CONTENT

CHAPTER1

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER1

LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER3

OBJECTIVE

CHAPTER3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER4

DATA ANALYSIS

REFERENCES

1
 CHAPTER1

INTRODUCTION

2
Permutations of a set of objects

Introduction

A permutation of a set of objects is any arrangement of those objects in a definite order

(order is important).

Suppose there are 4 ways from Johor to Penang and 2 ways from Penang to Pulau

Langkawi. How many ways can we go for a journey from Johor to Pulau Langkawi through
Penang ?

Bus

Taxi Flight

Johor Train Penang Ferry P.Langkawi

Students will count or list all the 8 possible ways.

Van

Answer : We can use permutation to solve this problem. The total number of possible ways is
4
P1 2 P1  8 .

3
Consider another example, if A= a, b, c, d , then ab is a two-element permutation of A, acd is a

three-element permutation of A, and adcb is a four-element permutation of A. The order in

which objects are arranged is important. For example, ab and ba are considered different two-
element permutations, abc and cba are distinct three-element permutations, and abcd and cbad
are different four-element permutations.

For another example the six permutations of ABC are the six different arrangements of ABC.
These are

ABC ACB BAC BCA CAB CBA

The number of permutations can be calculated using the multiplication principle.

Multiplication Principle

If there are m ways for an event to occur and n ways for another event to occur,
then there are m n ways for the two events to occur.

Example

A fair coin and a die are tossed together. How many different outcomes are possible ?

Solution

The coin has two possible outcomes (head, H and Tail, T) and the dice has 6 possible outcomes.
The number of different possible outcomes is ___ 2x ___ 6= ____ 12

4
 Die
1 2 3 4 5 6
Head (H) (H,1) (H ,2) (H, 3) (H, 4) (H, 5) (H, 6)
Coin

Tail (T) (T,1) (T,2) (T, 3) (T, 4) (T, 5) (T, 6)

Table 9.1.1

From the table 9.1.1, the possible outcomes are

(H,1) (H,2) (H,3) (H,4) (H,5) (H,6)
____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
(T,1) (T,2) (T,3) (T,4) (T,5) (T,6)
____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

Example

A shop stocks T-shirts in four sizes : small, medium and large. They are available in four colours;
black , red , yellow and green. If the sizes are denoted by S, M and L and the colours are
denoted by B, R, Y and G make a list of all the different labels needed to distinguish the T-shirts
and find the number of different labels.

Solution

Sizes Colours Outcomes

B SB
R
S SR
Y
G SY
B MB
R SG
M
Y MR
G
MY
B
LB
L R MG5
Y LR
G
LY
A list of all the different labels are

SB SR SY SG MB MR MY MG LB LR LY LG

The number of different labels is 3 x 4 = 12

SB
Permutations of n different objects

Let us consider the number of ways of arranging n letters. If we have 1 letter, there is just one
arrangement, eg: A. If we have 2 letters, there are two different arrangements, eg : AB and BA.
If we have 3 letters, the different arrangements of the letters A, B and C are :

The first letter can be

A
or 

B  i.e there are three ways of choosing the first letter.
or 

C 

When the first letter has been chosen, there are two letters from which to choose the second;
and the possible ways of choosing the first two letters are:

B
or 

A C

or A

B or  there are two ways of choosing the second letter
or C

C A

or 
B 

6
i.e. for each of the three ways of choosing the first letter, there are two ways of choosing
the second letter. Hence there are 3  2 ways of choosing the first two letters. Having
chosen the first two letters, there is only one choice for the third letter, i.e. for each of the
3  2 ways of choosing the first two letters, there is only one possibility for the third
letter. Hence there are 3  2  1 ways of arranging the three letters A, B and C.

Now considering another example,

how many different ways do you think there are of arranging 4 letters?

You should able to see there will be 24 different ways, which is found from 4  3  2  1. If
there are 500 different objects, the number of ways would be 500  499  498  …  3  2
 1. This is tedious to write, so we use the notation 500! ( 500 factorial )

In general,

Number of permutations of n different objects taken all at a time without repetition

n
Pn  n  (n – 1)  (n – 2)  ……  2  1

=n!

Notes :

n
Pn  n ! means the products of all the integers from 1 to n inclusive and is called

‘n factorial’.

