BHARATH INSTITUTE OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES

STUDY MATERIAL

Subject Name : COMMUNICATION SKILLS

UNIT I

Communication

Louis A. Allen defines, ‘Communication is the sum total of all the things that a person does,
when he wants to create an understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic and
continuous process of telling, listening and understanding’.

Importance of Communication

The process of Communication

Barriers to Communication
 7 C’s of Communication.

Types of Communication employed in Business Organizations

GRAPEVINE
Large organizations, where there are a large number of people working closely, generate
certain informal or unofficial channels of communication. These channels exist with or
without official patronage. Even if they are officially and secretly patronized, they are not
authentic. This type of communication is generally called “Grapevine” communication.

Probability Chain with regard to Grapevine

In some situation, an individual passes an information without any restriction to all those with
whom he comes into contact. This is called Probability Chain and the information / message
passed on may be interesting but not important.

Cluster Chain with regard to Grapevine

In some situation, one person communicates to a few chosen associates who in turn
communicate the same to yet another group. This is called Cluster Chain

Encoding

The thought generated in the mind of sender is ambiguous and unable to be communicated
unless it is put into a receivable form. This step is known as encoding where the sender
converts his thought into a message by means of a language. For example, a sender thinks
about having a job. Now, he will put his thought on a paper. That is called job application. In
his way, his thought becomes a message.

The nature of communication

 1. Communication is related to human activity
 Communication exchanges are actually directly linked with every single ball of
human being lifetime.
 It is necessary within primary some sort of substantial human being lifetime.
 To share our thoughts, emotions we need communication so human drastically
depend on communication in day to day life.
2. Communication involves two or more parties
 At least, two parties are involved in virtually any communication exchange
process.
 This party exactly who communicates information is known as sender and the
party exactly who is provided with the info is known as a device.
 Even so in some instances some sort of sender could send out a message for you
to many receivers.
3. Communication could be one-way or maybe two-way process
 Communication might take the design involving two-way or maybe one-way
process.
 With two-way communication, the receiver sends his feedback to the sender
after receiving the message.
 One-way communication means you move involving information style sender
to be able to receive only.
 In this particular means of communication receiver doesn’t present his or her
reaction to your sender.
4. Success of communication depends on a proper understanding of the parties
involved
 Powerful communication comes about if your receiver feels your concept you
might say your sender posts the idea.
 If the receiver doesn’t deliver his or her reaction to your sender, your sender is
not going to fully grasp your receiver’s view.
 In this case, your communications are going to be inadequate.
 As a result, to make your communication prosperous the two senders and
receiver got to know your side effects of different.

5. Conversation in organization flows in a variety of styles

 With organization, information flows in a variety of recommendations, for
example way upward direction, down way, horizontal way and many others.
6. Communication is media or channel based
 Every single person communication comes about by means of suing a
selected method.
 This media could be composed, common and non-verbal or maybe a mixture
of spoken and non-verbal media.

Functions of Communication

1. Informing messages
 An important function of communication is to inform any subject matter to others.
  Communicator informs any subject matter, information or data to the receiver through
communication.
 If the receiver understands the real meaning of the message, communication becomes
complete.

2. Persuasion
 Another important function of communication is to persuade employees so that they
can perform duties and responsibilities according to the desire of the management.
 Communication helps employees to know the techniques of performing their jobs
well.

3. Directing
 Communication helps in giving direction to the employees to accomplish their
assigned duties and responsibilities.
 It transfers orders and instructions from the superiors to the subordinates. It helps in
explaining the ways how jobs are to be done.

4. Solving problems
 An important function of communication is to help in organizational problems.
 It helps to find out the problem and creating an atmosphere to discuss the problem and
solve them.
 It helps in exchanging opinions between the contrasting parties and to arrive at a
solution.

5. Helping planning and decision making

 Another function of communication is to facilitate in decision making.
 Communication helps in decision making by supplying relevant information.
 Moreover it supplies information for the purpose of making plans.

6. Forming opinions
 An important function of communication is to help in forming opinion.
 It assists in exchanging ideas, thoughts, beliefs and information among human beings
and helps in forming favorable opinions.

7. Coordination and cooperation

 Communication performs another important function in coordinating the activities of
various work groups and departments within the organization.
 It helps in removing the inconsistencies and brings harmony in the work field.

Essentials of Effective Communication.

(1) Clarity of Information:

``It implies that first of all the communicator must be clear in his mind with the information

he wants to communicate. Communication should always be in common and easily

understandable language so that it may not be misunderstood by the persons receiving it.
(2) Adequacy of Message:

The message to be communicated should be adequate and complete in all respects since

incomplete information turns out to be dangerous from the viewpoint of business. The

adequacy of information being transmitted depends upon the intellectual capabilities of

parties concerned.

(3) Consistency of Message:

The message to be communicated should not be mutually conflicting rather it should be in

line with the overall objectives, policies, programmes and procedures of the organization..

(4) Feedback:

Feedback is an important method of ensuring effective communication. It refers to the

confirmation of the idea communicated whether the message has been understood by the

receiver in the same sense in which the sender makes or whether the recipient is agreed or

disagreed to the proposal of the communicator, makes it essential on the part of the sender to
confirm it from the receiver.

(5) Understanding the Receiver:

Understanding is the main aim of communication. The communication must create proper
understanding in the mind of the receiver.

(6) Consultation:

It is generally desirable to consult others in planning communication. This will provide

additional insight and objectivity to the message.
 DIFFERENT FORMS OF COMMUNNICATION

(A) VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or messages through

written or oral words. Forms of verbal communication are as follows:

1. Oral communication: Oral communication is the process of communication in which

messages or information is exchanged or communicated within sender and receiver
through the word of mouth.
It can be divided into two ways: a. speaking b. Listening.
2. Written communication: Written communication is the process of communication in
which messages or information is exchanged or communicated within sender and
receiver through written form.
It can be divided into two ways: a. writing b. Reading.

(B) NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Nonverbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or messages
through without using any spoken or written word.

Some of the forms of non-verbal communications are as follows:

1. Facial Expression 2.Gestures 3.Body Language 4.Proximity 5.Touch 6.Appearance

7.Silence 8.Paralinguistic 9.Eye Contact Etc.

Communication Break Down

A communication breakdown occurs when communication is incomprehensible to one

party or entirely absent between two people.

Otherwise known as "the silent treatment," refusing to communicate is one of the most

common forms of communication breakdown. It usually occurs when two parties disagree or

when someone says something offensive or hurtful. There are several ways to help fix or

avoid communication breakdown. In instances where one party is simply having difficulty

understanding, slowing down verbal communication or attempting to explain problem areas

are two ways to ensure communication breakdown doesn't occur. When two parties are

fighting or disagreeing, sometimes an apology or admittance of wrongdoing can fix a

communication breakdown, according to Daniel L. Shapiro. When one person tends to

takeover or control a conversation, communication breakdown can occur because the second

party doesn't actually have the chance to communicate. Be sure to ask the other person how

he is doing, what he has been up to or what's new with him. If someone else is controlling the

conversation, try letting him know that he is dominating the conversation.

The role of effective business communication within and outside the organization
INTRODUCTION
Communication is the act of conveying information for the purpose of creating a shared
understanding. It’s something that humans do every day. The word “communication” comes
from the Latin “communis,” meaning “to share,” and includes verbal, non-verbal and
electronic means of human interaction. Scholars who study communication analyze the
development of communication in humans and theorize about how communication can be
made more effective.

DEFINITION
Louis A. Allen defines, ‘Communication is the sum total of all the things that a person does,
when he wants to create an understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic and
continuous process of telling, listening and understanding’.

IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION:
The communication is an important element of directing because of following points:

1. Act as basis of Coordination and Cooperation:

Generally the organizational objectives are set up at planning stage and these objectives have
to be communicated to management at all levels. That is why through communication only
the objectives and goals of the organization are made clear to every employee.

While setting up the personal targets and objectives of employees the managers must get the
accurate information which reaches manager through communication only. Through
communication the top level management is able to interact with lower level management
and all the employees. This interaction helps in getting the commitment and co-operation and
coordination of people.

2. Act as basis for Decision Making:

For taking any major decision or solving any problem in the organization there is a need to
get the most accurate information and information moves in organization through
communication only. Whenever the managers are taking decisions, they keep in mind the
‘pros’ and ‘cons’ or positive or negative aspects. The accurate information regarding the
positive and negative aspect comes only through communication.

3. Increase managerial efficiency:

Every individual in the organization is assigned a job or task. He is made responsible for
some activities. He is granted authority to carry on those responsibilities.

This classification of task, responsibility and authority is possible only when the information
reaches accurately to the employees.

The employees must know clearly who has to report to whom, what part of total job they are
expected to perform and what are their decisions making powers. The clarity about these
questions comes only with smooth flow of communication.

4. Establish effective leadership:

If there is two way information flows between the superiors and subordinates then there will
be definitely positive reaction of employees. Generally rules are framed by the top level
authority but these are applied on all the employees in the organization. So it is always
advisable to interact clearly with all the levels of employees before framing the rigid rules
and regulations. The rules are more effective when they are formed with the interaction of
employees.

5. Helps in Process of Motivation and Morale Development:

Motivation is a psychological process of developing willingness to work. In the motivation
process the superiors try to analyze the needs of subordinates and the needs can be recognised
only when there is smooth flow of information and exchange of views between the superiors
and subordinates.

With the communication it becomes more convenient for the superiors to offer financial and
non-financial incentives. The job satisfaction and the moral of the employee depend on the
communication between superior and subordinates.

6. Helps in Smooth Working of an Enterprise:

All interactions in organization depend upon communication. Smooth working of an
enterprise is possible only when there is no communication gap. Right from establishing of
enterprise till its survival communication is essential.

Through communication managers give directions to subordinates for smooth functioning of

organization.

7. Promotes Cooperation and Peace:

Through two way communication process managers try to develop mutual understanding
between management and workers. Through smooth flow of communication subordinates
and superior can discuss their problems, grievances and aspirations. Cooperation brings peace
in the organization.

CONCLUSION
Communication requires a sender, a message, a medium and a recipient, although the receiver
does not have to be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of
communication; thus communication can occur across vast distances in time and space.
Communication requires that the communicating parties share an area of communicative
commonality. The communication process is complete once the receiver understands the
sender's message.
Process of communication.
INTRODUCTION
Communication simply means exchange of ideas & information between two persons. A
person sends a message to another person and gets the response from the receiver on the
message. This whole phenomenon can be explained as under.

PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Sender’s thoughts:-

The very first step in the process of communication is generation of thought in the sender’s
mind. These thoughts may be about a request, order, inquiry production or any other such
activity.

2. Encoding / Message:-

 The thought generated in the mind of sender is ambiguous and unable to be

communicated unless it is put into a receivable form.
 This step is known as encoding where the sender converts his thought into a message
by means of a language.
 For example, a sender thinks about having a job. Now, he will put his thought on a
paper. That is called job application. In his way, his thought becomes a message.

3. Transmission through media:-

 Once a thought is converted into message, it should be transmitted to the receiver

through a suitable medium.
 This media might be electronic media as T.V., E-mail, radio etc. or it may be print
media like newspaper, magazines, letters or merely sound that is transmitted through
the medium of air.

4. Noise and Barriers:-

While transmitting the information to the receiver, the sender faces lots of barriers. These
noise and barriers are explained as under:
(I) on sender’s side:-

Noise and barriers may take place during the process of encoding. Some of them may be
caused by distraction, lack of concentration, typing mistake, poor language etc.

(ii) In the medium: -

Some barriers are caused by medium such as poor transmission on T.V. and radio
misprinting in newspapers etc.

(iii) On receiver’s side:-

The receiver can also create certain barriers to the receiving of message such as poor reading
ability, emotions, lack of concentration etc.

5. Decoding by Receiver:-

 Having received the message from the sender, the receiver attempts to understand and
interpret the message.
 This process of converting the language of message into thoughts is known as
decoding.
 For instance, the receiver, having received job application, reads the application and
understands the message conveyed by the applicant.

6. Idea Received:-

 As soon as the process of decoding is finished, the idea given by the sender is
received by the receiver.
 It means the thought that was generated in the mind of sender has been transmitted to
the mind of receiver.
 In our example, the sender wanted to inform the receiver about his thought of having
a job. Now the sender has got this idea.

7. Feed back:-

 Process of communication is incomplete until the receiver responds to the sender.

This response may be negative, positive, or for further enquiry.
 It means when the receiver of job application welcomes or regrets the sender, the
process of communication is deemed to be complete.

CONCLUSION
Communication requires a sender, a message, a medium and a recipient, although the receiver
does not have to be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of
communication; thus communication can occur across vast distances in time and space.
Communication requires that the communicating parties share an area of communicative
commonality. The communication process is complete once the receiver understands the
sender's message.
Barriers to Communication
INTRODUCTION
Communication is effective if it flows freely in a communication loop between the sender(s)
and receiver(s). Free flow means uninterrupted transmission of the information / the message
through an appropriate medium, correct comprehension of the message by the receiver and a
relevant and appropriate feedback from him. Misunderstanding, Irrelevant response and
undesirable reactions are the consequences of a failed communication exercise.
Barriers to communications range from the simple distracting noises to the most complex
psychological factors. These barriers may cause a simple communication gap or a total failure
of communication. A communication gap can be bridged but retrieval of a situation, damaged
by miscommunication would be rather difficult.

MAIN BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

Different types of communication barriers

There are some common barriers exist against effective communication. Communication is
straightforward. But it becomes complex and difficult when barriers are there. Here are some
types of barriers that negatively affect to effective communications.
 1. Language Barriers – this is one of the most common barriers that can be found. Many
communication issues can be occurred because of the language and vocabulary
differences. If the sender and the receiver cannot understand the languages of each
others, the communication will not give the intended effect. Use of unclear and
inappropriate words also can make confusions and misunderstandings during a
particular communication process.
2. Cultural Barriers – there are many communication issues comes through cultural
differences. Age differences, gender differences, economic positions, political beliefs
and cultural backgrounds are some of them. Effective communication between people
of different cultures is really difficult. Same word can make different meaning to people
who have cultural differences.
3. Organization Barriers – most of the communication barriers exist in workplaces can
be included into this category. Poor organization structures, some rules and regulations,
poor employee relationships, physical separations, outdated equipments and noisy
environment can badly affect to communication processes within the organization.
4. Personal barriers – individual discomfort and perceptions can also make negative
impact on effective communication. If people are not in the same level in terms of their
perceptions, knowledge and attitudes; the communications between them are not very
much successful. Emotions of individual at the time of communication also play a great
role in success of communication effort.
5. Interpersonal barriers – misunderstanding, lack of trust on each other, fear of losing
power and control, poor relationships are some of interpersonal communication barriers.
These can make lack of attentions, listening and poor responses during a
communication.
6. Channel barriers – if the communication media is inappropriate or the communication
is too long; it might break up the process. Poor communication channels can badly
affect to the clarity, clearness and accuracy of the communication process.
7. Gender barriers- Though such barriers have become less of an issue in recent years,
but there is still the possibility for a man to misconstrue the words of a woman, or vice
versa. Men and women tend to form their thoughts differently, and this must be taken
into account when communicating. This difference has to do with how the brain of each
sex is formed during gestation. In general, men are better at spatial visualization and
abstract concepts such as math, while women excel at language-based thinking and
emotional identification. However, successful professionals in highly competitive fields
tend to have similar thought processes regardless of their gender.

SEVEN C’s IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

1. CORRECTNESS:

Normally it is assumed that correctness only refers to spelling, punctuation and

grammar etc. but business Communication is something more than that. Following
guideline should be considered for achieving correctness.

(a) Use the correct level of language

(b) Include only accurate facts and figures.

(c) Maintain acceptable writing mechanics.

(a) Use the Correct Level of Language:

There are usually three levels of language that is formal, informal and sub-standard.
Informal level of language is the language of business letters, memos and reports.

Formal language is used for writing research papers and legal documents etc. Sub-
standard level of language is not used in any type of communication because it either
refers to the street language or unacceptable language.

Incorrect: We thank you in anticipation of this courtesy and assure you that it
will be a pleasure to serve you in similar manners.

Correct: I will appreciate your helping us. Let me know when I can return the
favor.

(b) Include Only Accurate Facts and Figures:

The writer of a business message should specifically be careful when he is quoting

any fact or figure. The situation is more critical when the reader relies on the accuracy
of facts and figures. An incorrect figure may lead even to the loss of customer,
because customer might feel that he is not dealing with business like people. For
example if a bank manager provides a wrong balance figure to his account holder, the
result might be disastrous for the bank.

(c) Maintain Acceptable Writing Mechanics:

Writing mechanics include a number of considerations. For instance, use of grammar
rules, sentences structure, composition, punctuation, spelling and all other
considerations.

2. CONCISENESS:

With the advent of information revolution, business messages are getting short day by
day. This is because of huge inflow and outflow of messages on daily basis.
Therefore, conciseness is a prime requirement. Following points should be considered
for achieving conciseness.

(a) Omitting trite expressions.

(b) Avoid unnecessary repetition.

(c) Include relevant facts.

(a) Omitting Trite Expressions:

Trite expressions are also called clichés or stereo typed expressions. They are usually
longer, formal and relatively meaningless because of over use.

Example:

Trite: In accordance with your request of recent date, we are enclosing herewith
our cashier’s cheque in the amount of Rs 20,000, representing a withdrawal of
said saving A/c. No. 3595.

Improved: According to your request of April 25, cheque of Rs. 20,000 is

enclosed.

(b) Avoid Unnecessary Repetition:

Skillful business writers avoid unnecessary repetition by rewording their message and
trying to reduce it by almost 50%. In other words first draft of the message is never
final and it always requires a second reworded reduced draft before dispatched to the
receiver.

Example:

Wordy: I have your letter of October 14 and wish to say that we will be glad to
give you a refund for shirt you purchased here last week.

Improved: You can avail refund for the shirt you purchased last week.
(c) Include Relevant Facts:

Relevant facts refer to those necessary facts which should be present and should never
be compromised for achieving conciseness.

3. CLARITY:

Clarity refers to a clear understanding of the message by the receiver. In other words
the receiver should not face any problem in getting the meaning of the message. The
clarity could be achieved by the following techniques.

(a) Choose words that are short, familiar and conversational.

(b) Construct effective sentences and paragraphs.

