CHAPTER 1

CONSUMER BUYING BEHAVIOUR

Consumer is the reason why business exists. Without them no company can survive or thrive.
In their absence, an organisation doesn’t have a business or purpose. The main purpose of a
company is to satisfy customer’s needs and wants. Though similar, consumers are unique in
themselves; they have needs and want which are varied and diverse from one another; and
they have different consumption patterns and consumption behaviour. The marketer helps
satisfy these needs and wants through product and service offerings. For a firm to survive,
compete and grow, it is essential that the marketer identifies these needs and wants, and
provides product offerings more effectively and efficiently than other competitors. A
comprehensive yet meticulous knowledge of consumers and their consumption behaviour is
essential for a firm to succeed. Herein, lays the essence of Consumer Buying Behaviour, an
interdisciplinary subject, which emerged as a separate field of study in the 1960s. Peter
Drucker, a leading management expert, once stated that the aim of marketing is to know and
understand the consumer so well that the product or service fits him and sells itself. Ideally,
marketing should result in a consumer who is ready to buy. All that should be needed then is
to make the product or service available. In short consumer or customer satisfaction is the key
to an organisational success.

Consumer: Any individual who purchases goods and services from the market for his/her
end-use is called a consumer. In simpler words a consumer is one who consumes goods and
services available in the market. In other words, consumer is an ultimate user of a product or
service.

According to International Dictionary of Management, “consumers are purchasers of goods

and services for immediate use and consumption”.

CONSUMER BUYING BEHAVIOUR

Human being differs from one to another. It is not easy to predict the human behaviour.
Human being differs in their taste, needs, wants and preferences. But one constant thing is
that we all are consumers. CB is a vast and complex subject. Understanding CB and
“knowing consumers’ are not that simple. It is almost impossible to predict with one hundred
per cent accuracy, how consumer(s) will behave in a given situation. Marketers are interested
in watching people shopping, flirting, parading, playing, entertaining, as they are keenly
interested in the wide variety of behaviours they display. The efforts of all marketers are to
influence the behaviour of consumers in a desired manner. The success or failure in this
pursuit determines the difference between success and failure of marketing efforts or even the
business itself. Consumer Buying Behaviour explains the reasons and logic that underlie
purchasing decisions and consumption patterns; it explains the processes through which
buyers make decisions. Consumer Buying Behaviour may be defined as “the interplay of
forces that takes place during a consumption process, within a consumers’ self and his
environment. This interaction takes place between three elements viz. knowledge, affect and
behaviour; it continues through pre-purchase activity to the Consumer Buying Behaviour post
purchase experience; it includes the stages of evaluating, acquiring, using and disposing of
goods and services”. The “consumer” includes both personal consumers and
Business/industrial/organizational consumers.

Definitions

1. “The behaviour that consumers display in searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating
and disposing of products and services that they expect will satisfy their needs.”- Schiffman
and Kanuk

2. “…..the decision process and physical activity engaged in when evaluating, acquiring,
using or disposing of goods and services." - Loudon and Bitta

3. “The study of consumers as they exchange something of value for a product or service
that satisfies their needs”- Wells and Prensky

4. “Those actions directly involved in obtaining, consuming and disposing of products

and services including the decision processes that precede and follow these actions”. -Engel,
Blackwell, Miniard

5. “The dynamic interaction of effect and cognition, behaviour and the environment by
which human beings conduct the exchange aspects of their lives” - American Marketing
Association

By analysing the above definition, it reveals that the study includes within its purview, the
interplay between cognition, affect and behaviour that goes on within a consumer during the
consumption process: selecting, using and disposing off goods and services.
Nature of Consumer Buying Behaviour:

1. Process: -Consumer Buying Behaviour is a systematic process relating to buying

decisions of the customers. The buying process consists of the following steps:

1) Need identification to buy the product

2) Information search relating to the product.

3) Listing of alternative brands.

