunoglobulin A
are not always good indicators of and cytokines.
molecular and cellular responses.
• Take into account the effects of other
factors such as nutrition, training
Immunoglobulin A
status, stress, menstrual cycle, and Antimicrobial proteins such as immu-
medications. Single measures of a noglobulin A (IgA) have been widely
hormone or biochemical marker researched as markers of immune status
do not necessarily provide accurate in athletes because of their potential
information about an athlete’s train- role in upper respiratory tract infections
ing status. (URTIs) (202). IgA is the most abundant
immunoglobulin in the mucosal fluids
• Most important, use hormonal and
and is the first line of defense against
biochemical monitoring to make
microorganisms that cause URTIs (79).
objective decisions about athlete
Several studies have shown that salivary
training.
IgA levels are associated with the inci-
Despite previous studies of biochemi- dence of these infections (55, 79, 146,
cal and endocrine responses in athletes, 154). In a 50-week study of America’s
weekly variations in elite-level athletes Cup sailors, researchers analyzed weekly
are poorly understood. Changes in the saliva samples for IgA levels (154); the
biochemical and hormonal status of ath- level of IgA was found to be associated
letes happen during a sport season (33, with an increased risk of developing
40). Various magnitudes of suppression an URTI. A decline in IgA levels over
or elevation can occur independently or 3 weeks seemed to predict the onset of
in parallel. It is possible that changes in illness. Interestingly, the fatigue rating
these variables are related to workload or scale used in the study was also related to
performance and, in the case of hormone relative IgA levels, which highlights the
measures, may reflect modifications to value of subjective questionnaires when
total-body anabolic and catabolic balance. IgA analyses are not available.
A dose–response relationship also * Indicates an illness occurred that week

appears to occur between levels of IgA 50
* * * * * *
in the saliva and training load (33, 34, 45
Salivary IgA (μg/ml)

40
164). Following heavy periods of train- 35
30
ing and up to 36 hr following match 25
play, suppression of IgA levels occurs 20
15
(33). The findings are not consistent, 10
5
though, and a high degree of individ- 0
ual variability in the response has been 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Weeks
noted (80, 148).
Weekly monitoring of salivary IgA Figure 5.6 Time course of salivary IgA over a sea-
E6859/McGuigan/F05.06/554485/mh-R2
offers a way to assess athletes’ immune son in a squad of athletes and incidence of illness.
status. The measures typically used
are IgA concentration, saliva flow rate
(determined by timing the collection of
the saliva for analysis), and IgA secre-
tion rate. Being able to predict the onset Cytokines
of illness is very useful for maximizing Proinflammatory cytokines such as
training time and avoiding missed ses- interleukin-6, interleukin-8, interleu-
sions. Putlur and colleagues (173) exam- kin-10, interleukin-1ß, and tumor necro-
ined changes in IgA levels in female sis factor alpha have been shown to be
university football players over 9 weeks important in the acute and chronic exer-
during the season. They reported that cise response in athletes (188). The main
illness occurred at a higher rate among role of cytokines appears to be as cell-
the players compared to active controls, to-cell communicators, and they have
and the incidence of illness was lowest important roles in skeletal muscle. Peri-
in weeks with reduced training loads ods of excessive training stress accom-
(173). In the players, 82% of illnesses panied by inadequate rest and recovery
occurred following a decrease in IgA can induce inflammatory responses in
levels, and 55% were preceded by a skeletal muscle, which leads to chronic
spike in training load. These findings inflammation (190). Cytokines play a
were similar to those of Foster (66), who significant role in this process, and large
noted that 84% of athlete illnesses could increases in these markers occur follow-
be explained by a preceding increase in ing acute bouts of exercise (79, 188). It
training load. This provides evidence has been suggested that these cytokines
that an increase in training load can could provide information about inflam-
lead to an increase in illness and that mation and stress in the body (188, 189).
monitoring athletes’ immune status is Of the various types of cytokines, inter-
useful for avoiding lost training and leukin-6 has received the most atten-
competition time. Figure 5.6 shows an tion because of its release from skeletal
example of salivary IgA and training muscle during and after exercise. Because
load tracked over the course of a training it induces lipolysis and fat oxidation
camp in athletes. and is involved in glucose homeostasis
during exercise, interleukin-6 could be

used as an indicator of heavy training
Considerations for Immune
loads. System Monitoring
Postexercise levels of tumor necro- The current information regarding the
sis factor alpha could also indicate immune system and training suggests
increased training load and inadequate that periods of intensified training result
recovery (188, 189). However, this has in depressed immune cell function (80).
yet to be directly determined in elite However, these changes do not appear
athlete populations. to distinguish between athletes who
A disadvantage of using cytokine adapt successfully to high training loads
measures in athlete monitoring is that and those that develop overtraining
all of these cytokines respond to exer- syndrome. Other measures, such the
cise and are related to each other. Like antimicrobial peptide lysozyme, can
many other markers, expense and the be measured in saliva (55). A study of
time-consuming nature of the analysis rugby union athletes revealed who both
are also limitations for many monitoring salivary IgA and lysozyme had poten-
programs. Because new cytokines are tial as monitoring measures, although
being discovered all the time, further there was a great deal of variability (55).
investigations will no doubt determine Methods for monitoring immune status
their utility for athlete monitoring. Table are particularly appealing for practition-
5.2 provides a summary of the primary ers because of their potential to reduce
immunological markers that have poten- lost training time and increase athletes’
tial in athlete monitoring. availability to compete. However, the
TABLE 5.2 Functions, Advantages, and Disadvantages

of Primary Immunological Markers
Marker Function Advantages Disadvantages
IgA IgA and other antimicrobial Can be measured in saliva. Variability of measures is
proteins are an important Relative decline in high.
first line of defense against athlete’s salivary IgA over Analysis is time-consuming
URTI. the 2- to 3-week period and expensive.
before a URTI appears to
precede and contribute to
risk
Cytokines Important in the acute A number of analyses are Analysis is extremely
and chronic inflammatory possible from single blood costly and complicated.
exercise response in samples.
athletes. Assays are being
developed for saliva.
Data from Gleeson et al. (80); Meeusen et al. (145); Viru and Viru (208).
implementation of these markers needs

to be weighed against the financial cost
Submaximal Testing
and complex analysis required. Maximal tests have often been used to
assess overtraining in athletes, but prac-
titioners are also interested in using reli-
able and valid submaximal performance
Performance Tests tests to monitor training. The advantage
of these tests is that they can be per-
Given that sport is ultimately about formed more frequently than maximal
performance, tests that directly measure tests. For example, the Lamberts and
performance can be useful for moni- Lambert submaximal cycle test requires
toring athletes. A key initial decision is the athlete to cycle at a fixed predeter-
whether to use a maximal or submaxi- mined heart rate while power output,
mal test. Maximal performance testing RPE, and heart rate recovery data are
can be challenging to implement on a collected (121). Training-induced acute
regular basis because of the resulting and chronic fatigue are reflected differ-
fatigue. Typically, performance tests are ently in this submaximal test, which
performed in conjunction with other has important practical applications
physiological, perceptual, or biochemical for monitoring. A case study of an elite
tests. Ideally, baseline values for meas- cyclo-cross athlete showed that the test
ures such as resting and exercise heart detected changes in the athlete’s training
rate, RPE, lactate, and hormone levels status and could indicate the occurrence
are available for comparison (using the of acute fatigue that could lead to per-
statistical tools from chapter 2). As dis- formance impairments (119). Athletes
cussed in chapter 3, performance tests identified as suffering from reduced per-
can provide information on overreaching formance based on heart rate responses
and overtraining. Rather than relying on following a submaximal running test also
repeated bouts of maximal performance demonstrated hormonal changes and
tests, practitioners could use field-based mood state responses typical of athletes
performance tests to determine the experiencing nonfunctional overreach-
potential for overreaching and overtraining (184).
ing in their athletes. Submaximal running tests can be used
A variety of performance tests have for athlete monitoring (206, 207). Vest-
been used and studied by researchers erinen and colleagues’ (206) submaximal
(91). A survey of high-performance sport running test was modified from the Lam-
practitioners revealed that 61% used berts and Lambert submaximal cycle test
some type of performance test monthly (121). The test involves three stages of
(30%), weekly (33%), or more often running at 70% (6 min), 80% (6 min),
than weekly (36%) (194). Tests included and 90% (3 min) of maximal heart rate.
submaximal cycling and running tests, RPE using the CR-10 scale is measured
maximal strength and jump tests, sprints, after the final stage. Running speed and
and sport-specific tests. The challenge for heart rate are measured over the final 5
practitioners is finding a test they can use min of each of the first two stages and for
on a regular basis (i.e., daily or weekly). the final 2 min of the third stage. Heart
rate recovery can also be calculated using as during rehabilitation. The Wingate
60 s of recovery at the end of the test. anaerobic test is one of the most com-
Research has shown that the changes monly used cycle ergometer tests, but it
in running speed during the final two is highly fatiguing. An ergometer with
stages can reflect changes in training load adjustable resistance measures the rate
and be used to monitor adaptations to of pedal revolutions. Typical protocols
aerobic endurance training (205, 206). involve a warm-up followed by a set
Other field-based performance tests are test time such as 30 s. The amount of
an interval shuttle run test for football work performed is determined from the
players and the Zoladz test for runners resistance value and the number of pedal
(220). revolutions. Power is generally calcu-
lated as work divided by time for each 5-s
time interval. Parameters such as peak
Sprint Testing power, average power, and fatigue can
Sprint testing can also be used for mon- be calculated.
itoring athletes (74, 96). Because sprint- Other protocols are more suited for
ing is an important determinant of sport monitoring athletes, such as a protocol
performance, particularly in team sports, for elite Australian rules football players
practitioners are interested in regularly that involves two 6-s maximal sprints
monitoring aspects of it (149). Measuring separated by 1 min of recovery (210,
sprint performance via time is the most 211). The test has been shown to be
common method (218). reliable and sensitive to neuromuscular
Sprint tests can be conducted over a fatigue in elite team sport athletes (210,
set distance such as 30 m. Measuring 211). One advantage of this test is than
time alone can provide helpful moni- it takes very little time to complete and is
toring information because preliminary less fatiguing that the standard Wingate
data show that speed slows following a protocol.
fatiguing training session in team sports
(151). Sophisticated timing devices are
not always necessary; handheld devices Velocity Testing
have been reliable for experienced testers Velocity-based testing (106), which has
(128). Moreover, sprint testing is highly been studied for many years (15, 201),
reliable in athletes (74). Researchers provides objective information about
have compared 20-m sprints to jump the quality of velocity-based resistance
testing and found that jump testing was training (175). Studies have shown that
more sensitive for monitoring fatigue exercise velocity can be used to estimate
in team sport athletes (74). Other tech- an athlete’s 1RM (35, 81). As a result,
nology for measuring running speed is barbell or jump velocity can be a useful
discussed in chapter 6. monitoring measure. Sanchez-Medina
Cycle-based ergometer sprint tests and Gonzalez-Badillo (181) studied the
appear to have potential for athlete loss of velocity and determined that it
monitoring (142, 210, 211). These indicates neuromuscular fatigue during
tests have advantages for practitioners resistance training. Their results indi-
working with non-body-weight-support cated that by monitoring the velocity of
sports such as cycling and rowing and repetitions during a training session, it
for athletes restricted from running such was possible to estimate the degree of
metabolic stress (lactate and ammonia bilateral mobility of the hips, knees,
levels) and neuromuscular fatigue. Baker ankles, shoulders, and thoracic spine
and Newton also showed that power and (26). Scoring systems can then be used
velocity decreased after a certain number to rate the movements qualitatively. For
of repetitions in elite rugby league example, numerical rating scales can be
players (4). Practitioners can use this used to rate the movements of the squat,
information to set velocity thresholds to single-leg squat, lunge, or push-up,
ensure an optimal training stimulus. This but validation studies regarding these
would avoid the need for athletes to per- approaches are minimal (70, 97). Most
form unnecessary repetitions in training, of these scales have set criteria for what
thus increasing session efficiency. constitutes good or poor movement pat-
terns, and practitioners use various adap-
Movement Screening tations (134, 141, 165). Similar to well-
ness questionnaires, practitioners seem
and Flexibility Testing to prefer modifications of existing tools
Movement screenings and flexibility for their particular sport settings. Good
tests can be used to assess athletes’ practitioners perform performance and
flexibility, mobility, body posture, and postural screening routinely by viewing
general movement competency as well athletes’ performances during warm-up
as to monitor the risk of injury (70, 97). and training and use this information to
No consensus on which screening is best guide their choice of modifications to the
has emerged, and there are no clear links session’s load assignments.
between the results of a screening and Flexibility measures include goniom-
an athlete’s risk of injury (111, 134, 136, eters, which measure joint angle, and
165), which raises questions about their sit-and-reach boxes, which measure a
usefulness. combination of low back and hip flexi-
Simple movements such as the over- bility. During a flexibility test, the ath-
head squat can be performed to assess lete should move slowly into the fully
WEEKLY SUBMAXIMAL RUNNING TESTS

FOR TRACKING TEAM SPORT ATHLETES
Submaximal running tests avoid the need for expensive and time-consuming
laboratory-based tests. For practitioners working in team sports that involve
significant amounts of running, submaximal running tests can provide important
information about athletes’ current fitness and fatigue levels. This type of testing
can be incorporated into the warm-up, but a heart rate monitor or some other
means of measuring heart rate is needed to capture the data. RPE scales are a
good alternative and can be used to complement other aspects of the monitoring
system. One simple test is a 5-min run at a set running speed (e.g., 9 km/hr, or
5.6 mph) followed by a seated 5-min recovery (24). The practitioner can meas-
ure heart rate and RPE at each minute during exercise and recovery and use this
information to determine heart rate recovery.
stretched position and hold the position system test are summed into a single
while the result is measured in centim- score.
eters or inches. The knee-to-wall test In the star excursion balance test, the
involves comparing right and left sides athlete stands in the center of a grid with
and calculating the difference in dorsi- eight 120-cm (47 in.) lines extending out
flexion range of motion while performing at 45° increments. The athlete maintains
a weight-bearing lunge (113). a single-leg stance facing in one direction
while reaching with the contralateral
leg as far as possible for each taped line,
Balance and touches the farthest point possible, and
Stability Testing then returns to the bilateral position.
Balance is the ability to maintain static Within a single trial, the athlete remains
and dynamic equilibrium, or the ability facing in the initial direction and the
to maintain the body’s center of gravity stance leg remains the same; the other
over its base of support (147). Stability leg does all of the reaching. The distance
is a measure of the ability to return to a from the center of the star to the touch
position is measured. Some have sug-
desired position following a disturbance
gested that testing the front, side, and
to the system (147). Commonly used
rear positions is sufficient (98).
tests of balance and stability are timed
static standing tests (eyes closed and
standing on one or both legs) (18), bal- Performance Ratings
ance tests using unstable surfaces (135), Although practitioner and athlete rat-
and tests using specialized balance testing ings of performance are subjective, they
equipment (176). Tests are also available can be useful for monitoring an athlete
for evaluating aspects of balance and sta- during competition and training (38).
bility such as postural sway. Clarke and A common approach is to use a well-
colleagues (30) found that postural sway ness questionnaire and have athletes
can be an indicator of neuromuscular rate their performance on a Likert scale
fatigue in athletes. from 1 (extremely poor) to 10 (excellent)
Two tests with good reliability that (65). Practitioners can rate the athlete’s
have been widely researched are the bal- performance using a similar scale. In a
ance error scoring system and the star study by Cormack and colleagues (38),
excursion balance test (18, 84, 199). practitioners were asked to rate athlete
The balance error scoring system test is performance using the following scale:
conducted using a variety of positions 1 = poor performance, 2 = moderate perfor-
on a firm surface and on a soft surface mance, 3 = good performance, 4 = very good
(figure 5.7). The positions are held for performance, 5 = excellent performance. Ide-
20 s with eyes closed and hands on hips. ally, measures would be obtained from
Athletes are told to remain as steady as a range of practitioners. Interestingly, in
possible, and if they lose their balance, Cormack and colleagues’ study, the ath-
they attempt to regain their initial posi- letes with higher levels of neuromuscular
tion as quickly as possible. The error fatigue during play were rated as per-
scores from the balance error scoring forming more poorly by the practitioners.
a b c
d e f
Figure 5.7 Balance error scoring system: (a-c) firm surface condition and (d-f ) soft surface condition.
133
In summary, a performance test can monitoring tool. Jump tests such as the
be used for athlete monitoring if it meets vertical countermovement, static jump,
these criteria: and drop jump tests are sensitive to neu-
romuscular fatigue and easy to adminis-
• Is reliable and valid and sensitive ter with athletes. Force production tests
to change can also be used to monitor fatigue in
• Can be performed on a regular basis athletes. Measures such as heart rate
(weekly testing appears to be stand- variability and heart rate recovery can
ard, but some may require more provide insights into the athlete’s pre-
frequent assessments) paredness to train. Athletes’ variability
• Is easy to administer in hormonal and biochemical responses
suggests the importance of analyzing
• Can be performed in a variety of
the results individually. Various markers
settings
can indicate immune function in ath-
• Does not take too long to perform letes. Several are sensitive to training
and, ideally, can be included in the load, but responses have been highly
warm-up variable. Although the evidence sup-
• Does not require specialized equip- ports the use of certain hormonal and
ment (a tape measure and a stop- biochemical markers, they have limited
watch can be sufficient) practical application because of high
cost and logistical issues. Performance
tests can be useful for tracking fitness
and fatigue, but no single measure can
Conclusion provide a complete picture. However,
enough evidence is available to suggest
Many methods can be used to assess that a combination of several measures
fitness and fatigue. However, decisions can provide useful information about
about the training readiness of athletes athletes’ training status, adaptation to
should not be made on the basis of one workload, and fatigue levels.
Current Monitoring
6
Practices
and Technologies
Previous chapters make it clear that are described in this chapter to provide
many practitioners are using athlete a solid rationale and guidelines for using
monitoring. Because technology forms technology.
the basis of many monitoring practices,
awareness of its benefits and limita-
tions is important. Technology is con-
stantly developing, and new products
Monitoring Practices
have potential applications for athlete in Sport
monitoring. Practitioners need to make
sound decisions about whether, how, Several reports have described monitor-
and when to implement technology ing practices used by practitioners (3, 94,
into their athlete monitoring programs. 127, 128, 141). In a survey, Taylor and
Current and emerging technologies that colleagues (141) divided training moni-
can be applied to monitoring athletes toring into quantifying training load and
measuring fatigue responses to training emerged, and a wide range of variables

or competition. Of the 55 respondents were used for analysis. In addition, 28
working in high-performance sport proof the clubs used rating of perceived
grams, 91% reported using some type exertion (RPE) measures (3). In terms
of monitoring. Self-reporting question- of support staff, all the clubs employed a
naires were particularly popular with fitness coach or sport scientist, but only
respondents; 55% reporting using them 17 (21%) employed someone whose
to monitor fatigue on a daily basis. Saw specific job was to analyze monitoring
and colleagues (127) demonstrated the data. Anecdotally, it would seem that
value of these subjective measures and this would be the job of sport scientists
summarized the literature in this area, or fitness coaches. More than 50% of
indicating that they are widely used in the practitioners reported using wellness
practice (see chapter 4). questionnaires daily for monitoring (3).
Monitoring with global positioning Smartphones and tablets were commonly
systems (GPS) and accelerometry devices used to collect this information.
is popular in high-performance sport; McCall and colleagues (94) reported
43% of high-performance sport practi- on the most popular monitoring practices
tioners responding to the Taylor and col- used by international Premier League
leagues survey reported that they use this football teams, specifically in relation to
technology (141). Respondents worked the prevention of noncontact injuries.
in team sports as well as individual sports The most common screening tests used
such as rowing and cycling. Wearable were the functional movement screen,
technologies are also used increasingly questionnaires, isokinetic dynamometry,
for monitoring sport and the general physical tests, and flexibility assessments
public (62). This technology is ranked (94). Interestingly, in a follow-up study
consistently as one of the most impor- they evaluated the evidence for the most
tant trends in exercise and sport science popular screening tests (93). Overall,
(143). Wearable technology is a huge they found limited evidence of successful
industry in which large investments are screening for noncontact injuries for the
made to develop and market products functional movement screen, most ques-
(143). Further, a plethora of smartphone tionnaires, and isokinetics (specialized
fitness and exercise apps are used alone assessment at constant speed) (93). This
or paired with wearable technology to suggests that the efficacy of these mon-
monitor training (143). itoring tools is questionable.
Akenhead and Nassis (3) investigated Different approaches to assess the
the practices and perceptions of prac- movements and techniques of athletes
titioners working with football players appear to be used for monitoring pur-
(soccer in the United States). The survey poses (62, 94). The methods range from
was completed by practitioners at 41 video analysis to simple movement
high-level clubs throughout Europe, screens. McCall and colleagues (94)
Australia, and the United States. Almost found the functional movement screen
all reported using GPS and heart rate to be the most popular tool used by
measures during training sessions. No football clubs (66%) for monitoring for
universal approach to the use of this data noncontact injury risk. An additional
Current Monitoring Practices and Technologies 137
16% of the clubs were using some type More data continue to be published
of modified screening tool. Clearly, on the training programs of elite athletes
movement screening is widely used for (104, 146, 147). These studies provide
monitoring athletes. What is less clear rich insights into the training practices
is how effective these screens are for of athletes but also the methods that can
informing decisions about program- be used for monitoring. Questionnaires
ming and injury prevention. Practition- and training diaries are commonly used
ers appear to be using adaptations of by practitioners and athletes for keeping
screening tools, which has not helped training records (62, 127, 145). Digital
to establish evidence for the efficacy of data capture, which is also increasingly
these methods. used (127), affords several advantages.
Blood sampling does not appear to Practitioners can perform more in-depth
be widely implemented for monitoring analyses of electronic training data to
purposes (3, 141). It seems to be used observe patterns and trends and organize
more as a clinical tool to investigate training data in multiple ways to make
suspicious complaints in athletes (100). reporting more efficient.
As discussed in chapter 5, repeated Although practitioners are using mon-
monitoring of blood markers requires itoring technology and tools in greater
that practitioners take into account numbers, clarity about how to analyze
within-athlete variability. Practitioners the data is lacking (141). Practition-
in high-performance sport also report ers report several approaches to data
the use of salivary analysis (3). Despite analysis, but a universal approach does
many research studies of hormone not seem to exist. Some practitioners
monitoring in athletes (32, 138, 151, have reported using percentage change
154), this practice is not widespread in in measures, meaningful change, and
high-performance sport. z-scores, but these practices do not
Many simple practices for measuring appear to be widespread (3, 141). Most
both external and internal load are of these methods seem to rely on visually
available for practitioners (see chapter identifying trends in the monitoring data
4). In baseball it is common practice to from day to day or week to week (141).
measure pitch counts across the course For example, a common approach is to
of a season (26, 131). In cricket, meas- use a series of flags or traffic lights, but
ures of the number of deliveries bowled without any clear consensus of what
can be useful for practitioners who determines a red, yellow, or green light
want to manage injury risk (113, 114). (141). Although there has been increas-
External load measures, which include ing support for the use of practical statis-
throw counts, can be routinely moni- tical approaches to analyzing monitoring
tored in athletes involved in throwing data, how widely these approaches are
sports and do not involve sophisticated used is unclear (3). Table 6.1 shows
measurement tools. Practitioners also common monitoring practices reported
routinely monitor other external load by practitioners and their levels of use,
measures such as the number of jumps, levels of supporting evidence from the
sprints, loads, sets, and repetitions (62). research literature, and practical value.
TABLE 6.1 Common Athlete Monitoring Practices