(c) Achieve appropriate readability.

(d) Include examples, illustrations etc.

(a) Choose Words that are Short, Familiar and Conversational:

The vocabulary of English language is so rich that a number of words are possible for
a single occasion. In today business English, analysts suggest that it’s better to use
such words in business writing, which are normally used in day to day conversation.
Therefore, it is always better to avoid difficult and high sounding words.

Example:

The bank statement shows an Overdraft of Rs. 10,000.

The bank statement shows an excess withdrawal of Rs. 10,000.

(b) Construct Effective Sentences and Paragraphs:

The number of paragraphs for a business message should not exceed more than 3-4
paragraphs. Within one paragraph, number of sentences should not exceed more than
3-4 sentences and within one sentence, number of words should not exceed more
than 12-15 words.

(c) Include Examples, Illustrations etc.:

Examples and illustrations work as supplementary tools for the writer. Examples help
the reader to understand meaning of the message.

4. COMPLETENESS:

It is not necessary that all seven C’s could be applied to all types of business
messages. The C’s of completeness should be kept in mind especially giving replies
to inquiries and writing adjustment letter. Following points are considered for the
•C’s of completeness.

(a) Answer all questions asked.

(b) Give something extra, when desirable.

(c) Check for five W’s.

(a) Answer all Questions Asked:

If in the product related inquiry the prospective customer has asked four questions, it
is much necessary to answer all the four questions. Even if a single question is missed
and not answered, the inquirer is having all the reasons to believe that the person
giving reply is a careless person or he is not interested in answering the questions or
there is something wrong which he is willing to hide.

(b) Give Something Extra When Desirable:

Normally a good marketing technique applied by managers is to offer something extra

apart from original questions asked. This something extra may be the point of sale for
the producer because customer would like to buy from such a manufacturer who is
offering something extra, which others are not offering.

(c) Check for 5 W’s:

Five W’s to Who, What, When, Where and Why. For example to order merchandise,
we should make clear what we want, when we need it, where it is to be sent, how the
payment will be needed.

5. CONCRETENESS:

Concreteness adds conviction to the message. It is easy for the reader to believe on
concrete messages. Concreteness also increases credibility of the sender of message.
Following points should be considered for achieving concreteness.

(a) Use specific facts and figures.

(b) Put action in the verb.

(c) Choose vivid image building words.

(a) Use Specific Facts and Figures:

Use of fact and figures play a vital role especially when describing a product or
service.

Example:

General: These brakes stop car within short distance.

Specific: The hydraulic pressure brakes stop a car with a distance of two feet as soon
as they are applied.

(b) Put Action in the Verb:

The basic function of the verb is to describe action of a noun or pronoun. Therefore,
care should be taken that the action should always be represented by verb and an
action is found in a noun, it should be converted into verb.

Example:

Noun: They held meeting in the office.

Verb: They met in the office.

(c) Choose Vivid Image Building Words:

Vivid image building words are generally used for creating an impression upon the
reader, so that the reader should start building an image of the product or service in
his mind. Such words are used in sales and sales promotion letters.

Example: This is a very good computer.

The P-IV 800 MHz, 20GB HD, 64MB RAM, 500 MB CACHE, Intel genuine
processor, in

ATX casing is a computer of new millennium.

6. CONSIDERATION:

Consideration refers to giving importance to the other person whether he is a reader

audience, spectator or listener. For achieving consideration following points are
considered.

(a) You attitude

(b) Show readers interest

(c) Apply integrity in the message

(d) Emphasize the positive

(a) You Attitude:

You attitude means writing a business message from the point of view of the customer
or at least showing that the customer is very important.

Example:

I - Attitude: We allow 5% discount on Cash Payment.

You - Attitude: You can enjoy 5% discount on Cash Payment.

(b) Show Readers Interest:

People are basically selfish in their nature. They are only interested in themselves and
they always look for some material benefit. Therefore business messages should
always be drafted in such a manner to offer something to the customer, which is of
interest for him.

Mind it customers are not interested in the producer or service provider. Their focus
of concentration is their own self. A customer will be a loyal customer, if he is
obtaining some benefit on a regular basis.

(c) Apply Integrity in the Message:

Integrity refers to character in the business message. This would come by being
honest and truthful with the customer. Never make such a promise, which can be
fulfilled never give false hopes to the customer and also never bluff the customer.

(d) Emphasize the Positive:

Most of the statements even in business messages could be written from angles. One
is the positive angle and the other is the negative one. It is always better to highlight
positively rather than negatively.

Example:

Negative: We do not refund if the refund item is soiled and unsalable.

Positive: We do refund if the returned item is clean and saleable.

7. COURTESY:

Surviving in today business world requires courtesy on the part of producer or seller.
A discourteous producer or service provider cannot succeed in the buyer’s market.
That is why famous slogan of “Customer is always right” invented. To achieve
courtesy following points should be considered.

(a) Be tactful.

(b) Omit expressions that can irritate.

(c) Answer/mail promptly.

(d) Grant and apologize.

(a) Be Tactful:

Tact means handling customer with a right technique. Otherwise, if customers are not
handled properly, business may suffer.
Example:

Tactless: Your letter is not complete I cannot understand it.

Tactful: If I understand your letter correctly, you want to say that.

(b) Omit Expressions that Can Irritate:

Irritating expressions are disliked by all and customers are not any exception.

Example:

(i) You have failed

(ii) You have no choice

(iii)You neglect

(iv)You claim that

(c) Answer / Mail Promptly:

It is a matter of business courtesy that all mails should be answered promptly. A late
reply may give an impression that the manufacturer is not interested in the customer.

(d) Grand and Apologize:

It is always advisable to give some favor to the customer if he asked for it, and if
some mistake is committed, it is better to apologize.

TYPES OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION
 An organization, when it communicates with Governmental agencies, customers,
clients and Public it is called external communication.
 The media employed may be written media like letters, reports, proposals or visual
media like posters, advertisements video tapes or electronic media like faxes,
telegrams, e-mails, telexes.
 The communication might also be through teleconferences, face-to-face meetings,
panel discussions or presentations, exhibitions and such events.
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION
 Every organization has the necessity to maintain appropriate communication with its
branches, staff and employees.
 This is generally called internal communication.
 Internal communication is an essential feature of an organization’s administrative
structure.
 In modern times, the Human Resource Department plays an important role in
maintaining internal communication.
 In the new millennium, particularly in the context of globalization, business has
become highly competitive.
 Business houses have the need to maintain good channels of internal communication.
The central organization or corporate office should keep its branches well informed of
new policies and policy changes.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

 Every business organization adopts some formal channels of communication which
may be upward, downward, or horizontal or all the three.
 They are usually in the form of notices, announcements, reports, official or semi-
official letters, advertisements, etc.
  Formal channels are officially recognized and organized.
 They make the working of the organization transparent.
 They motivate the employees.

DIRECTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
 In olden days communication was unidirectional. The boss gave the order and the
employees executed it.
 In fact, uni-directional communication has its origin in the feudal system.
 The lord directed the vassal (a slave or bondman) to carry out a job.
 Business and industry continued the age old tradition of the feudal system even after
the industrial revolution.
 It has been discovered that a multidirectional communication system demolishes the
barriers and removes friction.
 Business depends on such anew communication paradigm (pattern or model) to
ensure the success of business and the realization of even difficult objectives.
DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
 Downward communication means the flow of communication from the top echelon
(level or rank) of an organization to the lower levels of employees.
 Downward communication not only recognizes and accepts a hierarchical structure
but also is based on the assumption that people at the higher level have the ability and
authority to direct the employees on all do’s and don’ts.
 Downward communication has its own shortcomings, if it is not complemented by
other directional communications.
UPWARD COMMUNICATION
 Communication maintained from lower level of employees to higher-ups is called
upward communication.
 Upward communication gives scope for the employees to offer their suggestions,
opinions, make complaints and seek redressal of their grievances.
 Upward communication helps an organization to receive and reset its objectives at
realistic levels.
 Upward communication may cause ego problems to persons in higher hierarchical
positions.
 It may also lead to meaningless criticisms of the policies by disgruntled employees.

HORIZONTAL / LATERAL COMMUNICATION

 The interaction among peer groups is called horizontal communication. Inter
departmental communication is also horizontal communication.
 Sales department, production department, quality control department and the stores
department have to constantly interact and coordinate among themselves.
 Horizontal communication leads to a better understanding among individuals and
departments, cooperation and coordination.
DIAGONAL OR MULTI-DIRECTIONAL COMMUNICATION
  Diagonal communication means the use of upward, downward and horizontal
communication. It is a healthy practice not to depend on any one mode.
 Diagonal communication leads to better feedback at all levels.
 It promotes understanding, motivates employees and gives a sense of belonging and
involvement to all people at all levels.
GRAPEVINE
 Large organizations, where there are a large number of people working closely,
generate certain informal or unofficial channels of communication.
 These channels exist with or without official patronage. Even if they are officially and
secretly patronized, they are not authentic.
 This type of communication is generally called “Grapevine” communication.
 Grapevine communication is an informal, unofficial, horizontal channel of
communication because generally peer groups participate in it.
Types of Grapevine Communication

 Grapevine communication is of four different types.

 It can seep from individual to individual in a strictly linear fashion.
 Information takes time to spread in this fashion. It is called Single Strand Chain.
 In some situations, an individual goes around communicating the message /
information he thinks he has obtained. This is called Gossip Chain.
 The listeners are a chosen few only.
 In some other situation, an individual passes an information without any restriction to
all those with whom he comes into contact.
 This is called Probability Chain and the information / message passed on may be
interesting but not important.
 In yet another situation, one person communicates to a few chosen associates who in
turn communicate the same to yet another group. This is called Cluster Chain.

UNIT II

Informative Listening

Informative listening is the name we give to the situation where the listener’s primary
concern is to understand the message. Listeners are successful insofar as the meaning they
assign to messages is as close as possible to that which the sender intended.
Relationship Listening

The purpose of relationship listening is either to help an individual or to improve the

relationship between people. Therapeutic listening is a special type of relationship
listening. Therapeutic listening brings to mind situations where counselors, medical
personnel, or other professionals allow a troubled person to talk through a problem. But it
can also be used when you listen to friends or acquaintances and allow them to “get
things off their chests.”

‘Empathizing’

Empathizing. What is empathy? It is not sympathy, which is a feeling for or about

another. Nor is it apathy, which is a lack of feeling. Empathy is feeling and
thinkingwith another person. The caring, empathic listener is able to go into the world of
another—to see as the other sees, hear as the other hears, and feel as the other feels.

Appreciative Listening

Appreciative listening includes listening to music for enjoyment, to speakers because you
like their style, to your choices in theater, television, radio, or film. It is the response of
the listener, not the source of the message that defines appreciative listening. That which
provides appreciative listening for one person may provide something else for another.

Critical Listening

The ability to listen critically is essential in a democracy. On the job, in the community, at
service clubs, in places of worship, in the family—there is practically no place you can go
where critical listening is unimportant. Politicians, the media, salesmen, advocates of
policies and procedures, and our own financial, emotional, intellectual, physical, and
spiritual needs require us to place a premium on critical listening and the thinking that
accompanies it.

Ethos

Ethos. Credibility of the speaker is important. The two critical factors of speaker
credibility are expertness and trustworthiness. A speaker may be expert or competent and
still not be trustworthy.

Logos

Logos. Even speakers with high ethos often make errors in logic, not by intention, but by
accident, carelessness, inattention to detail, or lack of analysis. Critical listeners have a
right to expect well supported arguments from speakers, arguments that contain both true
propositions and valid inferences or conclusions.

Pathos

Pathos. The psychological or emotional element of communication is often

misunderstood and misused. Simply said, speakers often use psychological appeals to
 gain an emotional response from listeners. Effective critical listeners carefully determine
the focus of the speaker’s message.

Speakers may appeal to any one or several needs, desires, or values that are important to
us including: adventure, thrift, curiosity, fear, creativity, companionship, guilt,
independence, loyalty, power, pride, sympathy, altruism.

Discriminative Listening

The final type of listening is discriminative listening. It may be the most important type,
for it is basic to the other four. By being sensitive to changes in the speaker’s rate,
volume, force, pitch, and emphasis, the informative listener can detect even nuances of
difference in meaning. By sensing the impact of certain responses, such as “uh huh,” or “I
see,” relationship listening can be strengthened. Detection of differences between sounds
made by certain instruments in the orchestra, or parts sung by the a cappella vocal group,
enhances appreciative listening. Finally, sensitivity to pauses, and other vocal and
nonverbal cues, allows critical listeners to more accurately judge not only the speaker’s
message, but his intentions as well.

Chartoons

A first cousin to chartjunk, “chartoons” are overly cute attempts to make a presentation
appear more professional by adding lots of distracting, tacky, aggravating symbols and
such. These usually appear right after a presenter has discovered a clip art library.

What You Think about Listening

Although thinking, feeling, and doing go hand in hand, the thinking (or cognitive) domain of
learning is perhaps the best place to begin. After all, effective listening takes effort—it
requires maximum thinking power. Here are six suggestions.

1. Understand the complexities of listening. Most of us take good listening for granted.
Therefore, we don’t work very hard at improving. Listening requires an active response, not a
passive one. Effective listening doesn’t just happen; it takes thought—and thinking can be
hard work. But there is no other way to become an effective listener. Think about the
complexities of listening, and work to understand them.

2. Prepare to Listen. Preparation consists of three phases—long-term, mid-term, and short-

term. In other words, expanding your listening ability will be an ongoing task. But there are
two things you can do to improve your listening skills for the long term: (a) practice listening
to difficult material and (b) build your vocabulary.

3. Adjust to the situation. No listening situation is exactly the same as another. The time, the
speaker, the message—all change. But many other variables also affect listening, though less
obviously so: physiological variables such as rest, hunger, comfort, endurance; psychological
variables such as emotional stability, rapport with the speaker, knowledge of the subject; and
physical factors such as size and color of the room. Obviously, some of these things will have
a positive effect on your listening while others will have a negative effect.
4. Focus on ideas or key points. At times, you may understand the process, you may have
prepared well, and you may be able to adjust to the situation—yet you fail as a listener. This
failure results because you didn’t listen to the right things. For example, you may remember a
funny story the speaker told to make a point; but you missed the point.

5. Capitalize on the speed differential. Thought can operate much faster than speech. An
average person may speak two or three words a second—120 to 180 words a minute. In
bursts of enthusiasm, we may even speak a little faster. Most public speakers speak somewhat
slower, especially to large audiences. Yet most listeners can process up to 500 words per
minute, depending on the nature and difficulty of the material.

6. Organize material for learning. Obviously, speakers can enhance listening through careful
organization and presentation of ideas. And if questions are appropriate, you can seek
clarification of any points you fail to understand.

‘What You Feel about Listening’

Here are four suggestions for improving your “feel” for listening.

1. Want to listen. This suggestion is basic to all others, for it simply says that you must have
an intent to listen. We can all recall having been forced to listen to a speech or a briefing that
we didn’t really want to listen to. And listening under duress seldom results in understanding
or enjoyment, although there are exceptions.

2. Delay judgment. There are times when you must be a critical or judgmental listener. You
must weigh the merits of what the speaker is saying. At times, you must make crucial
decisions based on what you hear. There are also times when you must judge the speaker. Job
interviews, campaign promises, speech contests—all are examples of where judgment of the
speaker is important. The problem is, though, that you may be judgmental when you
shouldn’t be. You may judge the speaker instead of the content, or you may form judgments
before the speaker has finished.

3. Admit your biases. Let’s face it: Everyone is human! We all have likes and dislikes; some
things turn us on, others turn us off. These characteristics are natural and to be expected. The
problem comes when we let our biases—our likes and dislikes—get in the way of
understanding the speaker’s message.

4. Don’t tune out “dry” subjects. Whenever you are tempted to “tune out” something because
you think it will be boring or useless, remember that you cannot evaluate the importance of
the message until you have heard it. By then, it is probably too late to ask the speaker to
repeat everything that was said; the opportunity to listen effectively will have passed.

What You Do about Listening

 What we think about listening and what we feel about listening are both fundamental to
skillful listening. But the skills themselves are crucial. Skills form the psychomotor—the
“doing”—element of listening. Here are four crucial skills.

1. Establish eye contact with the speaker. Studies show that listening has a positive
relationship with eye contact. In other words, the better eye contact you have with the
speaker, the better you will listen. And while eye contact is especially important in
relationship listening, it is also important for the other kinds of listening: informative,
appreciative, critical, discriminative.

2. Take notes effectively. Some people recommend that you not take notes so you can focus
your attention wholly on what the speaker is saying. This practice works well for listeners
who are blessed with a great memory; most of us aren’t. Taking notes will not only help you
remember, it will help you organize what the speaker is saying.

3. Be a physically involved listener. As you have already seen, listening requires more than
just hearing. You have also seen that making eye contact and taking notes will help to keep
you from becoming passive. But there is more: Active listening takes energy and
involvement.

4. Avoid negative mannerisms. Everyone has mannerisms. Watch anyone for a period of time
and you will be convinced of this fact. If your mannerisms do not cause a negative reaction,
don’t worry about them. If a mannerism is positive or encouraging and brings a positive
response, make a mental note to do it more often. Unfortunately, some mannerisms are
negative or distracting. These should be avoided.

Different types of Non Verbal Communication.

1. 'Accidental' body language - all the different types of movements, postures and facial
expressions
2. Sign Language
3. Intentional body language - empathetic movements and touch, postures and facial
expressions
4. Intentional body language – violent / abusive movements and touch, postures and facial
expressions
5. Observance and use or abuse of personal space
6. "Aha", "Ugh!" etc. These all express wordlessly a variety of feelings, such as surprise,
disgust, happiness, anger, sadness and so on.
7. Touch too is a nonverbal way of communicating
 3 new types of non-verbal communication

1. Emoticons in emails and texts are the newest addition to this list
2. Deliberately posting photos on Facebook and other social media to provoke a reaction
3. Digital manipulation of images to cause a particular reaction

Silence, respect and disrespect

Of course, not saying anythingwhen there’s an expectation that something should be said is
nonverbal communication too. Interpreting this kind of non-verbal communication requires
careful exploration, understanding of the context and most probably additional information.

Respect or disrespect for cultural differences also communicates meaning.

Indirect Nonverbal ways of communicating.

