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Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 112 (2014) 242 – 251

International Conference on Education & Educational Psychology 2013 (ICEEPSY 2013)

Guided reflection to support quality of reflection and inquiry in

Web-based learning
Külli Kori*, Mario Mäeots, Margus Pedaste
University of Tartu, Salme 1a, Tartu 50103, Estonia

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to design prompts for guided reflection and to validate them in an empirical manner. Guided
reflection was applied in a Web-based learning environment Young Researcher. This environment was used with lower-
secondary school biology students whose quality of reflection and inquiry skills were evaluated. The results of the study
demonstrate development in their reflection quality. Significant improvement in terms of students’ inquiry skills was detected
among skills related to formulating research questions, inferences and planning experiments. Significant associations were
found between the development of the students’ inquiry skills and reflection quality.

2013 The
© 2013 TheAuthors.
Authors.Published
Publishedbyby Elsevier
Elsevier Ltd.
Ltd.
Selectionand
Selection andpeer-review
peer-reviewunder
under responsibility
responsibility of Dr. Zafer Bekirogullari.
of Cognitive-counselling, research and conference services (c-crcs).

Keywords: quality of reflection; inquiry skills; guided reflection; prompts; inquiry learning; technology-enhanced learning environments.

1. Introduction

Reflection as a thinking process was used by Socrates more than 2,000 years ago, but the approach that is used
today for applying reflection in learning settings derives from Dewey’s work (1933) (Leijen, Valtna, Leijen, &
Pedaste, 2012). Reflection is defined as a cognitive process that is performed to learn from experience (Dewey,
1933; Mezirow, 1991; Schön, 1983). Reflection leads to deeper learning (Moon, 2004) and the achievement of
more complex, integrated, and usable knowledge (Billing, 2007). Research has shown that reflection is important
for successful learning processes (Davis, 2003; Baird & White, 1996; Dewey, 1933). For example, Davis (2003)

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +372 56237966.
E-mail address: [email protected]

1877-0428 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Selection and peer-review under responsibility of Cognitive-counselling, research and conference services (c-crcs).
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.1161
 Külli Kori et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 112 (2014) 242 – 251 243

demonstrated that reflection helps to create new relationships between initial and acquired knowledge and the
makes learning process more effective.
Leijen et al. (2012) synthesized the works of Tsangaridou and O’Sullivan (1994), McCollum (1997), and
Moon (2004) to distinguish four hierarchical levels in reference to evaluating the quality of reflection: description
(descriptive information), justification (logic or rationale), critique (explanation and evaluation), and discussion
(discussing alternative solutions for changing one’s practice). Description is the lowest level, followed by
justification (containing description), then critique (containing description and justification), and the highest
level is discussion (containing all previous levels) (Leijen et al., 2012). All of these levels were applied in the
current study to evaluate students’ answers about their reflective activities.
Reflection is relevant in education, but it is also a challenging activity because what students think and feel
about an experience may differ from the actual event (Agryris & Schön, 1974). In addition, several researchers in
the field have shown that instead of evaluating experiences themselves, students tend to wait for the teacher to
present evaluations (Leijen, Lam, Wildschut, Simons, & Admiraal, 2009; Mountford & Rogers, 1996). That is
why there is a need to guide students to reflect on their learning. Reflection is guided in many ways, for example,
using guiding questions to point out specific elements in an activity (e.g., Hsieh, Jang, Whang & Chen, 2011;
Winchester & Winchester, 2012), reflective blogs or portfolios to note important events during or at the
conclusion of activities (Roberts, 2009; Paulus & Spence, 2010), videotaping an action in order to look at it later
in order to memorise previous activities (Bannik & Dam, 2007; Calandra, Brantley-Dias, Lee, & Fox, 2008;
Leijen et al., 2009), and soliciting feedback from peers who can provide alternative viewpoints on one’s activities
(Chen, Wei, Wu, & Uden, 2009; Leijen et al., 2009). Guided reflection is a reflection form that takes place in a
structured manner between instructor and student (Swardt, Toit, & Botha, 2012; Sööt & Leijen, 2012). All of the
described ways of guidance can be integrated with a guided reflection approach.
Reflection can be linked to a wide variety of learning methods, including inquiry learning. Inquiry learning is
a process of discovering new relationships, during which a learner formulates hypotheses and tests them by
performing experiments or observations (Mäeots, Pedaste, & Sarapuu, 2011). It is possible to distinguish two
types of inquiry skills: transformative and regulative (De Jong & Njoo, 1992). This study focuses on
transformative inquiry skills, which involve actions that students need to follow step-by-step to discover new
relationships (Mäeots, Pedaste, & Sarapuu, 2009). In general, it is possible to differentiate two phases of inquiry
learning: the hypothesis and the experimentation phase (Klahr & Dunbar, 1988). The hypothesis phase entails the
formation and evaluation of theories and involves the use of transformative inquiry skills such as problem
formulation and formulating research questions and hypotheses. The experimentation phase involves the design
of experimental or observational procedures and transformative skills such as planning and conducting carrying
experiments, analysis and interpretation of the results, and formulating inferences. In this study, three
transformative inquiry skills are analysed: formulating research questions, planning experiments, and forming
inferences. Baird and White (1996) and Davis (2003) found that inquiry learning can also be used to develop
reflection skills. Reflection, along with planning and monitoring, has been identified in some studies as a
metacognitive skill that is applied in the context of inquiry learning (White & Frederiksen, 2005). These
metacognitive skills are similar to the skills applied in regulative inquiry processes introduced by De Jong and
Njoo (1992), which were planning, monitoring, and evaluating. Moreover, it has been shown that inquiry
learning improves regulative inquiry skills (De Jong & Njoo, 1992; Mäeots, Pedaste, & Sarapuu, 2009; Wilhelm,
2001). Therefore, we can hypothesize that reflection is one of the skills that can be developed through inquiry
learning.
One way to link inquiry learning and reflection is to use technology-enhanced learning environments. Many
learning environments have been designed to support students’ inquiry, and regulative, and reflection skills (see
De Jong et al., 2012; Pedaste & Sarapuu, 2006; Pedaste & Sarapuu, 2012). Technology-enhanced learning
environments have often been used in science education to apply inquiry learning; in the technology-enhanced
learning environments, students acquire skills or knowledge with the help of teachers or other facilitators,
244 Külli Kori et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 112 (2014) 242 – 251