Monitoring variable Level of use Level of evidence Practical value
GPS and accelerometry High Moderate Moderate to high
RPE High High High
Wellness questionnaires High High High
Biochemical and hormonal Low Moderate Low
markers
Heart rate measures High Moderate to high Moderate to high
Performance tests Moderate Moderate Moderate
Movement screening High Low Moderate
Neuromuscular Moderate Moderate Moderate
assessments (e.g., jumps)
Based on published reports from Akenhead and Nassis (3), McCall et al. (94), Saw et al. (127), and Taylor et al. (141).
Innovation and Athlete monitoring. The fast approach involves

quickly adopting (and adapting) new
Monitoring ideas and technologies to inform deci-
Innovation is an overused word in sport, sion making. The slow approach involves
and its meaning is often not clear. Many exercising caution to avoid purchasing
believe that technology is the focus of unnecessary technology.
innovation and research. However, any Case studies can be very useful in this
approach that results in positive program context (79). Practitioners using the
changes can be considered innovative. fast approach need to objectively assess
One of the problems with technology what has worked. A scattergun approach
is that early adopters may be left with involving measuring many variables and
obsolete equipment as the pace of change using several interventions, for exam-
accelerates. Practical approaches that are ple, would be difficult to assess. Coutts
as simple as recording data more system- (38) suggested that a research program
atically or using it in a different way can work with a fast-acting practitioner to
be very helpful. determine the reliability and validity of
Practitioners often cannot afford to a monitoring system. In-house methods
wait for researchers to confirm the value for conducting these types of research
of a particular monitoring system with projects are discussed in chapter 7.
a series of randomized controlled trials; Developing new metrics from existing
thus, some degree of experimentation technologies is an ongoing process in
and use is required to gain a competi- athlete monitoring. Consider the indices
tive advantage. A strategy proposed by of heart rate (see chapter 5) and heart
Coutts (38) and based on the research rate variability, which are often used in
of Kahnemann (77) is to use both fast athlete populations (62). Using different
and slow approaches to incorporating aspects of heart rate variability may pro-
new developments in the field of athlete vide more sensitive measures of fatigue
in athletes (130). Other measures such as colleagues (2) modeled the training
maximal heart rate increase during exer- responses of judo athletes over a 2-year
cise are proposed as potential markers of period using competition performance,
overreaching (18). Further research is session RPE, fitness tests, and a judo
required to confirm the value of many fitness test. They identified factors that
metrics for athlete monitoring. were useful for monitoring, including
session RPE. However, practitioners do
not necessarily need to use advanced
Modeling statistical methods to gain insights
Modeling, which is increasingly used in into training adaptation. Simplified
athlete monitoring (12, 31), refers to any approaches, including obtaining overall
technique that explores the relationships score for a range of monitoring scores,
and patterns within a data set. Methods can involve calculating z-scores for each
range from fairly complicated ones, such test (chapter 2) and taking the sum of
as training impulse (12), to simple ones, those scores (149).
such as session RPE. Although modeling Researchers have investigated a vari-
can require advanced statistical analysis, ety of modeling techniques that can be
it can be an extremely useful technique applied to monitoring data to predict
for obtaining richer insights from data. injury in athletes (54, 150). Practitioners
A variety of modeling approaches are often in search of a holy grail that
lend themselves well to use with athlete predicts when an athlete will become
monitoring. They are beneficial because injured or get sick and have to miss train-
they allow for some degree of prediction. ing or competition. Modeling takes into
For example, modeling has been used account all the variables measured and
to predict oxygen uptake and energy provides an estimate of the effect. It is
expenditure from heart rate data (103) important to remember that it is an esti-
and to investigate pacing and fatigue in mate; error is associated with any model.
elite aerobic endurance athletes (136). In a sport environment it is impossible to
Modeling can assist practitioners who are account for all the variables, but a good
using different measuring equipment or model takes the important ones onto
testing under different conditions (66). account. Monitoring and modeling daily
Corrections can be made when monitor- performance is one approach to tracking
ing is done with different types of equip- athletes. This requires monitoring tools
ment (66), although this not optimal. that can be used on a regular basis.
Practitioners should always try to use The fluctuations in the monitoring
the same testing conditions; however, variables of athletes follow a nonlinear
in the real world, alterations are often pattern (107). Le Meur and colleagues
necessary. In such situations, practition- showed that increases in training load
ers must decide whether monitoring is and performance in triathletes are not
useful. Allometric scaling is a form of linear (82). Not surprisingly, in team
modeling used to control for differences sports, individual athletes differ in their
in body size (39). training responses. An advantage of
Researchers often use modeling to an athlete monitoring system is that it
investigate adaptations to training using allows the practitioner to track these
quantifications of training and per- individual responses. Practitioners
formance (2, 12, 30). Agostinho and need to remember, though, that error is
associated with any modeling approach titioners can benefit from learning how
(see chapter 2). technology has developed historically
and understanding the foundations of
current technologies. The evolution
Monitoring of sprint monitoring is an interesting
case study (65). Timing systems have
Technologies progressed from handheld to fully auto-
matic, and practitioners now use a vari-
The use of technology is not new in ety of technologies to measure sprinting
sport. In the early part of the 20th cen- performance (65). Learning the history
tury, A.V. Hill (1886-1977) used a timing of monitoring technology and sport sci-
setup to measure the speed of athletes ence can benefit practitioners by giving
in the field (70). Sprinters wore coils of them a better understanding of the phys-
wire and magnets in a design that would iological and mechanical background of
be recognized now as timing gates. The these monitoring approaches. Several
magnetic bands they wore around their excellent resources document the history
chests could be considered one of the of sport science (15, 91, 144).
early examples of wearable technology.
August Krogh (1874-1949) designed
a cycle ergometer to measure exercise
Instrumented Sport
intensity and conducted studies with it Equipment
(80, 81). Franklin Henry (1904-1993) The integration of technology with sport
undertook research in many areas related equipment has provided practitioners
to athlete monitoring, including the with very interesting information (4, 59,
use of a timing light set up over 50 yd, 105). Morel and Hautier (105) used an
similar to that used by Hill (69). Henry instrumented scrum machine to measure
also conducted research in the middle neuromuscular fatigue in rugby union
of the 20th century on the force–time athletes. Attempts have been made to
characteristics of sprint starts by using combine technology with sport equip-
pressure recording devices attached to ment such as boats, oars, and paddles
the starting blocks (68). The last 50 years in rowing and kayaking (4, 59). Combat
have seen many other examples of mon- sport researchers have developed devices
.
itoring technology. VO2 testing has been with load cells, which convert mechan-
used to monitor athletes by measuring ical force into electrical signals, to assess
the volume of oxygen consumed (121). striking and kicking forces (61, 137,
Douglas bags have been popular portable 155) (see figure 6.1). In a case study,
.
approaches for measuring athletes’ VO2 in a professional boxer was monitored
the field (99). The bulk of the equipment in the lead-up to a fight using a box-
limited its usefulness, however, resulting ing-specific test that involved punching
in the development of portable gas anal- a custom-built apparatus mounted on
ysis systems (99). a wall integrated with a load cell (61).
Monitoring technologies for sport The device’s coefficient of variation for
now have greater portability and utility, impact force and velocity was less than
and many commercial companies now 1%, suggesting that it was very reliable.
market equipment specifically for use The monitoring tool, along with other
in athlete monitoring. However, prac- performance tests, provided insight into
Photo courtesy of Andrius Ramonas.
Figure 6.1 Boxer punching an instrumented bag.
the athlete’s peaking strategy. Such sys- ers of the rowers’ boat. Peak force and
tems provide feedback on force profiles average and peak loading rate were
during training and competition. Practi- measured to quantify asymmetries (dif-
tioners can then use force–time profiles ferences between limbs) and intralimb
to calculate variables such as peak force, variability. The presence of asymmetries
mean force, and time to peak force (35). and the degree of performance varia-
Real-time feedback reveals athletes’ bility during training sessions can show
movement techniques so that coaches how the athlete produces force. This is
can give them feedback during the train- an example of when practitioners need
ing session to improve performance. to be aware of overall changes in mon-
In the sport of skeleton, researchers itoring variables within a training ses-
have used instrumented sleds (55). In sion rather than a single measure such
this event the practitioner can get feed- as peak power. Although such metrics
back on the velocity of the sled during are useful, a measure of variability (e.g.,
the push at the start of the race, which a standard deviation) in performance
is particularly critical for performance during the session or across the preced-
(29). ing week gives the practitioner a better
An and colleagues (4) used strain indication of overarching factors such as
gauge transducers in the foot stretch- pacing and fatigue (97) (see chapter 2).
In Paralympic sports, technology has technologies can give different results for
played an important role in athlete mon- the same variable, practitioners should
itoring. Researchers have investigated exercise caution when comparing them.
equipment instrumentation to quantify Load cell technology has been used
the demands of events (88). Activity to design novel equipment for athlete
sensors can be used to determine activ- monitoring (112). Instrumentation of
ity profiles in wheelchair court sports strength assessment equipment can pro-
(e.g., rugby) (88). In one study, this vide important information about force
technology was compared to an indoor production and imbalances (27, 112).
tracking system (88). The devices accu- Researchers have assessed the unilateral
rately tracked variables such as distance (single-leg) strength of the hamstrings in
covered and mean speed; however, they athlete populations using instrumented
were less accurate in measuring the peak testing equipment (27, 112). Data on
speeds produced by elite wheelchair ath- strength and potential imbalances may
letes, which greatly limits the usefulness provide useful information for monitor-
of the technology. Because different ing for fatigue and injury prevention.
EVOLUTION OF MONITORING TECHNOLOGY

Predicting how monitoring technology will develop and be used is somewhat
futile because the rate of change is exponential. However, one thing is clear: If
recent trends continue, monitoring will increasingly become a part of sport. The
question is how this technology can be effectively integrated into overall sport
programs. Transfers of laboratory-based technology to the field are likely. The
value of laboratory-based research is that it is well controlled, although it may not
have direct application to the practical sport setting. Smart watches, smart glass-
es, and smart fabrics will all continue to develop and have greater application in
athlete monitoring. Wearable sensors that can measure biochemical markers will
also continue to be developed and validated.
Rather than continually chase the most recent technological gadget, practi-
tioners should keep in mind the most important people in sport: the athletes.
Although wearable technology and the “quantified self” movement have created
an awareness of monitoring data, the focus has been only on generating and col-
lecting data. Less attention has been paid to how the data can be used to improve
athletes’ performance.
Practitioners would do well to ask themselves these questions:
• What types of technology do we currently use, and what will we be using in
the future?
• What information produced by the technology is worthwhile reporting to the
athlete?
• How can the information obtained from the monitoring technology be used
to improve athlete performance?
Ultimately, the technology needs to help improve an athlete’s performance. If it
does not, it is not worth the investment.
Wearable Sensors
Wearable sensor technology is becoming
increasingly prevalent in sport (143).
A sensor is any device that transforms
information into an analytically useful
signal (10). This area has been researched
extensively in a range of team and indi-
vidual sports (33, 41). One of the advan-
tages of wearable sensors is the ability to
collect physiological and mechanical data
such as heart rate, blood pressure, tem-
AP Photo/Gerry Broome
perature, steps, distance covered, speed,
and aspects of wellness such as sleep.
These data, when processed by custom
software, can then be summarized for
the practitioner and athlete.
Wearable sensors have received a great
Figure 6.2 Wearable sensor.
deal of attention from researchers (10,
33, 42, 132). For example, sensors have
been developed to use electromyogra-
phy to measure the degree of muscular
activity (108, 109, 140). This has led to contains many metabolites. To function
developments in the area of smart cloth- well, sweat sensors require a good con-
ing. Sensors have also been developed to tact surface between the skin and the
measure impact forces (155) (see figure sensor surface. Measurement of sweat
6.2). Sensors that can be placed on the content could provide information on
skin, such as patches, have significant thermoregulation and hydration status,
applications for sport monitoring (9, 10, which is important for performance (19).
56). One example is wearable devices Wearable sensors can also be used to
that measure substrates, including lac- quantify movements in winter sports
tate and hormones (23, 56). Feedback such as skiing (85, 86). In one study,
via these devices would be extremely skiers wore accelerometers; the differ-
useful for real-time monitoring of hor- ences in their characteristics were inves-
mones, metabolites, and other markers to tigated with different techniques and
obtain a picture of athletes’ physiological validated against video analysis methods
responses during training sessions (141). (86). The kinematic measures obtained
Research has shown that this technol- via accelerometry were similar to those
ogy can take valid measures of lactate, obtained with high-speed filming. The
glucose, and electrolytes in addition to sensors provided information on tech-
skin temperature and hydration status nique selection and the rates and lengths
(10, 56). of several kinematic variables (86).
A variety of wearable devices have
been developed to analyze physiological Types of Sensors
factors such as temperature and sweat Sensors for analyzing sweat consist of two
content (89). Sweat is an excellent can- major types: fabric and plastic devices
didate for analysis via sensors because it and epidermal-based sensors (10).
Limitations of the technology include the laboratory with complicated assays

a lack of resiliency and stability in the could be measured via this analysis (10).
devices and a limit to the metabolites Tears are another medium that can
that can be measured. be analyzed to determine metabolite
Gao and colleagues (56) used plas- concentrations (64, 90). A contact lens
tic-based sensors that interface with sensor is one way to monitor glucose
human skin. They performed real-time concentration (160). This technology
monitoring during cycling and rowing could be incorporated into smart glasses
exercises and developed an app to use for real-time monitoring. An obvious
with the device (56). Researchers have application would be to monitor glu-
developed temporary tattoos that may be cose in people with diabetes, but athlete
able to directly detect chemicals on the monitoring would be another application
skin (10) to monitor metabolites such if additional metabolites could be meas-
as glucose (9) and lactate (72). Jia and ured in real time. Researchers have used
colleagues collected sweat samples from a similar approach with lactate, which
a person during cycling exercise via a has even greater application to athlete
tattoo sensor, which revealed increases monitoring (142).
in lactate concentration with increased Issues with sensors include resilience,
exercise intensity (72). Bandodkar and power sources, and battery life (10).
colleagues (9) showed that this tech- These are particularly important when
nology could be used to detect glucose this technology is used for real-time
levels; they recorded increased levels monitoring during long training ses-
after a meal. Further research is needed sions or competitions. As the technology
to validate these measures against levels develops, these limitations are less likely
in the blood and skeletal muscle, but the to be factors. Although several mediums
technology appears promising. Removing can be used for measurement, and their
the need for invasive blood samples and noninvasive nature is appealing to prac-
complicated, expensive analyses would titioners, further validation of wearable
permit real-time assessments of athletes’ sensors is required.
physiological status. Currently, hormonal
and biochemical monitoring appears to Placement of Sensors
be minimal in high-performance sport The placement of sensors is an important
because of these inherent limitations (3). consideration and has received attention
However, it is not difficult to imagine from researchers (14, 133). As discussed
increased adoption of this type of mon- in chapter 4, researchers have compared
itoring if cost-effective and accurate the position of GPS devices and acceler-
measures can be developed. ometry units (14, 133). The upper back
Saliva-based sensors offer another and scapula region is a common site for
method for analyzing markers that may wearing harnesses. Research suggests
be of interest in athlete monitoring (10). that location affects the data collected;
Kim and colleagues (78) investigated the thus, it needs to be consistent (14).
measurement of lactate in saliva using a Simons and Bradshaw (133) compared
mouthguard. Further work is needed to the reliability of impact loads during
validate these approaches. Markers that jumping and landing with an accelerom-
are currently limited to saliva collection eter placed on either the upper or lower
and then require subsequent analysis in back. They found the peak acceleration
measurements to have moderate to good track the metrics of an athlete over time
reliability for the tasks. The reliability and provide real-time feedback. A variety
was higher with the accelerometers on have been developed and validated for
the lower back (133). Accelerometry athlete monitoring (7, 8, 52). Even more
technology can be useful for sports that advanced markers such as heart rate vari-
involve a lot of landings such as gym- ability now have apps (51, 52). However,
nastics, figure skating, and dance. Mon- the validity and reliability of many apps
itoring the loads associated with these have not been established. Practitioners
activities could have implications for should assess the accuracy of any app
injury prevention in these sports (133). before using it. As research continues,
Researchers have investigated the use the body of evidence on the validity and
of inertial sensors for providing kine- reliability of apps will be more complete
matic feedback during landings (46). A so that practitioners can make more
small-scale study suggested that after informed decisions about them.
one session the feedback resulted in Smart watches could be a good way to
performers making alterations to their integrate monitoring data. Practitioners
landing mechanics. Interestingly, only often want to monitor athletes during
three parameters were used for feedback training sessions and competition, but
because the researchers found that this monitoring at other times can also be
was the maximal number of param- helpful. Clearly, having an athlete wear
eters that could be modified during a a GPS device on the back or torso 24 hr
single training session. This suggests a day is not feasible, but a smart watch
that practitioners need to be careful not could be a way to obtain regular mon-
to overwhelm athletes with too much itoring data. Setting aside the ethics of
information from monitoring data (see constant surveillance of athletes, moni-
chapter 7). toring outside of training and competi-
Athletes seem to prefer devices on tion appears to be increasing (127).
the wrist, given their popularity (143).
Some equipment is placed on equipment
and clothing (e.g., on the cycle, in or
Force Plates
on footwear, or embedded in clothing). As discussed in chapter 5, force plates,
Integrating technology with equipment position transducers, accelerometers,
the athlete uses regularly is logical. Ear- optical motion sensors, jump and reach
phones could be a good site given the devices, and jump mats can be used to
common practice of listening to music assess neuromuscular fatigue during
during individual training sessions. performance tests such as jump tests (17,
Wearable technology that athletes don’t 98). Measuring ground reaction forces
notice is ideal. using force plates has become more
common in monitoring as technology has
developed and become less expensive.
Apps and Watches Force plates measure triaxial forces, and
Given that smartphones include GPS force transducers convert mechanical
capability and often accelerometers, information into an electrical signal. For
most practitioners and coaches have a example, a jump on a force plate results
readily available monitoring device in in a distortion to the load cells within
their pockets. Athlete monitoring apps the plate and causes a change in voltage
that can be measured as a signal. Uni- only jump height. Jump height can be
axial plates measure the force output in revealing, but greater insight can be
one direction; triaxial plates measure all obtained by tracking the underlying
three planes of motion. Uniaxial plates aspects of performance (111).
are less expensive than triaxial plates, Calibration, which is important for
but they measure only vertical force, determining the ground reaction forces
which can be a limitation (17). None- measured from the voltage output,
theless, they can still provide valuable should be done over a range of loads and
information. conditions (17)—for example, from the
Dual force plates can be used for both unloaded condition to the highest load
bilateral and unilateral assessment (75) athletes will use. This ensures that prac-
(see figure 6.3). They allow practitioners titioners fully capture the highest forces
to monitor asymmetries, which can help athletes could produce. The calibration
them with program design (6, 95). Dual range will be somewhat different for a
force plates are expensive, however, group of university-level gymnasts than
which has led to the development of it would be for an American football
more cost effective and portable options. team because of the disparity in body
Practitioners can use jump and reach mass. Ensuring appropriate calibration
devices for both bilateral and unilateral will help to reduce the errors associated
assessments, although they measure with the measure.
Figure 6.3 Dual force plates for athlete monitoring.