7
Example

List the set of all permutations of the symbols P, Q and R when they are taken 3 at a time

Solution

PQR, PRQ, QPR, QRP, RPQ, RQP i.e. 6 of them.

Example

How many three-digit numbers can be made from the integers 2, 3, 4 ?

Solution

n=3

Pn = P3 = 3 ! = 3  2 
n 3
1=6

The number of arrangements is 6.

Example

In how many ways can ten instructors be assigned to ten sections of a course in
mathematics?

Solution

Substituting n = 10, we get

n 10
Pn = P10 = 10 ! = 3,628,800 ways

8
Example

Three people, Aishah, Badrul and Daniel must be scheduled for job interviews. In how
many different orders can this be done?

Solution

n=3

So there are 3! = 6 possible orders for the interviews.

Example
How many different 4 digit numbers can be formed from the digits 5, 6, 7 and 8

i) if no repetitions
n=4
4 possible
2 possible
choices
choices

3 possible
1 possible
choices
choice

n 4
Pn = P4 = 4! = 24

9
 ii) if the first digit must be 7 and no repeatation.
Only 1
2 possible
possible
choices
choice

7
3 possible
1 possible
choices
choice

P1  P3 = 1!  3! = 6
1 3

Note : If repetition is allowed, we can choose from all 2 digits for each digit of the

number (a digit can be used more than once).

How many different ways of arranging 3 digit numbers from digits 5 and 6 ?
5
5
6
5
5
6
6
5
5
6 6
5
6
6

You should be able to see there will be 8 different ways, which is found from 2  2  2.

10
 CHAPTER2

LITERATURE REVIEW

11
Permutation – A permutation is used to describe a counting procedure in which order
matters.

If order matters, then AB is not the same as BA.

Consider the following:

If you have three friends to send text messages to, Taylor, Justin, and Aubrey, how many
different ways can you text your friends if order matters?

Therefore TJA represents texting Taylor first, then Justin, and then Aubrey.

Because order matters, another way to text your friends is TAJ.

All of the possible arrangements are:

TJA, TAJ, JTA, JAT, ATJ, AJT

OR, 3! = (3)(2)(1) = 6 ways

Try solving this problem:

If you have four friends to send text messages to, Taylor, Justin, Arsenio, and Aubrey,
how many different ways can you text your friends if order matters?

12
Summary

”If you want to arrange n objects in groups of n at a time, there are ___! ways to
accomplish this task.

Property: There are _________ ways to arrange n objects in groups of n at a time.”

Now, let’s say you have four friends, but only need to text three of them when order
matters. In order to find the number of arrangements you must use the permutation
formula.

Permutation Formula

(also written as n Pr or P  nr  )

n = the total number of items you have from which to choose

r = the number you are actually going to use

Can r be larger than n? Explain your answer.

Can they be equal? Explain your answer.

13
Example 2:

Let’s say you have four friends, but only need to text three of them when order matters.
Find the number of ways to text your friends.

Solution:

4! 24
P(4,3) = = = 24
(4 - 3)! 1!

There are 24 ways to test three out of your four friends if order matters.

Try this problem:

How many different ways can a city building inspector visit five out of six buildings in the city if
she visits them in a specific order?

14
CHAPTER3

OBJECTIVE

15
a) To Understand the techniques of counting.

b) O TUnderstand permutation of a set of objects.

c) To Find the number of permutations of n different objects

CHAPTER4

16
 RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY

17
 Research Design:
Descriptive Research: Descriptive research includes survey and fact-findings enquire of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state
affairs, as it exists at present.

 Data Collection:
The study is based on the data collected through primary and secondary sources.

 Primary Data:
An interview schedule was designed to collect primary data from various broadband
users.

 Secondary Data:
Secondary data was collected from journals, magazines, web sites and from other
relevant publications.

 Sampling Design:
The sampling design mainly consists of the sample taken for the study along with the
sample size, sample frame and sampling method.

 Sample Universe:
All customers using broadband connection was taken as the sample universe.

 Sample Size:
From the universe, sample sizes of 200 problems were selected for the purpose of the
study.

 Sampling Method:

18
Convenience sampling was used, based on the willingness and availability of the
respondents. The study was conducted on consumers with different type of business.