This is where an understanding of psychology is helpful. For instance, we get a lot of

information from the following ways people communicate nonverbally. Together with what’s
being verbalised, it helps to build a fuller picture of what’s actually going on:

1. Forgetting a date that’s important to someone else

2. Not arriving for an occasion/appointment when you’re expected
3. Ignoring someone
4. 'Using' someone
5. Not helping someone when you could
6. Going out of your way to help someone
7. Removing or exhibiting signs of your rank before talking to someone of a lower (or
higher) rank
8. Dressing up or dressing down for an occasion or event - to fit in, impress, stand out or
disrespect

There are lots of other things that give out information about yourself, including…
 The kind of books you read
 The way you dress
 The programmes you watch
 The magazines you subscribe to
 The websites you visit
 The organisations you belong to

Your possessions – or things you’d like to own – also communicate without you uttering a
word. Things like your house, your car, your gadgets, your furniture… generally your taste in
pretty much everything!

The Process of Listening

Listening is a complex process—an integral part of the total communication process, albeit a
part often ignored.

The Listening Process

Let’s look at the parts—the three necessary ones and the two additional ones.

Receiving

This step is easily understood. You may send a message to me by E-mail. It may be
wonderfully composed and clear. You may have used effective techniques to organize and
support your message. The subject may be one of great interest to me. Imagine further that I
both admire and respect you, and that I like to receive E-mail from you.

In short, you have done a good job and I want to receive the message. But if I don’t turn on
my computer, I won’t receive it. The message remains somewhere between your computer
and mine—between sender and receiver.

Much human listening fails for the same reason. Receivers simply are not connected or
“tuned in” to the senders. Sometimes, the problem is a physiological one; for example, the
receiver has a hearing deficiency due to a congenital or inherited weakness. Or perhaps the
deficiency resulted from an accident, a disease, or prolonged exposure to loud noises.
Sometimes the problem can be corrected through the use of mechanical devices that restore
hearing loss, or through hearing aids that amplify sound. Scientists and engineers are
constantly developing new products designed to correct and help specific types of hearing
loss.

Remember that hearing and listening are not the same. Hearing is the reception of sound;
listening is the attachment of meaning. Hearing is, however, a necessary prerequisite for
listening and an important component of the listening process.

Attending

Let’s continue with the E-mail analogy. When I turn my computer on, it will receive the
message that you sent. But I must do more: I must attend to the message if the process is to
continue. Perhaps I received a phone call just after I turned my computer on and had to move
away from my desk; I do not know that you have sent a message. Or maybe I don’t have an
opportunity to read my E-mail that day.

Suppose that I am working on something else when the message arrives. My computer
signals that I have mail from you. I want to read it, but I decide that I will do it later. I
continue to stay busy on another task, however, and forget to read the message. Later, I may
mistakenly “trash it” without ever reading it. Whatever the case, I don’t attend to the
message.

Human listening is often ineffective—or does not occur—for similar reasons. Receiving
occurs, but attending does not.

At any given time, numerous messages compete for our attention. The stimuli may be
external, such as words spoken by a lecturer or printed on paper, or events occurring around
us. Or the stimuli may be internal, such as a deadline we must meet tomorrow, a backache we
developed by sitting too long at the computer, or the hunger pangs we experience because we
didn’t take time to eat lunch. Whatever the source of the stimuli, we simply can’t focus on all
of them at the same time. We therefore must choose, whether consciously or unconsciously,
to attend to some stimuli and reject others. Three factors determine how these choices are
made.

1. Selectivity of attention. We direct attention to certain things to prevent an information

overload. A common example makes the point. Suppose you are attempting to read a book
and watch TV at the same time. Although some people claim they can do this, actually both
activities suffer—and usually one more than the other. The material that is most engaging or
interesting will attract your attention. At other times, something may interrupt or disturb your
attention.

Selectivity of attention explains why you “perk up” or pay attention when something familiar
to you, such as your hometown or your favorite hobby, is mentioned. In fact, you may have
been listening intently to a conversation when someone in a different conversation mentions
your name. Immediately, the focus of your attention shifts to the conversation in which your
name was mentioned.
2. Strength of attention. Attention is not only selective; it possesses energy, or strength.
Attention requires effort and desire. In the example of reading a book and watching TV, the
receiver (reader/watcher) directed his or her primary attention toward either the book or the
TV. Complete attention can be given to only one stimulus at a time, and necessary attention
to only a limited number of stimuli at the same time. If we spend too much energy on too
many stimuli, we soon will not be paying attention to any of them. We are all familiar with
aircraft accidents that were caused at least in part by controllers in the tower having to
process too much information.

3. Sustainment of attention. Just as attention is determined by selectivity and strength, it is

affected by time of sustainment. Our attention wanes, and this fact is important to an
understanding of listening.

For example, we can listen to some public speakers far longer than we can listen to others.
Duration may depend on the subject, the setting, the way the speech is packaged, and on the
speaker’s delivery. But no matter how articulate and skilled the speaker, or how interesting
the content, our attention finally ends. If for no other reason, the human body requires sleep
or attention to other bodily needs. The mind can only pay attention for as long as the body
can sit still.

Selectivity, strength, and sustainment determine attention. Receiving and attending are
prerequisites to the rest of the listening process. The third step in that process is
understanding.

Understanding

Someone has said, “Communication begins with understanding.” How true! A message may
have been sent and received, and the receiver may have attended to the message—yet, there
has been no effective communication. Effective communication depends on understanding;
that is, effective communication does not take place until the receiver understands the
message. Understanding must result for communication to be effective.

Let’s return to the E-mail analogy. Suppose I received the E-mail message, “opened” it, and
read it. Has effective communication occurred? Not necessarily. Even though I read every
word of your message, I may not have understood what you meant.

There are several possible reasons for the misunderstanding. Perhaps I expected the message
to say something that it didn’t say; my understanding of it may therefore be more in line with
my own expectations than what it actually said. We often hear or read what we expect rather
than what was actually said or written. Or perhaps the real point of the message was “tucked
away,” obscured by several other tidbits of information. And I missed the point. In listening,
the key point is sometimes missed. Our expectations and/or our failure to get the point often
lead to misunderstanding.

1. Verbal symbols. Verbal communication means communicating through the use of words,
whether spoken or written. Two barriers obstruct our understanding of verbal
communication.

Barrier #1: The same words mean different things to different people. This barrier is a
common one, and it may be experienced whenever any two people attempt to communicate.
When the same words mean different things to different people, misunderstanding occurs.

Barrier #2: Different words sometimes mean the same thing. Many things are called by
more than one name.

These two barriers—same words meaning different things and different words meaning the
same thing—can be overcome if you realize the following fact: Meanings are not in words,
meanings are in people. We listen more effectively when we consider the message in relation
to its source. Good listeners always consider who the sender of the message is. Knowing
something about the sender pays big dividends when it comes to understanding the message.

2. Nonverbal symbols. We use nonverbal symbols to transmit many times more information
than our verbal symbols carry. We communicate nonverbally through action factors,
nonaction factors, and vocal factors. Each suggests a barrier to listening.

Barrier #1: Misinterpretation of the action. Eye contact, gestures, and facial expression are
action factors that affect the meaning we attach to a message. For that matter, any movement
or action carries meaning.

When someone walks quickly away from a conversation or taps a pencil on the desk during a
conversation, we may conclude that the person is in a hurry or is bored. Our conclusions may
or may not be correct, however. We may conclude that speakers who twitch, or otherwise
seem to us unsure, are nervous when, in fact, they may not be.

Barrier #2: Misinterpretation of nonaction symbols. The clothes I wear, the automobile I
drive, and the objects in my office—all these things communicate something about me. In
addition, my respect of your needs for time and space affects how you interpret my messages

Barrier #3: Misinterpretation of the voice. The quality, intelligibility, and variety of the
voice affect the listener’s understanding. Quality refers to the overall impression the voice
makes on others. Listeners often infer from the voice whether the speaker is happy or sad,
fearful or confident, excited or bored.

Receiving, attending, and understanding are all crucial if effective listening is to occur, for
communication can accurately be defined as the sharing or understanding of meaning. Often,
however, the steps of responding and remembering are part of the listening process.
Responding and remembering are indicators of listening accuracy.

Responding

The listening process may end with understanding, since effective communication and
effective listening may be defined as the accurate sharing or understanding of meaning. But a
response may be needed—or at least helpful. And there are different types of responses.

1. Direct verbal responses. These may be spoken or written. Let’s continue with the E-mail
analogy. After I have received, attended to, and understood the message you sent, I may
respond verbally. If your message asked a question or sought my coordination, I might type a
response on my computer and reply to you.
2. Responses that seek clarification. I may use E-mail to ask for additional information, or I
may talk to you either on the telephone or face-to-face. I may be very direct in my request, or
I may just say, “tell me more about it.”

3. Responses that paraphrase. I may say something like, “in other words, what you are
saying is. . . .” A paraphrase gives the sender a chance to agree, or to provide information to
clarify the message.

4. Nonverbal responses. Many times, a nonverbal response is all that is needed; indeed, it
may even be the preferred type of response. The knowing nod of the head, an understanding
smile, or a “thumbs up” may communicate that the message is understood.

Responding, then, is a form of feedback that completes the communication transaction. It lets
the sender know that the message was received, attended to, and understood.

Remembering

Memorization of facts is not the key to good listening. Yet memory is often a necessary and
integral part of the listening process.

What is the relationship between memory and listening? Understanding the differences
between short-term memory and long-term memory will help explain the relationship.

With short-term memory, information is used immediately—within a few seconds, for

example, as with a phone number that we look up. Short-term memory has a rapid forgetting
rate and is very susceptible to interruption. And the amount of information that can be
retained is quite limited, though it varies somewhat with variations in the material to be
retained.

Long-term memory allows us to recall information and events hours, days, weeks—even
years—later. You remember, for example, things that happened to you when you were
growing up, songs you learned, people you knew. You may have been unaware of those
memories for long periods of time, and then the right stimulus caused you to recall them.
Perhaps the aroma of a freshly baked pie called to mind your grandmother, who used to make
great apple pies years ago.

Types of Listening

Different situations require different types of listening. We may listen to obtain information,
improve a relationship, gain appreciation for something, make discriminations, or engage in a
critical evaluation.

Informative Listening

Informative listening is the name we give to the situation where the listener’s primary
concern is to understand the message. Listeners are successful insofar as the meaning they
assign to messages is as close as possible to that which the sender intended.
Informative listening, or listening to understand, is found in all areas of our lives. Much of
our learning comes from informative listening. For example, we listen to lectures or
instructions from teachers—and what we learn depends on how well we listen. In the
workplace, we listen to understand new practices or procedures—and how well we perform
depends on how well we listen. We listen to instructions, briefings, reports, and speeches; if
we listen poorly, we aren’t equipped with the information we need.

At times, careful informative listening is crucial. At other times, careless listening results in
only aggravation or misunderstanding. Whatever the case, effective informative listening
demands that you concentrate squarely on the message—and know its source.

There are three key variables related to informative listening. Knowing these variables can
help you begin to improve your informative listening skills; that is, you will become
increasingly successful in understanding what the speaker means.

1. Vocabulary. The precise relationship between vocabulary and listening has never been
determined, but it is clear that increasing your vocabulary will increase your potential for
better understanding.

2. Concentration. Concentration is difficult. You can remember times when another person
was not concentrating on what you were saying—and you probably can remember times
when you were not concentrating on something that someone was saying to you.

There are many reasons people don’t concentrate when listening. Sometimes listeners try to
divide their attention between two competing stimuli. At other times, listeners are
preoccupied with something other than the speaker of the moment. Sometimes listeners are
too ego-involved, or too concerned with their own needs to concentrate on the message being
delivered. Or perhaps they lack curiosity, energy, or interest. Many people simply have not
learned to concentrate while listening. Others just refuse to discipline themselves, lacking the
motivation to accept responsibility for good listening. Concentration requires discipline,
motivation, and acceptance of responsibility.

3. Memory. Memory is an especially crucial variable to informative listening; you cannot

process information without bringing memory into play. More specifically, memory helps
your informative listening in three ways.

a. It allows you to recall experiences and information necessary to function in the world
around you. In other words, without memory you would have no knowledge bank.

b. It establishes expectations concerning what you will encounter. You would be unable to
drive in heavy traffic, react to new situations, or make common decisions in life without
memory of your past experiences.

c. It allows you to understand what others say. Without simple memory of the meaning of
words, you could not communicate with anyone else. Without memory of concepts and ideas,
you could not understand the meaning of messages.

Relationship Listening
The purpose of relationship listening is either to help an individual or to improve the
relationship between people. Therapeutic listening is a special type of relationship listening.
Therapeutic listening brings to mind situations where counselors, medical personnel, or other
professionals allow a troubled person to talk through a problem. But it can also be used when
you listen to friends or acquaintances and allow them to “get things off their chests.”
Although relationship listening requires you to listen for information, the emphasis is on
understanding the other person. Three behaviors are key to effective relationship listening:
attending, supporting, and empathizing.

1. Attending. Much has been said about the importance of “paying attention,” or “attending”
behavior. In relationship listening, attending behaviors indicate that the listener is focusing on
the speaker. Nonverbal cues are crucial in relationship listening; that is, your nonverbal
behavior indicates that you are attending to the speaker— or that you aren’t!

Eye contact is one of the most important attending behaviors. Looking appropriately and
comfortably at the speaker sends a message that is different from that sent by a frequent shift
of gaze, staring, or looking around the room. Body positioning communicates acceptance or
lack of it. Leaning forward, toward the speaker, demonstrates interest; leaning away
communicates lack of interest. Head nods, smiles, frowns, and vocalized cues such as “uh
huh,” “I see,” or “yes”—all are positive attending behaviors. A pleasant tone of voice, gentle
touching, and concern for the other person’s comfort are other attending behaviors.

2. Supporting. Many responses have a negative or nonsupportive effect; for example,

interrupting the speaker, changing the subject, turning the conversation toward yourself, and
demonstrating a lack of concern for the other person. Giving advice, attempting to manipulate
the conversation, or indicating that you consider yourself superior are other behaviors that
will have an adverse effect on the relationship.

Sometimes the best response is silence. The speaker may need a “sounding board,” not a
“resounding board.” Wise relationship listeners know when to talk and when to just listen—
and they generally listen more than they talk.

Three characteristics describe supportive listeners: (1) discretion—being careful about what
they say and do; (2) belief—expressing confidence in the ability of the other person; and (3)
patience—being willing to give others the time they need to express themselves adequately.

3. Empathizing. What is empathy? It is not sympathy, which is a feeling for or about another.
Nor is it apathy, which is a lack of feeling. Empathy is feeling and thinkingwith another
person. The caring, empathic listener is able to go into the world of another—to see as the
other sees, hear as the other hears, and feel as the other feels.

Obviously, the person who has had more experience and lived longer stands a better chance
of being an effective empathic listener.

Risk is involved with being an empathic relationship listener. You cannot be an effective
empathic listener without becoming involved, which sometimes means learning more than
you really want to know. But commanders can’t command effectively, bosses can’t supervise
skillfully, and individuals can’t relate interpersonally without empathy.
Empathic behavior can be learned. First, you must learn as much as you can about the other
person. Second, you must accept the other person—even if you can’t accept some aspects of
that person’s behavior. Third, you must have the desire to be an empathic listener. And you
must remember that empathy is crucial to effective relationship listening.

Appreciative Listening

Appreciative listening includes listening to music for enjoyment, to speakers because you like
their style, to your choices in theater, television, radio, or film. It is the response of the
listener, not the source of the message, that defines appreciative listening. That which
provides appreciative listening for one person may provide something else for another.

The quality of appreciative listening depends in large part on three factors: presentation,
perception, and previous experience.

1. Presentation.

Presentation encompasses many factors: the medium, the setting, the style and personality of
the presenter, to name just a few. Sometimes it is our perception of the presentation, rather
than the actual presentation, that most influences our listening pleasure or displeasure.

2. Perception.

Perceptions—and the expectations that drive them—have their basis in attitudes. Our
attitudes determine how we react to, and interact with, the world around us.

Perceptions influence all areas of our lives. Certainly, they are crucial determinants as to
whether or not we enjoy or appreciate the things we listen to. Obviously, perceptions also
determine what we listen to in the first place. As we said earlier, listening is selective.

3. Previous experience. The discussion of perception makes it clear that previous experience
influences whether we enjoy listening to something. In some cases, we enjoy listening to
things because we are experts in the area. Sometimes, however, expertise or previous
experience prevents us from enjoying a presentation because we are too sensitive to
imperfections. Previous experience plays a large role in appreciative listening.

Critical Listening

The ability to listen critically is essential in a democracy. On the job, in the community, at
service clubs, in places of worship, in the family—there is practically no place you can go
where critical listening is unimportant. Politicians, the media, salesmen, advocates of policies
and procedures, and our own financial, emotional, intellectual, physical, and spiritual needs
require us to place a premium on critical listening and the thinking that accompanies it.

The subject of critical listening deserves much more attention than we can afford it here. But
there are three things to keep in mind. These three things were outlined by Aristotle, the
classical Greek rhetorician, more than 2,000 years ago:

1. Ethos. Credibility of the speaker is important. The two critical factors of speaker
credibility are expertness and trustworthiness. A speaker may be expert or competent
 and still not be trustworthy. For example, an autocratic dictator of a certain third
world country might be an expert on the question of his country’s possession of
nuclear arms; but I would not trust him to tell me. On the other hand a person might
be trustworthy, but not be an expert on the subject

Effective critical listening requires careful judgment about the expertness and trustworthiness
of the speaker. In fact, ethos or speaker credibility may be the most important single factor in
critical listening and thinking. However, ethos without logos is not enough.

2. Logos. Even speakers with high ethos often make errors in logic, not by intention, but by
accident, carelessness, inattention to detail, or lack of analysis. Critical listeners have a right
to expect well supported arguments from speakers, arguments that contain both true
propositions and valid inferences or conclusions.

When evaluating arguments, listeners should ask several questions about the proposition or
statements made:

a. Are the statements true?

b. Are the data the best that can be obtained?

c. Are the sources of the data known to the listeners? In other words do listeners know where
the information came from?

d. Is the data accurately portrayed?

e. Is the data representative? That is, would all the data, or at least a preponderance of it show
the same thing?