Timing Systems Sensing, Processing,

Infrared timing systems and contact mats and Visualizing
can be used to measure flight time. Apps
Sensing, processing, and visualizing data
have been developed to estimate flight obtained from technology are impor-
time, although more research is needed tant considerations. Sensing refers to
to determine their validity. When accu- the physical components such as a GPS
rate measures of flight time are available, device or a vest worn by the athlete.
jump height can be calculated using the Processing occurs as the data are cap-
following formula (25): tured. Understanding these stages helps
Jump height = the practitioner determine whether the
(9.81 m/s2 × flight time2) ÷ 8 data are valid. An important part of this
is having a fundamental understanding
If a flight time of 0.565 s is obtained, the of the kinds of numbers to expect. The
jump height can be calculated as follows: visualizing aspect refers to how the data
Jump height = appear to the end user. For example, is a
(9.81 m/s2 × 0.5652) ÷ 8 = 0.39 m single number produced, or do the data
appear on a graph? A peak power result
It is possible to estimate power from from a vertical countermovement jump
measures of flight time and jump height of 20,000 watts should raise a red flag for
using equations (48, 129). Practitioners the practitioner because normal results
should use these equations with caution are below 10,000 watts. A limitation of
and be aware that they are simply an approaches that produce a metric such
estimation of power output (49). as training load or stress is that there
may be no way to determine how the
measure was calculated and what a typ-
Data From Monitoring ical range should be for the results. The
visualization aspect is important because
Technology it determines how the data are presented
to the practitioner (see chapter 2).
Focusing solely on the numbers pro-
duced by monitoring technologies can Sampling Frequency
be tempting. However, an understanding Monitoring any variable with tech-
of the technology and how it produces nology requires collecting samples at
the information will help practitioners regular intervals, which is also known
make sound decisions. Many systems use as sampling frequency. The sampling
approaches that are not clear in terms frequency is how often the signal is
of how the information is obtained and recorded each second. A sampling rate
processed. This needs to be taken into of 50 Hz would mean that the signal
account when interpreting the results is measured, or sampled, 50 times per
of the monitoring. For example, when second. Most human movement occurs
purchasing equipment it is useful for the at a range of 5 to 30 Hz (63). Research
practitioner to know how the data are has been conducted to examine the effect
being generated by the technology. of sampling frequency across a range of
technologies in sport science (71, 74, 98). frequency if the time from one sample
Differences in sampling frequency can to the next is too long. It is therefore
affect the results of the monitoring (71). recommended that the sampling fre-
The data obtained with monitoring quency be at least five times higher than
technologies can be processed in several the frequency of the signal for athlete
ways. Data collected are often filtered, movements to ensure that peak values for
smoothed, differentiated, and inte- aspects such as takeoff and landing forces
grated to calculate and predict variables. are not missed (43). When measuring
Custom software can be used to perform rate-dependent variables such as rate of
signal processing and remove noise force development, these ranges should
associated with the data signal. A wide be even higher (98).
range of sampling frequencies are used
to collect and record monitoring data Data Processing Methods
(120). The Nyquist-Shannon sampling Built-in software systems can convert
theorem states that the critical sampling signals from analog to digital and then
frequency should be at least two times smooth and filter the digital data, which
the highest frequency of the signal being are adjusted to reduce the noise and
collected to obtain accurate information distortion of the signal. Smoothing tech-
from the original signal (63). Funda- niques include polynomial (e.g., Butter-
mentally, what that means is that the worth filters), splines (e.g., cubic splines),
required sampling frequency increases Fourier transform, moving averages,
with increasing movement velocity. and digital filters. Filtered and smoothed
This accounts for why GPS devices are data are then differentiated or integrated
less accurate and less reliable with high- depending on the measurement system
speed movements and accelerations and used to calculate the variables. Practi-
decelerations (153). tioners should keep in mind that as the
Recommendations can be made for number of calculations increases, so does
sampling frequency ranges for several the error. Although most practitioners do
measures used in athlete monitoring not need in-depth knowledge of these
(98). For example, the recommended methods, a basic understanding of the key
sampling frequency range for vertical principles may be useful. More detailed
jumps is 350 to 700 Hz (98). To cap- information on these methods of data
ture position changes of 5 mm (about analysis can be found in other sources
3/16 in.) for movements with velocities (43, 63, 120, 159).
between 1.0 and 3.0 m/s, the monitoring
device must sample at rates between 20
and 60 Hz (98). Using force plate testing, Storing Data
ground reaction force is recorded only Practitioners need to consider how they
at the time points determined by the are going to store athlete monitoring data
sampling frequency. At a frequency of and records, especially given that many
500 Hz, this would be occurring every forms of technology generate a significant
0.002 s. Problems occur when the tech- amount of data. Whether systems that
nology samples at rates below the critical track and store athlete monitoring infor-
frequency because it could distort the mation are being implemented effectively
original signal and result in the loss of in sport is unclear. Injury surveillance sys-
vital pieces of data. A rapid change in tems have been found lacking as a result
force could be missed at a given sampling of inadequately stored data (50).
A variety of database solutions and gleaned from the technology to make

products are used to store monitoring decisions regarding athlete fatigue and
data and records (44). Commercial training load. This section outlines sev-
storage systems are available, and some eral ways technology is used in athlete
organizations develop their own in-house monitoring.
systems. Adequate record keeping helps
to build historical databases, which allow
for even more sophisticated, as well as Technology to Analyze
retrospective, analyses. Skeletal Muscle
Because of the potential for high staff Characteristics of skeletal muscle can
turnover, high-performance sport organ- be of great interest to practitioners and
izations should have systems in place researchers because of the critical role
to ensure that data are not lost when skeletal muscle plays in exercise. Tra-
staff members move on. Systems should ditionally in exercise science, muscle
involve maintaining consistent record biopsies are used to measure aspects such
keeping, having policies governing the as muscle fiber type and enzyme content
storage and backup of data (e.g., main- (36, 53, 148). Skeletal muscle consists
taining it in several locations), and using of a range of fiber types; the major
the approach consistently. Problems can ones are Type I, Type IIa, and Type IIx.
occur when systems and technology
Enzymes such as lactate dehydrogenase
change, so practitioners would be wise
are important for speeding up chemical
to use a system consistently for a period
reactions in the body. Measures such as
of time before changing to another.
the content of myosin heavy chains (148)
Some monitoring systems require that
and titin (92) can provide insights into
a body of information be collected before
the structure and function of muscle.
informed decisions can be made about
The expression of myosin heavy chains,
how to use it. Collecting information
which make up the thick filaments of
over a long period allows for data mining
skeletal muscle, can indicate responses
and more sophisticated analyses. Of
to training (116). Titin is a structural
course, this needs to be weighed against
protein found in skeletal muscle that
the program’s short-term requirements.
is believed to have important roles in
However, long-term strategic thinking
muscle elasticity (92). Obviously, the
can maximize the benefits of an athlete
regular use of muscle biopsies is not a
monitoring program.
viable option for sport monitoring, so
researchers have attempted to develop
methods to assess skeletal muscle in ath-
Applications letes noninvasively (5, 67).
of Monitoring Connective tissues such as tendons and
ligaments can be monitored using meth-
Technology ods such as ultrasound (22), an imaging
technique that uses high-frequency
When implementing a monitoring sound waves to visualize structures
system, some practitioners begin by within the body. Magnetic resonance
purchasing equipment and technology. imaging (MRI) uses a magnetic field and
However, practitioners also need to con- radio frequency pulses to provide even
sider how they will use the information more detailed images of internal body
structures. Ultrasound and MRI can real-time feedback would be extremely

measure aspects of muscle and tendon valuable. Variables such as strength, sets,
architecture such as pennation angle, and repetitions are relatively simple to
fascicle length, and muscle thickness, as monitor. However, technology is needed
well as tendon properties (110). Several to monitor velocity, impulse, and power.
of these measures change acutely in A gradual transition has been made to
response to training sessions as well as using more practical and smaller devices
over the long term. Ultrasound and MRI to monitor athletes in these environ-
are noninvasive and can provide valuable ments (98, 125). Devices require valida-
information on how athletes are adapting tion before they can be used confidently
to training. However, they are expensive by practitioners, however. Rather than
(22), and trained personnel are needed relying on a single study to confirm the
to operate the equipment. validity of a device, practitioners would
Measures of muscle carnosine deter- be better served by a process for repli-
mined from magnetic resonance spec- cating findings and building up a body
troscopy may predict muscle fiber type of evidence.
(5). Using this noninvasive approach, Strength and conditioning practition-
Bex and colleagues (20) found dif- ers have always been interested in exer-
ferences in muscle carnosine content cise characteristics such as velocity (34,
between athletes in different sports. 123). Microsensors can be worn by the
Performance tests have also been used athlete or placed on the bar to measure
to estimate muscle fiber type and char- these variables (8, 76) (see figure 6.4);
acteristics, which are of great interest for example, accelerometry can be used
to practitioners and researchers (24). It to measure weightlifting performance
has been proposed that cycle tests and (125). However, practitioners must con-
optimal cadence can be used as indirect sider both reliability and validity before
estimators of muscle fiber type (67). Ulti- implementing any new technology into
mately, tools that can be used regularly their monitoring systems.
and are noninvasive to athletes are best
for athlete monitoring.
Monitoring Running
Technology With Technology
Speed has always been of great interest
in the Weight Room to practitioners because of its fundamen-
The increased use of technology has led tal importance in sport. A stopwatch is
to the development of equipment for a simple but highly effective tool, but
monitoring strength and conditioning more sophisticated timing devices such
factors such as bar velocity. Attempts as timing gates more accurately measure
have been made to integrate this infor- speed and acceleration (65) (figure 6.5).
mation with video analysis to monitor Another metric to explore is the under-
technique (126). Practitioners should lying force–time characteristics of run-
pay attention to output from athlete ning. Nonmotorized and torque tread-
monitoring (e.g., measures of force and mills have been used for this purpose in
velocity), but also to how the athlete is athlete monitoring (13, 84, 134, 135).
performing the movement. Being able to Measures of force can be performed using
integrate this information and provide specialized sprint treadmill ergometers
Photo courtesy of PUSH.
Figure 6.4 An athlete performing a bench press while a wearable device collects velocity data.
Figure 6.5 Athlete monitored with timing lights.
151
that allow athletes to drive the tread- Another way to assess running is with
mill belt under them while remaining laser technology (134), which works by
tethered in place. Technology can also emitting a beam of infrared light that
be used to measure variables such as reflects off the athlete. Research has
force as they are instrumented with employed methods of quantifying force–
load cells. Forces can be measured using velocity relationships and mechanical
either a tether-mounted strain gauge or variables to delineate between injured
force plates below the treadmill frame. and noninjured players (101, 102) and
Given the importance of both hori- between positions in similar sports (e.g.,
zontal and vertical force during sprint- rugby union and rugby league) (40).
ing, sprint treadmill ergometers can What makes methods such as this par-
provide important information for ticularly useful is the ability to conduct
athlete monitoring (106). Mangine testing in the field without the need for
and colleagues (84) used a 30-s sprint large amounts of equipment.
protocol on a nonmotorized treadmill Researchers have looked at the use of
and found good relationships with GPS devices and accelerometry to assess
30-m sprint time. Disadvantages of stride variables and vertical stiffness
these systems include their high cost, during running in team sport athletes
an increased risk of injury (due to using (28). As discussed in chapter 4, commer-
maximal sprinting as a monitoring cial GPS devices include accelerometers,
tool), and the difficulty of monitor- gyroscopes, and magnetometers. Accel-
ing a large number of athletes unless erometers and gyroscopes detect acceler-
several treadmills are available. Also, ations and angular velocities; magnetom-
some have expressed concern about the eters sense the strongest magnetic field.
change in running gait kinematics that Buchheit and colleagues (28) compared
can occur when running on different data obtained from a GPS-embedded
types of treadmills (96). All of these fac- triaxial accelerometer with the vertical
tors should be considered when making ground reaction force obtained from
decisions regarding the implementation an instrumented force plate. Triaxial
of this technology. refers to three axes of rotation: vertical
Recently validated field methods (x-axis), anteroposterior (y-axis), and
provide accurate and repeatable data mediolateral (z-axis). Algorithms were
on sprinting variables (106, 122). determined to calculate specific aspects of
These methods estimate horizontal an athlete’s stride (e.g., foot strike) from
force and the associated force–velocity the accelerometry data. The results indi-
relationships via simple velocity–time cated that variables such as contact time,
data obtained from the movement flight time, and vertical stiffness could
of an athlete’s center of mass (122). be measured accurately (28). Obtaining
This means that common field testing these measures with lightweight GPS
equipment such as a radar devices devices permits practitioners to test ath-
can be used to calculate force–velocity letes in the field rather than relying on
profiles during sprinting as long as the specialized and expensive equipment.
sampling frequency is sufficient. Radar Running can be analyzed with acceler-
devices work by emitting radio waves ometry, and several studies have inves-
and detecting changes in frequency as tigated the validity of some devices (83,
the waves bounce off the athlete. 156). One study looked at the validity of
an accelerometer compared with optical Insoles can be used to measure force

motion capture (83). The study showed characteristics such as plantar pressure
the accelerometer to be a valid and reli- distribution during running and jumping
able measure of running accelerations. (87, 108). Martinez-Marti and colleagues
Another study validated an accelerome- (87) investigated the use of instrumented
ter worn on the torso while athletes ran insoles to measure flight time during var-
on an instrumented treadmill (156). The ious types of vertical jumps; the results
device provided valid measures of ground showed the potential of this technology
contact time, suggesting its potential as for athlete monitoring. However, a great
a field-based tool for athlete monitoring. deal more research is required to validate
Researchers have investigated the use these technologies and demonstrate their
of inertial devices to measure fatigue in efficacy for athlete monitoring.
runners (139). In one study, runners ran
on a treadmill and on an indoor track,
and the two conditions were compared
Monitoring Cycling
(139). Interestingly, differences in tech- With Technology
nique changes with fatigue were noted As discussed in chapter 4, cycling has
between the conditions. This highlights been at the forefront of monitoring tech-
the importance of being specific when nology; measuring devices allow for con-
monitoring (139). tinuous monitoring of power output. In
Using an accelerometer on the leg is cycling, the assessment of variables such
another approach that can be used in the as optimal power and cadence is most
field and relies on laboratory validation. valuable when applied to training and
Giandolini and colleagues (57) investi- competition (73). For example, a cycle-
gated gait characteristics in a world-class based assessment of power can replicate a
trail runner using accelerometers on the competition scenario. Once determined,
runner’s shoe and leg. They were able optimal conditions can be replicated to
to track some interesting information directly influence race performance. The
on foot strikes and tibial acceleration targeted manipulation of factors such as
throughout the 45-km (28 mile) race. crank length and gear ratios can enable
Devices such as these are potential game the athlete to perform a cycle sprint in
changers for practitioners and athletes practically optimal conditions for power
because they allow for the assessment production (73).
of mechanical loading and impact during Direct power measurement tools in the
training and competition (58), which field are valuable for practitioners and
have been shown to be important in used extensively in sports such as cycling
injury prevention (152). Simple monitor- (136). The timing and duration of force
ing of runners is informative, but when application can be particularly inform-
environmental factors such as terrain are ative with this type of force and power
taken into account, the picture of the profiling. Optimal cadence for road
external load on the athlete is far more cyclists can be determined from training
complete. If this technology can be incor- power output, heart rate, and cadence
porated into runners’ footwear, detailed (119). Recently developed power profile
measures of gait previously attainable monitoring tests may be able to predict
only in controlled laboratory settings performance (117, 118). As with other
could be available in the field (58). types of technology, practitioners need to
exercise caution when comparing results Having this type of real-time feedback
between equipment (1). Abbiss and col- has important applications to rehabil-
leagues (1) compared a cycle ergometer itation (132).
and power meter and found different Clinical applications of wearable
power measures. The magnitude of the technology have scope in athlete moni-
difference was affected by the test type. toring for simplifying more complicated
Researchers and practitioners use cycle assessments. An example is smartphone
ergometers to monitor athletes (45, 47, apps that generate electrocardiograms
157). Technology permits them to inves- that can be viewed remotely by cardiol-
tigate asymmetries using instrumented ogists (115). Such technology can facil-
pedals and cranks (21). Researchers have itate communication between athletic
also developed multisensor cycle ergom- trainers and medical staff, helping them
eters for monitoring. These systems allow to monitor athletes during training and
for the integration of multiple sensors identify those who are at risk.
(e.g., instrumented cranks) and real- Activity monitors have been investi-
time monitoring. Technology for athlete gated for monitoring sleep in athletes
monitoring should be adaptable and easy (124). Sargent and colleagues (124)
to set up and use. compared wrist activity monitors to
polysomnography, which is con-
Clinical Applications sidered the gold standard for sleep
monitoring and is also used in sleep
of Technology studies. It records a range of measures
Technology used in other fields is often such as brain wave activity, oxygen
developed or modified for athlete mon- level, heart rate, and respiration rate
itoring (11, 60). An example is trans- to determine the sleep quality. Activ-
cranial electrical stimulation, which ity monitors were shown to be a valid
has been used with stroke patients and alternative for measuring the sleep of
involves applying a weak electrical cur- athletes, although selecting the correct
rent (16). It may provide insights into sleep–wake threshold was important
the central nervous system adaptations given the variations in sleep and wake
that occur in response to training (60). durations (124). This highlights the
Wearable technology has been devel- importance of being cautious when
oped to provide direct feedback during comparing monitoring technologies.
activities (132). Haptic (touch), audio, Practitioners needs to determine
and visual feedback have been investi- whether the technology provides more
gated for providing feedback during gait information than simply asking the
(132). This information could be used to athlete the simple question “How well
facilitate changes in gait and therefore be did you sleep?” If the evidence sug-
a useful tool for both athlete monitor- gests that a subjective tool can provide
ing and training. In one study wearable essentially the same information, prac-
sensors provided feedback to alter knee titioners need to question the value of
loading patterns during walking (158). additional technology (127).
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING

MONITORING TECHNOLOGY
With the wide variety of technology available for monitoring, practitioners should
consider the following factors:
• Reliability, validity, and sensitivity of the technology
• Research evidence for its use
• Cost
• Ease of use
• Range of measures that can be obtained (functionality)
• Availability of a nontechnological alternative
• Extent of invasiveness
• Degree that the technology will interfere with training and competition
• Type of feedback provided to the practitioner (ideally, real-time)
• Quality and quantity of information about training load and fatigue (to help
the practitioner make decisions regarding the athlete’s training session and
program)
• How the measures relate to performance
• Amount of athlete buy-in (acceptance)
• Durability
• Associated custom software for analysis and reporting
• Method of data collection (e.g., via smartphone or tablet)
• Battery life
A simple cost-benefit analysis is useful before making a final decision about
the value of technology. A good strategy is to talk with other practitioners who
have used the technology to get feedback on advantages and disadvantages. By
weighing these factors, practitioners can make informed decisions about technol-
ogy and its benefits for athlete monitoring.
Conclusion are being developed all the time, which

presents challenges in terms of imple-
mentation. Wearable sensors are being
Practitioners use a range of practices and used increasingly with athletes. Ideally,
technologies for athlete monitoring. How they should be small, lightweight, and
to use the monitoring data is a funda- inexpensive. Being able to collect the
mental consideration. New technologies information via smartphone or tablet
increases the utility of these systems for the practitioner’s role. Although athlete
monitoring purposes. One of the major monitoring is widely used in sport, large
challenges for practitioners is the time amounts of staff resources do not appear
required to learn how to use each new to be directed to this area (3). In most
technology as well as to follow up with cases the additional work is incorporated
upgrades, maintenance, and the latest into the practitioner’s role. Therefore,
developments in the field of technology. practitioners are advised to keep things
All this is time away from other aspects of simple (37).
Integrating
7
Monitoring
With Coaching
A major purpose of athlete monitoring is monitoring during training sessions, and

to obtain both objective and subjective conducting in-house research projects.
information to help coaches plan their All of these are addressed in this chapter,
athletes’ training. Many monitoring which focuses on integrating monitoring
programs focus on technology, but other into the coaching process. In addition,
approaches can contribute as well. Con- the key aspects of a monitoring system
sider sitting in the cockpit of an airplane. are outlined.
It can be tempting to focus solely on all
the numbers and flashing lights on the
dashboard. However, sometimes just
looking out the window (i.e., focusing
Art and Science
on the most valuable monitoring tools of Monitoring
and data) can provide all the needed
information. Practitioners often refer to the art of coach-
Other important issues in monitoring ing. Although this phrase is not always clear,
are communicating data to athletes, it generally implies the use of experience
and instincts to inform decisions. Ide- the implementation of some monitoring

ally, this personal expertise should be methods. This does not necessarily mean
combined with solid scientific evidence. that these aspects are not important or
However, practitioners sometimes have useful. Practitioners can use heuristics,
several options to choose from without or rules of thumb, to help them integrate
any clear evidence to distinguish them. the art and science of monitoring (e.g.,
Such cases require the application of both provide only three pieces of monitoring
the art and the science of monitoring— feedback to an athlete during the ses-
recognizing that there isn’t necessarily a sion). One of the research gaps relates to
single correct solution. Effective coaching using monitoring data to inform decision
requires the practitioner to consider both making. To date, a great deal of focus has
approaches to guide an athlete’s training. been on collecting data, and less has been
The art of coaching can be useful on analyzing data. Many research studies
when there is limited evidence for best have tracked athletes over the course
practices. When there is an abundance of a season or, in some cases, multiple
of information, however, practitioners years (12, 26, 52, 56). Longitudinal data
should be wary about using objective provide useful insights into monitoring
monitoring data to confirm findings measures and how they fluctuate over
based on intuition, or a gut feeling. This the course of the training cycle. However,
practice creates a confirmation bias these types of studies are only observa-
when new information is used to confirm tional. Intervention studies can be more
preexisting ideas or theories (51). difficult to conduct (particularly in elite
Practitioners should also guard against sports), and much of the information
cherry picking—that is, accepting find- remains unpublished and outside of the
ings that agree with what they want to public domain. To combat this, chapters
see and ignoring evidence that does not 8 and 9 present case studies showing
agree. This can occur when practitioners how monitoring data can be collected
use data dredging (also called data fish- and used in a variety of sports.
ing), especially when large amounts of A vital component of athlete mon-
data are available. Data dredging involves itoring is accurate data, which is why
continuing to look for relationships and monitoring tools must be reliable, valid,
patterns in the monitoring information and sensitive to change. It is important
until they fit the picture the practitioner to use available evidence and not just
wants to create. One of the dangers of rely on gut feel. On the other hand, it
having a high volume of data is that false can be dangerous to rely solely on data,
patterns can emerge and spurious (false) given that the human element remains a
correlations can be created. Results that fundamental aspect of sport. The coach’s
are interpreted without proper context eye is a term used to describe subjective
can cause problems for practitioners. monitoring approaches. Practitioners
Unfortunately, many aspects of athlete need to realize that they may not be
monitoring have not been researched able to accurately measure all important
extensively; as a result, an overwhelming factors and that data sometimes provide
body of evidence does not exist to support insights but not answers.
Integrating Monitoring With Coaching 159
Success in sport relies not only on 10