4) Evaluating the alternative (cost-benefit analysis)

5) Purchase decision.

6) Post-purchase evaluation by the marketer.

2. Influenced by various factors: -Consumer Buying Behaviour is influenced by a

number of factors. The factors that influenced consumer are as follow; marketing, personal,
psychological, situational, social, cultural etc. Consumer Buying Behaviour

3. Different for different customers: -All consumers do not behave in the same manner.
Different consumers behave differently. The difference in Consumer Buying Behaviour is
due to individual factors such as nature of the consumer’s life style, culture, etc.

4. Different for different products: -Consumer Buying Behaviour is different for

different products. There are some consumers who may buy more quantity of certain items
and very low/no quantity of some other items.

5. Varies across regions: -The Consumer Buying Behaviour vary across states, regions
and countries. For instance, the behaviour of urban consumers is different from that of rural
consumers. Normally, rural consumers are conservative (traditional) in their buying
behaviour.

6. Vital for marketers: -Marketers need to have a good knowledge of Consumer Buying
Behaviour. They need to study the various factors that influence Consumer Buying
Behaviour of their target customers. The knowledge of Consumer Buying Behaviour enables
marketers to take appropriate marketing decisions.
7. Reflects Status: -Consumers buying behaviour is not only influenced by status of a
consumer, but it also reflects it. Those consumers who own luxury cars, watches and other
items are considered by others as persons of higher status.

8. Result in spread-effect: -Consumer Buying Behaviour has a spread effect. The buying
behaviour of one person may influence the buying behaviour of another person. For instance,
a customer may always prefer to buy premium brands of clothing, watches and other items
etc. this may influence some of his friends, neighbours, colleagues. This is one of the reasons
why marketers use celebrities like Sharuk khan, Sachin Tendulkar to endorse their brands.

9. Improves Standard of Living: -Consumer buying behaviour may lead to higher

standard of living. The more a person buys the goods and services, the higher is the standard
of living.

10. Undergoes a change: - The consumer’s behaviour undergoes a change over a period
of time depending upon changes in age, education and income level. Etc, for instance,, kids
may prefer colourful dresses, but as they grow up as teenagers and young adults, they may
prefer trendy clothes.

Scope of Consumer Buying Behaviour:

The study of Consumer Buying Behaviour deals with understanding consumption patterns
and behaviour. It includes within its ambit the answers to the following:

• ‘What’ the consumers buy: goods and services

• ‘Why’ they buy it: need and want

• ‘When’ do they buy it: time: day, week, month, year, occasions etc.

• ‘Where’ they buy it: place

• ‘How often they buy’ it: time interval Consumer Buying Behaviour

• ‘How often they use’ it: frequency of use

The scope of Consumer Buying Behaviour includes not only the actual buyer but also the
various roles played by him/ different individuals.
Basic Components:

i) Decision making (Cognitive and Affect):- this includes the stages of decision making:
Need recognition, Information search, Evaluation of alternatives, Purchase activity, Post
purchase behaviour.

ii) Actual purchase (Behaviour):- this includes the visible physical activity of buying of
goods and/or service. It is the result of the interplay of many individual and environmental
determinants which are invisible.

iii) Individual determinants and environmental influences: The environmental factors

affect the decision process indirectly, through way of affecting individual determinants.

iv) Buying roles: Actual Buyer vis a vis other users. There are five buying roles, viz.,
Initiator, Influencer, Decider, User, and Buyer. The initiator is the person who identifies that
there exists a need or want; the influencer is the one who influences the purchase decision,
the actual purchase activity and/or the use of the product or service; the decider is the one
who decides whether to buy, what to buy, when to buy, from where to buy, and how to buy;
the buyer is the one who makes the actual purchase; and, the user is the person (s) who use
the product or service. These five roles may be played by one person or by different persons.
A person may assume one or more of these roles. This would depend on the product or
service in question.