learning support tools, and technological resources (Shapiro, Roskos, & Philip, 1995; Aleven, Stahl, Schworm,
Fischer, & Wallace, 2003; Wang & Hannafin, 2005). In this study, a Web-based learning environment, Young
Researcher, was used. This learning environment was designed to help 6th to 9th grade students achieve some of
the objectives of the Estonian science curriculum through an inquiry learning approach (Mäeots, Pedaste, &
Sarapuu, 2009).
To make complex inquiry tasks more meaningful in technology-enhanced learning environments, student
reflection should be supported (White & Frederiksen, 2005). However, in their learning environments, students
can learn at anytime and anywhere, but teachers cannot always guide them in terms of engaging in reflective
practice. That is why technology-enhanced learning environments require some type of mechanism that
constantly guides learners (Chen, Wei, Wu, & Uden, 2009). For example, prompts can be used in computer
environments to guide reflection (e.g., Aleven & Koedinger, 2002; Davis, 2000; Saito & Miwa, 2007; Chen et al.,
2009; Furberg, 2009). Chen et al. (2009) used the term reflection prompts to describe prompts that are included in
learning materials to help students engage in reflection in online learning environments. Prompts can be used
with questions. According to Ge (2001), question prompts are those that are used to facilitate the learning
process; they offer both cognitive and metacognitive support to students. In the current study, prompts and
guiding questions were designed and added to the learning environment, Young Researcher, to guide students’
reflection while they attempted to solve inquiry tasks.
Based on the issues and solutions introduced earlier, two research questions were formulated for this study: (1)
How does guided reflection improve reflection quality and inquiry skills in the learning environment, Young
Researcher? (2) Which relationships appear in reference to the development of the students’ inquiry skills and
reflection quality?