Practitioner Athlete
physical and psychological elements but 9
8
(arbitrary units)
also on variables such as learning, tac-
Session RPE
7
6
tics, relationships, leadership, and team 5
cohesion. Practitioners need to consider 4
3
these elements individually as well as 2
1
how they interact. Although aspects such 0
as cohesion in team sports can be difficult Resistance Skills Running Speed
training training (high intensity) training
to quantify, approaches have been used
Session
to investigate them in elite sport (25,
68). For example, performance analysts Figure 7.1 A mismatch between an athlete’s and
E6859/McGuigan/F07.01/554508/mh-R1
practitioner’s assessments of session RPE.
can use tracking systems to investi-
gate patterns of play and match tactics
(25). Researchers have used integrative
approaches to account for these aspects
the context of conversations with the
of performance and their relationships
athlete and other monitoring data.
(22, 77), and appropriate analyses can
help to monitor these factors in a quan-
tifiable way. Practitioners should keep Surveillance of Athletes
in mind the need to monitor more than Monitoring systems can result in an over-
just the physical aspects of performance; whelming amount of data, and the trend
sport psychology, motor learning, and of more monitoring and technology use
skill development have a tremendous seems to be continuing (76). Some have
amount to offer to the field of athlete raised the concern that the increasing
monitoring. surveillance of athletes can have nega-
tive effects (82). Some practitioners use
Perceived Versus leaderboards that show monitoring and
fitness testing results for all athletes to
Actual Training see. Although this adds the element of
Research has revealed a mismatch competition, it can create an atmosphere
between how practitioners and athletes of policing that some athletes can view
rate training sessions (21, 65). Disparities negatively (82). This approach may seem
also occur between self-reported train- to fit with the competitive nature of
ing duration and actual duration (8). sport, but athlete differences are worth
Monitoring can help correct such mis- bearing in mind. A ranking system may
matches. Figure 7.1 shows athlete RPE motivate the best athletes but discourage
and a coach’s rating of session intensity athletes of lesser ability. Some have ques-
for several types of workouts. From these tioned whether this approach decreases
results, the practitioner could conclude some athletes’ enthusiasm and removes
that the intensity of the skills session the human element from sport (82). Few
was too high and that the high-intensity studies have been conducted on practi-
running session was too easy. Of course, tioners’ surveillance practices, but work
this would need to be considered within in this area is ongoing (11).
Privacy is another issue with the standing of how it can improve athletes’
increasing move to ongoing athlete sur- performances.
veillance. An interesting ethical question
is how appropriate it is to monitor ath-
letes outside of the training environment.
Communication
For example, most private citizens would Communication is a fundamental aspect
not expect their employers to monitor of athlete monitoring. Monitoring is a
their sleep habits. In professional sport, tool that allows practitioners to have
many collective bargaining agreements conversations with athletes (71) and
are raising issues around the appropri- fellow practitioners and to ask good
ateness of constant surveillance. Sport questions. Ineffective communication
programs that invest sizable amounts of can have a negative effect on athletes
money in their players obviously want as (42). Further, research in the areas of
much information as possible to protect skill development and motor learning
their investments. However, this needs shows the value of good practitioner
to be balanced with the athletes’ right communication and which methods are
to privacy. most effective (6).
Saw and colleagues (71) investigated
the role of wellness questionnaires in
Sources of Information athlete preparation. The model proposed
Practitioners obtain knowledge about was that practitioners record, review,
sport science and coaching from a vari- and contextualize the data, and then
ety of sources. Stoszkowski and Collins act. Other models have been reported in
(73) examined 320 practitioners’ per- the literature (13), but they commonly
ceptions of their preferred and actual propose an integrated approach in which
methods of obtaining and applying new practitioners, athletes, and support staff
coaching knowledge. Most reported that interact and communicate regularly
they obtained coaching knowledge from and well. Models such as these are used
informal and self-directed sources, par- widely in high-performance sport (4, 13,
ticularly interactions with other coaches 72), but they are not always underpinned
and colleagues (38.7%). One of the more by a solid evidence base.
concerning discoveries was that 73.1%
of the practitioners reported that they
immediately used the latest acquired
knowledge with little critical analy-
Monitoring Data
sis. This supports the perception that Within a Training
practitioners often use new monitoring
tools and technology before establishing Session
the base of evidence. Another finding
was that many practitioners believed Large amounts of data can be collected
that new knowledge would make their during a training session. Collecting it
sessions more effective (73), but they in real time can help practitioners make
were not clear about how this would be adjustments in the training session. How-
achieved. For athlete monitoring to be ever, collecting too much information
useful, practitioners need a clear under- during a session can create interpreta-
tion issues and result in overanalysis. 5% to 10%; and greater than 13 repeti-
Selecting several key measures to mon- tions, increase the load by 10% to 15%.
itor (e.g., training readiness, fatigue, Then, in the fourth set, the athlete lifts
and injury prevention) is vital. Objec- the adjusted load until failure, and the
tive data can also aid with athlete goal number of repetitions performed and the
setting and motivation. Having specific amount of load lifted are used to deter-
targets for the athlete can also increase mine the load for the next session.
performance. A number of methods are Using this approach with Division I
available for monitoring athletes during university-level American football play-
sessions. Auto-regulation and flexible ers, Mann and colleagues (47) found
approaches are discussed in this section. auto-regulated resistance training to be
more effective for improving strength
over 6 weeks than traditional linear
Auto-Regulation periodization. In earlier research, Knight
The process of auto-regulation has (39) used progressive resistance training
received increasing attention from prac- auto-regulated on a daily basis in patients
titioners and researchers (10, 27, 47, 83, recovering from knee surgery.
84). This involves adjusting the training Zourdos and colleagues (83) inves-
based on feedback gained during the tigated auto-regulation during hyper-
training session, and it can occur on a trophy sessions in trained powerlifters,
day-to-day basis. Augmented feedback but rather than adjusting the load lifted
(also called objective feedback) regard- based on the number of repetitions,
ing the performance is commonly used in they applied the concept of repetitions
athlete monitoring. Augmented feedback in reserve. Repetitions in reserve is the
adds to the practitioner’s and athlete’s additional number of repetitions athletes
perceptions of how the athlete is per- believe they can complete after terminat-
forming during training or competition. ing the set. Theoretically, this could be
Auto-regulation of training has appli- used to regulate the daily training load.
cations across a range of training modes The load for training was auto-regulated
and rehabilitation (e.g., strength or based on the athlete’s performance as
velocity measures on a particular exer- part of a daily undulating periodized
cise). Consider an athlete who performs program.
four sets. The first two are warm-up sets The degree to which training can be
with loads of 50% and 75% of the antici- regulated based on session monitoring is
pated RM for the session (e.g., a 6RM). In affected by a variety of factors. An impor-
the third set, the athlete lifts 100% of the tant component of training prescription
anticipated repetitions maximum (RM) is the athlete’s particular training history
until failure. The load for the fourth set and needs. Some researchers have inves-
is then adjusted based on the number tigated modifying training based on mon-
of repetitions achieved in the third set. itoring data in aerobic endurance sports
Mann and colleagues (47) suggested the (9, 37, 38, 79). Kiviniemi and colleagues
following: For 0 to 2 repetitions, decrease used daily measures of heart rate variabil-
the load by 5% to 10%; 3 to 4 repetitions, ity (HRV) to adjust training prescription
keep the load the same or decrease it by (37, 38). Vesterinen and colleagues (79)
5%; 5 to 7 repetitions, no load change; compared HRV-guided training and pre-
8 to 12 repetitions, increase the load by defined training in recreational aerobic
endurance athletes. The participants improvement was seen in the group that
who completed the HRV-guided training completed predefined training. Interest-
measured their RR interval data (using ingly, these improvements were achieved
the Ln rMSSD metric; see chapter 5) each despite the fact that the HRV-guided
morning. Using the concept of smallest group performed fewer moderate- and
meaningful change of the rolling 7-day high-intensity training sessions than the
average of rMSSD, adjustments were predefined training group did.
made to the training program. When Botek and colleagues (9) made training
the rolling 7-day average of rMSSD was adjustments based on HRV in nation-
within the smallest worthwhile change, al-level athletes. Using an algorithm, rec-
the athletes completed moderate- and ommendations were made to continue
high-intensity sessions. When it fell with the current training or decrease
outside the smallest worthwhile change, the training load. Seven of the athletes
they trained at a low intensity or rested. improved their performances, and three
The HRV-guided athletes had significant had no change or a decrement in per-
improvements in their 3 km (1.9 mile) formance. Although the study was con-
time trial performance, whereas no ducted with a small number of athletes
DETERMINING READINESS TO TRAIN

Monitoring athlete data is important at all times of the year, but it is particularly
important during the preseason when athletes are handling large training loads.
Monitoring can help practitioners manage athlete fatigue, mitigate the risk of
injury, and determine training readiness.
Practitioners can follow these steps to determine an athlete’s readiness to train:
1. Before the training session begins, look at the previous 24 to 48 hr of moni-
toring data and talk with the athlete to learn how he or she responded to the
previous workout.
2. Have the athlete complete a wellness checklist at the beginning of the ses-
sion.
3. Perform a simple yet specific performance test near the beginning of the
session to gauge the athlete’s level of preparation for the session.
4. Based on the data collected in steps 1 through 3, make any needed adjust-
ments to the current training session.
5. Set specific targets for the variables that will be monitored during the ses-
sion.
It is vital to remember that coaching and monitoring should be ongoing
throughout the session. Practitioners could use a checklist throughout the session
to complement the training readiness data collected at the beginning of the ses-
sion. Real-time feedback gathered throughout the session can help practitioners
make training adjustments as needed.
Currently, limited published evidence is available on the efficacy of determin-
ing training readiness and the most appropriate way to make adjustments to
training.
over a 17-week time span, the method readiness. Anecdotally, practitioners who
does appear to hold promise. Individu- make daily adjustments based on circum-
alizing an athlete’s training prescription stances rather than stick to a rigid plan,
seems to be an appropriate method for as many do, are using this approach. For
optimizing adaptations to aerobic endur- example, a practitioner who discovers a
ance training. high level of neural fatigue in a group of
athletes following an intense condition-
Flexible Approaches ing session the previous day may adjust
the current day’s planned speed training
to Session Monitoring session. An effective monitoring program
Kraemer and Fleck (41) proposed a provides objective data to help practi-
method called flexible nonlinear perio- tioners make these types of decisions. It
dization, in which the practitioner makes should be noted that research using this
adjustments based on the demands of the type of flexible nonlinear periodization
previous 24 hr and the athlete’s perceived in athletes is limited.
WITHIN-SESSION MONITORING:
VELOCITY-BASED TRAINING
An example of within-session monitoring is velocity-based training. This involves
monitoring barbell velocity to guide decision making for assigning loads during
the session. Linear position transducers and accelerometry technology can pro-
vide real-time feedback on barbell velocity or the athlete during training (31). It is
important to determine baseline levels of velocities for specific exercises. Practi-
tioners can develop generalized tables of velocity ranges for different exercises,
but measuring on an individual basis is optimal. Establishing a clear baseline for
each exercise can also optimize the training adaptation. However, because this
can be time consuming for the practitioner, a simpler approach may be war-
ranted. One way to accomplish this is to monitor barbell or athlete velocity as it
decreases across a training set with increasing numbers of repetitions. The prac-
titioner could identify a benchmark velocity; once the athlete drops below that
point, the set is ended and the athlete is allowed to recover. For example, during
a vertical countermovement jump, the practitioner could establish a velocity
threshold minimum of 2.8 m/s. If the athlete’s velocity falls below the threshold,
the set is terminated.
Another approach is to measure the velocity of exercises during warm-up
sets (e.g., bench press, back squat) to gauge athlete readiness. Using previously
established relationships between velocity and load, force–velocity profiles could
indicate an athlete’s estimated maximal strength for that day (30).
Establishing thresholds for individual athletes can take time, particularly when
they are performing many exercises. One solution is to have a station or exercise
with a velocity focus for each day. For example, during a session with six exer-
cises, a practitioner sets up a monitoring station at the high clean pull exercise.
As the athletes rotate through the exercises, they receive feedback on velocity for
just that exercise. This removes the need for multiple pieces of technology and
could reduce any technology fatigue that athletes may be experiencing.
Resistance training literature has Figoni and Morris (20) showed that
revealed that using appropriate veloc- visual feedback during isokinetic training
ity thresholds can minimize the loss increases strength results. These findings
of velocity during sets, thus increasing have been supported by research that
muscular strength gains (29, 53, 55, 69). has shown that velocity feedback during
Padulo and colleagues (53) compared power exercises can improve perfor-
fixed velocity and self-selected velocity mance (64). Keller and colleagues (33)
during 3 weeks of bench press training showed that augmented feedback during
in 20 resistance-trained participants. 4 weeks of plyometric training improved
The athletes who used a fixed velocity performance to a greater extent than
had greater improvements in maximal having no feedback at all.
strength. Izquierdo and colleagues (29) As noted previously, the sheer volume
showed that it is possible to determine of monitoring data now available can
minimal velocity thresholds during make the process overwhelming. Often,
resistance training to ensure that ath- the value of the information is dictated
letes are training with appropriate loads by how it is presented. Practitioners need
to maximize training responses. Pare- to be mindful of presenting the informa-
ja-Blanco and colleagues (54) found that tion in a simple and informative way that
movement velocity appeared to be more athletes can understand (6). Some visual
important than time under tension for methods of presenting monitoring results
increasing strength, providing further are discussed in chapter 2.
evidence of the importance of monitoring Feedback must also be provided in
velocity. Training studies have suggested a timely manner. Ideally, this should
that velocity-based resistance training occur in real time so that athletes can
can be an effective mode of training (23, make adjustments during the session.
55). Providing performance thresholds However, it must also be interpreted
and targets may optimize adaptations to accurately. If the data are not accurate,
strength and conditioning programs and it does not matter how or when the
allow practitioners to objectively deter- feedback occurs. Alternatively, practi-
mine how the athlete is performing with tioners can have the most sophisticated
exercises targeted for velocity rather than monitoring in the world that generates
relying solely on visual observation. highly accurate information, but if it is
not communicated to the athlete and
used for a specific purpose, its value is
Providing Monitoring questionable.
Feedback needs to be meaningful for
Feedback to Athletes athletes. Technology that produces met-
rics via algorithms (e.g., a number or a
Feedback is a powerful tool. For exam- generic unit of training readiness) can
ple, studies have shown that quantita- be difficult to understand. Not knowing
tive feedback during resistance training the calculations used to derive the metric
sessions can improve performance (20, or how the measure was generated may
24, 34). Kellis and Baltzopoulos (34) create uncertainty about its accuracy or
demonstrated 6% to 9% improvements validity. And without proper context,
in performance when visual feedback practitioners can have difficulty explain-
was given during isokinetic testing. ing the information to athletes.
Attentional Focus as possible likely results in the use of a

strategy similar to that used in a vertical
Instruction and feedback are important countermovement jump, resulting in
when conducting monitoring tests. Using longer contact times.
instructions and cues with any type of Porter and colleagues showed that
testing creates attentional focus—the having an external focus can produce
ability to focus on the task at hand (6). the greatest distance on a broad jump
Practitioners need to remember that test (57, 59). Having the athlete focus on
the nature of the instruction can affect external cues such as the distance jumped
the results. For example, rate of force rather than internally on parts of the
development is altered by the type of body appears to be a more appropriate
instruction given to the athlete prior to cue for these types of tests. Researchers
testing (45). Bemben and colleagues’ (5) have shown that these types of cues can
study revealed differences in rate of force result in changes in the kinematics of the
development depending on whether the jump (16). During vertical countermove-
participants were instructed to produce ment jumps, an external focus and aug-
force as hard as possible or as hard and mented feedback (flight time) resulted
fast as possible. Providing the instruction in superior jumping performance (80).
to produce force as hard and fast as pos- In addition to considering the type of
sible seems to produce the greatest rate instructions given, practitioners should
of force development (45). Subsequent keep instructions as consistent as possible
research has confirmed these findings from test to test.
(17, 67). Maffiuletti and colleagues (45) Feedback is also important when
suggested that providing visual feedback monitoring sprint speed (61). Research
along with interpretations and explana- has found that external cues resulted in
tions can improve performance on a rate faster 20-m sprint times in those with
of force development test. Visual displays no formal sprint training (61). The per-
have also been shown to be an effective formance level of the athlete also deter-
form of feedback (63, 64, 81). Wheeler mines the type of feedback that is most
and colleagues (81) showed that visual effective (6), providing further support
feedback was an effective method for for individualizing feedback. Porter and
changing gait patterns in healthy people. Sims (60) showed that in more highly
Randell and colleagues (64) found that skilled sprinters (university-level Amer-
velocity feedback using a visual display ican football players), having no specific
during jump squats was likely more attentional focus resulted in the fastest
effective for improving performance times. Ille and colleagues (28) found no
during the exercise than no feedback. difference in both expert and nonexpert
Similar findings have been made with sprinters between external and internal
drop jump testing; instructions were attentional focus.
found to be important depending on Research has shown external focus of
the variable measured (44). To produce attention to be beneficial for agility tasks
the best reactive strength measure, the (58). In a study by Porter and colleagues
instruction to jump as high as possible (58), instructing untrained subjects with
and spend the least amount of time on a focus on external cues resulted in better
the ground seems to be optimal (44). performance on an agility test. Because
The instruction simply to jump as high most of the research in this area has
been conducted with relatively untrained Giving both visual and verbal feed-
subjects, further research studying elite back improves performance as well as
athletes would be beneficial. Interest- the reliability of monitoring compared
ingly, this is another area in which a to nonfeedback conditions (3, 64). In
mismatch appears to occur between one study, using an unanticipated audi-
coaching practice and research. Despite tory signal along with a visual stimuli
evidence pointing toward the advantages increased the rate of force development
of using external cues, many practition- during fast bench presses compared to
ers in track and field use coaching cues the anticipated condition (19).
and instructions with an internal focus
(62). Additional resources provide an
excellent summary of using coaching
Individual Difference
instructions and cues for enhancing Considerations
sprint performance (6, 46). Based on for Monitoring
the current evidence, using cues and Individualizing athlete monitoring can
instructions that emphasize an external help practitioners make training adjust-
focus of attention is recommended for ments (32). The nature of the feedback
maximizing performance during testing. depends on the monitoring tools availa-
ble as well as the setting. Also, feedback
Other Feedback Methods strategies for youth athletes may differ
from those for experienced athletes (43).
Researchers have explored other inno-
With youth athletes the practitioner
vative methods of providing feedback
may need to simplify the information or
during performance (15, 49, 81). The use focus on one key aspect (43). Monitoring
of tactile feedback has been investigated also provides educational opportunities.
with clinical populations and could have A broad jump test for monitoring leg
applications for athlete monitoring. Tac- power, for example, could initiate a con-
tile, or haptic, feedback provides informa- versation about the importance of this
tion based on touch, often in the form of capacity in the sport.
vibration. Researchers have used insole Athletes also differ in what motivates
devices during agility tasks performed by them, a component that is overlooked
recreational athletes (49). Dowling and in some monitoring systems. Practition-
colleagues (14) used a wearable meas- ers should not assume that athletes will
urement system to provide information respond to feedback the way they expect
on jump height, contact time, and joint them to. Research has revealed cross-
angles during a variety of drop jumping cultural differences in how people
tasks. Wheeler and colleagues (81) used respond to feedback (48, 50). Thus,
tactile feedback via vibration in addition practitioners should have some under-
to visual feedback about gait patterns. standing of the group of athletes they
Tactile feedback did not appear to be as are working with. The best approach is
effective as visual feedback, but it did to treat each athlete as an individual and,
result in changes in gait patterns. within the constraints of the environ-
ment, attempt to customize feedback information is obtained from technology

whenever possible. Taking the time to does not mean that it should be given
get to know athletes is an important to the athlete. Some have suggested
part of this process. encouraging at least some degree of
An important question with moni- self-monitoring in athletes (18).
toring is how much feedback to pro- Practitioners could consider using a
vide. Feedback may need to be different layered approach when providing infor-
for athletes than for other practitioners. mation (see figure 7.2). The base, or
It may be pertinent to let other prac- foundation, is must-know information.
titioners know several aspects of team The next layer, need to know, includes
sport athletes’ running performances information aimed at other practitioners
during a training session via global and perhaps more inquisitive athletes.
positioning system (e.g., total distance The top layer, the icing on the cake,
at various intensities, number of accel- could be referred to as nice to know.
erations and decelerations). However, Information here is hidden from the
an athlete may be content with know- athlete but has benefit in the medium
ing just the total distance covered at to long term. Using this approach avoids
a certain intensity. Also, people differ overwhelming the athlete with large
in the type of feedback they prefer. amounts of monitoring information.
Providing feedback in small chunks is Practitioners should realize, however,
a useful strategy (18). that some athletes will have little to no
The quantity of information provided interest in any of the monitoring data.
to an athlete is another important con- A one-size-fits-all approach does not
sideration. Just because monitoring work in athlete monitoring.
Nice to know =
additional information
Need to know =
essential information
Must know =
foundational information
Figure 7.2 A layered approach to reporting monitoring data.

E6859/McGuigan/F07.02/554509/mh-R1
CRITICAL FEATURES OF A MONITORING SYSTEM

An effective monitoring system that delivers important benefits to a sport pro-
gram has the following characteristics:
• Uses tools that are reliable, valid, and sensitive to change
• Is easy to use
• Presents results that are easily understood by the athlete and other practi-
tioners
• Presents feedback quickly to athletes and key personnel
• Quickly collects information that is easily interpreted by the practitioner
• Identifies a few key metrics rather than reporting an overwhelming range of
measures
• Is within the organization’s budget
• Can provide individual athlete information in addition to group data
• Allows improvisation and can be adapted for different athletes and sports
• Does not use excessive amounts of human resources
• Does not rely on a one-size-fits-all approach
• Can be used remotely and does not rely on Internet access
• Delivers information that practitioners can use to make changes to the pro-
gram
Barriers to Effective accessibility, compatibility, interface,

nature of the questions, time burden,
Athlete Monitoring time of day, and data output and analy-
sis were identified as important factors.
Several factors can influence the imple- Factors associated with the social envi-
mentation of an athlete monitoring ronment were athlete buy-in, practi-
system. Following the guidelines for crit- tioner buy-in, peer influence, reminders,
ical features of a monitoring system can reinforcement, and data security. Prac-
help practitioners with implementation. titioners should therefore consider the
Meanwhile, they also need to be aware monitoring tool itself in addition to the
of barriers to effective athlete monitor- athletes’ social environment.
ing and remove or reduce the impact of Other researchers also identified barri-
those barriers. ers to implementing athlete monitoring
Saw and colleagues (70) identified (1, 74). Akenhead and Nassis (1) identi-
barriers to effectively implementing ath- fied limited human resources as the big-
lete monitoring, particularly in relation gest barrier to effective implementation
to self-report measures. They explored by football practitioners. Lack of buy-in
factors associated with the measures and by the technical coach to the monitoring
with the social environment. In relation process and concerns over the reliability
to the measures, the type of measure, of monitoring tools were also reported.
Ultimately, monitoring tools should Both quantitative and qualitative

gather meaningful information from approaches to research can be useful
athletes that is of high quality and (see chapter 2). Practitioners can use a
creates a minimal burden. Monitoring mixed-methods approach, which includes
also must take into account athletes’ elements of both. For example, monitoring
individual differences. could include a performance test (quanti-
tative), a wellness questionnaire (quantita-
tive), and a semistructured interview (qual-
Conducting In-House itative). Incorporating several approaches
may provide a more holistic view of the
Monitoring Projects monitoring system. Resources for practi-
tioners on how to conduct research projects
Many practitioners cannot afford to are available (2, 7, 75).
wait for published research to confirm Asking focused and insightful questions
the efficacy of a particular monitoring is a critical skill for practitioners, and con-
approach. Being able to design and ducting in-house research projects can be
undertake an in-house research proj- a good way to generate these questions.
ect can be a useful skill. An in-house Having focused questions is a good way to
research project is any form of data col- facilitate conversations with other prac-
lection and analysis performed within titioners as well. Practitioners with less
the sport program to answer a specific experience with data may have a degree of
question of interest to the practitioner. data phobia. Rather than focusing on the
This could be as simple as determining numbers themselves, more experienced
the reliability of a monitoring tool, or practitioners can engage in discussions with
it could be more complicated, such as colleagues about how they are attempting
finding out whether a monitoring tool to answer particular problems.
can determine readiness to train and
improve the quality of training sessions. Steps for Completing
Without realizing it, practitioners
often conduct research on a regular In-House Research
basis when implementing a monitor- Following are steps for completing in-house
ing system. Of course, the usefulness research projects:
of this research depends on the quality
of the information collected. A retro- 1. Identify the problem.
spective analysis of monitoring data 2. Conduct a search of the scientific lit-
can be particularly useful. This is done erature to see what research has been
by looking back at data collected over conducted in the area. PubMed and
a period of time to observe trends and Google Scholar databases are good
patterns. Sometimes, the decision of starting points for searches.
which variables to track in athletes 3. Ta l k t o o t h e r p r a c t i t i o n e r s a n d
becomes clear only after implementing researchers in the area to see whether
the monitoring system for a period of anyone has completed research on this
time. An evidence-based approach can issue. Other practitioners are a pop-
help practitioners make sound decisions ular source of information (73) and
about which variables to keep in the may be able to provide suggestions or
system and which to remove. feedback on your proposed research.
4. Consider using social media to Would infographics that highlight