Sample Size —200 respondents Sample Unit- Students of Graduation and the Post
Graduation have been taken as sample unit. Sampling Area – Bhubaneswar. Sampling
Technique - Random Sampling technique

DATA COLLECTION:

• Primary data has been used by me in the form of Questionnaire & Observation, which
are the two basic methods of collecting primary data, which suffices all research
objectives.

• Secondary data sources like catalogue of the company, product range book of the
company & various internet sites such as motorola.com & google.com have been used.

19
 CHAPTER5
DATA ANALYSIS

20
Exercise

1. How many permutations of the set  a, b, c, d , e  begin with a and end with c ?

2. Six people are going on a motoring holiday in a six-seater car. In how many ways can
they be seated if all six are able to drive?
3. If there are 3 ways from Penang to Kuala Lumpur and 2 ways from Kuala Lumpur to
Genting Highlands, how many ways can we go for a journey from Penang to Genting
Highlands through Kuala Lumpur ?

Taxi
Genting
Bus Highland

Penang Train KL

Taxi

Bus

21
Answers
1. 6 2. 720 3. 6

Permutations of r objects taken from n different objects

A permutation of r objects taken from n different objects without repetition is an arrangement

of the objects in a specific order.

For example, there 12 permutations for the letters A, B, C and D taken 2 at a time.

These are : AB BA CA DA

AC BC CB DB

AD BD CD DC

22
Using the multiplication principle, the number of permutations of 4 objects taken two at a time
= 4  3 = 12. Similarly, the number of permutations of 10 objects taken 3 at a time =10  9 
8 = 720.

In general,

the number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time

= n(n  1)( n  2)...( n  r  1)

n(n  1)( n  2)( n  3)...( n  r  1)( n  r )( n  r  1)...3  2  1

=
(n  r )( n  r  1)...3  2  1

n!
=
(n  r )!

The number of permutations of r objects chosen from a set of n different objects is

n!
denoted by
n
Pr 
n  r !

Example

Suppose you have 4 different flags. How many different signals could you make using

(i) 2 flags

23
(ii) 2 or 3 flags

Solution

(i) n = 4 r=2

4! 4  3  2!
n
Pr  4P2    (4)(3)  12
2! 2!

There are 12 different signals using 2 flags from 4 flags.

(ii) n = 4, r = 2 or n = 4, r = 3

4! 4! 4  3  2! 4  3  2  1!
4
P2  4P3      12  24  36
2! 1! 2! 1!

There are 36 different signals using 2 or 3 flags from 4 flags.

Example

How many arrangements of the letters of the word B E G I N are there if

(i) 3 letters are used

(ii) all of the letters are used

Solution

24
(i) n = 5 r=3

5!
5
P3   (5)(4)(3)  60
2!

The arrangements of the letters of the word B E G I N is 60 if 3 letters are used

(ii) n = 5

Number of arrangements if all of the letters are used.

= 5P5  5!  (5)(4)(3)(2)(1)  120

Example

A relay team has 5 members. How many ways can a coach arrange 4 of them to run a 4x100 m
race

Solution

The order of the four runners is important.

5
Number of arrangements the coach can make = P4

= 120

25
Permutations with condition

Example
How many three-digit numbers can be made from the integers 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 if

(i) each integer is used only once?

(ii) there is no restriction on the number of times each integer can be used?

Solution

(i) n = 5 r=3

5! 5  4  3  2!
n
Pr  5P3    (5)(4)(3)  60
2! 2!

There are 60 different arrangements.

(ii) Number of ways of making the three-digit numbers

= 5  5  5 (repetition is allowed)

= 125

Example

Find the number of arrangements of 4 digits taken from the set { 1, 2, 3, 4}

In how many ways can these numbers be arranged so that

(a) The numbers begin with digit ‘1’

(b) The numbers do not begin with digit ‘1’

26
Solution

Number of arrangements of 4 digits = 4! = 24

(a) If the arrangements begin with digit ‘1’, then the number of ways the 3 remaining

digits can be arranged = 3! = 6

(b) The number of arrangements that do not begin with digit ‘1’ = 24 – 6

= 18

Example

Four sisters and two brothers are arranged in different ways in a straight line for several
photographs to be taken. How many different arrangements are possible if

(a) there are no restrictions

(b) the two brothers must be separated

Solution

(a) Number of arrangements of 6 people = 6!