The above questions may all be answered to your satisfaction, yet the logic may be faulty.
For perhaps the data do not lead to or justify the inferences or conclusions drawn. Listeners
should ask themselves the following questions:

a. Is the conclusion a certainty or are exceptions possible?

b. Were all cause-effect relationships established beyond doubt?

c. Does the data justify the inference drawn or the conclusion given?

d. Does the inference or conclusion “follow” from the data, or is there a non sequitur, which
means literally, “it does not necessarily follow”?

e. Is there evidence of strong logical thinking by the speaker?*

Both ethos and logos are crucial elements of critical listening. But reliance on just these two
elements without consideration of pathos would be akin to attempting to sit on a three-legged
stool with one leg missing. Pathos is the third leg.
3. Pathos. The psychological or emotional element of communication is often misunderstood
and misused. Simply said, speakers often use psychological appeals to gain an emotional
response from listeners. Effective critical listeners carefully determine the focus of the
speaker’s message.

Speakers may appeal to any one or several needs, desires, or values that are important to us
including: adventure, thrift, curiosity, fear, creativity, companionship, guilt, independence,
loyalty, power, pride, sympathy, altruism. There are many others, of course; the list is a long
one.

There are several questions critical listeners should ask themselves when assessing the pathos
element:

a. Is the speaker attempting to manipulate rather than persuade me?

b. What is the speaker’s intent?

c. Is the speaker combining logos with pathos?

d. Am I responding merely to the pathos?

e. Next week or next year will I be satisfied with the decision I am making today?

Effective critical listening depends on the listener keeping all three elements of the message
in the analysis and in perspective: ethos, or source credibility; logos, or logical argument; and
pathos, or psychological appeals.

Discriminative Listening

The final type of listening is discriminative listening. It may be the most important type, for it
is basic to the other four. By being sensitive to changes in the speaker’s rate, volume, force,
pitch, and emphasis, the informative listener can detect even nuances of difference in
meaning. By sensing the impact of certain responses, such as “uh huh,” or “I see,”
relationship listening can be strengthened. Detection of differences between sounds made by
certain instruments in the orchestra, or parts sung by the a cappella vocal group, enhances
appreciative listening. Finally, sensitivity to pauses, and other vocal and nonverbal cues,
allows critical listeners to more accurately judge not only the speaker’s message, but his
intentions as well.

Obviously, many people have good discriminatory listening ability in some areas but not in
others. Although discriminative listening cuts across the other four types of listening, there
are three things to consider about this type of listening.

1. Hearing ability. Obviously, people who lack the ability to hear well will have greater
difficulty in discriminating among sounds. Often this problem is more acute for some
frequencies, or pitches, than others. For example, a person may be less able to discriminate
when the sound is coming from a bass voice than from a higher pitched one.
2. Awareness of sound structure. Native speakers become quite proficient at recognizing
vowel and consonant sounds that do or do not appear at the beginning, middle, or end of
words.

Attention to the sound structure of the language will lead to more proficient discriminatory
listening

3. Integration of nonverbal cues. Words don’t always communicate true feelings. The way
they are said, or the way the speaker acts, may be the key to understanding the true or
intended meaning.

Effective listening, whether informative, relational, appreciative, critical, or discriminative,

requires skill. In some cases, the skills are the same for the various types of listening; in some
cases, they are quite different.

Techniques for Improving Your Nonverbal Communication Skills in the Workplace

Your nonverbal communication skills should reinforce what you are saying.

Nonverbal communication is important in the workplace because it affects the work

environment. What you communicate nonverbally can expose how you feel. If your
nonverbal communications skills are poor, you may be communicating negativity and making
your coworkers uncomfortable. To improve your nonverbal skills, you must first identify the
areas where you are lacking.

Eye Contact

Establish eye contact when speaking to others. When you make direct eye contact, it shows
the other party that you’re interested in what he is saying. If you must give a presentation at
work, establish eye contact with the audience. It tell them that you are confident in what you
are presenting. Making direct eye contact provides others with the comfort needed to
communicate with you in return.

Facial Expressions

Your facial expressions convey your emotions. Facial expressions are typically universal,
which means they convey the same message globally. A frowning person is usually upset.
Offer a smile when talking to someone. This tells people that you are happy or in a good
mood. It also creates an atmosphere with warmth and friendliness, allowing others to feel
comfortable.

Space
Pay attention to your proximity to others. Different cultures view proximity in various ways,
so take notice if the person you’re communicating with is uncomfortable. This could mean
that you are standing too close, and should create some distance between the two of you. The
amount of physical space given can convey many emotions. For example, a person who is
behaving aggressively is probably standing very close to the other person.

Posture
Look at your posture. Slouching shows that you are not interested in what a person is saying.
Your body movement is also important. For example, swinging your leg back and forth while
sitting in a meeting tells others you are impatient, bored and uninterested. Sit up straight and
face others when talking.

Tones and Sounds

Your tone of voice and the sounds you make can communicate your thoughts to others
without your even speaking. If you receive directions from a manager and immediately grunt,
you are showing your manager that you do not agree with what he said. Your tone or sounds
can inform people of your anger, frustration or sarcasm. Avoid sighing repetitively or
speaking in a high-pitched voice. Speak softly and calmly.

Elements of a good presentation

In the broadest sense, it’s every encounter you have with every person you ever meet.

A presentation doesn’t necessarily mean standing in front of a crowd with a projector. It

could be when you sit squirming in an interviewer’s chair trying to be eloquent when asked
why you left your last job.

Whenever you are asked to appear in front of one or more people for the purpose of
explaining, educating, convincing, or otherwise conveying information to them, you have a
presentation.
Compressed to its essence, a presentation consists of four basic elements:you, your audience,
your message and your tools.

Visual Presentations – General Guidelines (Your Tools)

The central purpose of any presentation, written, oral or visual, is communication.

To communicate effectively, you must state your facts in a simple, concise and interesting
manner.

It is proven that the people learn more readily and retain more information when learning is
reinforced by visualization.

You can entertain, inform, excite and even shock an audience by the proper integration of
visual images into virtually any exchange of information.

Meetings which might normally be considered dull, or a chore to be avoided, can be

transformed into exciting productions that grab the attention of the viewers.
This type of presentation maximizes audience retention of the subject matter.

The phrase “a picture is worth a thousand words” remains true.

Simple, clear, concise visual images, briskly paced and sprinkled with attention-grabbing
graphics will lend support to your spoken words. This leaves your audience with a positive
attitude toward you and your product, service or proposal.

Visuals in business should be used in support of the spoken or written word, and not in lieu of
it. A well-developed concept and effective script are the essential elements of any
presentation. Regardless of their form, they should be the first and most important phase of
its development.
When the concept begins to take final form, the visuals are developed around it.

This is not to imply that A-V design should be placed near the end of the project. You must
begin mentally planning your visuals at the beginning of the design process.

Hastily designed and produced visuals can doom a presentation (and a presenter,) where well
planned and executed images add tremendous strength.

You can easily communicate concepts that are difficult to grasp through the intelligent use of
professionally produced visuals. This allows the freedom to communicate more complex
subject matter in a more efficient manner, adding support and impact to your script.

Finally, your presentation should be entertaining. Leave the audience feeling better and more
relaxed when they leave and that impression will carry over to both your subject matter and
yourself. There is no logical reason that the presentation of routine sales figures and financial
reports should not be as exciting as the unveiling of a new product or a first rate service
proposal.

The Key Steps

1. KNOW YOUR SUBJECT MATTER

While this first point may seem obvious, it is very important that you research every nuance
of your subject.

Read reports and look up information about the subject with the specific purpose of writing a
presentation script. When examined in this light, new ideas and alternative ways of thinking
often develop.

The ability to present a subject with confidence directly affects your audience’s impression
and will help keep their attention.
This is especially important when giving a design presentation or proposal since you are in
effect selling” your ideas to the audience. This applies whether the audience is a potential
client or your own board of directors.

2. KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE

A small amount of research into the makeup of your audience will reap large benefits on
presentation day.
If you were traveling about speaking on behalf of a new construction project you would tailor
vastly different presentations to an audience of engineers and a city council.

If a small amount of research will help you, imagine what a moderate amount will do!
3. KNOW YOURSELF (and your limits)

We all must push our limits and willingly bite off more than we may be comfortable
swallowing on occasion — this is how we learn and grow. Knowing a few of your limits,
however, might avert disaster, or at least embarrassment.

Intimately related to Know Your Audience, (above) Know your ‘limits’ for just where you
may or may not tread, depending on the makeup of your audience and your relationship with
them.

4. DEVELOP A THEME

All presentations, regardless of their complexity, are designed with a single purpose. Whether
that purpose is to sell, educate, or for pure entertainment, state that purpose to yourself at the
beginning of the development process. Keep this purpose in mind always.

5. PREPARE YOUR SCRIPT

The script does not necessarily have to be a work of literary excellence. For some, simple
notes on 3 x 5 file cards are sufficient. Other presenters and presentations require a carefully
composed, professionally developed script.
The exact form of the script depends on the formality of the presentation, the size and
demographics of the audience and of course, the presenter.
Any presentation script, regardless of complexity, shares the four basic parts of other
business correspondence, opening, body, summary and closing.
o OPENING
The opening of the presentation sets the stage for what is to follow. Participants
are introduced and the purpose of the presentation is stated. You should also
present a VERY BRIEF summary or outline of the points to be covered. This
helps keep your audience oriented properly within the framework of your
script.
o BODY
This is the part of the script in which the bulk of the subject matter is
 presented. The body of a long presentation should be separated into smaller,
easily assimilated modules. Each module or sub-section should make a single
point or convey one idea. These sub-sections should each have their own
simple opening, body and summary.
o SUMMARY
This portion should be very brief and simple. Here is your chance to reinforce
the central theme and purpose of your presentation. Briefly emphasize the key
points and main ideas of your script in this section.There is an old axiom that
says … “Tell them what you are going to tell them, tell them, and then tell
them what you told them.” This pretty well sums it up. Question and answer
sessions often follow a final summary and are very productive if managed
properly. Encourage questions from the audience if time or format permits, but
be prepared to answer them. If you do not know the correct answer to a
question, don’t try to fake it.
Refer the question to someone who can answer it correctly or make a note to
yourself to obtain the answer later. When you do, contact the person or persons
who asked it as soon as possible. This makes an excellent door opener for
follow up calls.

o CLOSING
In a well structured closing, points raised during the question and answer
session (if any) are summarized and any handout material that was not required
during the presentation is distributed.

o Handout material emphasizing key points and ideas enables your audience to
review the subject, and assures that your words will remain fresh in their
minds. Handout material should not be distributed before a presentation unless
it is critical to the theme since it invariably leads to audience distraction.

6. SELECT THE PROPER VISUAL AIDS

With the script developed and the audience research completed, this decision should be
simple. A five minute presentation to a three person audience is probably best made with
handout material alone, or even simple flip charts.

Good presentation visuals, regardless of the display medium, do not have to be expensive.
When properly planned and produced, simple, well designed graphics add professionalism
and impact to virtually any show.

The proper use of text images, charts and graphs as well as the correct type of chart or graph
to use in various circumstances is the subject of another article in this series.

7. PRODUCE THE VISUALS

With careful, timely planning, the only task remaining is mechanical process of production.
The complete and accurate planning that you have done to this point assures a smooth
production cycle without the need for unnecessary last minute changes.

This is true whether you use Magic Markers to draw flip charts on a newsprint pad or require
a nine projector presentation with live satellite video.

Today’s presentation software allow last minute changes and additions that could not be
accomplished using any other method of production. While last minute changes are possible,
avoiding them can still help cut the cost of your presentation by eliminating revision and rush
fees.

8. REHEARSE–REHEARSE–REHEARSE

Your final script and outline permit you to rehearse your presentation even before the visuals
are completed. This assures that when your final images are prepared and ready, you will be
as well.

If you’d like to really test your mettle, drag out the camcorder and tape your rehearsal. Just
keep in mind, no one expects you to be Winston Churchill.

9. PRESENTATION DAY

On the day of the presentation, arrive and set up early. Have spare projector bulbs and extra
copies of the handout material close at hand.

You have your visuals, you are well rehearsed, the room is set up and the participants are all
prepared. Speak clearly and with authority. A little humor if tastefully added can help break
the tension of the moment. There should be no surprises. Make certain that the audience
questions have been addressed, and of course, thank everyone for attending.

11. FOLLOW UP

Check back with the attendants and participants to assure that your presentation goals were
met. A questionnaire distributed at the end of your presentation can be a source of critical
information for follow up calls or future presentations. Encourage the attendants to call or
write with any questions that they did not get answered during the presentation.

Points that one should avoid while designing a Presentation

The Illegible Image.

Images not clearly seen by the entire audience add confusion and distraction. If you have to
say “I know you can’t read this but…..,” why include the visual at all? The more eagle-eyed
viewers may take exception to your attack on their literacy, while others are attempting to see
what is on the screen.

They cannot be expected to be paying full attention to what is being said while straining to
read the visual.

One popular rule of thumb is the “8H” rule of legibility. In a nutshell, if you can read an
image from eight times its height, odds are your audience will be able to read it when
projected.

The Useless Image:

Images should be designed to please the mind as well as the eye of the viewer. If an image
has no specific place or purpose in a presentation other than “it is pretty”, it should probably
be removed.

The Overly Complex Image:

More images with fewer ideas on each are better than a few images which are complicated or
difficult to understand. A single idea or set of facts per image, timed to the speaker’s pace
will add punch and emphasis to each important idea assuring maximum retention.

Most people are easily bored, and one generally accepted rule of thumb states that if an image
remains on the screen longer than 7 to 10 seconds, you begin to lose viewer attention.

Chartjunk:

Closely related to the previous deadly sins, “chartjunk” was coined to identify confusing
elements which really have no place on the image.
Many presenters insist on having a glaring colored logo in the corner of every image.

While a common element can add continuity to a presentation, blazing logos and distracting
objects can detract from the message — after all, isn’t the message what it’s all about?

Chartoons:

A first cousin to chartjunk, “chartoons” are overly cute attempts to make a presentation
appear more professional by adding lots of distracting, tacky, aggravating symbols and such.
These usually appear right after a presenter has discovered a clip art library.

Ransom Note Design:

Just because you have access to 350 fonts does not mean that you are required to use them. A
single font throughout an entire presentation is usually quite sufficient. Use bold, italic,
underline, quotations and/or color changes to emphasize or subdue key points or words.

Calico or Crazy Quilt Graphics:

Keep the colors to a minimum. A single background color throughout a presentation lends an
air of continuity. You can separate broad sections of a presentation by changing background
colors, but keep the changes to a minimum.

Unless your purpose is to shock or grab serious attention, try to keep all background colors
within the same color family.

Mixed Visual Metaphors:

You should not mix your metaphors when you speak, so please don’t mix them in your
graphics without specific purpose.

You would not use warm colors in an image whose subject was ice hockey unless you wanted
to emphasize the warm comfortable environment of the arena.

The Devil is in the Details:

This is closely related to Know Your Audience. While I’m not suggesting that you nit-pick
and perfect every nuance of detail, but you never know when an unforeseen gotcha will turn
up.

You will dramatically improve the quality of your presentation if you keep these suggestions
in mind throughout design and development. Production and delivery will go more smoothly,
the budget will not be broken, and your nerves can take a well deserved rest.

UNIT III

Negotiation

Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences. It is a process by which

compromise or agreement is reached while avoiding argument and dispute.
In any disagreement, individuals understandably aim to achieve the best possible outcome for
their position (or perhaps an organisation they represent). However, the principles of fairness,
seeking mutual benefit and maintaining a relationship are the keys to a successful outcome.

The process of negotiation includes the following stages:

Preparation

Discussion

Clarification of goals

Negotiate towards a Win-Win outcome

Agreement

Implementation of a course of action

Informal Negotiation
There are times when there is a need to negotiate more informally. At such times, when a
difference of opinion arises, it might not be possible or appropriate to go through the stages
set out above in a formal manner.
Nevertheless, remembering the key points in the stages of formal negotiation may be very
helpful in a variety of informal situations.

Important factors affecting Negotiation:

Authority
Credibility
Information
Time
Emotional control
Communication Skills

BUSINESS ETIQUETTE

Business etiquette is a set of manners that is accepted or required in a profession. Often

upheld by custom, it is enforced by the members of an organization. Those who

violate business etiquette are considered offensive. The penalty for such behavior frequently

lies in the disapproval of other organization members.

Approaches to Negotiation

There are four different approaches to negotiation and the outcome of the negotiation

depends on the approach. The various approaches to negotiation are as follows:

Distributive Negotiation or Win-Lose Approach

Lose-Lose Approach

Compromise Approach

Integrative Negotiation or Win-Win Approach

Points that one should bear in mind while attending a Job Interview.

Utilize small talk.

Stay positive.
Answer the questions.
Be professional.
Skip the slang.
Avoid "um."
Let the interviewer run the interview.
Breathe.

Skills required for Group Discussion

Communication skill

Listening skill

Reasoning skills

Leadership skills

Initiation

Assertiveness
Flexibility

Awareness

Tips when "Answering" a Telephone Call

Answer the telephone by the third ring

Make sure your greeting is Professional

Be prepared before you answer the telephone

Be an "Active" listener

Return telephone calls promptly!

Check Your Messages Frequently

Tips to be followed when "Leaving" a Telephone Message

Do not speak too fast!

Pronounce your name clearly :

Slow down when saying your telephone number :

Give your company name, your title & why you are calling

Let them know when to call you back :

Always sound Professional

Telephone Etiquette

They say you can't judge a book by its cover but how many of us make judgements about
people just based on their telephone speaking voice? People form opinions and make
judgements about us in the first 60 seconds they see us. People also make judgements about
us based on the way we sound on the telephone.

Here are some of the Tips to be followed when "Answering" the Telephone Call

1. Answer the telephone by the third ring :

Answer the telephone or make sure your answering machine picks up the telephone by the
third or fourth ring. Do not let the telephone ring and ring. Many of us say how we "hate"
 speaking into these answering machines, but at the same time we also hate not having the
option of leaving a message.

2. Make sure your greeting is Professional:

Make sure your greeting is short but very professional. Write down and practice your
greeting several times before you actually record your greeting. Play it back and listen to your
own speaking voice. Is your message too fast? Is it too slow? Make sure your greeting sounds
professional and clear. Give the caller clear instructions what to do when leaving their
message.