reach out to experts for insights on the key findings of the research be
research. a useful way to report the project
5. Clearly define the research ques- summary? Because practitioners do
tion. not routinely get their information
from published research studies
6. Develop a brief proposal or outline
(73), alternative methods for dis-
of what the research project will
seminating information are worth
involve. Rewrite it after getting
considering.
feedback from other practitioners.
13. Research always raises new ques-
7. Identify the logistics of the project,
tions, so be prepared to continue
including equipment, personnel,
this cycle. Figure 7.3 shows a sim-
the number of athletes, and costs.
plified model to follow when under-
8. Do some pilot testing of the meth- taking in-house research projects on
ods. This helps to identify issues athlete monitoring.
with the methods and can help to
troubleshoot problems that may
arise during data collection. Things
can be very different when moni-
toring in the field with a group of
athletes! Identify the
problem
9. Complete the data collection.
10. Analyze the data using the methods
outlined in chapter 2. It is vital to
Determine the
document all methods of data col- question
lection, decisions about data analy-
sis methods, and how analyses were
conducted.
Pilot test
11. Interpret the findings. What do the
results mean? This needs to be put
in the context of previous literature,
have a theoretical basis, and provide Collect data
at least one practical application.
12. Write a summary of the findings.
This should include a bottom-line
statement of how the results of this Analyze data
research help the program and ath-
letes. Consider alternative methods
for reporting the findings. A short
Interpret and
video could be an effective way to present findings
summarize the findings for those
who spend a great deal of time look- Figure 7.3 Research process for athlete
ing at media content in this format. monitoring.
E6859/McGuigan/F07.03/554510/mh-R2
Consider a practitioner who wants to training year and throughout a 4-year

assess the effectiveness of a simple test cycle leading up to the pinnacle event
for determining training readiness in a such as the Olympic Games. In year 1 the
group of athletes. She wonders whether practitioner could use an experimental
a measure of grip dynamometer strength approach that involves collecting a large
could be a useful indicator of athlete amount of monitoring data. This would
readiness for resistance training ses- be useful for identifying which monitor-
sions. First, she decides to determine the ing tools are reliable, valid, and sensitive
reliability of the test over the course of to change. Year 1 would also be the
a 2-week training block. Grip strength time to experiment with interventions
measures are performed before and to enhance performance, including race
after each training session. A wellness day warm-ups and power priming (35).
questionnaire is incorporated to provide In year 2, the monitoring system could be
a subjective measure of the athletes’ refined by removing certain tools based
responses along with session RPE. The on the results from year 1. By the time
reliability of the measures is determined year 3 comes around, the practitioner
by calculating the coefficient of variation would be confident of the monitoring
and intraclass correlation coefficient for system in place. At this stage only minor
the test (see chapter 2). A decrease in grip tweaks to the system would be required.
strength from pretraining to posttraining Following a research process for
may indicate the effect of the session on determining the validity of equipment
force production. Later, measures of grip can also be useful for practitioners. For
strength are taken at certain time periods example, using different devices to meas-
following training sessions. For example, ure the velocity of the bar would allow
in addition to the pretraining and imme- comparison. Practitioners could attach
diately posttraining periods, the practi- transducers or encoders to either end of
tioner measures grip strength 6 hr later the bar and accelerometry technology
and then 24 and 48 hr later. She then to a weight plate. At the same time, the
compares the time course of these meas- athlete could have some type of weara-
ures with other types of training sessions ble device around a wrist or forearm. A
to see whether grip strength is sensitive similar setup would involve wearing a
to fatigue. What would be more diffi- range of devices for a period of time and
cult would be to investigate how mod- comparing the results (40, 66). This way,
ification of the training sessions affects the practitioner can measure the degree
athletes’ performances both acutely and of variability between the devices. Ulti-
chronically. However, by monitoring the mately, making the comparison against a
athletes over the course of a mesocycle, gold standard would be ideal. However,
patterns may begin to emerge. such a standard does not always exist in
A case study–based approach to sport science. For example, a theoreti-
in-house research projects can be a cal gold standard for measuring fatigue
useful strategy for practitioners (36). in athletes would be a maximal-effort
For example, a practitioner may collect sport-specific performance test (78),
data from a variety of monitoring tools which is impractical as a daily or weekly
for a BMX athlete over the course of a monitoring tool.
Conclusion mindful of how and why they are using

monitoring tools. Readiness to train
can be assessed, but evidence on what
Integrating both the art and science of constitutes the best methods is limited.
monitoring can add greatly to the effec- Within-session monitoring with veloc-
tiveness of a monitoring program. A ity-based training can be used to guide
monitoring system that does not inform programming. Practitioners can also
the coaching process and does not have design in-house research projects to
a positive impact on the athletes should answer important questions about their
be questioned. Practitioners need to be athlete monitoring systems.
Athlete
8
Monitoring
Guidelines
for Individual
Sports
This chapter presents unique information nent and relatable only to the n = 1 concept.
about athlete monitoring in individual That is, a case study would apply only to
sports. Because individualized approaches that particular athlete. However, the case
to monitoring are critical, the principles study approach does provide practitioners
discussed throughout this book can be read- with critical insights for athlete monitor-
ily applied in these types of sports. Using a ing. Therefore, several case studies are
single case study of monitoring individual presented along with a list of overarching
sport athletes is of limited value given that guidelines for practitioners who work with
applications and conclusions often are perti- athletes in individual sports.
Individual Sport ing to spend a lot of money on athlete

monitoring:
Athletes • Training diaries. Athletes can docu-
ment all aspects of training, includ-
For the purposes of this chapter, track ing duration, intensity, and type.
and field, golf, gymnastics, combat sports
• Intensity classifications. Even without
(martial arts, boxing), cycling, swim-
technology to measure heart rate,
ming, triathlon, tennis, motorsports,
surfing, and some winter sports (e.g., practitioners can create classifica-
snowboarding, skeleton, skiing) are con- tions to rate session intensity (e.g.,
sidered individual sports. Some sports 1 = light or recovery, 2 = low inten-
such as rowing and sailing have both sity, 3 = moderate intensity, 4 = high
individual and team events, so classifying intensity, 5 = supramaximal).
them as individual sports is problematic. • Individualized records. Factors that
Practitioners working with individual could impact training and recovery
sport athletes are better positioned for include illness and injury, competi-
individualizing training and using case tion results, recovery strategies, and
study–based approaches with individual life events (e.g., school exams).
athletes (19) than are those working • Session RPE. Athletes can record RPE
with team sport athletes (see chapter for each session as a measure of
9). However, despite these advantages, internal load.
practitioners working in individual sports
• Other metrics. Aspects such as training
should avoid monitoring athletes just for
load, monotony, and strain can be
the sake of monitoring.
determined from session RPE and
training duration.
• Wellness questionnaires. Practitioners
Monitoring in can design their own questionnaires.
Individual Sports • Other questionnaires. Readily available
published questionnaires include
on a Budget TDS, BRUMS, DALDA, TQR, POMS,
and RESTQ-Sport.
Access to technology and specialized • Visual analog scales. These can be used
equipment is not a prerequisite for ath- to measure athletes’ current levels
lete monitoring. As noted throughout of perceived fatigue, recovery, and
this book, many monitoring tools enable soreness.
practitioners to obtain important infor-
• Vertical countermovement jump or broad
mation about their athletes, but not all
jump tests. A tape measure can be
of them are expensive. In other words,
used to determine jump height or
a large budget is not necessary to set up
distance.
an athlete monitoring system. Simple
things can be done with a limited budget • Stopwatch. A stopwatch can be used
(e.g., tracking aspects of athlete train- to measure performance times (e.g.,
ing and performance with paper and a sprints).
pen). Following are monitoring tools for • Composites of several critical aspects of
practitioners who are unable or unwill- training. These can be used to calcu-
Athlete Monitoring Guidelines for Individual Sports 175
late training performance scores.

Agostinho and colleagues (2) devel-
Monitoring
oped a global training performance With Training Diaries
metric for judo athletes that took
into account the intensity of key Data obtained from training diaries can
exercises and throws. be informative for practitioners, and the
• Appropriate analysis methods. The process is simple (16). An analysis of the
smallest meaningful change in training diaries of Olympic track and
monitoring variables can be calcu- field athletes provided insights into the
lated for each athlete using appro- volumes of strength and power training
priate baseline data; the process across the year (5). The analyses showed
that 50% to 60% of combined strength-
requires only a calculator.
based (high load) and power-based
Although commercial software plat- training volume undertaken in the pre-
forms are available for athlete monitor- season was enough to maintain strength
ing, practitioners can use simple tools and power throughout the 3-month
season. Assigning training loads during
such as Microsoft Excel or Google Docs
the season is a critical consideration for
to develop their own monitoring tem-
practitioners. Retrospective analyses of
plates. Google Docs allows practitioners
training diaries can guide training pro-
to develop their own training diaries and gram design. Fundamentally, at issue is
questionnaires that athletes can access not just the total training load but how
on devices or smartphones. Moreover, the athlete gets there and how to vary
questions can be presented in a variety the load across the season. Obtaining
of formats and layouts. An advantage of this information from simple training
using simple tools such as this is that data diaries can have implications for both
reporting is relatively straightforward. performance enhancement and injury
Practitioners requiring more advanced prevention.
analyses can convert the data to a .csv Research studies that involve training
format. Although these systems require diaries typically span periods of less than
an initial time investment on the part of 1 year (39), although case studies have
the practitioner, they can be very benefi- been published on single elite athletes
cial. As with any monitoring approach, it for longer periods of time (26, 38). Keep-
is advisable to begin with a simple set of ing training diaries for several years or
longer could provide rich details about
questions and build on and refine them
athletes’ evolution and reveal pictures
as needed.
of their training practices at various
In summary, using simple tools, prac-
levels. Youth athletes, for example, could
titioners can set up relatively sophis- examine the training that elite athletes
ticated monitoring systems. The value go through to see the intensities and
of monitoring data is determined by loads they built up over time to arrive
how they are analyzed, interpreted, and at the elite level. Further, athletes could
implemented. Ultimately, a successful compare training using different modes
system is one that informs practitioner of exercise. A training diary can reveal
decision making and improves athlete the differences in the volume and inten-
performance. sity between aerobic endurance training
and resistance training. Aerobic training training and cycling, were also docu-
volume (e.g., the total distance covered mented. Internal load was measured
during a week) at a certain intensity using an adaptation of the training
.
(e.g., a percentage of VO2max) can be impulse method (see pages 88-90 in
contrasted with the volume and loading chapter 4) (41, 42). Published research
of resistance training. Such analyses can can give practitioners insights into the
help practitioners formulate training training practices of elite-level athletes
models for athletes. (3, 39, 40, 43). Importantly, published
Another way athletes keep track of studies providing data on both external
their training is to record the intensity load (training dosage) and internal load
of their workouts based on zones (see (training responses) can be particularly
chapter 4). Ideally, these zones are based informative (43).
on physiological measures such as heart
rate. Tjelta (38) outlined five zones
when documenting the training prac- Applying Monitoring
tices of elite distance runners. The zones
were 1 = easy and continuous running
in Individual Sports
(62% to 82% maximal heart rate), 2 =
threshold training (82% to 92% maxi- Although the general principles of ath-
mal heart rate), 3 = intensive anaerobic lete monitoring can be applied across
intervals (92% to 97% maximal heart a range of sports, specific nuances can
rate), 4 = anaerobic training (≥97% be important to consider depending on
maximal heart rate), and 5 = sprinting. the sport. The following sections outline
how athlete monitoring is applied to
Using this approach, the practitioner can
some individual sports.
obtain a clear picture of the type and
intensity of sessions simply by looking at
the athlete’s zone number in the train- Weightlifting
ing diary. As long as the practitioner or Because no single measure is completely
the athlete documents the intensity in effective for monitoring athletes, prac-
some manner (e.g., RPE), a measure of titioners should use a mixed-methods
internal load is available. The other fac- approach. They also need to strike a
tors that require consideration are the balance between the number of aspects
athlete’s level of experience and his or measured and the practical value of
her individual characteristics. their monitoring tools. An Olympic
Tran and colleagues (43) analyzed weightlifter might use a training diary
the training practices of elite Australian to record essential information on exer-
rowers leading up to the 2012 Olympic cises, sets, repetitions, and load. Session
Games. They documented external load RPE measures can be obtained 10 to 30
by measuring training frequency, dura- min after each session and used to calcu-
tion, and total distance rowed on the late training load, monotony, and strain.
water and by using ergometers. Other Neuromuscular fatigue can be tracked
forms of training, including resistance daily with a vertical countermovement
jump test (35). In addition, a wellness a 3RM). Measures of salivary testos-

questionnaire (e.g., addressing sleep, terone and cortisol and blood creatine
muscle soreness, fatigue, and stress) kinase can be considered, but cost and
can be completed by the athlete three impracticality may be limitations. Table
times per week. 8.1 outlines the frequency, purpose,
For within-session monitoring, the analysis method, and practical inter-
practitioner can measure barbell veloc- pretation of the monitoring variables
ity on one key set during each session for weightlifters.
using a linear position transducer (see
figure 8.1). The exercise and the loading
used for monitoring must be consistent. Throwing Sports
The practitioner might decide to use In sports with high volumes of throw-
the snatch pull (Monday), clean pull ing (e.g., shot put, javelin), monitor-
(Wednesday), and jerk (Friday), all per- ing the training load can be vital for
formed at 80% of 1RM over a 4-week reducing injury risk and ensuring con-
microcycle. tinued adaptation (31). It is possible
Most important is that practitioners to measure overall training load, but
obtain direct measures of sport perfor throwing-based sports practition-
formance whenever possible. This is ers might also be interested in more
relatively straightforward in weight- specific aspects (e.g., the total number
lifting because a 1RM snatch and clean of throws) to calculate training load,
and jerk can be measured directly on monotony, and strain for that part of
a regular basis or estimated using pre- the athlete’s training program (11) (see
diction equations from training (e.g., chapter 2).
Photos courtesy of Andrius Ramonas.
a b
Figure 8.1 Weightlifter training with a linear position transducer.
TABLE 8.1 Monitoring System for a Weightlifter
Assessment Practical
Variable Purpose Analysis method
frequency interpretation
1RM snatch and clean Weekly or estimated Measure of Absolute change Smallest meaningful
and jerk from training performance relative to reliability change (e.g., 1.5 kg
value and smallest [3.3 lb] for the snatch
meaningful change and 2 kg [4.4 lb] for the
(determined from clean and jerk)
coefficient of variation
of performance)
Volume load Every session Measure of external • Week-to-week • Avoid >10%
load change increase in volume
• Rolling 3-week load each week
average • Acute-to-chronic
• Acute-to-chronic ratio <1.5 (see
ratio (see chapter 9) chapter 9)
Session RPE Every session Measure of perceived Z-score relative to Z-score ≤−1.5
exertion of session baseline measure
Training load Weekly Measure of internal Z-score relative to Z-score ≤−1.5
load baseline measure
Monotony Weekly Measure of sameness Z-score relative to Z-score ≤−1.5
and variation of baseline measure
training
Strain Weekly Overall product of Z-score relative to Z-score ≤−1.5
training load and baseline measure
monotony
Wellness Three times per week Measure of overall Z-score relative to Z-score ≤−1.5
(questionnaire) wellness and quality baseline measure
of sleep, muscle
soreness, fatigue, and
stress
Vertical Daily Measure of • Z-score relative to Z-score ≤−1.5
countermovement neuromuscular fatigue baseline measure
jump (jump height) • Smallest meaningful
change relative to
reliability
Training distress Weekly Measure of training- • Z-score relative to Z-score ≤−1.5
(scale) related distress and baseline measure
performance readiness • Week-to-week and
chronic variability
Barbell velocity Every session (one Measure of velocity- • Smallest meaningful • Smallest meaningful
exercise) based training to change relative to change (e.g., 0.2
ensure quality of reliability m/s)
repetitions across the • Week-to-week • Terminate set if
set variation greater than 20%
• Percentage of loss in velocity
decrement across
sets
178
Table 8.2 shows a record of a shot

put athlete’s total number of throws of
Individual Aerobic
any type—throws with shots, medicine Endurance Sports
balls, or any projectile. By calculating the Considering the difference between real-
monotony, the practitioner was able to ity and an ideal scenario is important
determine the variation of the load over for practitioners. It is imperative to take
the week. into account the athlete’s real-world
In this example, the low monotony of situation when choosing which aspects
1.04 indicates a large degree of variation of the monitoring system to implement.
across the week. A good rule of thumb For example, research has shown that
(heuristic) is to keep the monotony heart rate variability (HRV) should be
under 2.0, although this may differ across monitored individually to see how each
sports and individual athletes. Practition- athlete is responding to training (27).
ers should also look at monotony over Working with individual athletes makes
several weeks to get a full picture of how this somewhat easier, although some
the training load is tracking. Research practitioners are dealing with several
suggests the importance of avoiding large individual athletes.
spikes in training loads (>10% per week), The method of data collection also
but also of avoiding too many periods needs to be considered. Obtaining resting
of unloading, in which training load is HRV measures in both supine and stand-
dramatically reduced (12). ing positions, as recommended by some
researchers, may be unrealistic because
the process may take more than 15 min
(8). Simpler methods in which data col-
lection is faster may be preferable, as long
TABLE 8.2 Throw Monitoring as they are valid and reliable.
for a Shot Put Athlete Establishing a baseline is an important
Training load (number part of any monitoring. One approach
Day when measuring aspects such as HRV
of throws)
Monday 35 is to use the start of the training week
(e.g., Monday morning) as a baseline.
Tuesday 0
Another option is to establish a baseline
Wednesday 40 period (e.g., over several sessions in the
Thursday 0 preseason). Having a defined baseline is
Friday 45 important for making valid comparisons
Saturday 55
and detecting performance changes.
Sunday 0
Total weekly load 175.0 Combat Sports
Daily mean load 24.1 Working with individual sport athletes
competing in weight classes, such as in
Daily standard 25.0
deviation combat sports, often requires dealing
with the issue of making weight. Body
Monotony 1.04
composition is important in many sports,
but the additional layer of complexity boxer preparing for a title fight in Aus-
provided by these weight sports can pose tralia. The boxer was monitored over 9
challenges for practitioners. Therefore, weeks leading up to the fight and then 8
aspects of body composition must be days after the fight. Boxing-specific tests
monitored closely. Body weight should were completed using load cell technol-
be measured on a regular basis (daily) ogy to measure punching forces along
leading up to weigh-in. Other metrics with a variety of other performance tests.
such as skinfold measurements can be Body composition measures were also
obtained, but the tester must be trained made on a regular basis (body weight,
in the technique and the protocols must sum of skinfolds, and dual X-ray absorp-
be reliable and valid. Monitoring nutri- tiometry). Performance tests can be
tion and hydration is also important, useful for tracking sport-specific changes
but the focus should be on performance in conjunction with body composition
and balanced with the athlete’s health changes. In this example, the athlete was
and well-being (36). Recommendations fighting at the 76.2-kg (168 lb) class and
for working with athletes in sports with began the monitoring period at 80.8 kg
weight classes and strategies for making (178 lb). The researchers were able to
weight safely are available for practition- monitor the changes in body composition
ers (20, 36). and relate them to the changes in perfor-
Regular monitoring of physical char- mance. Decreases were seen in punching
acteristics can identify specific responses impact forces, maximal strength, and
to combat sport training programs. vertical countermovement jump height.
Ratamess and colleagues (30) tracked Also interesting was that 8 days following
performance and physiological changes the bout, the boxer had improved aero-
in university wrestlers over a training bic power and punching forces, possibly
year. Maximal grip strength, Wingate as a result of supercompensation and
peak power, and vertical countermove- overcoming the accumulated fatigue
ment jump force and power decreased of the lead-up to the fight. This type of
over the course of the competitive season monitoring information would enable
(30). Total testosterone, body fat, and practitioners to fine-tune tapering strat-
body mass also declined as the season egies for pinnacle events by taking into
progressed. Interestingly, the perio- account individual differences.
dized training program was designed
to increase strength and power in the
preseason period with a change to a cir- Racket Sports
cuit training program aimed to improve Tournament play can provide interesting
muscular endurance during the season. scenarios for practitioners working with
A monitoring program would have ena- individual sport athletes. For example,
bled the practitioner to assess the efficacy in sports such as tennis, planning can
of the training program more regularly. be difficult because of many unknown
In this instance, changing the in-sea- factors such as when an athlete will exit
son program to focus on maintaining the tournament and match duration
strength and power would likely have and timing. Monitoring can allow the
been more appropriate. practitioner to gauge the athlete’s fatigue
Halperin and colleagues (15) docu- and recovery, but it must present a min-
mented a case study of a professional imal burden for the athlete, especially
during a tournament. Short-form ques- and one performance test would likely
tionnaires such as the eight-item Short not be too onerous.
Recovery and Stress Scale can measure
the degree of stress and recovery (44).
Another option is a visual analog scale
Motorsports
to measure the degree of delayed-onset Monitoring motorsport athletes can pres-
muscle soreness (DOMS). Alternatively, ent unique challenges for practitioners
practitioners can use their own custom (28, 29). Determining the thermoregu-
wellness questionnaires (see table 4.1 for lation and the physiological stresses driv-
an example). ers are under during races has been of
The choice of monitoring tools to use particular interest to researchers (6, 33).
during a tournament should be driven In motorsports, a great deal of attention
by how the information can be used. has been given to the technology drivers
Consider a practitioner who has a tennis use, but less to the drivers themselves.
player perform the vertical counter- Monitoring methods that measure inter-
movement jump test each morning of a nal load, including heart rate and body
multiday tournament. A baseline score temperature, would be useful for practi-
is determined at the beginning of a tour- tioners working in this sport (6, 33). In
nament (39 cm, or 15.4 in.), and the addition, simple wellness questionnaires
smallest meaningful change was previ- to gain insights into athletes’ fatigue
ously calculated as 1.5 cm (0.6 in.). The as well as thermal discomfort could be
athlete has the following scores over 6 informative (13).
days of tournament play:
Day 1 = 39 cm (baseline) Extreme Sports