= 720

(b) First, find the numbers of arrangements with the two brothers standing next to each

27
 other. In these arrangements, the two brothers move together as one unit and this is
equivalent to the arrangement of 5 objects except that they are able to switch positions
with each other.

Number of arrangements with two brothers next to each other = 5!  2!

= 120  2

= 240

Number of arrangements with the two brothers separated = 720 – 240

= 480

Example

Arrange 6 boys and 3 girls in a straight line so that the girls are separated. In how many ways can
this be done ?

Solution

28
Consider this arrangement : BBBBBB

Let the 6 B’s represent the 6 boys and the ‘  ’ represent the spaces for the girls.

Number of arrangements for the boys = 6!

7
Number of arrangements for the girls = P3 (7 spaces available for the 3 girls)

= 210

Total number of arrangements of 6 boys and 3 girls where the girls are separated

= 6!  210

= 151200

Example
There are 10 students out of whom six are females. How many possible arrangements are

there if

a) they are arranged in a row?

b) males always sit on one side and female on the other side?

Solution
a) The number of permutations = 10! = 3628800

b) 2!

6! 4!
6 female 4 male

29
 The number of permutations = 2!  6!  4! = 34560

Example

A witness to a hit-and-run accident told the police that the plat number contained the

letters PDW followed by 3 digits, the first of which is 5. If the witness cannot recall the

last 2 digits, but is certain that all 3 digits are different, find the maximum number of

automobile registrations that the police may have to check.

Solution

5
PDW

The number of permutations = 1  9  8 = 72 ways

Example

In how many ways can 4 girls and 5 boys sit in a row if the boys and girls must sit

alternate to each other?

Solution

B B B B B

30
The number of permutations = 5!  4! = 2880 ways

Example
Four digit numbers are to be formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 without repetition .

How many numbers can be formed if each number

a) is less than 5000

b) begins with digit 4 or 6

c) is between 2000 and 6000

d) is an odd number

Solution
4 choices (1, 2, 3, 4)

a)

The number of permutations = 4  6  5  4 = 480 ways

b)
4 6
or

The number of permutations = 2 ( 1  6  5  4 )

= 240 ways

c)

The number of permutations = 4  6  5  4 = 480 ways

31
d)

The number of permutations = 5  5  4  3 = 300 ways

Example

How many four-digit even numbers can be formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 to

make up numbers between 2000 and 6000

a) without repetition

b) with repetition

Solution

a) consider the last position by two parts : “0” and “not 0”

ends with 0 or not ends with 0

The number of permutations = (4  6  5  1 ) + ( 3  6  5  3) = 390 ways

32
b)

The number of permutations = 4  8  8  4 = 1024 ways.

Example

Three married couples have bought 6 seats in the same row for a concert. In how many

different ways can they be seated

a) with no restrictions

b) if each couple is to sit together

c) if all the men sit together to the right of all the women

Solution

H1 W1 H2 W2 H3 W3 a)

The number of permutations = 6! = 720

b) H1 W1 H2 W2 H3 W3

The number of permutations = 3!  2!  2!  2! = 48 ways

c) W1 W2 W3 H1H2H3

33
 The number of permutations = 1  3!  3! = 36 ways.

Exercise
1. Find the number of different ways in which a gold, a silver and a bronze medal can be
awarded to 15 competitors if each competitor can win only one medal.

2. In how many different ways may 10 different letters be placed in 15 different boxes,
not more than one letter being placed in any box? You may leave the answer in
factorial form.

3. A shop has 5 different printers but there is space for only 3 printers on the display

shelf. How many arrangements are possible ?

4. A photographer wishes to arrange 7 children consisting of 3 boys and 4 girls in a

straight line for a picture. In how many ways can he do this if

(a) the girls are separated

(b) the 3 boys occupy the 3 central positions

5. Find the number of ways ABCDE can be arranged if

(a) the arrangements must begin with the letter A.

(b) do not begin with the letter A

Answers
1. 2730
15!
2.
5!

34
3. 60
4. (a) 144 (b) 144
5. (a) 24 (b) 96

35
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CRC, ISBN 1-58488-434-7

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36
9. Humphreys, J. F. (1996), A course in group theory, Oxford University

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10. Knuth, Donald (1973), Sorting and Searching, The Art of Computer

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37
38