2. Research design and methods

The participants in this study were 35 lower-secondary school biology students in the 9th grade (aged 15-16).
The students were selected during aschool practicum. According to the research design (see figure 1), the
students completed a pre-test, solved two lessons during an inquiry task in the learning environment Young
Researcher, and completed a post-test (four 45-minute lessons in total). The pre- and post-test each had two
parts: an inquiry worksheet, during which students formulated a research question, answered questions about an
experiment plan, and analysed a table to formulate inferences. The second part was a reflection worksheet, during
which students had to answer reflective questions about two inquiry stages (formulating research questions and
formulating inferences). The second and third lessons took place in a computer class, where students used the
learning environment Young Researcher.
Young Researcher is a learning environment (http://bio.edu.ee/teadlane) designed for learning biology topics
through inquiry tasks (see Mäeots et al., 2009). Each task follows a predesigned inquiry-pathway containing
problem identification, the formulation of research questions and hypotheses, experiment planning, conducting an
experiment, analysis and interpretation of the results, and making inferences. For the current study, we re-
structured one inquiry task using the ideas of Klahr and Dunbar’s SDDS theory (see Klahr and Dunbar, 1988) by
dividing the task into two stages: one for the hypothesis phase (problem identification, formulation of research
questions and hypotheses) and another one for experimentation phase (experiment planning, conducting an
experiment, analysis and interpretation of the results, and making inferences). This allowed us to give students
more time for their reflective activities because they did not have to go through the whole inquiry at once. Thus,
in the first lesson with Young Researcher, students passed through the hypothesis phase and reflected on
formulating research questions, and in the second lesson, they conducted the experimentation phase and reflected
on formulating inferences. Students worked in pairs because they had to conduct a real experiment in which at
least two students were needed.
 Külli Kori et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 112 (2014) 242 – 251 245

Fig.1. Research design

Reflection levels distinguished by Leijen et al. (2012) were used to evaluate students’ reflection sheets. The
reflection levels, in growing order, were description, justification, critique, and discussion. If a student described
only his or her answer or opinion, he or she was at the first reflection level – description. If student used rational
or logical thinking to explain her or his answer, she or he was at the justification level. If the student showed
critical thinking or evaluation of his or her work, he or she was at the critique level. When a student showed that
he or she was thinking about the future, he or she was at the discussion level. Each student answered eight
questions about reflection (four about formulating research questions and four about inferences), so the total
number of answers for the 35 students was 280. Students’ answers were evaluated by two researchers, based on
what inter-rater reliability was calculated (Cronbach’s D=0.751). Inquiry worksheets were evaluated by criteria
adapted by Mäeots’s thesis (2007). The research question was evaluated via a 6-point scale according to three
criteria: wording (correct question, incorrect question, or other type of sentence), object of research (correct
object, incorrect object, or no object), and impact factor (correct impact factor, incorrect impact factor, or no
impact factor). Questions about the experiment plan were evaluated via a 4-point scale – one point for each
named condition that should be unchanged during an experiment (students had to name three conditions) and one
point for correct answers about why a participant needed to rest before a new experiment (domain-related
question). The inference was evaluated via a 9-point scale according to four criteria: wording (correct statement,
incorrect statement, or question), object of research (correct object, incorrect object, or no object), impact factor
(correct impact factor, incorrect impact factor, or no impact factor) and impact (correct impact, incorrect impact,
inappropriate impact, or no impact).
Reflection was guided in the learning environment through prompts and questions. The content of the prompts
is shown in Table 1. At the beginning of each task, an introductory prompt was used to guide students to think
about what they were doing and to notify them that they had to analyse their work at the end of each lesson. The
first prompt also instructed students to take notes because analysing their work might be easier if they were to
write down what they did. At the end of the two lessons, there was another introductory prompt and the students
had to answer three types of questions. The introductory prompt guided the students to write long, full answers
and it explained that the reflection part is beneficial to them. In the first question, the students had to explain why
their research question (in the first computer lesson) or inference (in the second computer lesson) was correct or
246 Külli Kori et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 112 (2014) 242 – 251

incorrect. This guided them to the justification level (second reflection level), where they had to use logic or
rational thinking to justify their answers. Secondly, they had to evaluate three statements on a 5-point scale (five
means agree and one means do not agree) and explain their answers. The statements were We worked together
when formulating a research question (inference); We acquired new knowledge when formulating a research
question (inference); We found the research question (inference) formulation task difficult to implement. This
guided the students to think critically about their work which was related to the third reflection level – critique.
The last question guided students to think about the future and asked them to explain what they would like to do
differently when solving a similar task in the future. This guided the students to the highest reflection level –
discussion. On this level, the students had to find alternative solutions that could be applied next time when
attempting to solve an analogous problem. Similar questions were asked on pre- and post-test reflection
worksheets to determine whether there was any improvement in the students’ reflection quality. In the pre- and
post-tests, the statement about working together was removed because pre- and post-test were answered
individually.

Table 1. Prompts that were designed and added to the learning environment.