Day 2 = 39 cm (stable) The increasing popularity of extreme
sports (e.g., skateboarding, surfing) and
Day 3 = 38 cm (−1 cm)
events such as the X Games has resulted
Day 4 = 37 cm (−2 cm) in more focus on the training demands
Day 5 = 37 cm (−2 cm) of these athletes (7, 14, 22, 34). Moni-
Day 6 = 36 cm (−3 cm) toring athletes in snowboarding (14) and
surfing (10, 22) has received increased
The results show that the smallest attention from researchers. Fatigue mon-
meaningful change was exceeded on day itoring appears to have some value in
4. However, the practitioner could have these sports because of the high physical
decided on day 3 that the 1-cm decrease demands of training and competition
warranted some type of intervention (14). Although implementing a direct
such as an increased focus on recovery measure of performance on a regular
strategies or a reduced training session on basis may prove challenging, using a
the morning of day 4. Ultimately, perfor- vertical countermovement jump to mon-
mance tests must be used for a purpose itor fatigue has shown promise in these
and not just for the sake of monitoring. populations (14).
Why use these monitoring tools if they As discussed in chapter 3, fatigue is a
do not improve the athlete’s chance of complex topic, and designing appropriate
success in tournament play? In this sce- monitoring tests to assess it can be chal-
nario, having a simple set of questions lenging (9). Some experts believe that
PRACTICAL USE OF WELLNESS QUESTIONNAIRES
As discussed in chapter 4, practitioners often develop their own wellness ques-
tionnaires for athlete monitoring. Ideally, a wellness questionnaire is completed
daily; however, doing so may burden the athlete. Therefore, the practitioner may
consider a less-frequent approach with an individual sport athlete—say, three
times per week. This schedule is frequent enough to obtain useful information but
not so frequent that it results in questionnaire fatigue on the part of the athlete.
A practitioner may decide to use a wellness questionnaire (table 4.1) with an
individual sport athlete for measures of sleep quality, muscle soreness, stress
levels, and fatigue levels using a 1-5 scale. Initially, the practitioner has the athlete
complete the questionnaire directly on a tablet or record responses on paper
prior to a training session to ensure that he understands the purpose of the ques-
tionnaire; the athlete also has an opportunity to ask questions. Once satisfied that
the athlete is familiar with the questionnaire, the practitioner sends a text to him
on Monday, Thursday, and Saturday (at the same time each day) that asks him to
text back the responses. The practitioner then calculates the z-score to determine
the degree of day-to-day changes in his ratings.
The athlete rated the sleep, muscle soreness, stress, and fatigue questions as
1, 2, 3, and 2 (respectively) to give a sum of 8. The baseline mean and standard
deviation (determined from a sum of scores taken over several occasions during
the preseason) were 14 and 2.9, respectively. Therefore, the z-score is
(Current rating − baseline rating) ÷ standard deviation = (8 − 14) ÷ 2.9 = −2.1
Based on the recommendation to consider ≤1.5 a red flag (see chapter 4), the
practitioner may consider an intervention (e.g., a decrease in training load for the
day or some other recovery strategy).
Measures obtained are 14 on Thursday (z-score = 0.0) and 16 on Saturday
(z-score = 0.69), which indicates that the athlete can train at full capacity.
Figure 8.2 shows the daily training load and z-score for wellness measures
over a 3-week period. This provides a visual representation of the load fluctuation
and its relationship to the athlete’s perceived wellness.
1,000 2.5
Training Wellness
900 load score 2
800 1.5
Training load (arbitrary units)
700 1
Wellness Z-score
600 0.5
500 0
400 –0.5
300 –1
200 –1.5
100 –2
0 –2.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Days
Figure 8.2 Training load and wellness scores over a training cycle.
E6859/McGuigan/F08.02/555289/mh-R2
182
training sessions designed for practicing ments in many individual sports include
technical aspects of sport performance back-to-back performances over several
should be undertaken in a nonfatigued days). Practitioners need to introduce
state because the risk of injury may be training periods that simulate the demands
greater when the athlete is fatigued (21). of these periods. For athletes unaccus-
However, in extreme sports, athletes are tomed to this type of loading, back-to-back
required to perform technically under performances can pose an increased risk
conditions of fatigue during compe- of injury; careful monitoring during these
tition. Because the goal of training is times may alleviate this risk.
to prepare athletes to perform at their
best during competition, training while
fatigued would sometimes be necessary.
Monitoring can help the practitioner first
Reporting One
identify what fatigued conditions during Week of Monitoring
competition look like.
It is unrealistic to expect a monitoring
for an Athlete
tool to assess fatigue in all circumstances,
but a simple question of how fatigued the Figure 8.3 shows a report provided to an
athlete feels is a good starting point. For athlete and other practitioners. Although
example, a vertical countermovement electronic and paper formats are popular,
jump with measures such as jump height practitioners should not be afraid to try
and peak power may not be sensitive to alternative approaches to get their mes-
fatigue in athletes (14), especially if the sages across. A short video or audio clip
test is not performed using a force plate. delivered to the athlete’s mobile device
Simple wellness measures have been may be a good way to relay information
shown to provide a good indicator of and highlight key aspects of the data.
athlete fatigue (32). Being mindful of the athlete’s preferences
Monitoring can be particularly for how to receive the information is
useful when athletes undertake high- important. A good starting point would
er-than-normal training loads (tourna- be a discussion with the athlete!
MONITORING AND REMOTE COACHING

Practitioners working with athletes in individual sports may sometimes work
remotely (e.g., when traveling with athletes to competitions and training camps
is not feasible). A monitoring system can keep the practitioner updated on the
athlete’s progress and may also facilitate communication. Although the efficacy of
remote monitoring has not been established, some interesting case studies have
been published. Adams and colleagues (1) presented a case study of a powerlifter
who received virtual coaching following coronary artery bypass grafting. The ath-
lete returned successfully to competition following a monitoring period in which
he received a wrist blood pressure cuff for self-monitoring and regular advice on
appropriate exercises and progressions. The effectiveness of remote coaching has
been studied in rehabilitation, but less so in sport and with athlete populations (4,
18, 37).
Figure 8.3 Weekly monitoring report for a powerlifter.

Athlete: Kathryn Strong Training phase: Strength
Sport: Powerlifting
Result Medal
Squat* 135 kg (298 lb) Silver
Bench press* 70 kg (154 lb) Silver
Deadlift* 145 kg (320 lb) Gold
Training performance** 350 kg (772 lb) Silver
Overall wellness score 6/10 Silver
Fatigue 7/10 Silver
Stress 7/10 Gold
Soreness 6/10 Silver
Sleep 4/10 Bronze
Training load 3,270 AU Silver
Monotony 1.3 Gold
Strain 4,325 AU Silver
*Estimated 1RMs based on training data

**Total of estimated 1RMs
AU = arbitrary units
Gold = exceeded expectations; silver = met the required standard; bronze = requires attention
Note: The overall wellness scores were converted to a score on a 1-10 scale to make it easier for the
athlete to interpret.
Recommendations:
• Sleep needs attention this week.
• Focus for the week is triples for the main exercises and performing all exercises
with technical perfection.
A weekly summary should contain all are filed away and never looked at again
critical information, use an appropriate are pointless. The report should include
analysis method, be simple to interpret, several important measures that are easily
and visually capture the key aspects of understood along with a brief explanation
the monitoring data. Ultimately, the if needed.
practitioner’s goal should be to provide Monitoring reports should provide usable
information that will make an impact and information for the coming week. However,
guide the programming and planning for reporting is only one piece of the monitor-
the subsequent week. ing puzzle. The process should continue
Practitioners need to be careful not to throughout the week to give the practi-
go overboard with forms for reporting; tioner and athlete ongoing feedback so they
they should use a format that will actu- can make training adjustments and note
ally be used. Reports that are not used but areas that need attention outside of training.
The results of the week could be pre- athlete’s capacities may help optimize
sented using a medal system that denotes adaptations based on force–velocity
whether the result exceeded expectations (strength-speed or power) profiling (24).
(gold medal), met the required standard Consider a practitioner who decides
(silver medal), or requires attention to use a vertical countermovement and
(bronze medal). Figure 8.3 shows this static jump performed on a dual force
system for a female powerlifter. Her plate at the start of each week for mon-
performance is indicated by estimated itoring two heptathletes. If the practi-
1RMs for the competition exercises tioner does not have access to a force
(squat, bench press, and deadlift) based plate, more cost-effective technologies
on training data; her overall training could be used (e.g., measuring jump
performance score is the estimated com- height or distance). Monitoring shows
petition total. that the eccentric utilization ratio (ver-
Based on the wellness questionnaire, tical countermovement jump to squat
scores are given for the key areas, and a jump ratio) is 1.07 for athlete 1 and
composite score is provided. In addition, 0.93 for athlete 2. This suggests that
training load, monotony, and strain are the training of athlete 2 should include
calculated as a weekly average but also more exercises involving the stretch–
measured relative to a 4-week rolling shortening cycle (e.g., plyometrics) to
average. The practitioner could also improve the athlete’s ability to utilize the
include a figure that shows the major stretch–shortening cycle. The training
aspects of the report and the training could incorporate exercises that focus
for the year or training cycle so far. The on increasing the rate of force develop-
benchmarking of the ratings (medals ment using ballistic movements (e.g.,
or flags or traffic signs) would be up to jump squats). Depending on the training
the practitioner to decide. Performance phase and periodization, the major focus
measures in sports such as powerlifting for training should be those qualities
and weightlifting can simply be bench- requiring improvement. This is where
marked against performance standards regular monitoring data are particularly
required for competition. Practitioners valuable. For example, if athlete 2 had
also need to consider the method of pres- low maximal strength in addition to the
entation (see chapter 2). Because many lower eccentric utilization ratio, the main
athletes may prefer electronic reports, training focus would be on maximal
practitioners would need to consider strength. Based on the monitoring data,
formatting to ensure that their reports athlete 1 might be considered to have
appear correctly on mobile devices. an optimal eccentric utilization ratio.
However, if these absolute numbers are
below the benchmark required for that
Modifying Training sport, then the training emphasis should
be on improving these even though the
Based on Monitoring ratio seems optimal.
Practitioners need to be wary of simply
One of the fundamental uses of ath- chasing numbers with training. Instead,
lete monitoring in individual sports is they should always consider athlete
to inform adjustments to training premonitoring data in the overall context
scription (23). Regular monitoring of an of optimizing athlete performance.
Consider an athlete who is monitored ratio. However, practitioners should not

over a 4-week period. The practitioner become overly focused on a particular
records the following results: metric such as the eccentric utilization
Week 1 ratio. They need to also consider the
actual numbers and how they fit with
• Countermovement jump = the other areas of athletic development.
55 watts/kg With regard to unilateral versus bilat-
• Static jump = 55 watts/kg eral monitoring, dual force plates can
• Eccentric utilization ratio = reveal any imbalances (see chapter 5);
countermovement jump ÷ this can be applied across a range of indi-
static jump = 55 ÷ 55 = 1.00 vidual sports. Ultimately, the practition-
ers must decide which variable to meas-
The practitioner decides to incorporate ure, such as displacement (jump height),
more stretch–shortening cycle training impulse, power, or velocity. If a force
that week. Because the relative results plate is not available, the practitioner
are also below the benchmark for that could use a tape measure or measuring
athlete (60 watts/kg), overall capacity stick to analyze single-leg vertical jumps.
still needs to be improved as well.
Broad or horizontal jump tests are also
Week 2 useful and do not require technology.
• Countermovement jump = For example, a practitioner conducts a
56 watts/kg monitoring test to measure an athlete’s
single-leg broad jumps and records the
• Static jump = 55 watts/kg
following right leg to left leg ratios:
• Eccentric utilization ratio = 1.02
Week 1: 1.06
Week 3 Week 2: 1.06
• Countermovement jump = Week 3: 1.08
57.5 watts/kg Week 4: 1.09
• Static jump = 56 watts/kg
Having a perfect (1.0) right leg to left
leg ratio is not a requirement, but a gen-
eral guideline is that a difference greater
Week 4 than 15% is a red flag for the practitioner
• Countermovement jump = (17). Because the ratios in the example
58.5 watts/kg are within the 10% cutoff from one week
• Static jump = 56.5 watts/kg to the next, the practitioner decides not
to make any adjustments to the training
program. If the ratio changes more than
Each week adjustments are made to 15%, the practitioner could introduce
the training for that week to ensure more single-leg training for the weaker
continued adaptation. The results show leg. Deciding which ratios are optimal is
a gradual improvement in both the a challenge because many factors con-
capacities and the eccentric utilization tribute to an imbalance, including sport
requirements, limb dominance, and can tolerate the drop jump heights rela-
injury history. tive to vertical countermovement jump
However, a comparison should also be performance. If the athlete produces less
made between unilateral and bilateral jump height with increasing drop height,
performance (23). This can indicate a this suggests a lower tolerance to stretch
need for more emphasis on single-leg load. This monitoring data would again
training. Comparing the sum of the right need to be put into the context of other
and left legs (e.g., adding the individual monitoring results to help understand
impulse scores for each leg in a long the cause of this. It could be a lack of
jumper) to the scores for bilateral verti- eccentric strength, which may be helped
cal countermovement jump can identify by including more maximal strength
differences in the bilateral deficit (see training. The lack of reactive strength
chapter 5). If one athlete produced 20% could also be addressed by incorporating
more impulse (noted in the sum of the more reactive strength exercises in the
unilateral jumps) and another athlete next block of training.
produced only 5% more, what could
this mean to the practitioner? Depend-
ing on the sport, this could indicate that Considerations
the first athlete should focus more on
bilateral work in the next week, whereas for Monitoring
the second athlete could be doing more
unilateral exercises.
Athletes in Individual
Practitioners working with individual Sports
sport athletes can often use more sophis-
ticated strength and power monitoring Some practitioners deal with athletes
tests than can practitioners dealing with from a variety of sports. For example,
larger numbers of athletes in team sports. universities can have a range of sports,
For example, load profiling or measur- from swimming to wrestling to gym-
ing reactive strength capacity via drop nastics to golf. Obviously, the physical
jumps (25) over a range of heights is demands of these sports are very differ-
more challenging with a large squad of ent. Practitioners should take the time to
team sport athletes than with an indi- understand the demands and culture of
vidual athlete. Using these monitoring the sport they are working with by talk-
tests across a range of drop jump heights ing with other practitioners and athletes
and comparing the results to vertical and observing the athletes in training and
countermovement jump results can competition.
provide useful insights into the athlete’s The best advice for monitoring athletes
tolerance of stretch load. For example, a in individual sports is to keep things
practitioner may decide to have an ath- simple, at least in the beginning. At a
lete complete a drop jump test using 30 minimum, having an athlete keep a
cm (11.8 in.), 45 cm (17.7 in.), and 60 training diary will provide indications of
cm (23.6 in.) in addition to the vertical training load. With simple measures of
countermovement jump test. Performing session duration and RPE, other metrics
these tests will reveal whether the athlete can then be calculated.
An advantage of starting monitoring provides the practitioner with regular

with a smaller number of tools is that feedback on the effects of the training
it can create athlete buy-in and avoid program as well as insight into specific
both practitioners and athletes overre- interventions needed.
lying on the monitoring information. A
good maxim for practitioners deciding
whether to use a monitoring tool is “If
in doubt, throw it out.”
Conclusion
After completing the monitoring, one
of the main considerations is the changes Monitoring can provide important
that need to be made to the training pro- insights into the fatigue, fitness, and
gram, if any. Following are some funda- training readiness of athletes training
mental questions to ask: for and competing in individual sports.
A critical quality of a monitoring pro-
• How does the information guide the gram is that it informs decisions about
training for this session? For the training. Ultimately, monitoring that
week? For the training phase? can be incorporated into training ses-
• Is it more important to focus on the sions and competitions without creating
identified weaknesses or continue extra work for the athlete and the prac-
to develop the athlete’s strengths? titioner is ideal. The monitoring tools
should be reliable and valid and take
• Should the training program com-
into account the requirements of the
bine both aspects?
athlete as well as be able to accurately
The underlying philosophy is to indi- discern a meaningful change in perfor-
vidualize training programs for athletes mance. Results of the monitoring tests
in individual sports. Practitioners need need to be reported in a clear, meaning-
to take into account the athlete’s years ful, and timely manner to have maximal
of training, the level of competition, the impact on the athlete’s training. The
phase of the season, the impact of train- practitioner can use this evidence-based
ing individual capacities (e.g., muscular information in conjunction with the
strength) on other physical capacities, and art of coaching to maximize training
the athlete’s needs based on performance program effectiveness for athletes in
priorities. Monitoring, if done well, individual sports.
Athlete
9
Monitoring
Guidelines
for Team Sports
This chapter focuses on athlete monitor- Team Sport Athletes

ing guidelines, approaches, challenges,
and solutions in team sports. The general For the purposes of this chapter, foot-
principles discussed in chapter 8 with ball, baseball, American football, rugby
respect to individual sport athletes can union, rugby league, basketball, vol-
be applied in team sport environments, leyball, netball, handball, Australian
although often the circumstances are rules football, ice hockey, field hockey,
quite different. softball, and cricket are considered team
sports. Typically, the greatest challenge urements, practitioners can be confident

facing practitioners working in team that they provide valuable information on
sports is the number of athletes they team sport athletes’ responses to training
have to deal with. In individual sports, load (23, 47, 50). Practitioners can also
practitioners may be dealing with only develop their own athlete monitoring
several athletes, but team sport scenarios databases using online tools (see chapter
can involve playing groups with upwards 8). Although dealing with data is not
of 30 athletes. In American football, everyone’s forte, doing so provides insight
more than 50 players may be training into how the information is generated and
or practicing at the same time. Because what it means so that practitioners do not
large-scale monitoring systems can be have to simply accept the numbers.
difficult in such situations, practitioners Practitioners on a budget can develop
often default to simple, but still effective, a monitoring system gradually, adding
methods. aspects over time that they believe have
A crucial guideline in team sports is value. The length of each phase is deter-
not to rely on a one-size-fits-all mon- mined by the practitioner and the char-
itoring model. Ideally, the goal is to acteristics of the group of athletes. Ide-
monitor team athletes individually and ally, each phase would last long enough
create individual training programs. (typically several weeks) to accustom the
Practitioners working with elite rugby athletes to the monitoring tools. A practi-
union athletes identified the need for tioner working with a high school rugby
greater individualization (33), although union team, for example, might take the
this must be balanced with the realities following approach:
of monitoring large numbers of athletes.
Like practitioners working in individual • Phase 1: A simple training clas-
sports, those working with teams need sification scale is assigned to the
a good understanding of the demands athletes at each session (e.g., A =
of the sport and an appreciation of its full training, B = modified training,
culture. C = in rehabilitation, D = absent).
The duration of each session is also
recorded.
Monitoring in Team • Phase 2: A training diary that
includes a place to record each ses-
Sports on a Budget sion’s duration and rating of per-
ceived exertion (RPE) is introduced
A large budget is not required to monitor to the players.
athletes in team sports. With a few simple • Phase 3: The training diary is
resources, a practitioner can implement expanded to include more detailed
a monitoring system that provides useful information about the content of
information. For example, the cost of each session such as the mode of
obtaining measures of wellness and training, exercises, sets, and repe-
subjective internal training load is only titions. A wellness questionnaire is
the practitioner’s time. With research distributed and collected at the start
supporting the value of subjective meas- of each week.
Athlete Monitoring Guidelines for Team Sports 191
• Phase 4: The athletes continue fill- outline how athlete monitoring can be
ing out their training diaries, but applied to some common team sports.
now the wellness questionnaires
are completed three times each
week. For one training session, a
Jumping Sports
smartphone app is used to monitor Practitioners are often interested in
velocity in one upper-body exercise measuring jumping and landing volumes
(e.g., speed bench press) and one in sports such as basketball, volleyball,
lower-body exercise (e.g., vertical and netball to monitor training load.
countermovement jump). Inertial sensor technology can be used
to count jumps during practices and
• Phase 5: Phase 4 continues with the
matches (22). An alternative is to keep
addition of a 4-min submaximal
track of jumps performed during prac-
running test (51), in which postex-
tice sessions by hand, but that may be
ercise heart rate and RPE are meas-
too labor intensive with a large group of
ured. The test is performed as part athletes. A more practical approach is to
of the athletes’ warm-up for one record jumps outside of team practice ses-
training session every other week. sions, such as during conditioning work-
A vertical countermovement jump outs or specific jump training sessions.
test is also used to monitor fatigue However, this assumes that the athletes
and serve as a monitoring tool for are performing a standard number of
one power training session. jumps during practice sessions, which
• Future phases: Athletes can com- is unlikely. Doing some pilot work in
plete a more extensive wellness which practice sessions are recorded (via
questionnaire (e.g., Recovery-Stress video or direct observation) followed by
Questionnaire for Athletes) every 2 a time–motion analysis of the number of
or 3 weeks. jumps may prove informative. Another
strategy is to classify session intensity
Practitioners with more extensive in a general way (i.e., hard, moderate,
budgets can start with a wider range of or easy). However, the most accurate
monitoring tools from which they can method is to obtain the number of jumps
determine the ones that are particularly performed and calculate metrics such as
effective. In the majority of settings, load, monotony, and strain.
however, a phased approach is more Table 9.1 shows an example of a week
sensible. of jump monitoring for a volleyball
player. The practitioner could conclude
from this analysis that the volume and
Applying Monitoring monotony of the week were too high.
Targets could be set for the following
in Team Sports week based on the data and published
research (if available) on comparable
The general principles of athlete mon- athletes. For example, the practitioner
itoring can be applied across a range may choose the following targets: total
of team sports. The following sections volume ≤3,600 jumps; monotony ≤1.50.
keep a record of their sleep, hydration,