Examples: Let us take an example.

A child goes to a kindergarten school. She comes back home and asks her parents to buy her
a set of colour pencils and crayons. Now the roles played are:

1. Initiator: the child in nursery school

2. Influencer: a fellow classmate

3. Decider: the father or the mother

4. Buyer: the father or the mother

5. User: the child

Application of Consumer Buying Behaviour:

An understanding of Consumer Buying Behaviour is necessary for long term success and
survival of a firm. It is viewed as the edifice of the marketing concept, an important
orientation in marketing management. Consumer Buying Behaviour According to the
marketing concept, the marketer should be able to determine needs and wants of the target
segment and provide product and service offerings more effectively and efficiently than
competitors. It is essentially a customer-centred philosophy, which aims at understanding
customer needs and wants, providing the right product and service, and deriving customer
satisfaction; “make what you can sell” rather than “sell what you make.”

Research Paradigms in Consumer Buying Behaviour:

The research paradigm in the study of consumer behaviour focuses on two approaches
viz., Quantitative research, used by the positivists and, Qualitative research: used by the
interpretivists. The positivists and interpretivists as two schools of thought have already
discussed. The current Consumer Buying Behaviour approach or the ‘dialectic’ approach to
studying Consumer Buying Behaviour makes use both the approaches.

a) Quantitative Research in Consumer Buying Behaviour: As the name suggests, the

approach makes application of quantitative research techniques to the study of Consumer
Buying Behaviour. It comprises (i) research techniques that are used to gather quantitative
data over large samples randomly, and (ii) statistical tools and techniques, inclusive of survey
techniques, observation and experiments. This type of research is descriptive and empirical in
nature. It is primarily used by the positivists while studying Consumer Buying Behaviour,
with a focus on prediction of Consumer Buying Behaviour. The findings can be generalized
to marketing situations. As mentioned above, the quantitative techniques are also used by
“dialectics”.

b) Qualitative Research in Consumer Buying Behaviour: This approach makes application of

qualitative research techniques to the study of Consumer Buying Behaviour. It comprises (i)
research techniques that are used to gather qualitative data over small samples randomly and,
(ii) non-statistical tools and techniques, inclusive of depth interviews, focus group, projective
techniques and even observation. The type of study is subjective and non-empirical in nature.
It lays emphasis on the holistic “what, where, when, why and how” of human behaviour”.
The focus is on understanding consumption behaviour and consumption patterns. The
objective is to gain an understanding of Consumer Buying Behaviour and the underlying
causes that govern such behaviour. The approach assumes that all marketing situations are
unique; and, hence the findings cannot be generalized to marketing situations. This approach
is primarily used by the interpretivists while studying Consumer Buying Behaviour.
However, as mentioned above, the qualitative techniques are also used by “dialectics”.

c) Combining the two approaches: Now a day, the two approaches are used in combination to
study Consumer Buying Behaviour. Qualitative research is very often a prelude to
quantitative research; the findings from qualitative research are used to prepare scales for
surveys and experiments.
What customers 'value' and how we provide that 'value?'

 What is the nature of competition in our target markets? Our competitors' level
of profitability. Their number/concentration. The relative strengths and
weaknesses of competition. The marketing plans and strategies of our
competition.
 What is the cultural nature of the environment(s)? Beliefs and religions. The
standards and average levels of education. The evolving lifestyles of our target
consumers. The nature of consumerism in our target markets.
 What is the demography of our consumers? Such as average age, levels of
population, gender make up, and so on.
 How does technology play a part? The level of adoption of mobile and
Internet technologies. The way in which goods are manufactured. Information
systems. Marketing communications uses of technology and media.
 Is the political and legal landscape changing in any way? Laws, for example,
copyright and patents. Levels of regulation such as quotas or tariffs.
Labour/labour laws such as minimum wage legislation.

Review of Our Current Marketing Plan:-

Under this heading marketer analysis are sniffed into the following questions:

 What are our current objectives for marketing?