Prompt type Prompt goal Examples of prompt content

Introductory prompt at the beginning of the Guided students to think what they were You are starting to solve an inquiry task that
inquiry task doing during an inquiry task asks “What affects how muscles work?”
The task is divided into two parts; at the end
of each part, you must analyse what you did
during the lesson. To do this more
successfully, use note pages to write down
all of your thoughts and actions.
Introductory prompt at the beginning of Guided students to answer questions and Analyse the work you did during the lesson.
reflection part write longer answers To do this, answer the following questions.
If you write more, then the review will be
more effective for you.
Reflection question that guided the Guided students to explain their answers Why were your chosen research questions/
justification level inferences correct or incorrect? Explain your
statement.
Reflection question that guided critique Guided students to think critically about Evaluate the following statements using a 5-
level what they did during the lesson point scale. Explain your answers.
We worked together when formulating a
research question/ inference;
We obtained new knowledge when
formulating a research question/inference;
We found the research question (inference)
formulation task difficult to implement.
Reflection question that guided the Guided students to think about the future What should you do done differently next
discussion level and how they could achieve better results time when formulating research questions/
the next time inferences? Explain your statement.

MS Excel and IMB SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) Statistics 20 were used for data
analysis. Non-parametric statistics were used because the data did not correspond to a normal distribution. The
Wilcoxon test was used to compare students’ pre- and post-test results. The association of changes in the
reflection level and levels of formulating research questions and inferences was determined by a Chi-square
analysis.
 Külli Kori et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 112 (2014) 242 – 251 247

3. Results and discussion

The purpose of this study was to provide the learning environment Young Researcher with guided reflection to
support students’ reflection quality. The development in terms of reflection quality and inquiry skills is presented
in chapter 3.1 and relationships between development in reflection quality and transformative inquiry skills are
discussed in chapter 3.2.

3.1. Reflection quality and transformative inquiry skills

A comparison of the pre- and post-test reflection sheets was used to analyse the development of reflection
levels. All 35 students answered the four pre- and post-test reflection questions about research question
formulating and the four questions about the inference formulation stage. Thus, the total number of answers was
280. The sum of all of the reflection levels that the students achieved from the eight reflection question answers
is shown in Figure 2.

140 139

116
120

100
Number of answers

75
80 69 73
Pre-test
60 53
Post-test

40

20 11 8 8 8
0
No answer Description Justification Critique Discussion

Fig. 2. Frequency of reflection levels in students’ answers (n=280).

Most of the students’ answers were on the justification level (139 in the pre-test and 116 in the post-test). One
example of a student answer on this level is the following: “I did not get new knowledge because I knew these
things before.” Development in reflection quality is shown by the number of answers on the critique level, where
the number increased (from 53 in the pre-test to 75 in the post-test) and the number of answers on the
justification level, where a decrease was found (from 139 to 116). Each reflection activity requires different
support because it involves unique challenges, so the main goal is to support the level that is one step higher than
the one where students’ answers are so as to develop reflection and avoid cognitive overload (Runnel, Pedaste, &
Leijen, 2013). This study revealed that most students’ answers were on the justification level and that using
guided reflection increased the number of answers on the critique level because the reflection prompts guided the
students to think more critically – three questions in the learning environment guided students to evaluate a
statement and explain their answers. An example of a student answer on the critique level is: “I have done
similar things before, there was nothing new in the experiment results, and I solved the task well.” However, on
the highest reflection level – discussion – there were few students (eight in the pre-test and eight in the post-test)
and no development was found. The last question at the end of the two lessons guided students to think about the
future, but many students gave there an answer still on a descriptive reflection level. This is one reason why the
number of answers on the description level is high (69 in the pre-test and 73 in the post-test). When students were
asked what they would do differently when they are asked to solve a similar inquiry task in the future, many
answered “Nothing.” They may have answered in this way because they believed they had solved the task very
248 Külli Kori et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 112 (2014) 242 – 251

effectively, but they should have explained that to demonstrate a higher reflection level. One example of a
student answer on the discussion level is: “I acquired new knowledge about how to formulate inferences better
and more accurately the next time.” There were also a few students who did not answer all of the questions asked
(eleven times in the pre-test and eight times in the post-test). This happened mainly in the part where students had
to evaluate a given statement on a 5-point scale and explain their answers. On a few occasions, students simply
evaluated the statement, but did not explain it. However, the number of unanswered questions decreased in the
post-tests; it is still an issue which requires more clarification. In general, it can be stated that applied prompts
helped the students to develop their reflective skills. Similar results were also revealed in research where using
prompts in a computer environment helped to improve reflection (Aleven & Koedinger, 2002; Davis, 2000; Saito
& Miwa, 2007; Chen et al., 2009; Furberg, 2009).
When comparing pre- and post-test inquiry worksheets, development in terms of students’ transformative
inquiry skills was found. The results of the Wilcoxon test about the development of three analysed transformative
inquiry skills are shown in Table 2. The transformative skills were formulating research questions, planning
experiments, and formulating inferences.