TABLE 9.1 Jump Monitoring and activity (walking and stretching)
for a Volleyball Athlete during a long flight may help with adher-
ence to guidelines.
Training load (number Factors that need to be considered
Day
of jumps) when traveling with a squad of athletes
Monday 600 for competition or training camps include
Tuesday 935 the number of time zones crossed, the
Wednesday
availability of training facilities, the
805
portability of monitoring equipment,
Thursday 225 the number of athletes, and athlete
Friday 875 responses. At a minimum, monitoring
Saturday 400 player wellness reveals how athletes
Sunday 0 are coping with the demands of travel.
Having performance plans based on
Total weekly load 3,840.0
monitoring information is also a good
Daily mean load 548.6 practice when traveling. An example is
Daily standard deciding to arrive earlier prior to compe-
354.0
deviation tition to optimize acclimatization to the
Monotony 1.55 new time zone.
Injury Prevention
Athlete monitoring has tremendous
Unfortunately, for most measures, spe- potential for injury prevention. In team
cific guidelines are not available. Prac- sports, the best athletes need to be avail-
titioners can develop their own general able for the majority of the season (25,
guidelines from research on athletes in 53). A monitoring program that allows
similar sports and adjust them as they a practitioner to make sound decisions
collect more information over time. about return to performance, manage
player workload, and avoid training
errors can go a long way in achieving
Travel overall team health and athlete avail-
One of the realities of sport is traveling ability. Williams and colleagues (53)
to competitions, which places extra demonstrated a relationship between
demands on athletes. Research has injury rates and team success in profes-
demonstrated that travel can have nega- sional rugby union over a 7-year period.
tive effects on athlete performance if not Having a reduced burden of injury (lost
managed correctly (17-20); long-haul playing time due to injury) of 42 days
flights, in particular, can be very taxing. per 1,000 playing hours resulted in a
Athlete monitoring—especially of sleep smallest meaningful change in the team’s
quantity and quality (43)—can shed light position in the competition. The rela-
on the effects of travel on team sport tionship was also demonstrated over an
athletes (46). One of the advantages of 11-year period in professional European
monitoring while traveling is that it can football (25). The teams with the lowest
make the athlete more mindful of good injury burdens performed better in
practice. For example, asking athletes to both domestic leagues and international
European competitions (25). Windt and that team sport athletes (rugby league)
colleagues (54) showed that elite rugby could tolerate high chronic loads as
league players who completed a greater long as the acute-to-chronic training
number of sessions during the presea- load ratio was maintained between
son had a reduced injury rate during 0.85 and 1.35. However, there is still
the competitive season. This research no widely accepted range for all sports.
shows that completing the preseason The period of time used to calculate the
without interruption increases team chronic measure depends on the sport,
sport athletes’ availability for critical but 3 weeks seems to provide an accu-
parts of the season. rate picture for most (21). Measures of
The ratio of acute training load to both internal and external load can be
chronic training load is emerging as an analyzed using this method.
important measure and may help with Figure 9.1 shows 6 weeks of moni-
injury prevention (6, 31). Avoiding toring strain for a team sport athlete.
large increases in workload is impor- Strain (training load × monotony) has
tant for avoiding injury (30, 45). Drew been calculated for each week. A roll-
and Finch suggested that increases in ing 3-week average (also called a time
training load should not exceed 10% series analysis; see page 32 in chapter
over the training load of the previous 2) is calculated as a measure of the
week (15). One of the issues with look- chronic strain on the athlete. In week 5
ing at training load in isolation (e.g., the acute-to-chronic training load ratio
daily or weekly) is that practitioners is greater than 1.5, which is a red flag
are not able to determine how athletes for the practitioner (31). The picture
are tolerating the overall workload. may look quite different depending on
One way to remedy this is to examine the monitoring metric used in the cal-
the longitudinal patterns of the moni- culation. This highlights the importance
toring data such as comparing weekly of not relying on a single measure for
training loads to a rolling average of athlete monitoring. The use of ratios
training load over several weeks (31). and metrics can be appealing, but they
Hulin and colleagues (31) demonstrated should not be used in isolation. Absolute
Figure 9.1 Acute and chronic monitoring of strain for a team

sport athlete.
WEEK
1 2 3 4 5 6
Weekly strain 4,132 6,669 3,512 6,737 11,066 9,273
Chronic strain (rolling 4,132 5,401 4,771 5,639 7,105 9,025
3-week average)
Acute-to-chronic training 1.00 1.23 0.74 1.19 1.56 1.03
load ratio
values and athlete capacity are also of the match (although small-sided games
important to consider when monitoring and drills are good options), but using the
these aspects. minutes played as a starting point, the
practitioner designs a session that takes
into account differences in athletes’ play-
Managing the Workload ing time. In this example, three athletes
of Starters played the following number of minutes
and Nonstarters (note that the total match duration is 80
min):
The issue of starters and nonstarters is
interesting to practitioners working in Athlete 1 = 80 min
team sports. Research performed on
football players revealed differences in Athlete 2 = 47 min
training and match (game) load between
starters and nonstarters (1). Over the Athlete 3 = 15 min
course of the National Basketball Associ-
ation (United States) season, differential Looking at the number of minutes of
responses in physical capacities (low- playing time is helpful but not without
er-body power, repeat jump ability, and limitations. Incorporating a measure of
reaction time) occur between starters and internal load such as RPE would more
nonstarters (24). Athletes who sit on the accurately calculate match load. Other fac-
bench during games may need additional tors that can be factored into the calcula-
training (sometimes called top-up ses- tion (but are not included in this example)
sions) outside of games to make up for are the quality of the opposition and the
this loss in training stress. intensity of the match (34).
Some practitioners have nonstarters Athletes 1, 2, and 3 had RPEs of 9, 10,
perform a conditioning session at the and 7, respectively. Match load is calcu-
end of the game or as an additional ses- lated as follows:
sion the following day. This requires an Athlete 1 = 80 min × 9 =
accurate gauge of the load experienced 720 arbitrary units
by the starters during the game. A simple
monitoring tool is to track the number
Athlete 2 = 47 min × 10 =
of minutes starting athletes play and
470 arbitrary units
obtain a measure of their internal load
(e.g., RPE). The prescription for the extra
conditioning session for nonstarters can Athlete 3 = 15 min × 7 =
be based on the load (number of minutes 105 arbitrary units
and RPE) handled by the starters during The calculations reveal that the top-up
game time. Athletes who did not play at sessions for athletes 2 and 3 should be
all would have different additional train- quite different; athlete 3 will need approxi-
ing prescriptions than those who did not mately 4.5 times more work than athlete 2.
start but played a significant amount of
time later in the game.
Consider a practitioner who deter- Training Camps
mines the number of minutes played by a Athletes are often required to handle high
squad of rugby league players. It may not training volumes. Completing several
be possible to fully replicate the demands shorter sessions is one way to disperse the
volume. Monitoring can provide insight differences into account, and monitoring
into the effect of performing multiple can help.
sessions in one day (32), particularly In sports such as football, basketball,
in situations such as training camps. In ice hockey, softball, and cricket, teams
fact, athletes typically take on greater may play more than two matches in
training loads in these situations than a week (10). Research suggests that
they do in the competitive season (12). rates of injury increase with more
Several research studies have investi- congested match scheduling (5, 13).
gated approaches for monitoring team Although research shows that physical
sport athletes during training camps (8, performance and technical ability are
26, 44). These researchers state that no not affected, evidence points toward a
single measure can give a complete pic- greater risk of injury (9, 13). It may be
ture of the athlete’s response to training; possible to manage this increased risk,
a one-size-fits-all training prescription however, with appropriate attention to
in these environments is not considered player rotation and postmatch recovery
best practice. Instead, monitoring across strategies (9). It is also important to
the squad of athletes can reveal how the consider the cumulative effect of these
athletes are coping with training and give congested periods over the course of the
the practitioner information to inform season to manage fatigue and prevent
training and recovery decisions. injuries.
At the end of the regular season,
Competition teams may enter a tournament period
in which they are playing matches with
and In-Season Periods only 24 hr between them. In some sports,
Practitioners sometimes face unique international championships have a
scenarios during competition and in-sea- very different schedule from that of the
son periods. For example, the impact regular season; teams are expected to
of different turnaround times between play several high-intensity games in a
matches or games must be considered compressed time period. These scenarios
within the context of a team’s training present significant challenges for team
program (39). Although practitioners are sport practitioners. Sudden spikes in
often used to a standard 1-week turna- match load can increase the risk of injury
round between competitive events, the and result in fatigue that contributes
reality is quite different in many team to decreased chances of team success.
sports. Athlete monitoring systems give prac-
Murray and colleagues (39) investi- titioners a clearer understanding of the
gated the effects of different turnaround demands of match scheduling variations
times between professional rugby league so they can make the necessary changes
matches on match activity profiles using to the athletes’ training programs.
global positioning systems and injury Another common issue with team
rates. They discovered that athletes in sport athletes during the competition
some positions had higher injury rates season is the potential for decreases in
with longer turnaround times, whereas physical fitness (37). Research has shown
those in other positions had higher rates that physical qualities such as upper-
with shorter turnaround times. Prac- body power and total-body mass can
titioners need to take these positional decrease across the competitive season
in team sport athletes, indicating that When financial benefits are shown,
match load stimulus is not sufficient to employers have the incentive to increase
maintain physical fitness (28, 35). Ath- efforts in these areas (14).
lete monitoring can provide more regular
data on how athletes are tracking during
the season to allow for more effective
training management. Only by having
Monitoring System
up-to-date knowledge of their athletes’ for Team Sports
physical capacities can practitioners make
the necessary week-to-week changes to Table 9.2 outlines the frequency, pur-
ensure that they maintain fitness. A pose, analysis methods, and practical
common misconception is that qualities interpretations of the monitoring vari-
such as aerobic endurance and maximal ables for a squad of 25 football players.
strength are difficult to maintain during Training load was measured using ses-
the competition season. Researchers sion RPE and duration to allow for the
have demonstrated that with the nec- calculation of monotony and strain. The
essary adjustments to programming, practitioner decided to obtain wellness
team sport athletes can maintain and measures only twice a week because of
even improve these qualities during the the high number of players. A drop jump
regular season (2, 4, 16, 24, 28, 29, 40). test was performed three times each
week prior to the start of the training
Tactical Athletes session to measure reactive strength.
A submaximal running test, performed
and Workers every second week, measured heart rate
Although the focus of this book is on and RPE (51). This is based on the Yo-Yo
sport, the principles of monitoring can intermittent recovery test, which the
also be applied to other populations. practitioner has been using as the aerobic
Increasing focus on the physical prepa- endurance test. The test is performed for
ration of tactical athletes (i.e., those 4 min but using 18.5-m shuttles instead
in the military, law enforcement, and of 20-m shuttles.
emergency services) reveals that more
systematic approaches to monitoring
(48) decrease injury rates and optimize
performance (42). Several investigators
Reporting One Week
have studied monitoring tools for tactical of Monitoring
populations (41, 52). A mixed-methods
approach appears to be optimal, but there for a Team Sport
are no clear guidelines for implementing
or applying the methods in the field. Figure 9.2 (page 198) shows a weekly
Monitoring approaches can also be monitoring report for a team athlete; the
applied in the workplace as employers coach and practitioner summary report
increasingly appreciate the value of is shown in figure 9.3 (page 199). To
healthy workers. Therefore, methods avoid overwhelming the athlete with too
for encouraging physical activity and much information, the summary is brief
improving lifestyle factors (e.g., getting enough to appear on the athlete’s device
more sleep) are gaining more attention. as a single screen capture. The coach and
TABLE 9.2 Monitoring System for Football

Assessment Practical
Variable Purpose Analysis method
frequency interpretation
Session RPE Every session Measure of Z-score relative to Z-score ≤−1.5
perceived exertion of baseline measure
training session
Training load Weekly Measure of internal • Z-score relative to • Z-score ≤−1.5
load baseline measure • Acute-to-chronic
• Acute-to-chronic ratio ≥1.5 is a
ratio yellow flag; ≥2.0 is
a red flag
Monotony Weekly Measure of Z-score relative to Z-score ≤−1.5
sameness and baseline measure
variation of training
Strain Weekly Measure of overall • Z-score relative to • Z-score ≤−1.5
product of training baseline measure • Acute-to-chronic
load and monotony • Acute-to-chronic ratio ≥1.5 is a
ratio yellow flag; ≥2.0 is
a red flag
Wellness Twice per week Measure of overall • Z-score relative to Z-score ≤−1.5
(questionnaire) wellness and quality baseline measure ± 2 on individual item
of sleep, muscle • Change in raw = positive or negative
soreness, fatigue, score for individual change
and stress items
Vertical drop jump Daily Measure of • Z-score relative to • Z-score ≤−1.5
(jump height and neuromuscular baseline measure • If contact time
contact time)* fatigue • Smallest or jump height
meaningful decreases greater
change relative to than smallest
reliability meaningful
change,
investigation is
needed.
Submaximal running Every 2 weeks Measure of running • For heart rate: Z-score ≤−1.5 ± 2 on
test (average heart performance and z-score relative to RPE scale = positive
rate and RPE) fatigue baseline measure or negative change
• For RPE: change in
raw score
*If a contact mat or similar technology is not available, the drop jump could be replaced with a vertical countermovement
jump.
practitioner’s report commonly includes the coach and practitioner. The result
more details about athletes in addition is an easily digestible report that can be
to the overall means and standard devi- quickly scanned. A more detailed plot of
ations. A traffic light system that incor- the athlete’s weekly monitoring z-scores
porates the analysis measures discussed and some key recommendations can also
earlier can be used to point out flags for be provided (see figure 9.4, page 199).
Although the athlete’s wellness score speed or power) profiling using a range
improved (see figure 9.2), the detailed of loads; this is more challenging in the
report indicates that training loads, team sport environment (38). Simple
monotony, and strain were high (see approaches can be performed on a sem-
figure 9.3). This highlights the problem iregular basis—for example, a high-force,
of taking a snapshot of a single week low-velocity test (e.g., isometric mid-thigh
(or day). It is not until the practitioner pull); a moderate-force, moderate-velocity
has detailed data or several weeks of test (e.g., loaded vertical squat jump); or
monitoring information (or both) that a high-force, high-velocity test (e.g., ver-
patterns begin to emerge. tical squat jump). The data would provide
a good overview of the athlete’s force and
velocity capabilities (3). Rather than rely-
Modifying Training ing on a single monitoring test to determine
force–velocity capabilities, the practitioner
Based on Monitoring could use two or three tests (36). A squad
of players could be rotated through these
With individual athletes it may be feasi- exercises, or the exercises could be incor-
ble to complete force–velocity (strength- porated into a training session.
Figure 9.2 Weekly report for a soccer player.

Athlete: Nicky Speed (NS) Sport: Soccer
Result Compared to previous week
Submaximal running test <83% ↑↑
(% maximal heart rate)
Submaximal running test (RPE) 6 →→
Training load 6,390 AU ↓↓
Monotony 2.10 AU ↓↓
Strain 13,421 AU ↓↓
Overall wellness score 7.5/10 ↑↑
Fatigue 8/10 ↑↑
Stress 6/10 ↑↑
Soreness 8/10 ↑↑
Sleep 8/10 ↑↑
Key: ↑↑ = improved; →→ = maintained; ↓↓ = worsened

Note: The overall wellness scores were converted to a score on a 1-10 scale to make it easier for the
athlete to interpret.
Observations and Recommendations

• The athlete coped well with the high training loads this week.
• Next week will have a more technical tactical focus; thus, overall training load
will be lighter.
Figure 9.3 Weekly monitoring report for team coach and practitioner.
Sport: Soccer
Submaximal Training
Submaximal Monotony Strain Overall
running test load
Athlete running test (arbitrary (arbitrary wellness Fatigue * Stress * Soreness * Sleep *
(% maximal (arbitrary
(RPE) units) units) score*
heart rate) units)
NS 83 6 6,390 2.10 13,421 7.5 8 6 8 8
TP 81 3 5,565 1.94 10,814 6 6 6 6 6
MN 89 7 5,470 2.22 12,135 5 4 6 6 4
SC 77 5 3,880 1.89 7,316 8.5 8 10 8 8
JP 80 4 5,415 1.87 10,131 7.5 8 8 6 8
MR 81 4 5,910 1.62 9,576 8 8 8 8 8
AB 86 4 5,355 2.22 11,877 6 6 6 6 6
FT 84 3 4,675 2.14 9,993 4.5 4 6 4 4
JH 87 7 6,080 2.09 12,724 6 6 6 6 6
CJ 82 4 6,640 1.88 12,499 7 8 6 8 6
SM DNC DNC 1,500 1.81 2,716 4.5 6 4 4 4
Mean 83 4.7 4,740 1.98 9,434 6.41 6.55 6.55 6.36 6.18
Standard 3.59 1.49 2,238 0.19 4,164 1.39 1.57 1.57 1.50 1.66
deviation
*Rating number is on a 1-10 scale.

DNC = did not complete
Summary: Red flags (results in bold) are identified for individual athletes and specific tests. Monotony and strain were high for
the week, and overall sleep quality was lower than in previous weeks. In an actual report, practitioners would click on an athlete’s
initials for a graph of individual results.
Submaximal running
Athlete NS
heart rate
2 Team average
1.5
1
0.5
Overall wellness 0 Submaximal running RPE
–0.5
Key recommendations
–1
• High monotony and
strain but responding well –1.5
• Continue to monitor –2
along with acute to
chronic workload
Strain Training load
Monotony
Figure 9.4 Weekly monitoring z-scores for athlete NS.

E6859/McGuigan/F09.04/555467/mh-R2
199
Consider a practitioner working with football a load of 60 kg (132 lb) might be

a women’s rugby sevens squad of 15 used for the jump test.
athletes who uses a monitoring battery
in a training session every 2 weeks. The
tests include the vertical squat jump Considerations
performed with body weight and with
a 20-kg (44 lb) load to determine the for Monitoring
athletes’ ability to tolerate external load. Athletes in Team
Following testing, two athletes obtain
the following ratios using jump height Sports
(although other variables could be used)
calculated as loaded vertical squat jump Because determining whether an ath-
divided by body weight vertical squat lete is struggling is more challenging
jump: in team sport environments than in
individual sports, practitioners should
Athlete 1 = 38 cm (15 in.) ÷
use a mixed-methods approach when
40 cm (15.7 in.) = 0.95
monitoring team sport athletes. No single
measure can provide a complete picture
Athlete 2 = 40 cm (15.7 in.) ÷
of how a team is coping with the demands
51 cm (20.1 in.) = 0.78
of training and competition. Practitioners
Athlete 1 tolerated the external load need a range of monitoring methods, and
well, as shown in the similarity of the they need to introduce athletes to them
results on both tests. Athlete 2 had a gradually to ensure adequate familiari-
decrease in performance with the addi- zation. This helps with compliance and
tion of an external load. Based on this athlete buy-in and improves the quality
information, the practitioner decides to of the monitoring data.
incorporate more exercises (e.g., loaded A good example of a simple and inex-
jump squats) into athlete 2’s program to pensive tool for monitoring stress is a
improve this capacity. questionnaire. Because the team sport
The practitioner decided to use an environment involves working with
absolute load of 20 kg (44 lb) for the large numbers of athletes, short-form
loaded vertical squat jump test. Although questionnaires such as the four-item Per-
basing the external load on an athlete’s ceived Stress Scale (11) are ideal because
strength (% of 1RM) or a percentage of they are easy to complete and analyze.
body weight are options, these adjust- Whenever possible, individual
ments are time consuming for practi- approaches should be used in team sport
tioners and athletes. What is required is environments. This can occur only if
a load high enough to discriminate the athlete monitoring provides quantifiable
ability of the athletes in that sport (and data. Something as simple as monitoring
playing position) to tolerate load. With sleep and providing strategies to improve
athletes in sports that require the han- sleep quality can be very valuable in
dling of high external loads, a heavier helping athletes improve their perfor-
external load could be used. In American mance (49).
With the emergence of more research tioners. Ideally, monitoring is done on an