 What are our current marketing strategies?
 How do we apply the marketing mix? (Including factors covered above in (a)
 Is the marketing process being controlled effectively?
 Are we achieving our marketing budget?
 Are we realising our SMART objectives?
  Are our marketing team implementing the marketing plan effectively?
 Levels of staffing. Staff training and development. Experience and learning.

Consumer Buying Behaviour audits are useful instruments in assessing all the features of
decision making in marketing including positioning, segmentation and other elements of the
marketing mix. Fundamentally, a Consumer Buying Behaviour audit seeks to discover the
attitudes of consumers concerning a certain product, any necessary improvements, as well as
their usage of the specific products. The outline for auditing Consumer Buying Behaviour has
been simplified and generalized below, but the execution of the process can be invaluable for
identifying challenges and opportunities for improving marketing strategy.

Marketing Decision Areas:- Market segmentation – division of all possible product users
(i.e., consumers) into groups with similar needs to satisfy for product development and media
selection. Product positioning – determination of a desirable product or brand position in the
mind of the consumer relative to competing brands. Price – pricing policy consistent with the
determined product position. The price is the all inclusive set of consideration that the
consumer must tender in exchange for the product or service, such as time, patience, learning,
and money.Place (Distribution Strategy) – channel or distribution strategy, such as retail,
wholesale, or Internet, etc. consistent with the determined product position at which title to
the product is relinquished or the service is performed. Promotion – advertising, visual
packaging, publicity, promotion, website, telemarketing and direct sales force activities.

Product – physical product characteristics or service to be experienced for each market

segment. Customer satisfaction – post-purchase policies to promoted customer use, loyalty,
reference and repeat purchases.

2. Customer Influences

External influences

• Culture, subculture, and values

• Demographics, income, and social class

• Reference groups and family / households

• Marketing activities by the company (e.g., product attributes, packaging,

advertisements, sales presentation, and retail outlet) Internal influences
• Needs, motives, and emotions

• Perceptions, learning and memory

• Personality and lifestyle

• Attitudes

• Physical features

• Time perspective

• Social surroundings

• Task definition

• Problem recognition

• Information search

• Alternative evaluation

• Outlet selection

• Purchase

• Post-purchase processes (e.g., use, disposition, and evaluation)

By interweaving the decision areas with the relevant customer influences listed above, it is
possible to outline the areas in which data should be gathered in order to construct a complete
audit template as follows:

• Step 1: Market segmentation (…) Identify customer influences

• Step 2: Product positioning (…) Identify customer influences

• Step 3: Price (…) Identify customer influences

• Step 4: Place (Distribution strategy) (…) Identify customer influences

• Step 5: Promotion (…) Identify customer influences

• Step 6: Product (…) Identify customer influences

• Step 7: Customer satisfaction (…) Identify customer influences

By completing the above steps and answering all the associated questions regarding customer
influences at each of the stages, the marketing manager should have a thorough
understanding of the influences on Consumer Buying Behaviour and the key decision areas in
which the influences are activated.
 CHAPTER 2

CONSUMER INVOLVEMENT

Meaning, Nature and Types of Consumer Involvement:- Another component that closely
relates to motivation is involvement. Involvement is defined as a psychological state that
motivates people to be more aware and careful about persons/objects/situations. It also
indicates a level of personal importance that the person attaches to such
persons/objects/situations. Thus, there are (a) high and low-involvement consumers; (b) high
and low-involvement purchases.