Table 2. Change in students’ (n=35) transformative inquiry skills in comparison to the pre- and post-tests

Transformative inquiry skills Positive Ranks Negative Ranks Ties Z p

Formulating research questions 27 2 6 -4.204 <0.01
Planning experiments 11 2 22 -2.500 <0.05
Formulating inferences 14 3 18 -2.584 <0.05

In Table 2, positive ranks means that students answered better in the post-test and earned more points than in
the pre-test. Negative ranks means the opposite – students earned fewer points in the post-test than in the pre-test.
Tie means that the points students earned for transformative inquiry skills were the same in the pre- and post-
tests, and the post-test answers were mainly very similar to the pre-test answers. The Wilcoxon test showed that
in every skill, there were significantly more positive ranks than negative ranks. The most frequent change was
detected in research question formulation skills (Z=-4.204; p<0.01). However, experiment planning skills and
inference formulating skills also improved in a statistically significantly way (p<0.05). It has been showed before
that the learning environment Young Researcher improves students’ inquiry skills (Mäeots et al., 2009; Mäeots et
al., 2011). In this study, guided reflection was added to the learning environment Young Researcher, which had
not been done before, and transformative inquiry skills still developed.

3.2. Associations between reflection and inquiry skills

Associations between the development of reflection levels and development of transformative inquiry skills
were examined. The results are shown in Table 3. Also, Chi-square analyses were done to determine whether the
associations are statistically significant.
Table 3. Associations between development of transformative inquiry skills and reflection (n=280).
Formulating research Formulating inferences
Change in reflection level questions
decrease

decrease
increase

increase
same

same

Level increases (75) 60 12 3 27 41 7

Same level (155) 114 34 7 62 79 14
Level decreases (50) 41 4 5 23 20 7
 Külli Kori et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 112 (2014) 242 – 251 249

The total number of reflection answers written by students was 280. Table 3 shows that in 75 answers,
students’ reflection levels increased; they stayed the same 155 times; and decreased 50 times. Numbers in this
table show how many times the points that students earned for formulating research questions or inferences
increased, stayed the same, or decreased (these were the tasks after which reflection was reviewed). In both cases
a statistically significant association was found (respectively χ2=21.6, p<0.01, χ2=21.3, p<0.01). In cases in which
the reflection level increased, the probability of increases in both research question formulation skills and
inference formulation skills was higher than in cases in which the reflection level was the same or even lower on
the post-tests compared to the pre-tests. In addition, if the measured reflection level was lower on the post-tests
than in the pre-tests, then it was very probable that the measured level of skills needed to formulate research
questions or inferences was lower as well (the highest standardized residuals in the cross tabulation related to the
Chi-square analysis). This shows that the development in reflection levels is associated with development in
inquiry skills. Therefore, it can be concluded that the use of the learning environment Young Researcher, where
guided reflection is embedded, also helps students to develop transformative inquiry skills.

4. Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to develop prompts for guided reflection and apply them in the Web-based
inquiry learning environment Young Researcher. An additional goal was to determine how applying guided
reflection develops reflection quality and transformative inquiry skills and how the developments are associated.
The development of three transformative inquiry skills and reflection levels was analysed using pre- and post-
tests. Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that the Web-based learning environment Young
Researcher is applicable for improving students’ inquiry skills. The biggest improvement was found in the skill
involved in formulating research questions, but the skills involved in planning experiments and formulating
inferences developed as well.
This research study revealed that using guided reflection through prompts helps students in their reflective
activities. Most students’ answers were on the justification level in both the pre- and post-test, but in the post-
tests, the number of answers on the critique level increased and the number of answers on the justification level
decreased. However, a few answers were on the highest discussion level and many others were on the lowest
description level. Moreover, associations between the development of reflection levels and development in
transformative inquiry skills were found. When students’ reflection levels increased, then their skills in terms of
formulating research questions and inferences also increased, and vice versa.
In conclusion, this study demonstrates that guided reflection can improve students’ reflection quality and
inquiry skills which are associated with each other. Therefore, to make inquiry learning more meaningful, guided
reflection can be used in technology-enhanced learning environments. This study shows that prompts seem to be
useful to guide reflection and support the improvement of transformative inquiry skills.

Acknowledgements

This study was conducted in the context of a research and development project supported by the European
Social Fund. We want to specifically acknowledge the participants of the study, the students of Tartu Karlova
Gymnasium.

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