on elite-level team sport athletes, espe- individual basis, but the logistics of the
cially women (27), practitioners now environment will dictate to what degree
have a wealth of information at their this can occur. Because no single monitor-
disposal (7, 8). Having more data from ing tool can provide a complete picture of
a range of sports will help them under- a team sport athlete, practitioners need to
stand how to monitor their athletes develop a toolbox of monitoring methods.
effectively. The fundamental consideration is how
the monitoring data can be used to inform
decision making. Developing simple and
Conclusion effective monitoring systems can help
practitioners manage the training load,
Monitoring team sport athletes provides reduce the injury rates, and optimize the
some interesting challenges for practi- performance of their team sport athletes.
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INDEX
Note: The italicized f and t following page baseline value 30, 31, 84, 124, 125, 179 CR-10 scale 79, 80, 92, 93, 129
numbers refer to figures and tables, basketball 189, 191-192, 195 CR-100 scale 79, 80
respectively. BDNF (brain-derived neurotropic factor) 57 curves
A bench press 110, 151f, 166, 184 force-time 106, 111
accelerometry 1, 69, 70, 71, 74, 76, 101, bilateral asymmetry 111-112 normal distribution, 17f, 37
bilateral deficit 112, 187 skewed, 17-18
136, 138, 143, 145, 150, 152-153, 171
biochemical markers 3, 56, 59-60, 113, 116- CV. See coefficient of variation (CV)
ACTH. See adrenocorticotropic hormone
117, 123-126, 134, 138 cyclists 36, 57, 61, 63, 76, 153-154, 174, 176
(ACTH)
blood analysis 116-117, 125t, 128t, 137 cytokines 60, 127-128
actigraphy 63
adaptation 3, 4-5, 6, 9, 12, 44-45, 50-52, blood pressure 64 D
70, 116, 119, 120, 124, 134, 163, 186 BMX athletes 171 Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes
adiponectin 122 body mass 111, 139, 180 (DALDA) 15, 63, 94-95, 101
adductor squeeze test 112 body weight 11, 59, 179-180, 199 Dalleau method 110
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) 55, Borg CR-100 scale 79 dance 145
56, 57, 60, 119 Borg 6-20 scale 79 data
aerobic endurance 5, 8, 9, 54, 65, 70, 76, boxing 180 analytics 1, 4, 5, 8, 10, 13, 18, 34, 169-
120, 162-163, 175, 195 brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) 57 170
allergies 58 Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) 90-91, 101 classification 15-16
allometric scaling 110, 111, 139 budgeted monitoring 174-175, 190-191 dredging 158
alpha-amylase 124 burnout. See overreaching; overtraining graphing 35-36
American football 4, 75, 165 C from interviews 40
anaerobic metabolism 124 cardiorespiratory endurance 54 mining 18
analysis category ratio-RPE scale (CR-RPE) 79 ordinal 19
cost–benefit 11, 64, 155 causation 33, 48 presentation of 34-40, 167f, 170
data. See data, analytics centiMax scale 79 processing methods 148
principal component 84 central fatigue 45 report guidelines 35
qualitative 40-41 central governor model 46 storing 148-149
split middle 32 central nervous system 45-46, 49 time series 32
anxiety 59, 90, 94, 97 central tendency 16 from technologies 147-149
apps 62, 99, 104, 105, 114, 136, 145, 191 change in mean 22 deadlift 110, 184
assessments. See also tests chartjunk 36 delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS)
bilateral vs. unilateral 111-112 cherry picking 158 92-93, 181
chronic change 32-33 clean and press 110 depression 57, 62, 90
nontraining parameters 4 coaches 1, 18, 35, 37, 39, 41, 58, 69, 75, 98, descriptive statistics 14, 15-20
training readiness 3-4 157-172, 183 diabetes 58, 144
wellness 90-101 coefficient of determination 34 diaries/logs 1, 58, 65, 76, 90, 120, 137, 175-
asthma 58 coefficient of variation (CV) 176, 177, 187, 190-191
asymmetry 106, 111-112, 146, 154 calculation 23 displacement 76, 104, 110
athlete monitoring definition 21 DOMS (delayed-onset muscle) 92-93, 181
barriers 168-169 typical 28t dose–response relationship 43
coaching and 157-172 Cohen’s effect size 29 Douglas bags 140
considerations 187-188, 200-201 combat sports 174, 179-180 drop jumps 108, 109f, 134, 187
current practices 135-156 boxing 180 dynamic strength index 112-113
feedback 164-167 judo 175 E
flexibility 163-164 wrestling 180 eating disorders 59
guidelines 173-188 communication 160 eccentric utilization ratio 107, 185-186
individualized 7-11, 166-168, 173-188 concurrent validity 26 ecological validity 24
innovation 138-139 confidence limits 20 Edwards method 88, 89, 93
in-house 169-171 confirmation bias 158 effect size 20, 29-30, 31
issues 2f construct validity 25 endurance
reports 38f, 39f, 183-185, 196-198, 199f content validity 25 aerobic 5, 8, 9, 54, 65, 70, 76, 120, 162-
research process 170f, 171 continuum of fatigue 51-52, 55, 57 163, 175, 195
team sports 189-201 contraception 59, 119 cardiorespiratory 54
attentional focus 165-166 correlation 21, 26, 33-34, 48, 158 muscular 20, 180
augmented feedback 161 cortisol 3, 8, 9, 37, 51, 52, 57, 60, 63, 117, energy homeostasis 59, 60, 122
Australian Institute of Sport 28 119-120, 177 environmental conditions 23, 27, 64, 84,
Australian rules football 8, 54, 73, 79-80, 82, cortisone 117 88, 116
84, 105-106, 114, 130, 189 cost–benefit analysis 11, 64, 155 epinephrine 48, 121
auto-regulation 161-163 creatine kinase 59, 63, 123-124 Epstein-Barr virus 58
B cricket 73, 189, 195 ergometer test 130
balance 111, 132, 133f criterion measure 26 estrogen 59, 120
balance error scoring system 132 criterion validity 25 ethical issues 145, 160
baseball 137 CR-RPE (category ratio-RPE scale) 79 external focus 165-166
249
250 Index
external load 70-78, 83, 84, 101, 137, 176 methods 89-90 mid-thigh pull. See isometric mid-thigh
extreme sports 181-183 monitors 84, 87, 89, 114, 116 pull (IMTP)
F recovery 114-116, 129, 134, 191 squat 110
face validity 25 resting 18, 58, 61, 87, 88, 91f J
fatigue 3, 6-7, 8, 11, 24, 25, 27, 29, 30, 37, zone scores 83, 176 Jawbone UP 71
39, 50, 51-52, 59, 60, 65, 67, 70, 90, heart rate variability (HRV) 4, 58, 61, 65, judo 175
93, 97, 99, 103, 114, 130, 134, 135, 113-114, 115f, 116, 161-162, 179 jumping sports 191-192
139, 171, 181, 182, 188, 191 heuristics 158, 179 jump tests
feedback 5, 35, 57, 71, 94, 99, 107, 110, 141, histograms 17, 35, 37 broad jumps 110, 166, 174, 186
143, 145, 150, 154, 158, 170 homeostasis 3, 44, 45, 68, 121, 127-128 drop jumps 108, 109f, 134, 187
augmented 161 Hooper index 93 horizontal 186
coaching 38 hormonal markers 51, 53, 55-59, 113, 116- protocols 106-108
monitoring 164-167 123, 134, 138 repeat 110
response 166 HRV. See heart rate variability (HRV) static 107, 134, 185-186
tactile 166 hydration 4, 88, 143, 180, 192 unilateral 110
velocity 165 hyperthermia 46 vertical countermovement 3, 9, 19, 22,
verbal 166 hypertrophy 81, 118, 119, 121, 161 23, 25, 28, 30, 49, 56, 104, 105f, 106-
visual 164, 166 hypothalamus 53, 57, 59, 117, 122 108, 134, 147, 174, 178, 180, 181,
Feeling Scale 63 hypoxanthine 124 183, 185-186, 191
female athlete triad 59 hypoxia 46
field hockey 189 K
I knee-to-wall test 132
figure skating 145
ICC (intraclass correlation coefficients) 21,
Fitbit 71 L
fitness-fatigue model 45-50, 51, 68 24
lactate 48, 78, 79, 81, 88, 129, 131, 143, 144
flexibility ice hockey 189, 195
lactate threshold 76
monitoring 163-164 IgA. See immunoglobulin A (IgA) learning effects 22
tests 131-132 IGFBP-3 (insulin-like growth factor-binding Likert scale 65, 91, 93, 94, 132
flight time to contraction time 104 protein 3) 59, 121-122 linear position transducers 107, 177f
focus groups 41 IGF-1 (insulin-like growth factor-1) 121-122 line graphs 36
football 10, 56, 61, 65, 70, 72, 73, 80, 83, illness. See sickness lipolysis 120
93, 127, 130, 136, 192-193, 195. See immunoglobulin A (IgA) 9, 59, 126-127, load 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9-10, 24, 27, 34, 45,
also American football; Australian 128f 50-53, 54, 64, 67, 69-70, 86f-87f, 88,
rules football immunological markers 9, 38, 59, 62, 63, 93, 106, 111, 118, 122, 128, 134, 162,
force 3, 15, 33, 45, 46, 48, 54, 71, 76, 104, 103, 119, 126-129, 134 175, 177, 178f, 182f, 184, 187, 191,
150, 153 IMTP. See isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) 193, 197, 198, 199
impact 143 indexes load cells 140, 142
measures 112, 113f dynamic strength 112-113 logs. See diaries/logs
peak production 26, 33, 34, 46, 104, 107, Hooper 93 low-frequency fatigue 46
110, 111 reactive strength 108 lunge 131, 132
rate of development 111, 165 individual athlete variation 8 Lyme disease 58
force plates 108, 110, 145-146, 152, 185-186 individual sport athletes 173-188
French Society for Sports Medicine ques- inertial sensors 71 M
tionnaire 94 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 149-150
inexpensive monitoring 174-175, 190-191
frequency 69 magnetometers 71, 72, 152
inferential statistics 14
functional overreaching 54-55, 56, 61, 68 magnitude-based statistics 14
in-house research projects 169
futsal 47 maximal strength 5, 81, 195
injury 4, 6, 10, 52, 58, 64, 75, 78, 82, 97,
maximal voluntary contractions 46
G 98, 131, 150, 183, 201
maximum (statistics) 15
Garmin Vivosmart 71 prevention 142, 153, 192-194
McGill Pain Questionnaire 92-93
general adaptation syndrome (GAS) 44-45, rates of 5, 195
mean 16
44f, 51, 68 soft tissue 108 meaningful change 27-33, 36-37, 41, 100,
ghrelin 122 instrumental sport equipment 140, 141f, 142 113, 137, 181
global positioning systems (GPS) 71-76, 152 insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 3 measurements
gluconeogenesis 119 (IGFBP-3) 59, 121-122 biochemical. See biochemical markers
glucose 119, 124, 127, 143-144 insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) 121-122 central tendency 16, 41
glutamate 122 intensity 69 criterion 26
glutamine 122 interindividual variability 120 error of 21, 22-23
golf 174, 187 interleukin-6 127-128 fitness-fatigue 103-134
GPS (global positioning systems) 71-76, 152 internal load 70, 78-101, 137, 176, 190, 194 flight to contraction time 104-105, 108
graphs 35-36, 41 International Olympic Committee 59 force 112, 113f
line 36 interpolated twitch technique 104 hormonal. See hormonal markers
scatter plot 36 interrater reliability 22 immunological. See immunological mark-
z-score 37-39 interval scales 15 ers
groin squeeze test 112 intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) 21, kinematic 143
growth hormone 51, 121 24 methods 116-117
gymnastics 145, 146, 174 intraindividual variability 120 muscle damage 124
gyroscopes 71, 152 intrarater reliability 22 tools 69-70
H inventories. See questionnaires units 36
handball 114, 189 isokinetic testing 103, 136, 164 wellness 63-64, 98-99, 182
heart rate 9, 11, 18, 58, 63, 65, 70, 74, 78, isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) 4, 26, 34, median 16
79, 81, 84, 101, 103, 113-116, 129, 37, 110, 111, 198 menstruation 59, 119, 120, 126
138-139, 154 isometric tests 110 metabolism 119, 122, 124
maximal 61, 88 bench press 110 metabolites 123
measures 61, 138 lower-limb hamstrings 112 Microsoft Band 71
Index 251
minimal individual difference 107 analysts 159 questionnaire. See Recovery–Stress Ques-
minimum (statistics) 15 competition 5, 24, 26, 58, 76, 128, 139, tionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport)
mode (exercises) 69 183 short scale 181
mode (statistics) 16 detriments 6, 43, 46, 52, 57, 115 strategy 58, 67
models 34, 62, 139-140 gain 118, 164 Total Quality Recovery Scale 63, 98, 101
application 51 optimization 58, 201 Recovery–Stress Questionnaire for Athletes
central governor 46 ratings 132-134 (RESTQ-Sport) 15, 55, 61, 63, 64,
fitness-fatigue 45-50, 51, 68 tests 60-61, 103, 115, 125, 129-134, 138, 95-97, 101, 191
general adaptation syndrome 44-45, 44f, 169, 181 regression 34
51, 68 variable 111 rehabilitation 107, 112, 130, 154, 161, 183
stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation periodization 50, 54, 55 relationships 33-34, 36, 158
50-51, 50f, 68 peripheral fatigue 45 dose–response 43, 46, 127
stress-recovery-adaptation 58 physicians 67 fitness and fatigue 47
monitoring. See athlete monitoring physiologists 45 force–velocity 152
monotony 62, 67, 82, 86f, 87f, 176, 178, physiotherapists 67 pain–strength 112
179, 184, 191, 196, 198, 199 Player Load 73 session RPE 83
mood 8, 9, 57, 59, 90. See also Profile of plots testosterone–cortisol 120-121
Mood States (POMS) radar 37, 39f “Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport” (IOC)
motorsports 174, 181 z-score 37-39 59
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) 149-150 Polar Electro 87 reliability 20-24, 27, 35, 41, 74, 104, 105-
muscle biopsy 149-150 106, 150, 155, 166, 168
polysomnography 154
muscle damage 123, 124 repetitions in reserve (RIR) 81-82
POMS. See Profile of Mood States (POMS)
muscle stiffness 108 RESTQ-Sport. See Recovery–Stress Ques-
postactivation potentiation (PAP) 48-49
muscular endurance 20, 180 tionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport)
positively skewed curves 17
muscular strength 8, 10, 20, 48, 54, 81, 110, retest reliability 21
posture 131, 132
111-112, 119, 164 retrospective analysis 169
powerlifters. See weightlifters
RIR (repetitions in reserve) 81-82
N predictive validity 26 rowers 176
National Basketball Association 194 principal component analysis 84 RPE. See ratings of perceived exertion (RPE)
National Football League 31 privacy 160 R-squared 34
negatively skewed curves 17 Profile of Mood States (POMS) 15, 25, 55, rugby 8, 9, 10, 55, 59, 62, 73, 75, 76, 84, 119,
nervous system 63, 90-91, 101 123, 128, 152, 189, 192-193, 194, 199
central 45-46, 49 psychological factors 2, 6, 8, 45, 49, 55, 58, r-value 33
parasympathetic 47-48, 114 65, 67, 78, 94-95, 116, 119, 125, 159
sympathetic 47, 48, 59 psychologist 67 S
netball 11, 73, 189, 191-192 psychomotor speed tests 61-62 saliva analysis 116-117, 118, 125t, 128t,
neuromuscular fatigue 104-113, 176 PubMed 169 137, 144
New Body Load 73 push-ups 131 sampling frequency 147-148
nominal scales 15 putative factors 46 scales
nonfunctional overreaching 53, 55-57, Borg 6-20 79
68, 122 Q Borg CR-100 79
nonparticipant observation 41 questionnaires 11, 19, 20, 25, 30-32, 38, 52, Brunel Mood (BRUMS) 90-91, 101
nontraining parameters 3 62, 63, 67, 90-100, 126, 131, 136, 137, category ratio-RPE (CR-RPE) 79
norepinephrine 48, 121 138, 169, 174, 177, 181, 182, 190, 200 centiMax 79
nutrition 2, 4, 11, 52, 58, 59, 67, 90, 116, Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Ath- CR-100 79, 80
122, 123, 126, 180 letes 15, 63, 94-95, 101 effect size classification 30t
nutritionist 67 French Society for Sports Medicine 94 Feeling 63
Nyquist-Shannon theorem 148 McGill Pain 92-93 interval 15
Recovery–Stress. See Recovery–Stress Likert 65, 91, 93, 94, 132
O
Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ- nominal 15
objective feedback 161
Sport) ordinal 16
observation 41
Perceived Recovery Status 98, 101
OMNI RPE scales 84, 85f R
Perceived Stress 63, 200
1-repetition maximum (1RM), 5, 34, 49, 110, racket sports 180-181
ratio 15
130, 177, 199 radar devices 152 RESTQ-Sport 97t
ordinal scales 16 radar plots 37, 39f Short Recovery and Stress 181
overreaching 6-7, 9, 11, 12, 46, 52, 53-64, range 16 Total Quality Recovery 63, 98, 101
66, 90, 114, 121, 124, 129 rank order scales 16 Training Distress 63, 91-92, 101
overtraining 6-7, 12, 43, 46, 49, 52, 68, 90, rate of force development 111, 165 visual analog 92-93
114, 121, 122, 124, 128 ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) 8, 10, wellness 3, 39
avoidance 64-67 11, 15, 24, 26, 46, 48, 61, 62, 70, 74, scatter plots 36
markers 57-59, 61 78-84, 86, 87f, 89, 90, 91f, 93, 101, scores
P 106, 115, 116, 125, 129, 136, 138, baseline 30, 31, 181
paired t-test 22 139, 159, 171, 174, 177, 178, 187, heart rate zone 83, 176
PAP (postactivation potentiation) 48-49 190, 191, 194, 196, 197 raw 18
parasympathetic nervous system 47-48, 114 ratio scales 15 RESTQ-Sport 96f
participant observation 41 raw scores 18 standard difference 19, 30
Pearson correlation coefficients 21 reactive strength 37, 108 standard ten 39
pedometers 70 reactive strength index 108 stress 76
Perceived Recovery Status Scale 98, 101 recovery 6, 50, 52, 58, 64, 90, 94, 96, 97 T-scores 19
Perceived Stress Scale 63, 200 heart rate 114-116, 129, 134, 191 wellness 65, 93, 100f, 182f, 184, 198, 199
percentile rank 19 monitoring 9 z-scores 18-19, 29, 30, 31, 37-39, 93,
performance 1, 2, 3, 27, 65, 66, 71, 76, 98, perceived status 98, 101 100, 137, 139, 182, 197, 199f
106-107, 120, 153, 160, 175, 200 period of 3 semistructured interviews 40
252 Index
sensitivity 20, 155 Suunto 87 variables of 2

sensors surveillance 159-160 velocity-based 163
contact lens 144 swimming 53, 57, 63, 65, 71, 124, 174 volume 6, 49, 51, 53, 54, 58, 64, 76-77,
inertial 3, 71-72, 75, 191 sympathetic nervous system 47, 48, 59 122, 175
micro 150 T Training Distress Scale (TDS) 63, 91-92, 101
placement 144-145 tactical athletes 196 training impulse (TRIMP) 34, 88-90, 93, 100,
saliva-based 144 tactile feedback 166 176, 187
wearable 143-145, 143f, 151f, 155 taper 54, 63 training load. See load
session load 80 TDS (Training Distress Scale) 63, 91-92, 101 training monotony 82
session RPE 80-84, 86, 89, 90, 93, 139, 159f, team sports 189-201 training strain 82
171, 174, 177, 178, 187, 196, 197 technology 1, 35, 99, 104, 107, 135-156, training stress balance 83-84
Short Recovery and Stress Scale 181 157, 164, 174 training stress score 76
sickness 6, 9, 10, 52, 62, 65, 82, 98, 127 access 79 transcranial electrical stimulation 154
skinfold measurements 180 applications 149-154, 191 travel 192
sleep 2, 4, 7, 8, 37, 39, 57, 63, 90, 93, 98, 143, evolution 142 treadmill ergometers 130, 150, 152-153
154, 182, 184, 192, 198, 199 fatigue 163 triathletes 54, 61, 63, 65, 114, 174
smallest meaningful change 27-29, 36-37, laser 152 triaxial accelerometers 152
41, 113, 181 spectroscopy 88 TRIMP (training impulse) 34, 88-90, 93, 100,
soccer. See football tennis 174 176, 187
softball 189, 195 testosterone 9, 51, 56, 59, 117, 118-119, T-scores 19
soft tissue injuries 108 121, 177 tumor necrosis factor alpha 128
software 40, 175. See also apps tests twitch interpolation technique 46
soreness 8, 37, 39, 63, 90, 92-93, 99, 112, ergometer 130 typical error of measurement 21
181, 182, 198, 199 flexibility 131-132 U
sphygmomanometer 112 groin squeeze 112 ultramarathon 115
split middle analysis 32 isokinetic 103, 136, 164 ultrasound 150
sport scientists 1, 10, 58, 69 isometric. See isometric tests unstructured interviews 40
spreadsheets, 40 jump. See jump tests upper respiratory tract infections 9, 62, 126
sprint tests 129-130, 140, 150-152, 165, 196 knee-to-wall 132
squat 4, 78, 184 V
paired t-test 22
isometric 110 validity 20, 22, 24-27, 74, 150, 155
performance. See performance, tests
overhead 37, 131 concurrent 26
psychomotor speed 61-62
1-repetition maximum 26, 34, 106 construct 25
sprint 129-130, 140, 150-152, 165, 196
single-leg 131 content 25
star excursion balance 132
stability 132 submaximal running 129, 131, 191, 196, criterion 25-27
staleness. See overreaching; overtraining 197, 198, 199 ecological 24-25
standard deviation 17-18, 19, 21, 23, 28, 31, velocity 130-131 face 25
32, 33, 37, 39, 82, 86, 100, 197 Yo-Yo intermittent recovery 196 predictive 26
standard difference scores 19 Zoladz 130 variability 16-18, 32, 41, 104, 105-106, 117,
standard ten (STEN) scores 39 threshold 9, 31, 62, 73, 75, 82, 83, 98-99 120-121, 127, 128
star excursion balance test 132 force sensitivity 71 VAS (visual analog scales) 92-93
static jump 107 lactate 76 velocity 48, 71, 73, 79, 104, 150, 164
statistical process control 33 performance 164 barbell 178
statistics 13, 139 pressure-pain 93 feedback 165
descriptive 14, 15-20 velocity 131, 163 tests 130-131
inferential 14 ventilator 89 training 164
magnitude-based 14 time series analysis 32 ventilatory threshold 89
presentation of 37 timing systems 32, 70-76, 147, 151f, 191 visual analog scales (VAS) 92-93
software 40 tools for statistics 13-41 Vivosmart 71
STEN (standard ten score) 39 basic 14-15 volleyball 104, 189, 191-192
stiffness 108-110 descriptive 15-20 volume load 76
stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation model Total Quality Recovery Scale 63, 98, 101 W
50-51, 68 track and field athletes 174, 175 Wattbike 76
stopwatch 174 training wearable sensors 143-145, 143f, 151f, 155
strain 62, 82, 86f, 87f, 176, 178, 184, 191, circuit 180 weightlifters 89, 118, 150, 161, 176-177, 183
195, 197, 198, 199 dosage. See load monitoring 178f, 184f
strength and conditioning practitioner 1, 5, duration 3, 6, 38, 50, 54, 55, 69, 70, 80, performance 150
8, 33, 69, 150 159, 187, 190, 196 wellness 4, 8, 10, 66, 78, 125
stress 2, 6, 37, 50, 63, 64, 68, 80, 92, 93, 97, effects of 43-68 inventories 93-94
108, 116, 126, 131, 184, 194, 198, 199 factors 7f measures 63-64, 66f
balance 83-84 frequency 6, 16, 58, 67, 69 questionnaires 93-94
chronic 52, 123 history 7 scales 3, 39
effects of 43-68 intensified. See overreaching; overtraining Wingate peak power 180
quantifying 69-101 intensity 3, 6, 9, 46, 49, 51, 54, 58, 69, winter sports 174
response 3-4, 90 70, 77-78, 82 work rate 72, 81
score 76 intervention 19 wrestling 180
stress-recovery-adaptation model 58 modifications 185-187, 198-201 wristbands 71, 87
stretch 98, 104 plyometric 82, 164
stretch tolerance profiles 108 Y
program 2, 4-5
structured interviews 40 Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test 196
progressive resistance 5
submaximal running test 129, 131, 191, 196, readiness 3-4, 23, 98, 107, 111, 134, 162, Z
197, 198, 199 171, 188 Zoladz test 130
supercompensation 6, 44-45, 50, 56, 180 resistance 5, 44, 49, 51, 52, 54, 71, 76-78, z-scores 18-19, 29, 30, 31, 37-39, 93, 100,
surfing 174 81, 164, 176 137, 139, 182, 197, 199f
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Mike McGuigan, PhD, CSCS, is a
professor of strength and conditioning
at Auckland University of Technology
Courtesy of Auckland University of Technology
(AUT) in New Zealand and a member of

the strength and conditioning research
group in AUT’s Sports Performance
Research Institute New Zealand. He
is one of the world’s leading scientific
researchers on athlete monitoring and
is highly regarded internationally for
his work on resistance training and
strength and power development.
Before working at AUT, McGuigan
was at Edith Cowan University and the
University of Wisconsin–La Crosse and
worked as a sport scientist for High Performance Sport New Zealand.
He also has vast experience as an athlete monitoring consultant for
elite athletes and coaches, working with high-profile New Zealand
sport teams such as the All Blacks and the Silver Ferns.
McGuigan is a strength and conditioning specialist certified by the
National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA). He received
the NSCA’s Outstanding Young Investigator of the Year Award in 2007
and the William J. Kraemer Most Outstanding Sport Scientist Award
in 2016. He serves as an associate editor of the Journal of Australian
Strength and Conditioning, the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
and the International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance.
253
HUMAN KINETICS
Books E-books
Continuing Journals
Education ...and more!
www.HumanKinetics.com

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Monitoring

Mike McGuigan, PhD

1 Why Monitor Athletes? 1

2 Research Tools for Athlete Monitoring 13

3 Physiological Effects of Training Stress 43

4 Quantifying Training Stress 69

5 Measures of Fitness and Fatigue 103

Hormonal and Biochemical Markers 116

6 Current Monitoring Practices

7 Integrating Monitoring With Coaching 157

8 Athlete Monitoring Guidelines

9 Athlete Monitoring Guidelines

References 203 Index 249 About the Author 253

Athlete monitoring has become an practitioners need at least a basic under-

Why Monitoring Integrating

Figure 1.1 Monitoring issues and how monitoring helps athletes.

session. Some practitioners use high- needs to be considered. Research has

Assessing Nontraining Adaptation to a

training. However, if the window of time prescribing training based on measures of

Risk of Overreaching, However, if the mismatch between

Volume Environmental Genetics

Injury Sleep Diet Life events

Continued insufficient recovery

contributor to the system’s success. A Practitioners must always question

INDIVIDUAL RESPONSES IN A SQUAD OF ATHLETES

Conclusion are occurring. If done effectively, it may

Because athlete monitoring generates Traditional statistical methods are

Correlation Research Typical

Figure 2.1 Statistical toolbox for athlete monitoring.

tically meaningful rather than statistically

Descriptive Statistics tionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport),

Ordinal Scale Mode

Standard Deviation About 95% are within 2 standard devi-

0.13% 2.15% 13.59% 34.13% 34.13% 13.59% 2.15% 0.13%

Percentile 0.1 2.3 16 50 84 97.7 99.9

Figure 2.2 Normal frequency distribution curve.

For example, if an athlete has a result response to a training intervention (i.e.,

percentiles. This approach is more

compared to university-level and elite monitoring variables with athletes (15).

Change in the Mean Practitioners should be aware of other

Interrater Reliability Reducing

guidelines to use with monitoring that • Perform the monitoring under

TESTING FOR RELIABILITY

• Provide plenty of familiarization the practitioner may never know the

a training session to provide more mon- However, a vertical countermovement

Figure 2.3 Validity correlation of IMTP versus 1RM squat.

TABLE 2.1 Typical Coefficients of Variation for Some Sport Events

petition season, a practitioner should

TESTING FOR MEANINGFUL CHANGE

plotted on a graph that includes all the

GUIDELINES FOR CLEAR REPORTS

required for interpretation, spreadsheets by the standard deviation to show the

Figure 2.4 Athlete monitoring profile. E6859/McGuigan/F02.04/554425/mh-R2

in significant changes in means, stand- Modified z-score = (athlete’s score −

Injury Training Injury Training

gressive increase in loading is resulting z-scores confusing, for example, could

Creating Spreadsheets interviews, focus groups, and observa-