Meaning of Consumer Involvement: Consumer involvement is defined as a state of mind that

motivates consumers to identify with product/service offerings, their consumption patterns
and consumption behaviour. Involvement creates within consumers an urge to look for and
think about the product/service category and the varying options before making decisions on
brand preferences and the final act of purchase. It is the amount of physical and mental effort
that a consumer puts into a purchase decision. It creates within a person a level of relevance
or personal importance to the product/service offering and this leads to an urge within the
former to collect and interpret information for present/future decision making and use.
Involvement affects the consumer decision process and the sub processes of information
search, information processing, and information transmission. As Schiffman has put it
“Involvement is a heightened state of awareness that motivates consumers to seek out, attend
to, and think about product information prior to purchase”. It is the perceived interest and
importance that a consumer attaches to the acquisition and consumption of a product/service
offering.

Herbert Krugman, a researcher is credited with his contribution to the concept of consumer
involvement. According to him, consumers approach the marketplace and the corresponding
product/service offerings with varying levels and intensity of interest and personal
importance. This is referred to as consumer involvement.
Involvement of consumers while makes purchase decisions varies across persons, across
product/service offerings in question as well as purchase situations and time at hand. Some
consumers are more involved in purchase processes than others. For example, a person who
has a high level of interest in a product category would expend a lot of time making a
decision with regard to the product and the brand. He would compare brands across features,
prices etc. Another example is a person who is risk aversive; he would also take a longer time
making a decision. Involvement also varies across product/service offerings. Some products
are high involvement products; these are products that are high in value and expensive,
possess sufficient amount of risk, are purchased infrequently, and once purchased, the action
is irrevocable, i.e. they cannot be returned and/or exchanged . On the other hand, there are
low involvement products, which are moderately expensive or generally inexpensive, possess
little risk and are purchased regularly on a routine basis. Further, such consumer involvement
based on their personal traits or on the nature of product/service offering is also impacted by
the buying situation and time in hand for making purchase decisions. Very often, due to time
constraints or emergency situations, a consumer may expend very little time on the purchase
decision and buying activity in spite of the fact that the consumer is highly involved or risk
aversive or the product is a high involvement one.

Nature of Consumer Involvement

1. It is an inner urge that creates within an individual an interest/desire to hold certain

product/service offerings in greater relevance/importance.

2. Involvement possesses certain properties

a) It has a level of strength and intensity that determines the degree of involvement that a
consumer possesses. This could be high or low. A highly involved consumer would actively
search for information and collect facts, compare the various brands against each other on the
basis of the information, assess differences and similarities between the various alternatives
and finally make a choice. In other words, they collect process and integrate information very
intensely, and finally arrive at a decision regarding the brand choice. On the other hand, a
consumer low on involvement would not make so much of effort in collecting and processing
information about varying alternative brands and taking a decision.
b) The length of time that the consumer remains in this heightened state determines the
level of persistence. It could be short term and situational interest in the product/service
category; or it could be long term and enduring.

c) It is directed towards any or all of the elements of the marketing mix. A person may
show involvement towards the product (its features/attributes and benefits), the price, the
store or the dealer or even the promotional effort (advertisement/sales promotion etc).

3. A mechanism underlies the very process of involvement. As a process, involvement is

impacted by certain “antecedents” that get restrained by “moderating factors,” and finally
affect its degree of intensity and level of persistence.

Antecedent factors: There are certain factors that precede and lead to involvement; these are
referred to as ‘antecedents’; Antecedents to consumer involvement include the following:

a) The person himself and the individual determinants like motives/needs;

learning/experiences; interests; attitudes; personality; lifestyle/social class/interests/values;
etc, have a bearing upon consumer involvement. Products which relate to self image and
personality lead to high involvements.

b) The object, stimuli or the product/service offering also affects involvement. The greater
the product differentiation, the greater would be the level of involvement. Varying yet
comparable brand alternatives also impact the level of involvement. Involvement would also
be impacted by features, benefits and associated value of various brand offerings; brand
image and equity; and very importantly the associated risk levels. Products which possess
high levels of risk increase the level of consumer involvement.