3. Be prepared before you answer the telephone:

Have a pad of paper and pencil ready when you answer your telephone. Be prepared to be an
"active" listener and take notes when someone calls. Especially write down the person's name
who has called so you can use their name during your conversation with them. People "love"
to hear their name.

4. Be an "Active" listener:

Take notes as you speak. Let the people know you are taking notes and this will signal them
not to speak too fast. Ask for the correct spelling of their name. Don't assume their name is
spelled the same as others. It may have a unique spelling.

5. Return telephone calls promptly! :

This is the most professional telephone habit people should possess. Be that person who
DOES return telephone calls. Many people DO NOT return telephone calls

6. Check Your Messages Frequently:

If you are out of your office often, check your messages several times a day. People may be
looking to contact you quickly.

They are usually on a deadline and are looking for "quick" turn around

Understanding the other party's interests and tactics is integral to good negotiating. Choosing
a strategy that best responds to their interests and tactics will help to achieve the best
outcome.
Matching the strategy to the situation
Some of the different strategies for negotiation include:
 problem solving - both parties committing to examining and discussing issues closely
when entering into long-term agreements that warrant careful scrutiny
 contending - persuading your negotiating party to concede to your outcome if you're
bargaining in one-off negotiations or over major 'wins'
 yielding - conceding a point that is not vital to you but is important to the other party;
valuable in ongoing negotiations
 compromising - both parties forgoing their ideal outcomes, settling for an outcome that is
moderately satisfactory to each participant
 inaction - buying time to think about the proposal, gather more information or decide your
next tactics.
The chosen strategy will depend on who we are negotiating with and the type of relationship
we have with them. For example, what level of cooperation and common interest exists
between us, and how will each party behave during the negotiation? It will also depend on
what we are negotiating, and the time frame and setting we are negotiating in.

Approaches to Negotiations
There are 3 key approaches to negotiations: hard, soft and principled negotiation. Many
experts consider the third option - principled negotiation - to be best practice:
 The hard approach involves contending by using extremely competitive bargaining.
 The soft approach involves yielding, where one party tries hard to meet the interests of the
other party and foregoes their own interests.
 Principled negotiation focuses on achieving a lasting, win-win outcome by:
o separating the people from the problem
o focusing on interests not positions
o generating a variety of options before settling on an agreement
o basing the agreement on objective criteria.

What will you do when negotiations fail?

Even with the best preparation, we may not always be able to negotiate a successful outcome.
We must plan for what to do in case negotiations fail. If we allocate time and resources to
planning alternative solutions, we can avoid unnecessary stress and poor business outcomes.
Having an alternative plan will help us to:
 reduce our own internal pressures
 minimise our chances of accepting an offer that is not in our best business interests
 set realistic goals and expectations.
Preparing an alternative plan
It's important to remember that, when it comes to negotiating, there's always more than one
positive solution for our business. We should ensure to have an alternative plan.
Consider your 'best alternative to a negotiated agreement' (also known as BATNA). Take
pressure off yourself by identifying several other options or alternatives to the outcome you
are seeking.
 1. Brainstorm all available alternatives to the process you are negotiating.
2. Choose the most promising ideas and expand them into practicable alternatives.
3. Keep the best alternative in reserve as a fallback.
Take a firm and assertive stance when proposing ideas or drawing definite lines in your
negotiation. Being willing to walk away is a powerful tool.
Clearly determine the worst possible outcome you are prepared to accept in the negotiation.
Consider mediation
If negotiations are unsuccessful, be prepared to consider dispute resolution. Third-party
mediation can establish a constructive environment for negotiation that requires both parties
to discuss, propose and resolve issues fairly and objectively.

Communication skills required for Interview:

1. Utilize small talk.

 Communicate effectively in a job interview by using the small talk at the beginning to your
advantage. Smile, respond to pleasantries and be sure to shake your interviewer's hand. The
small talk exchanged at the beginning of the interview will help the interviewer gain an
understanding of your personality and how you communicate with people.Ad

2
Stay positive.

 Effective communication in a job interview should focus on positive or neutral topics, not
negative ones. Avoid mentioning any negative news issues or controversial current events
that will cause the mood of the interview to shift in a negative direction.

3
Answer the questions.

 Communicate clearly in a job interview by answering the questions you're asked succinctly
without elaboration or extra examples. Your interviewer will ask for examples if they're
needed. Answer questions thoroughly and completely, but don't ramble or stray far from the
original questions asked.
 4
Be professional.

 Your interviewer will likely be friendly and might try to make you feel comfortable, but this
doesn't mean you should treat the interviewer like your friend. Remember that you're in a
business setting interviewing for a professional position and conduct yourself accordingly.

5Skip the slang.

 Speak professionally during your interview with complete sentences and no slang terms or
colloquialisms. This doesn't mean using big words outside your normal vocabulary. Just
speak in a professional, polished way.

6
Avoid "um."

 Avoid using filler words like "um" or "like" in sentences or to fill gaps in the conversation
when you're speaking during the interview. This habit will make you sound unpolished and
unprofessional. Practice conducting an interview-length conversation with a friend and focus
on eliminating these words from your speech if this is something you tend to do when you're
nervous or speaking in public.

7
Let the interviewer run the interview.

 It's important to let your interviewer steer the interview in the direction he wants or needs it
to go. Don't interrupt him or change topics if he's discussing something. Ask for a moment at
the end of the interview if you feel you have an important qualification to mention or skill
that you would like to highlight.

8
Breathe.

 Take a few deep breaths to calm down if you feel yourself getting nervous or overwhelmed
during the interview. This pause will help you regain focus and maintain your level of
confidence.
Different Stages of Negotiation.

Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences. It is a process by which

compromise or agreement is reached while avoiding argument and dispute.

In any disagreement, individuals understandably aim to achieve the best possible outcome for
their position (or perhaps an organisation they represent). However, the principles of fairness,
seeking mutual benefit and maintaining a relationship are the keys to a successful outcome.

Specific forms of negotiation are used in many situations: international affairs, the legal
system, government, industrial disputes or domestic relationships as examples. However,
general negotiation skills can be learned and applied in a wide range of
activities. Negotiation skills can be of great benefit in resolving any differences that arise
between you and others.

Stages of Negotiation
In order to achieve a desirable outcome, it may be useful to follow a structured approach to
negotiation. For example, in a work situation a meeting may need to be arranged in which all
parties involved can come together.
The process of negotiation includes the following stages:

 Preparation
 Discussion
 Clarification of goals
 Negotiate towards a Win-Win outcome
 Agreement
 Implementation of a course of action

1. Preparation
Before any negotiation takes place, a decision needs to be taken as to when and where a
meeting will take place to discuss the problem and who will attend. Setting a limited
time-scale can also be helpful to prevent the disagreement continuing.
This stage involves ensuring all the pertinent facts of the situation are known in order to
clarify your own position. In the work example above, this would include knowing the
‘rules’ of your organisation, to whom help is given, when help is not felt appropriate and the
grounds for such refusals. Your organisation may well have policies to which you can refer
in preparation for the negotiation.
Undertaking preparation before discussing the disagreement will help to avoid further
conflict and unnecessarily wasting time during the meeting.

2. Discussion
During this stage, individuals or members of each side put forward the case as they see
it, i.e. their understanding of the situation.
Key skills during this stage include questioning, listening and clarifying.
Sometimes it is helpful to take notes during the discussion stage to record all points put
forward in case there is need for further clarification. It is extremely important to listen, as
when disagreement takes place it is easy to make the mistake of saying too much and
listening too little. Each side should have an equal opportunity to present their case.

3. Clarifying Goals
From the discussion, the goals, interests and viewpoints of both sides of the
disagreement need to be clarified.
It is helpful to list these factors in order of priority. Through this clarification it is often
possible to identify or establish some common ground. Clarification is an essential part of the
negotiation process, without it misunderstandings are likely to occur which may cause
problems and barriers to reaching a beneficial outcome.

4. Negotiate Towards a Win-Win Outcome

This stage focuses on what is termed a 'win-win' outcome where both sides feel they
have gained something positive through the process of negotiation and both sides feel
their point of view has been taken into consideration.
A win-win outcome is usually the best result. Although this may not always be possible,
through negotiation, it should be the ultimate goal.
Suggestions of alternative strategies and compromises need to be considered at this
point. Compromises are often positive alternatives which can often achieve greater benefit
for all concerned compared to holding to the original positions.

5. Agreement
Agreement can be achieved once understanding of both sides’ viewpoints and interests
have been considered.
It is essential to for everybody involved to keep an open mind in order to achieve an
acceptable solution. Any agreement needs to be made perfectly clear so that both sides know
what has been decided.
6. Implementing a Course of Action
From the agreement, a course of action has to be implemented to carry through the
decision.

Failure to Agree
If the process of negotiation breaks down and agreement cannot be reached, then re-
scheduling a further meeting is called for. This avoids all parties becoming embroiled in
heated discussion or argument, which not only wastes time but can also damage future
relationships.
At the subsequent meeting, the stages of negotiation should be repeated. Any new ideas or
interests should be taken into account and the situation looked at afresh. At this stage it may
also be helpful to look at other alternative solutions and/or bring in another person to mediate.

Informal Negotiation
There are times when there is a need to negotiate more informally. At such times, when a
difference of opinion arises, it might not be possible or appropriate to go through the stages
set out above in a formal manner.
Nevertheless, remembering the key points in the stages of formal negotiation may be very
helpful in a variety of informal situations.

Important factors affecting Negotiation:

1. Authority:
The first key factor affecting any negotiation is authority. Negotiation may start with
deliberation but to be effective, it has to end up in a conclusion or settlement. For this, both
the parties should have the power or authority to conclude the deal.

If one party believes that the other party does not have the requisite authority to make a
commitment or at least mediate and carry the process forward, he or she may not be keen to
come to the negotiating table.

If the parties derive their authority from a higher authority, they should know to what extent
they can stretch. Committing beyond the extent of authority they are vested with may result
in negating the negotiation.
In real-life situations, we do come across instances where due to improper understanding, one
party commits certain concessions or facilities which the higher authority does not approve
and honour. Lack of authority or ability to stand by the settlements arrived at undermines the
effectiveness of negotiation.

2. Credibility:
Trust and mutual confidence are very relevant in any process of negotiation. People who are
known to be honest, sincere, steady and reliable have an edge when they enter the process of
negotiation.

The question in the mind of a group when the other person speaks is can we trust this
person’s perspectives, opinions and statements? For negotiations to proceed smoothly, the
answer to this question should be positive.

Credibility comes from the person’s knowledge, expertise, track record and relationships. It is
essential that both the parties have in their teams those people who are perceived as being
credible.

The authority or power to enter into a negotiation should be supplemented by the credibility
of people sitting across the negotiation table.

3. Information:
Negotiation often proceeds on the basis of facts, figures, past data, future trends and outlook,
studies, empirical data and calculations. Information, to repeat a cliché, is power. Adequate
and reliable information about the various issues involved is essential for ensuring the
success of a negotiation exercise.

The party which is better informed has an advantage. Logical and persuasive arguments
cannot be put forth in the absence of all relevant information.

Before coming to the negotiating table, each party should make conscious efforts to gather as
much information as possible on all the issues that will be raised during negotiations.
Effective negotiation often involves hard bargaining and well-informed teams enjoy better
bargaining power.

It is likely that one of the parties in the negotiation has greater access to information than the
other. In the interest of ensuring a smooth flow of negotiation, information that is relevant for
deliberations should be shared with the other party.
How to share it, when to share it and in what manner it should be shared are matters of
judgement and should be decided depending upon the situations.

4. Time:
The time frame within which the negotiation should be completed is another important factor
affecting the process of negotiation. One of the parties may have a certain urgency as a result
of which they may be in a hurry to conclude the negotiation.

It is due to time constraints that negotiations cannot go on endlessly and both the parties
should agree on a time frame within which the process has to be completed.

At the same time, the very process of negotiation is such that the other party cannot be
hurried too much. Both the parties need to have adequate patience. Putting the other party
under undue pressure is certainly not desirable.

Negotiations having wider impact on all the parties need to necessarily follow a well laid
down process, which takes time. However, as the process progresses, the deliberations should
gather the required momentum and the deal should be clinched or the settlement concluded
towards the peak of the negotiation. Each party should take care not to delay too much
resulting in a stalemate.

5. Emotional control:
Human beings are not just rational, they are also emotional. Every person has his or her
qualities of the head and heart. It is true that in business situations, people take decisions
based on thinking and reasoning and after a careful evaluation of choices before them.

Yet, if we scratch the surface, we do find emotions at play. Good negotiators are aware of the
play of emotions and are responsive to them. Apart from assessing the emotional state of the
people in the other party, the negotiator should himself display the appropriate emotional
state. Sometimes, it would be appropriate to come on strong with forceful points.

At other times, a whisper and a soft touch would do. The idea is that whatever be your
position, try to match the emotional furore of the other party and establish a facilitative
ground. While a certain emotional awareness is no doubt relevant, there is nonetheless no
room for excessive display of emotions in the process of negotiation.
6. Communication Skills:
As we have already noted, negotiation is an intense process involving exchange of messages.
These messages are not necessarily bits and pieces of information.

What needs to be shared with others during the process of negotiation would be a complex
mix of ideas, attitudes and even emotions. The negotiator needs to state, articulate, explain,
reason out, appeal, concede, persuade, persevere and even remain silent depending upon the
situation. Good negotiators use silence effectively.

They know when to remain silent. Effective negotiation calls for not only saying the right
thing at the right time, but also leaving unsaid what need not be said. A good negotiator needs
to have a good command over language.

The process of negotiation is not always conducted in a serious manner. There maybe
instances of inter-cultural group negotiations, where it would be inappropriate to use jokes,
humour and light-hearted comments since they are likely to be misunderstood.

In other situations where the relationship between the negotiating teams is not too formal,
relevant humour and lighter moments may help in building rapport and easing tension.

Besides using the right words and tone, effective negotiators supplement their arguments with
stories, metaphors and analogies to make their positions come alive.

Given the importance of communication skills in the negotiation process, parties concerned
choose people who have good interpersonal skills as members of the negotiating teams.

Display of arrogance, hurtful comments, sarcastic remarks, emotional outbursts and

overfriendly approaches are inimical to the smooth flow of the negotiation process.

Approaches to Negotiation

There are four different approaches to negotiation and the outcome of the negotiation
depends on the approach. The various approaches to negotiation are as follows:
Distributive Negotiation or Win-Lose Approach

This is also called competitive, zero sum, or claiming value approach. This approach is based
on the premise that one person can win only at the expense of the other. It has the following
characteristics:
(i) One side ‘wins’ and one side ‘loses’.
(ii) There are fixed resources to be divided so that the more one gets, the less the other gets.
(iii) One person’s interests oppose the other’s.
(iv) The dominant concern in this type of bargaining is usually to maximize one’s own
interests.
(v) The dominant strategies in this mode include manipulation, forcing and withholding
information.

Strategy to be used: In this mode, one seeks to gain advantage through concealing
information, misleading or using manipulative actions. Of course, these methods have serious
potential for negative consequences. Yet even in this type of negotiation, both sides must feel
that at the end the outcome was the best that they could achieve and that it is worth accepting
and supporting.
The basic techniques open to the negotiator in this kind of approach are the following:

 Influence the other person’s belief in what is possible.

 Learn as much as possible about the other person’s position especially with regard to
resistance points.
 Try to convince the other to change his/her mind about their ability to achieve their own
goals.
 Promote your own objectives as desirable, necessary, ethical, or even inevitable.
Lose-Lose Approach

This negotiation approach is adopted when one negotiating partner feels that his own interests
are threatened and he does all he can to ensure that the outcome of the negotiation is not
suitable to the interests of the other party as well. In the bargain, both the parties end up being
the loser. This type of situation arises when the negotiating partners ignore one another’s
needs and the need to hurt each other outweighs the need to find some kind of an acceptable
solution. This is the most undesirable type of outcome and hence this negotiation approach is
best avoided.
Compromise Approach

This approach provides an outcome which is some improvement over the lose-lose strategy
outcome. To avoid a lose-lose situation, both parties give up a part of what they had
originally sought and settle for something less than that. A compromise is the best way out
when it is impossible for both parties to convince each other or when the disputed resources
are limited.

Integrative Negotiation or Win-Win Approach

This negotiation approach is also called as collaborative or creating value approach. It is

superior to all negotiation approaches. It results in both the parties feeling that they are
achieving what they wanted. It results in satisfaction to both the parties. It has the following
characteristics.
(i) There are a sufficient amount of resources to be divided and both sides can ‘win’

(ii) The dominant concern here is to maximize joint outcomes.

(iii) The dominant strategies include cooperation, sharing information, and mutual problem-
solving. This type is also called ‘creating value’ since the goal here is to have both sides leave
the negotiating feeling they had greater value than before.

Since the integrative approach is most desirable, some of the guidelines to integrative
bargaining are listed below:

 Orient yourself towards a win-win approach. Your attitude while going into negotiation
plays a huge role in the outcome.
 Plan and have a concrete strategy. Be clear on what is important to you and why it is
important.
 Know your Best Alternative to a Negotiated Alternative (BATNA).
 Separate people from the problem.
 Focus on interests, not positions; consider the other party’s situation.
 Create options for mutual gain.
 Generate a variety of possibilities before deciding what to do.
 Aim for an outcome based on some objective standard.
 Pay a lot of attention to the flow of negotiation.
 Take the intangibles into account, communicate carefully.
 Use active listening skills, rephrase and ask questions and then ask some more

Skills required for Group Discussion:

A Group discussion is included in a selection process to gauge a few predetermined

characteristics. Two very important skills required for a Group Discussion that are gauged by
this process are – communication skills and listening skills. Other parameters may include
reasoning skills, leadership skills, initiation, assertiveness, flexibility, awareness etc.
While one is interacting in a GD, one’s interactive skill is paid attention to. The moderator or
observer pays attention to how one behaves with other group members and monitor the skills
required for a group discussion. This includes stating ones point and listening to others’
points as well. How a person communicates with others and what is his/her behavior towards
others is very important.
 Let us deal with the skills required for a group discussion one at a time.
1. Communication skill – How do you communicate your viewpoint to others? While judging
this, not only is the verbal interaction taken into consideration, but the non-verbal cues are
also paid attention to. The verbal part displays the clarity of thought of a person, and whether
the same is communicated to others. Aptness of language is also judged through verbal
communication. The non-verbal part includes ones expressions and body language. Many a
times individuals get angry if they do not get a chance to speak or if their viewpoint is not
agreed upon. One should remember that a GD is not a debate, but merely a discussion. So,
one should not display anger by shouting, thumping the desk or any similar act. Also, each
person’s viewpoint matters, and thus should be paid attention to.
2. Listening skill – The ability of a person to listen to others is very important in a GD. So, one
should try to avoid interrupting others. Also, one should maintain eye contact with the
speaker to demonstrate that one is listening. This also help in getting cues about when is the
speaker going to stop. This is the chance to start making a point. This initiated statement, if
related to the previous speakers point, catches the attention of the moderator. This is because
agreeing, disagreeing or elaborating on the previous speakers’ point ensures that one had
been paying attention to what others said. Speaking without listening to others makes a
person a bad team player and thus such a person is difficult to work with. While summarizing
also, a person who takes into consideration everybody’s opinion, gets brownie points.
3. Reasoning skills – One has to speak relevant to the topic. In the short span of a GD, if a
person can analyze the topic or what others have spoken and paraphrase the same, then it
indicates that a person’s reasoning skills are good. To do this, every opinion and especially
the topic has to be paid attention to.
4. Leadership skills – A person, who is able to manoeuvre the flow of the discussion, is named
the leader. A leader also encourages opinions from all the members. She/he should be able to
motivate the other members to follow him in the discussion.
5. Initiation – Initiative taken by a person shows his/her inclination to do work. A person who
initiates the GD can make a favorable first impression by making a valid point. But, if an
initiator does not do his job well (stutter or quote wrong fact or figure) then the damage done
can be irreparable.
6. Assertiveness – A person should make his point in a convincing manner so that others buy
his point.
7. Flexibility – Many speakers just stick to their argument and dismiss others’ opinions. In
order to work in a group, a person should be flexible. Moreover, a group discussion is done to
elicit the best course of action. Therefore, if someone makes a better point than another, the
other person should be flexible enough to accept it.
8. Awareness – A GD also demonstrates the awareness of individuals. Reading is required to
enhance awareness and make a good impression.
BUSINESS ETIQUETTE

Business etiquette is a set of manners that is accepted or required in a profession. Often

upheld by custom, it is enforced by the members of an organization. Those who

violate business etiquette are considered offensive. The penalty for such behavior frequently

lies in the disapproval of other organization members.

 Tips on Business Etiquette: Setting a professional tone with co-workers, clients and customers

For organizations and employees alike, recognizing the critical link between business protocol and profit is key
to your success. Learn how to confidently interact with colleagues in ways that make you and your whole
organization shine with this special report...

Business Etiquette Tip #1

Cubicle etiquette: 8 close-quarters rules

Even if there aren’t four walls and a door marking the area, you need to respect everyone else’s work space.
Four etiquette rules:

1. Don’t “prairie dog.” Walk around the partition to see a neighbor, instead of popping your head over the top.
And as you walk down the passageways, don’t peek into each workstation.

2. Grant your neighbors private time. Stagger lunch breaks to provide everyone a few minutes alone at their
desks.

3. Don’t chime in to conversations you hear over the wall. Whether it’s a work question you can answer or a
private conversation you’d rather not hear, ignore comments that aren’t directed at you.

4. Keep lunch in the kitchen. Or, when you absolutely can’t leave your desk for a meal, choose foods without
strong odors, and dispose of your trash in the kitchen, not in your own wastebasket.

Business Etiquette Tip #2

'Casual dress' etiquette: Demystify your event's dress code

Casual. Corporate casual. Business casual. Smart casual. Resort casual. Don’t leave meeting attendees baffled
about your event’s dress code.

Explain what you mean by “business casual” or “corporate casual,” etc. with examples of appropriate attire for
men and women. One event’s “resort casual” encouraged wearing jeans, while another explained that shorts
were acceptable, but not denim or cutoffs.

Business Etiquette Tip #3

How to finesse awkward, embarrassing situations

Knowing whether or not to tell your CEO that he has spinach stuck in his teeth is one sure test of your business
etiquette skills. (Answer: Tell him, but discreetly.)

The situation: You find a personal—and potentially embarrassing—document left behind on the photocopier.
Solution: Normally, you’d put forgotten pages in a tray beside the copier, for people to claim later. In this case,
though, deliver the document in person.

Business Etiquette Tip #4

Handshake etiquette: Setting the stage for instant rapport

A good, well-timed handshake to pair with your smile is a sure way to stand out, whether you’re at the
company picnic or an industry conference.

Here’s how important it is: A prospective employee with the best handshake is more likely to get the job,
research shows.

Even if you’re not a job-seeker, a good handshake will grant you instant rapport when meeting someone new.

Business Etiquette Tip #5

Job etiquette: When a co-worker gets the pink slip

Your friend at work gets handed a pink slip, and now you feel awkward. So awkward, in fact, that you’re
tempted to do nothing. But that’s the last thing you should do.

Here’s how to deal with the situation:

React quickly, or risk appearing insensitive. Even if you can say only, “I’m sorry. And I don’t know what to
say.”

Steer clear of downplaying or saying anything inauthentic. Avoid saying things like, “This place is going
down the tubes” or “I know how you feel.”

Set up a gathering, once the initial shock has faded. Make it just the two of you or invite others, so you have
time to say goodbye outside the office. Keep it focused on the person, and “understand that some things are out
of our control.

Business Etiquette Tip #6

Guest etiquette: Roll out the red carpet for visitors

When a VIP comes to your office, how do you dole out extra-special treatment?

Being friendly and responsive is the key to treating VIPs well.

Business Etiquette Tip #7

Business phone etiquette: Soothe angry callers

Turn a growling caller into a purring, pleased customer with these telephone etiquette techniques:

 Bite your tongue. When someone screams on the phone, your first thought may be, “What a jerk!” But
 that attitude will only poison an already-tenuous relationship with the caller. Instead, stay calm and
listen.

 Let ’em vent. Like a whistling kettle, angry callers need to vent some steam. Don’t interrupt—even
with a solution—before they tell their story.

 Take it down a notch. Instead of raising your voice to match the caller’s volume, speak softly. That
will soothe the speaker and show him or her that you’re interested in handling the complaint in a calm,
rational way.

Business Etiquette Tip #9

Office donations: Keep it low-key when passing the hat

Not only is there no such thing as a free lunch, but those birthday cakes for co-workers can cost you, too.

It’s not unusual to be asked to help pay for celebrations at the office, such as birthdays and baby showers. In a
survey by OfficeTeam, more than 75% of respondents said employees chip in at least once a year; 15% said
employees receive donation requests monthly.

Business Etiquette Tip #10

Business letter etiquette: The art of the personal note

Great personal notes come from taking these three steps:

1. State why you’re writing in a straightforward manner. Example: “Thank you for taking the time to visit our
offices.”

2. Elaborate on step 1. Example: “It was so valuable for our entire executive team to meet with you face to
face. And your meeting sparked several creative ideas that we’re excited to pursue.”

3. Build the relationship. “This is the most important step,. “What you’re saying here is: ‘Your relationship
matters, and I’m proving it by taking the time to write this note.’ In business relationships, time taken is worth
everything. If there’s a bell curve of emotion to a personal note, this is the top of it.”

Business Etiquette Tip #11

Business dining etiquette: 5 rules

Whether you’re lunching with peers at a convention or meeting with a vendor, business dining etiquette can
keep you from marring your image with a faux pas.

Here are five etiquette rules for business meals,

1. Never, ever talk with your mouth full. Instead, take small bites so you can quickly swallow if somebody
asks you a question, Jay says.

2. Come prepared with a few casual, non-business topics in mind. It helps you avoid awkward silences.
People enjoy giving their thoughts on subjects like travel, sports and movies.

3. Always be kind to the wait staff, no matter what happens. Anyone who is nice to you but nasty to the
server is not a nice person.

4. Know your lunch partner’s business. It’s especially key when your tablemate is someone you’d like to
impress, but the rule holds true regardless. The fewer times you have to say (or think), “I didn’t know that!” the
more impressed the other party will be. How to steal this idea: Take a few minutes to do a Google search
before you leave for lunch.

5. Put some thought into choosing the right restaurant. Too casual or inexpensive and the person may not
feel valued. Too expensive and they may perceive you as wasteful. When in doubt, suggest that the other
person pick the place.

Business Etiquette Tip #12

Office decorations: Balance personal & professional image

Personalizing our office space is tempting because we spend more awake hours there than anywhere else. But
strike a balance by answering these questions about your cubicle décor:

1. Who will see it?

2. What does it say about you?
3. Is it distracting?
4. Does it go overboard?

Business Etiquette Tip #13

Party etiquette: Special occasions with co-workers

Office party etiquette is simple: Don’t do anything that you don’t want the entire company to be talking about
for several years to come. Contrary to popular myth, an office party is not the place to wear a lampshade on
your head. Keep your dignity, and respect the dignity of others.
UNIT IV

Principles of Effective Writing.

 Brevity

 Clarity

 Communication

 Emphasis

 Honesty

 Passion and Control

 Reading

 Revision

 Sophistication and Simplicity

 Sound and Rhythm

Appointment Letter

An Appointment letter is usually an official letter written either by the immediate superior or
by the hierarchical superior to an individual who has been found eligible for the job
advertised or applied for. The Letter of Appointment comes into play after a series of hiring
procedures have been followed by the organization to eliminate most applicants for the job
and finding that one suitable candidate eligible for the profile.

Reference Letter

A reference letter is a letter of recommendation from a previous or current supervisor,

professor, co- worker, peer or personal contact who can describe the knowledge, skills or
aptitudes that you possess. Reference letters can be used when looking for work or applying
to graduate school.
Business Letter

The term “business letters” refers to any written communication that begins with a
salutation, ends with a signature and whose contents are professional in nature.
Historically, business letters were sent via postal mail or courier, although the Internet is
rapidly changing the way businesses communicate. There are many standard types of
business letters, and each of them has a specific focus.

Sales Letters
Typical sales letters start off with a very strong statement to capture the interest of the
reader. Since the purpose is to get the reader to do something, these letters include strong
calls to action, detail the benefit to the reader of taking the action and include information
to help the reader to act, such as including a telephone number or website link.

Order Letters
Order letters are sent by consumers or businesses to a manufacturer, retailer or wholesaler
to order goods or services. These letters must contain specific information such as model
number, name of the product, the quantity desired and expected price. Payment is
sometimes included with the letter.

Complaint Letters
The words and tone you choose to use in a letter complaining to a business may be the
deciding factor on whether your complaint is satisfied. Be direct but tactful and always
use a professional tone if you want the company to listen to you.

Letters of Recommendation
Prospective employers often ask job applicants for letters of recommendation before they
hire them. This type of letter is usually from a previous employer or professor, and it
describes the sender’s relationship with and opinion of the job seeker.

Acknowledgment Letters
Acknowledgment letters act as simple receipts. Businesses send them to let others know
that they have received a prior communication, but action may or may not have taken
place.

Letter of Request
A letter of request is similar to when you make an enquiry but specifically asks an
individual or organization to take an action. An example of a letter of request would be one
sent to request sponsorship for a charity activity. It is important to stress the importance of
being clear and concise with this format as the recipient must remain engaged and interested
in what you have to say.

LAYOUT OF A LETTER

1. Give a sample of an Appointment order

SAMPLE APPOINTMENT LETTER (Template)

Ms/Mr. ________________

Address of the selected candidate

Date of issue of Appointment Letter

Subject: Your application for the post of _______________

Dear Ms/Mr _______________

We are in receipt of your application for the post of _____________. We are pleased to
inform you that our organization has found you eligible for the profile described.

You are requested to report at our office as per address given below at 9:30AM on
___________ (date from when the individual is expected to join) in approval to your
appointment.

Name of the Company

Complete address with phone numbers/landmarks (if any)

This is to inform you that this letter will be null and void in case you do not report at the date
and time specified in this letter.

As per our Company policy, you will be on Contract for a period of _____ (specify the period
as per the HR policy) and then, based on your performance and review you will be taken to
the next level of employment in the organization.

During your Contract period you are entitled to take ________ (specify the leaves that the
employee can take as per your Leave policy). In cases of emergency for any extra leave
requests however the decision will be upon the management.

We hope to have a long successful professional relationship with you and wish you all the
very best.

Yours sincerely

________________

(Designation of the authority)

 cc: Human Resource Department

REFERENCE LETTER
A reference letter is usually written to testify to a person or (occasionally) a company’s
skills, character and/or achievements. Sometimes a reference letter is known as a
“recommendation letter”. It is a formal document, and should be typed and written in a
serious and business-like style.
Reference letters are used in a wide variety of situations; there is no definitive list that covers
all possible scenarios. The most common examples are:

 When a candidate applies for a job, they may need a reference to support their application.
 If an interviewee is given a job offer, they may need to supply a reference letter before the
contract can be signed.
 A student applying for an academic course often requires a reference letter to support their
application.
 A student applying for funding will often need to supply reference letters.
 Companies may use reference letters as testimonies to their trustworthiness and ability to
carry out a job well.
 Prospective tenants may need to provide their landlord with a reference letter, testifying to
their good financial status. (This could be from a prior landlord or from a current employer.)

If you are approached and asked to write a reference letter for a job candidate, a
student or a company, consider whether you can legitimately do so. A reference letter is a
formal document, and it is crucial that you do not lie or fudge the truth in it, or there could be
legal repercussions. If someone wants a reference letter from you:
 The candidate should be someone you know reasonably well. For example, you cannot
provide any authoritative comment on the academic ability of a student who’s only been
attending your lectures for a week.
 You should know the candidate in a capacity which gives you the ability to write a
meaningful reference. For example, if you have worked with the person, it would be
appropriate for you to write a reference letter to a prospective employer for them.
 You should be able to provide an honest and positive reference. If you truly feel that the
candidate has no good qualities for you to emphasis, or if you have had a personality clash
with them in the past, you should tell them to seek a reference letter from someone else.

The exact structure of a reference letter will differ slightly depending on the type of reference
it is, but this is a good basic outline:

1. Start using the business letter format: put the recipient’s name and address, if known, and
address them as “Dear [name]”. If the recipient is currently unknown (this would be likely on
an academic application, for instance), then use “Dear Sir/Madam” or “To whom it may
concern”.
2. It is often helpful to introduce yourself in the first couple of lines of your letter. The recipient
will not need your life history: just give a brief sentence or two explaining your position and
your relationship to the candidate.
3. Your next paragraph should confirm any facts which you know the candidate will be
supplying along with your letter. For example, if you are writing a reference for a job
applicant, some or all of these details may be appropriate:
 The person’s job title, and role within the company.
 The person’s leaving salary when they were last employed by you (or your organisation).
 The dates which the person was employed from and until.
If you are writing a reference letter for an academic course, you will need to confirm the
person’s academic grades.

In your third paragraph, you should provide your judgement upon the candidate’s skills and
qualities. It is often appropriate to state that you would gladly re-employ them, or that their
contributions to your college class were highly valued. Single out any exceptional qualities
that the candidate has – perhaps their drive and enthusiasm, their attention to detail, or their
ability to lead.
Where possible, use your fourth paragraph to give a couple of concrete examples of times
when the candidate excelled. (You may want to ask the candidate to tell you about any extra-
curricular projects they’ve been involved in, or invite them to highlight anything they’d
particularly like you to include in the reference letter.)
Close your letter on a positive note, and if you are willing to receive further correspondence
about the candidate’s application, make this clear. Include your contact details too.
As with any business letter, you should end appropriately; “Yours sincerely” when you are
writing to a named recipient, and “Yours faithfully” when you do not know who will be
receiving the letter.
Things to avoid
Make sure that you avoid:

 Mentioning any weaknesses the candidate has.

 Saying anything that could be construed as libel.
 Writing in an informal manner: keep the letter business-like. Jokes, slang and casual
language are not appropriate and may harm the candidate’s chances.
 Including personal information not relevant to the application. Mentioning the candidate’s
race, political stance, religion, nationality, marital status, age or health is usually
inappropriate.
 Spelling mistakes, sloppy writing or typos: this letter is hugely important to the candidate,
and you should take care to make it look professional.

Principles of Effective Writing

1. Brevity
It is bad manners to waste [the reader’s] time. Therefore brevity first, then, clarity.
2. Clarity
It is bad manners to give [readers] needless trouble. Therefore clarity… . And how is clarity
to be achieved? Mainly by taking trouble and by writing to serve people rather than to
impress them.

3. Communication
The social purpose of language is communication—to inform, misinform, or otherwise
influence our fellows… . Communication [is] more difficult than we may think. We are all
serving life sentences of solitary confinement within our bodies; like prisoners, we have, as it
were, to tap in awkward code to our fellow men in their neighbouring cells… . In some
modern literature there has appeared a tendency to replace communication by a private
maundering to oneself which shall inspire one’s audience to maunder privately to
themselves—rather as if the author handed round a box of drugged cigarettes.

4. Emphasis
Just as the art of war largely consists of deploying the strongest forces at the most important
points, so the art of writing depends a good deal on putting the strongest words in the most
important places… . One of the most important things, to my mind, in English style is word-
order. For us, the most emphatic place in a clause or sentence is the end. This is the climax;
and, during the momentary pause that follows, that last word continues, as it were, to
reverberate in the reader’s mind. It has, in fact, the last word.

5. Honesty
As the police put it, anything you say may be used as evidence against you. If handwriting
reveals character, writing reveals it still more. You cannot fool all your judges all the time… .
Most style is not honest enough. Easy to say, but hard to practice. A writer may take to long
words, as young men to beards—to impress. But long words, like long beards, are often the
badge of charlatans. Or a writer may cultivate the obscure, to seem profound. But even
carefully muddied puddles are soon fathomed. Or he may cultivate eccentricity, to seem
original. But really original people do not have to think about being original—they can no
more help it than they can help breathing. They do not need to dye their hair green.

6. Passion and Control

This, indeed, is one of the eternal paradoxes of both life and literature—that without passion
little gets done; yet, without control of that passion, its effects are largely ill or null.
7. Reading
One learns to write by reading good books, as one learns to talk by hearing good talkers.

8. Revision
Every author’s fairy godmother should provide him not only with a pen but also with a blue
pencil.

9. Sophistication and Simplicity

My point is merely that the sophisticated (ready though they may be to suppose so) do not
necessarily express themselves better than the simple—in fact, may often have much to learn
from them.

10. Sound and Rhythm

Apart from a few simple principles, the sound and rhythm of English prose seem to me
matters where both writers and readers should trust not so much to rules as to their ears.

Layout of a Formal Letter.

Formal letter writing is undoubtably one of the most challenging types of letter format.
When putting it together, often you are addressing a person or organization with whom you
are not familiar and the quality of your content, including spelling and grammar will be
strongly scrutinized. In general what you put together will have one of the following
purposes:

 Make a complaint
 Request something
 Make an enquiry

Conventions

There are a number of conventions that should be adhered to and it is important that the
overall structure is as clear and concise as possible and that you avoid the use of
colloquialisms (informal language).
Addresses:

1) Your Address
Your address should be displayed in the top right-hand section. This will enable the person
that you are writing to, to reply.

2) The Address of the person you are writing to

This address should be displayed beneath your address on the left-hand side, remember to
include the name of the person that you are writing to (if known).

Date:
This should be displayed on the right-hand side of the page on the line beneath your address
and should be written in full format:

e.g. 1st January 2001

Salutation & Greeting:

1) Dear Sirs,
If you do not know the name of the person that you are writing to, use the greeting "Dear
Sirs,". In some circumstances it is useful to find a name, especially if you are making a
request as this will show that you have done your homework and you are more likely to
receive a response.

2) Dear Mr Jones,
If you know the name, use one of the following titles:

Mr - for a male
Mrs - for a married female
Miss - for an unmarried female
Ms - for a female whose status is unknown or would prefer to remain anonymous
Dr - for a person with the status of a doctor

This should be followed by the surname only (not the first name).
Concluding:

1) Yours faithfully,
If you do not know the name of the person, conclude with "Yours faithfully,".

2) Yours sincerely,
If you know the name of the person, conclude with "Yours sincerely,".

3) Your signature
Sign your name, then print it underneath the signature. If it is potentially unclear what your
title would be then include this in brackets next to your printed name.

Content

In modern society there is a trend to use a shorthand writing style, for instance replacing the
word "you" with "u" or replacing the word "weekend" with "wkend", there are many other
examples. This casual approach and informal writing style can easily be transferred,
sometimes subconsciously, when a more formal style is required.

Introductory Paragraph

The introductory paragraph should be concise and should clearly state the purpose, whether it
is to lodge a complaint, make an enquiry or to request something.

Main Body

The main body should clearly state the points that you want to make. As a general rule it is a
good idea to keep this as to the point as possible to ensure that the recipient remains engaged.
A longer main body may be more appropriate when making a complaint as you may require
to add more detail in order to convey the importance of what you are putting across.
Concluding Paragraph
The concluding paragraph should outline what action you would like the recipient to take: to
make a refund, to send you information etc.

Appointment Letter.

An Appointment letter is usually an official letter written either by the immediate superior or
by the hierarchical superior to an individual who has been found eligible for the job
advertised or applied for. The Letter of Appointment comes into play after a series of hiring
procedures have been followed by the organization to eliminate most applicants for the job
and finding that one suitable candidate eligible for the profile. The hiring procedures that the
companies may follow could be classified in the following heads:

 Receiving the Application Forms from various candidates for the job advertised
 Scrutinizing all the applications to eliminate all such applications which do not meet
the initial criteria of selection
 Calling the short listed candidates for the first round of formal selection, which could
either be a group discussion or the first round of interview
 Another round of short listing while interviewing the candidates by putting the
remarks on their applications itself
 Second or final round of interview with a panel of members so that the selection
process is perfect and has inputs of more than one member to be doubly sure of who
is being finally hired
Superiors or the Human Resource Department who are involved in the hiring process should
really be emotionally tough as it calls for great courage to choose “the best among the best”.
Meaning thereby that to say ‘no’ to all candidates except one is really an uncomfortable
feeling – at the end of it the Superiors or the HR Department are also employees of the
organization.

What level of individuals get involved in the selection process also depends on the size of the
organization,say, for example, a small organization, which does not have a proper Human
Resource Department in place, might choose to involve the Director or the head of the
organization to make the final selection. However, large sized companies may have
departmental heads to do the job and the only involvement of the company head may be to
know that the loop of the hiring process has been successfully closed.

Points to remember while drafting an Appointment Letter:

 The Appointment Letter should clearly give the designation for which the individual
is being hired
 The Terms and Conditions under which the hiring has been done should also be
clearly mentioned. For example, whether the individual is being hired as a
 ‘confirmed’ employee or one on ‘contract’ to be confirmed after a specified period of
time
 The date from which the Appointment Letter is effective should be specified in the
letter
 Things such as the Leave structure also should be specified to avoid any confusion
 Period of the particular employment status should also be mentioned
 The letter should be addressed to that one particular individual whose name, address,
etc should be clearly mentioned to avoid misuse of the document
 Who will the individual report into and which office base (if multiple locations) will
s/he operate from should also be a part of the letter
 Information which needs to be emphasized should be typed in ‘bold’
 It should not be a hand written letter but a typed one on the company letter head
 The Appointment Letter should be signed by the highest authority in the organization
responsible for the decision to hire the concerned individual and should also carry
her/his designation
 Date on which the Appointment Letter is being issued should also be clearly
mentioned
 It is the first ever formal document that the individual receives from the company, so
it should be sensitively yet professionally worded
 It should be in duplicate – one to be given to the new employee and the second one to
be signed by the employee and duly returned to then be handed over the HR
department.

Reference Letter Examples

There are a number of good templates for reference letters available on Business Balls. I’ve
included one below, which would be appropriate for a general-purpose reference – if you
were writing a reference in your capacity as the candidate’s former employer, you would
need to include more specific details:
Date

To whom it may concern

I confirm that I have known (name) for (number) years.

(State relationship – social, business, working together in some other capacity, club, activity,
project, etc.)

At all times I have found (name/him/her) to be (state characteristics – eg, dependable,

reliable, hard-working, conscientious, honest, peace-loving, courteous, etc – to be as helpful
as possible think about what the reader will most prefer to see, in terms of satisfying
concerns, or seeing evidence of relevant required skills or characteristics).

I’m happy to provide further information if required. (optional)

Yours faithfully, etc.

here’s one from a previous employer in support of a job candidate:

To Whom it May Concern:

I highly recommend Jane Doe as a candidate for employment. Jane was employed by
Company Name as an Administrative Assistant from 2002 – 2005. Jane was responsible for
office support including word processing, scheduling appointments and creating brochures,
newsletters, and other office literature.

Jane has excellent communication skills. In addition, she is extremely organized, reliable and
computer literate. Jane can work independently and is able to follow through to ensure that
the job gets done. She is flexible and willing to work on any project that is assigned to her.
Jane was quick to volunteer to assist in other areas of company operations, as well.

Jane would be a tremendous asset for your company and has my highest recommendation. If
you have any further questions with regard to her background or qualifications, please do not
hesitate to call me.

Sincerely,

John Smith
Title
Company
Address
Phone
Email

Different types of Business Letters.

The term “business letters” refers to any written communication that begins with a
salutation, ends with a signature and whose contents are professional in nature.
Historically, business letters were sent via postal mail or courier, although the Internet is
 rapidly changing the way businesses communicate. There are many standard types of
business letters, and each of them has a specific focus.

Sales Letters
Typical sales letters start off with a very strong statement to capture the interest of the
reader. Since the purpose is to get the reader to do something, these letters include strong
calls to action, detail the benefit to the reader of taking the action and include information
to help the reader to act, such as including a telephone number or website link.

Order Letters
Order letters are sent by consumers or businesses to a manufacturer, retailer or wholesaler
to order goods or services. These letters must contain specific information such as model
number, name of the product, the quantity desired and expected price. Payment is
sometimes included with the letter.

Complaint Letters
The words and tone you choose to use in a letter complaining to a business may be the
deciding factor on whether your complaint is satisfied. Be direct but tactful and always
use a professional tone if you want the company to listen to you.

A letter of complaint is sent to an individual or organisation in response to receiving poor

service or a product that is not fit for purpose. An example of a letter of complaint would be a
one sent to a tour operator who has provided a bad service while you have been on holiday.
This does not necessarily need to be concise as it is important that you detail your arguments
and points as much as possible.

Adjustment Letters
An adjustment letter is normally sent in response to a claim or complaint. If the
adjustment is in the customer’s favor, begin the letter with that news. If not, keep your
tone factual and let the customer know that you understand the complaint.
Inquiry Letters
Inquiry letters ask a question or elicit information from the recipient. When composing
this type of letter, keep it clear and succinct and list exactly what information you need.
Be sure to include your contact information so that it is easy for the reader to respond.

Follow-Up Letter
Follow-up letters are usually sent after some type of initial communication. This could be
a sales department thanking a customer for an order, a businessman reviewing the
outcome of a meeting or a job seeker inquiring about the status of his application. In
many cases, these letters are a combination thank-you note and sales letter.

Letters of Recommendation
Prospective employers often ask job applicants for letters of recommendation before they
hire them. This type of letter is usually from a previous employer or professor, and it
describes the sender’s relationship with and opinion of the job seeker.

Acknowledgment Letters
Acknowledgment letters act as simple receipts. Businesses send them to let others know
that they have received a prior communication, but action may or may not have taken
place.

Cover Letter
Cover letters usually accompany a package, report or other merchandise. They are used to
describe what is enclosed, why it is being sent and what the recipient should do with it, if
there is any action that needs to be taken. These types of letters are generally very short
and succinct.

Letters of Resignation
When an employee plans to leave his job, a letter of resignation is usually sent to his
immediate manager giving him notice and letting him know when the last day of
employment will be. In many cases, the employee also will detail his reason for leaving
the company.
Enquiry

A letter of enquiry makes an approach to an individual or organisation either speculatively

or in response to printed public domain material whereby you are requesting some
information. An example of a letter of enquiry would be one sent to a company requesting a
copy of their catalogue or brochure. By their very nature these are short and to the point, it is
usually beneficial to include other methods of contact in case the company needs to get in
touch with you via other means.

Request

A letter of request is similar to when you make an enquiry but specifically asks an
individual or organisation to take an action. An example of a letter of request would be one
sent to request sponsorship for a charity activity. It is important to stress the importance of
being clear and concise with this format as the recipient must remain engaged and interested
in what you have to say.

UNIT V

Report

A report or account is any informational work (usually of writing, speech, television, or

film) made with the specific intention of relaying information or recounting certain events in
a widely presentable form.
Written reports are documents which present focused, salient content to a specific audience.
Reports are often used to display the result of an experiment, investigation, or inquiry.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD REPORT

 Precision

o Accuracy of Facts

o Relevancy
 o Reader-Orientation

o Simple Language

o Conciseness

o Grammatical Accuracy

o Unbiased Recommendation

o Clarity

o Attractive Presentation

Criteria of a Good Business Report

A good business report must satisfy the following criteria:

a. Utility b. Persuasiveness c. Reliability d. Readability

IMPORTANCE OF A BUSINESS REPORT

 Purpose

 Problem Solving

 Financial Reporting

 Marketing Reports

 Business Communication

Advantages of a Business Website

Advantages of a Business Website are:

 Reaching a Wider Audience

 Anyone, Anywhere & Anytime

 Easy Access To Business Information

 Keeping It Fresh

 Publicity & Advertising

 Links from Others & Viral Marketing

 Securing Your Brand Online

Disadvantages of a Business Website

 Reliability

 Crashes & Uptime

 Difficultly Reaching the Right People

 SPAM

 Bad Publicity

MODERN FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

1) Fax
2) E-Mail
3) Voice Mail
4) Tele conferencing
5) Telephone Answering Machine

Tips that has to be kept in mind while drafting a Resume.

 Target your resume

 Detail your accomplishments
 Quantify your accomplishments
 Maximize keyword density in your resume
 Be strategic in how you organize your resume content
 Proofread, proofread, proofread!
Performance Report

A performance report is a report on the performance of something. They are routinely

produced by government bodies which, being financed by public money, are required to
show that the money was spent efficiently and usefully. Such reports will
contain performance indicators which measure the achievements of the organization and its
programmes. For example, for a police department, the report might show the number of
arrests, number of convictions by crime category and the change in the crime rate.

Business report

According to Murphy and Peck a business report is an impartial, objective. Planned

presentation of facts to one or more persons for a specific, significant business purpose.
Reports Travel upwards to supervisors and management policy-makers, downward and
horizontally to those who carry out the work and policies, and outward (outside the firm) to
stockholders, customers, the general public and government officials. A report may be
written or oral, but most significant reports are written.

Modern Forms of Communication

1) Fax
2) E-Mail
3) Voice Mail
4) Tele conferencing
5) Telephone Answering Machine

1) FAX (Facsimile)

 Many organizations are now going in for fax transmission facilities.

The fax machine is very useful for transmitting visual material
iagram,illustration,photographs,or copies of artwork visuals.
 All that we need for it is the fax machine with a connected telephone.
 As the document to be transmitted is fed through the machine, it is electronically
scanned and signals are transmitted to the receiving end, where an identical copy of
the document is reproduced on a blank sheet of paper by the receiving machine.
 Fax biggest advantage is that it is accepted as evidence in court.
 2) E-MAIL
 (Popularly name for electronic mail).Its involves sending messages via
telecommunication links. If two computer terminals, however distant from each
other, are connected on internet, it is possible to send messages from one to another.
a) popular convenient and efficient
b) within no time we can send to anywhere in the world
c) photographs and video can be send via e-mail

3) VOICE MAIL
Voice mail is a form of e-mail only.
 Here, a message, instead of being communicated in a written form, is sent in the
form of voice of the caller. Like e-mail.
 It is very easy to use and is a convenient way of leaving short message for someone
who is not immediately available.

4) TELE OR VIDEOCONFERENCING
 It allows peoples to meet and work collaboratively without having to be together in
one room.
 They could be separated by an office way or by thousand kilometers- that is
immaterial.
 They can hear and see each other, and share information with one another as if they
were all placed together in one room.
 Teleconferencing can lead to substantial saving both in terms of money and time.
 In this era of globalization when multinationals are simultaneously operating in
several countries separated from one another by thousands of kilometers,
teleconferencing proves to be a very effective means of mutual consultation.

5) TELEPHONE ANSWERING MACHINE

 Sometime telephone messages arrive when there is no one personally present to attend
to them.
 In such cases, a telephone answering machine can prove to be very useful.
 Whenever the telephone bell rings, the machine reproduces a prerecorded message.
 Most of the railway and airline enquiry offices transmit pre recorded message in
response to enquiry made to them. Such messages are usually of routine nature.

Disadvantages of a Business Website

There are a few disadvantages of having a website for your business. Generally though, they
are outweighed by numerous advantages.
Reliability

The information on your website might be unreliable if not updated on a regular basis. You
need to ensure that changes are made when necessary and have a disclaimer with regards to
the reliability of the information contained within.

Crashes & Uptime

A website that crashes is no good to anyone. This is a serious disadvantage for a business. If
your website is constantly crashing or unavailable then people will not be able to find
information about your business and you could miss out on potential sales. An unreliable
connection could also mean a plummet in a websites search engine ranking.

Difficultly Reaching the Right People

Because of the nature of the internet and the sheer number of businesses already on the World
Wide Web, you may find it difficult to reach the right target audience with your website.
Competition within your market may be strong and the battle for the illusive No.1 spot on
Google maybe a difficult one, against a wealth of other businesses in your sector. This is not
always the case and there are ways around it such as using our Competitor Insight service to
learn the competitions secrets and targeting “long-tail” keyword

SPAM

We all hate spam. The internet equivalent of junk mail. This is one of the disadvantages of a
website which can cause you some grief. With a contact form or your e-mail address
published on your website, you’ll soon find your inbox filling up with spam e-mails unless
you useFormGuard or a captcha tool.

Bad Publicity

Having a website risks attracting bad publicity. If a customer is unhappy with your service or
products, then they may feel the need to vent their frustrations online and reference your
website in their review/comments. This could be potentially damaging, hurting both your
reputation and your search engine ranking. Of course, not having a website won’t prevent
such things happening but it might allow you to monitor and be aware of it. Providing the
best possible customer care and learning from your clients feedback is the best possible
course of action to combat this problem.
 Importance of Circular Letter.

Circular letter is one of the oldest types letter. This kind of letter originated in ancient time
when people felt the necessity of circulating any message to a large number of people at a
time in the same way

It plays an important role in the growth and development of business. Its importance is briefly
discussed below:

1. Easy method of conveying information: Circular letter is the most easy, simple and
effective way to convey any information to a huge number of people.
2. Achieving economy: Circular letter can be used for wide publicity of products. As a
result, organizations can save cost of sending letters to different parties separately and
can gain economy.
3. Saving time: Circular letter transmits information to a large number of people at a time.
It does not require reaching each individual separately. Thus, it saves time.
4. Less effort: Circulating information to each individual separately is a time consuming
and laborious job. Circular letter helps to overcome this problem. Through circular
letter, we can communicate with large number of people at a minimum effort.
5. Creating market: Through circular letter, a company can inform the potential
customers about its products and services. In this way, new market can be created.
6. Increasing consumer’s confidence: Convincing and attractive circular letter can easily
touch the reader’s heart and thus helps to enhance consumer’s confidence on the
company’s products.
7. Creating public consciousness: In circular letter, information like price, quality, utility,
place of availability etc. are mentioned in details that make people more conscious
about the product.

Agenda

Agenda is an Ordered sequence of items to be discussed in a formal meeting.

The objectives of an agenda include to (1) familiarize participants with the topics to be
discussed and issues to be raised, (2) indicate what prior knowledge would be expected from
the participants, and (3) indicate what outcome the participants may expect from the meeting.

The following points have to be considered while writing an Agenda:

 1. Start by giving your agenda a title. From the most beautiful literature to the driest
spreadsheet, nearly every important document needs a title, and meeting agendas are
no exception. The title should tell the reader two things: First, that s/he is reading an
agenda, and second, what topic the meeting is covering.

2. Include "who?", "where?", and "when?" information in the header.

Below are some of the things that must be included in an Agenda:

 Date and time. These can be grouped together or in their own separate
sections.

 Location. If the business has multiple locations, write the address, whereas if it
has just one location, name the room you're meeting in (e.g., Conference
Room #3).

 Attendees. Job titles are usually optional and not required.

 Special individuals present. These may be special guests, speakers, or meeting

leaders.

Write a brief statement of the meeting objective(s).

Meetings that don't have a clearly-defined purpose risk wasting precious time as
attendees decide what to talk about. "Objective" or "Purpose", followed by a colon or
a line break. Then, in a few concise and to-the-point sentences, describe the items of
discussion for the meeting. Aim to write about 1-4 sentences.

Write a schedule outlining the main elements of the meeting.

Schedules help combat a common flaw: business meetings often run far, far too long.
Label each entry with either the time you plan for it to begin and end or the amount of
time you plan for each entry to take. Pick one system or the other and be consistent —
mixing and matching looks unprofessional.
 Allocate time in the schedule for any special guests.
If any guests are coming to your meeting to discuss topics of importance, you'll want
to devote a chunk of the meeting time to these people. It is best to contact the guests
ahead of time to figure out how much time each one will need for their discussion
topic. This helps to avoid embarrassing scheduling conflicts.

Leave extra time at the end of the meeting for Q&A.

During this time, people can ask for clarification about confusing topics of
discussion, offer their own adjunct opinions, suggest topics for future meetings, and
make other comments. You can make this Q&A time explicit by including it as the
final entry in your schedule.

Check the agenda for errors before distributing it.

Because some attendees may end up relying heavily on the meeting agenda, it's wise
to proofread it for errors and completeness before giving it out. Doing so isn't just a
courtesy to the attendees — it also reflects positively on your attention to detail and
the respect you have for them.

Minutes of a Meeting.

Taking Minutes forms an essential part of most meetings.

The main purpose of taking Minutes is to record Action Points, ie, what actions have been
decided upon, who is responsible and what the milestones and deadlines are. Secondly they
record summaries of the discussions held at the meeting.

Taking minutes is a skilled job because the minute taker has to follow what can be confusing
and inarticulate debates and summarise accurately what was said.
After the meeting the minutes should be checked with the chairperson to confirm accuracy
and then circulated to all attendees and and anyone else affected by any decisions taken at the
meeting.

Agree upon a date to send a copy of the minutes to all attendees after your meeting through
your saved event file. One single email can be sent to everyone present at the meeting, plus
anyone else who needs to be informed.

Minutes are required in order to:

 confirm any decisions made

 record any agreed actions to be taken

 record who has been allocated any tasks or responsibilities

 prompt action from any relevant attendees

 provide details of the meeting to anyone unable to attend

 serve as a record of the meeting's procedure and outcome

INTRODUCTION

Report provides factual information depending on which decisions are made. So everyone
should be taken to ensure that a report has all the essential qualities which turn it into a
good report. A good report must have the following qualities.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD REPORT

1. Precision
In a good report, the report writer is very clear about the exact and definite purpose of writing
the report. His investigation, analysis, recommendations and others are directed by this
central purpose. Precision of a report provides the unity to the report and makes it a valuable
document for best usage.

2. Accuracy of Facts
Information contained in a report must be based on accurate fact. Since decisions are taken on
the basis of report information, any inaccurate information or statistics will lead to wrong
decision. It will hamper to achieve the organizational goal.

3. Relevancy
The facts presented in a report should not be only accurate but also be relevant. Irrelevant
facts make a report confusing and likely to be misleading to make proper decision.

4. Reader-Orientation
While drafting any report, it is necessary to keep in mind about the person who is going to
read it. That's why a good report is always reader oriented. Readers’ knowledge and level of
understanding should be considered by the writer of report. Well reader-oriented information
qualify a report to be a good one.

5. Simple Language
This is just another essential features of a good report. A good report is written in a simple
language avoiding vague and unclear words. The language of the report should not be
influenced by the writer's emotion or goal. The message of a good report should be self-
explanatory.

6. Conciseness
A good report should be concise but it does not mean that a report can never be long. Rather
it means that a good report or a business report is one that transmits maximum information
with minimum words. It avoids unnecessary detail and includes everything which are
significant and necessary to present proper information.

7. Grammatical Accuracy
A good report is free from errors. Any faulty construction of a sentence may make its
meaning different to the reader's mind. And sometimes it may become confusing or
ambiguous.

8. Unbiased Recommendation
Recommendation on report usually makes effect on the reader mind. So if recommendations
are made at the end of a report, they must be impartial and objective. They should come as
logical conclusion for investigation and analysis.

9. Clarity
Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts. A good report is absolutely clear. Reporter
should make his purpose clear, define his sources, state his findings and finally make
necessary recommendation. To be an effective communication through report, A report must
be clear to understand for making communication success.

10. Attractive Presentation

Presentation of a report is also a factor which should be considered for a good report. A good
report provides a catchy and smart look and creates attention of the reader. Structure, content,
language, typing and presentation style of a good report should be attractive to make a clear
impression in the mind of its reader.
CONCLUSION
The inclusion of above factors features or characteristics make a good report to be effective
and fruitful. It also helps to achieve the report goal. A reporter, who is making the report,
always should be careful about those factors to make his report a good one.

Business report functions and its importance

BUSINESS REPORT

According to Murphy and Peck a business report is an impartial, objective. Planned

presentation of facts to one or more persons for a specific, significant business purpose.
Reports Travel upwards to supervisors and management policy-makers, downward and
horizontally to those who carry out the work and policies, and outward (outside the firm)
to stockholders, customers, the general public and government officials. A report may be
written or oral, but most significant reports are written. The report facts may be pertained
to events, conditions, qualities, progress, results, investigations, or interpretations. They
may help the receiver(s) understand a significant business situation, carry out operational
or technical assignments, and / or plan procedures, solve problems and make executive
decisions.

A good business report must satisfy the following criteria:

a. Utility b. Persuasiveness c. Reliability d. Readability

A business reports utility, persuasiveness, reliability and readability mainly depend on the
application of the communication principles. Called “The Seven Cs” they are: (1)
Completeness, (2) Conciseness, (3) Consideration, (4) Concreteness, (5) Clarity, (6)
Courtesy, and (7) Correctness.

FUNCTIONS OF BUSINESS REPORT

A business report is very much useful for the management and also for the others. Its
importance is because of the functions it performs.

A business report: Provides Facts pertaining to events, conditions, qualities, progress,

results investigations or interpretations.

Measures Progress of employees, departments, and companies.

Points Causes of problems e.g., low margins, high rate of staff turnover, accidents in
factory etc.

It Suggests measures to overcome the business problems.

 It Assists Manner in carrying out operational or technical assignments, planning
procedures, solving problems and making decisions.

IMPORTANCE OF A BUSINESS REPORT

Purpose

 Business reports are written to communicate. Sometimes they are written as a means to
attract investors to your organization. Business reports are also written for employees, to keep
them abreast of a company's goals and achievements. Whichever audience the report is
written for, the purpose is to communicate specific information about your business.

 Problem Solving

Many business reports are written to illustrate a specific problem within the company. These
types of reports present a problem along with solutions to help correct the problems. This
type of report is often directed at employees. An example problem that a business report may
address for employees would be a situation in which the company may be looking to
downsize. This affects employees.

 Financial Reporting
A business report might be written from a financial statement perspective. This type of
business report will be aimed at advisers. To an extent, it can be used to inform employees
about the financial standing of the company as well. A business report may be presented for
this purpose at the end of each fiscal year.

Marketing Reports
 A business report can be important when setting up marketing strategies. Before entering a
new market or targeting consumers, a company may write a business report that an
advertising agency can use to help devise a marketing strategy. There may also be a separate
report written to help obtain financing for a media push.

Business Communication
 While some smaller companies may not find themselves writing a great deal of business
reports, larger companies use business reports throughout the year. A business report can be
the best way a company has to communicate vital financial and background information to
others. Many larger companies that write business reports throughout the year to employees
and for board members hire a staff that do nothing but keep abreast of company changes and
write current business reports. Depending on the situation, failing to have a well-written
business report to present when you need one can make it difficult to acquire funding, cause
company turmoil or may make it difficult to achieve company goals.

Advantages of Websites in Business

There are several advantages and disadvantages to having a website for your business or
limited company. In the modern age, more and more businesses are getting online. If you
don’t take your business onto the World Wide Web, you could miss out on potential
customers, sales and profits So having a website designed for your small business or limited
company is just one important step towards getting a slice of the internet pie.

Advantages of a Business Website

Reaching a Wider Audience

The first and perhaps most obvious advantage of a business website is the potential for
reaching a wider audience. The internet is used by literally millions of people, all of them are
looking for something and some of them might be looking for you!

Building a website for your business will mean you could potentially reach these otherwise
unreachable customers. Your business might be local, but you might have the potential to sell
your products or services to a wider market, whether it be people in the next town, the nation
as a whole or even the international market. Data shows that internet shopping is still on the
rise, so taking your business online will potentially allow you to take advantage of the growth
and expand your business. Even if you have no intention of using a business website to sell,
you still might want to let customers know about your business. People commonly research
businesses online before actually visiting the business location. So having a well-designed
website will help encourage them to come and visit you or be able to find your business in the
first place.

Anyone, Anywhere & Anytime

An advantage of having a website is your business information and details about your
products and services can be accessed by anyone, no matter where they are on the planet or
what time of day it is. The internet is online 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. So even if your
business isn’topen your website will be!
If you have a contact form or another way for people to be able to contact you – even if it is
as simple as your e-mail address on your website, then people can potentially get in contact
with you, whether you’re in front of a computer or not.

In the modern age, people are using their mobile phones more and more to browse the
internet, find out about businesses and even buy products and services (UK Business Going
Mobile – M-Commerce). So even if your website is just a short description of your business
it might help customers find your location while they are on the move. This is especially
important for restaurants, pubs and other eateries, but is also a relevant consideration for most
other businesses.

Easy Access to Business Information

With a website, customers can easily access information about your business. They can see
what products or services you sell, your prices, your location and much more. Whatever you
decide to tell them, they can find it with a few clicks of a mouse.

Keeping It Fresh

Once a website is designed, you can keep it up-to-date to be relevant to your business and
encourage more visitors (and potential sales). More and more people are using a blog to
promote their business. In fact, research shows that Businesses That Blog Get More
Traffic. So using a blog to keep content fresh and attract attention could mean a big
difference to your business.

Publicity & Advertising

You may think of the advantages of a website in terms of advertising and publicity for your
business. The costs of having a business website are actually quite low. The ongoing costs are
minimal, but the potential return on investment could be quite significant. Think of your
business website in terms of advertising for your business and you’ll be more likely to see the
value.

Links from Others & Viral Marketing

With a website and the current use of social media and marketing, it is quite possible for a
good idea, clever product or business service to go “viral”. Word spreads like wildfire across
the internet and even the smallest business can get worldwide recognition without any effort
on their own part. Viral marketing is a boom in recent years.
 If your business is good, people will link to it, people will talk about it and they will share
their thoughts. Recognition of your business and your brand will grow.

Securing Your Brand Online

Having a website for your business is not just an advantage; it’s an essential way to protect
your business brand online. Stake your business claim on the internet or someone else will!
There is a risk that if you don’t have a business website and secure a domain name relevant to
your business then someone else will do it for you. The act of Cybersquatting is now less
prevalent since the introduction new laws to combat it, but there is still a risk of someone
innocently taking your preferred domain name. Others with a gripe against your business
might use a website or social media accounts to damage your business reputation. Getting
there first will allow you to protect and secure your business brand online.

The structure of a resume and its importance to attend an interview

The purpose of a resume is to provide a summary of your skills, abilities and

accomplishments. It is a quick advertisement of who you are. It is a "snapshot" of you with
the intent of capturing and emphasizing interests and secure you an interview. It is not an
autobiography. Since your resume is a primary tool in your job search, it needs to be carefully
written and critiqued.

Is your resume holding you back in your job search? If you have launched an aggressive hunt
for a new position and you are not getting the results you had hoped for, the answer could be
“yes.” Here are six ways to transform your resume from humdrum to high-octane:

 Target your resume Your resume should clearly communicate your career goal at the
outset through a resume title (if you are already in the workforce) or an objective statement
(if you are a recent graduate or changing careers). On any given day, hiring managers may
receive hundreds of resumes, particularly during periods of massive layoffs or if they are
advertising multiple jobs online. Your resume probably will not receive a thorough read-
through during the initial screening, so make every second count by removing the guesswork
about what you want (and are qualified) to do. Your resume title or objective statement
should go directly below your name and contact information.

 Detail your accomplishments In today’s competitive job market, your resume must do
more than simply list your employers, job titles, dates of employment, and general
responsibilities. In order to compete successfully, your resume must provide highlights not
only of what you have done, but also how well you have done it. One way to do this
 successfully is to provide a brief summary of your overall responsibilities below each job title
you have held, followed by a bulleted list of “Key Accomplishments” or “Selected
Contributions.”

Responsibilities are everyday duties, like staff supervision, database administration, or

operations management. Accomplishments describe specific actions you took to meet or
exceed employer goals or customer expectations. Typically, accomplishments describe ways
that you improved processes, service, or technology; generated revenues; reduced costs;
enhanced efficiency or organization; accelerated turnaround times; elevated profitability;
increased customer satisfaction; solved problems; improved staff morale or training; brought
in new customers or retained existing business; displaced the competition; or turned around
performance.

 Quantify your accomplishments Wherever possible, try to quantify your

accomplishments by using percentages, dollar amounts, before and after comparisons, or
other descriptors. This will help to add validity to your resume by providing concrete
evidence of your achievements.

Consider the following before and after example: Before (accomplishment statement not
quantified): Identified and resolved challenging technical problems to improve network
functioning. After (quantified accomplishment statement): Reversed a long-standing history
of network crashes through expert troubleshooting and systems optimization.

 Maximize keyword density in your resume Keywords are used by employers to search
resumes stored online or in computerized databases. The more keywords your resume
contains, the higher to the top of the resume pile it will rise. You may have the precise
background and skills a company is looking for, but if your resume does not reflect that
through the use of keywords, there is a good chance your resume will not be “found”
amongst other more keyword-savvy candidates.

Although not an exhaustive list, keywords can be job titles and job functions (e.g., “computer
programmer,” “computer programming,” “retail store manager,” “multi-outlet retail
management”); degrees or certifications (e.g., “bachelor’s degree in marketing,” “BA in
marketing,” “CPA,” “LPN”); industry jargon (e.g., “ISO 9000,” “Six Sigma,” “JIT
Systems”); computer programs/applications/systems (e.g., “Microsoft Office Word,”
“Microsoft Office PowerPoint,” “Windows 2000”); and soft-skills (e.g., “creative problem
solving,” “team building and training,” “strategic planning,” “customer relationship
management”). If you are not sure whether your resume is adequately packed with keywords
appropriate for your industry and job target, spend some time researching advertised
positions matching your interests. If you see terms or phrases used repeatedly to describe
requirements or “desired qualifications” in these ads and you have like qualifications or
skills, insert these keywords somewhere in your resume.

 Be strategic in how you organize your resume content Your strongest, most relevant
qualifications, skills, experience, and achievements should be showcased on page one of your
 resume. This may mean that you have to get a bit creative in how you present yourself on
paper. For example, if you are a recent college graduate without much work experience, then
your strongest qualification is your education. Do not save it for the bottom of the resume.
Instead, showcase it prominently in the top half of the resume and provide ample detail of
your “degree program highlights” by listing not only the degree, but also the classes included
in your major field of study. (This helps to add more keywords into your resume as well.)

Here’s another example: if you are looking to return to a career that you abandoned some
years ago, then you need to emphasize this earlier experience. One way to do this is to tout
your earlier career in a powerful opening “profile summary,” a brief one-paragraph or two-
paragraph section immediately following your resume title and objective where you can
highlight your previous work experience.

 Proofread, proofread, proofread! Your resume should be free of all typos, spelling
mistakes, and grammatical/punctuation/capitalization errors. Just one or two mistakes can be
enough to eliminate an otherwise qualified candidate from consideration. Be meticulous in
your proofreading, and do not be afraid to ask a teacher, friends, or trusted colleagues to
review your resume as well.

Some of the trends that are used to improve communication in the workplace

1. Unified Communications
Unified communication is the integration of real-time and near real-time communication
systems. This includes the integration of chat services, phone, video conferencing,
messaging, feedback and commenting systems, and others. Unified communications also
provide a consistent user interface and experience across a range of devices and media types.

2. Video Conferencing
While video conferencing has existed since the 1980s, a new business use case has begun to
emerge. The traditional use case of video conferencing in the boardroom has been replaced
with video-enabled phones and tablets that allow employees and management to call
wherever, whenever.

3. Cloud-based Apps
The cloud movement continues to grow, and we are seeing more and more services going that
way. Many companies providing cloud solutions have affordable services geared towards
small businesses that cannot afford a fully-integrated system for running day-to-day
activities.

4. Robust Mobile Devices

One of the biggest business communication trends is the power of mobile devices. They have
changed business for the better, similar to what the desktop computer did in the early 80s.
Today’s smartphones are more powerful than computers were just a few years ago -- and this
has created opportunities for businesses.
5. Enterprise Social Networks
The adoption of enterprise social networks (ESNs), which are also called social intranets, has
been on the rise. This trend has been fueled by engagement and enthusiasm. Enterprise social
networks feature common social components -- like you would find on public-facing sites
like Facebook and Twitter.

6. Collaborative Workspaces
Successful organizations recognize that group work is central to their success. Traditional
spaces have been replaced with collaborative workspaces. They incorporate a social
component to foster interaction and innovation. This move has been fueled by the need to
support good work processes, creativity, diversity of thought, and a sense of community.

7. Seamless Technology Integration

The ability to move conversations and data from one platform to another is huge these days --
so much that you don't even think about. It is expected that all of your devices will contain all
of your conversations.

8. Chat Services
Despite being an old innovation, chat services are still around, but they are getting a revamp.
Chat services now accommodate a range of media types including video and video
conferencing. These services have also been integrated into existing services enabling teams
or employees to quickly bring each other to speed when necessary.

9. Use of Video
Video on the web is on the rise and continues to grow. As bandwidth speeds improve, more
users are opting to view video, both within and beyond organizational firewalls. By
supporting multimedia on your social intranet, you can benefit from improved employee
engagement and better retention.

10. Info graphics and Images

Info graphics are very effective in explaining a process to employees, and there are many
tools and apps available that can help you design and create then for a low cost.

In Conclusion
While some business communication trends may change with future technologies, these will
most likely stick around for years to come.