c) The situation: The occasion/situation/reason of purchase also have a bearing on the

level of consumer involvement; for example, while gifting to a person special to oneself, we
are careful about the product or the brand. Also, for gifting to self or to near and dear ones on
special occasions, we are extremely conscious of the kinds of products and the brands we
buy, as opposed to routinized regular purchases. Further, social pressure (shopping alone
versus shopping with friends), also impacts the level of involvement. When alone we may eat
at any place or shop at any outlet, but when we are with peers and friends, we are more
conscious of the brands we buy and the places we shop in. Social visibility also impacts the
level of involvement; the level of consumer involvement increases in case of social visibility
of both the product category as well as the purchase activity. Finally, the time commitment to
purchase (leisure versus time constraint), also affects our level of involvement. Irrespective of
the fact that the product is of a high involvement type or that the person bears personality
traits making him a high involving consumer, he may not be bale to expend much time on a
purchase activity, due to time constraints and need to make quick decisions. This is referred
to as decision imminence.

Moderating factors: The factors that can restrain the impact of antecedents so as to impact the
level of involvement include

a) The opportunity available to the person to collect and collate facts and information;

b) His cognitive ability to process information and draw conclusions;

c) Time available in hand.

4. The antecedents, moderators and the properties of involvement finally converge to a

response in terms of information search, information processing, information transmission,
the purchase decision and post purchase behaviour. Consumer involvement affects the ways
in which consumers seek, process, and transmit information, make purchase decisions and
make post purchase evaluation.

a) Information search: Highly involved consumers or consumers involved with a product

category would actively search for information about the product category and the various
alternatives, in contrast to consumers who are low on involvement. While the former, would
be active seekers of information, the latter would be passive recipients. Active seekers would
look out to various sources of information and would put in deliberate efforts towards
information gathering.

b) Information processing: The information processing activity would vary across high
involvement consumers viz a viz low involvement customers. Highly involved consumers
would process product information with greater depth; they would make conclusions about
brand preferences based on arguments and counterarguments; they would tend to get
emotional charged either favourably because of likeability of the brand or unfavourably
because of dislikeability of the brand. They would also evaluate more alternatives.

c) Information transmission: Highly involved consumers talk about the product/service

category and the various brands available with great ease and level of interest, as compared to
consumers who are low on involvement in the product category. Information transmission
takes place via word-of-mouth, positive when the brand seems favourable, and negative,
when it seems unfavourable.

d) The purchase decision: The purchase decision, i.e. to buy or not to buy, or to buy
brand X over Y, is complex for a high involvement consumer than for one on low
involvement.

e) Post purchase behaviour: Consumers who are high on involvement make post-
purchase evaluations about product usage more critically than those on low involvement. It is
noteworthy that high involvement consumers are more difficult to please and satisfy; and the
marketers need to put in a lot of effort to satisfy them. This is because they not only have a
bearing on their future purchase, but also on purchase of others who are opinion seekers.

Types of Consumer Involvement:

Depending on whether the involvement is short term or long term, consumer involvement
could be of two types, viz., situational and enduring.

1. Situational involvement: This is a state of arousal directed towards attaching

relevance to a person/object/situation for a short term. As an affective state, it creates a level
of involvement when a person thinks about a particular person/object/situation. It is specific
to a situation and is thus temporary in nature. It could vary from low to high, depending upon
the situational factors.

For example, a old lady suddenly decides to gift a Lenovo laptop to her grandson on his
birthday. She is not techno savvy and has little interest with the product category. She goes to
the electronics mall and visits the various stores that sell computers and laptops. She collects
information on the product features, prices, etc and finally takes the help of her old aged
neighbour to reach a final decision. Her involvement with the purchase activity would be
regarded as a situational involvement.

2. Enduring involvement: When the level of involvement towards the product/service

category extends over a period of time across situations, it is referred to as enduring
involvement. The person shows a high-level of interest in the product category and spends
time collecting and processing information and integrating it within his memory. For
example, a person desires to buy a laptop for his son to be gifted to him when he goes to
college, which would be three years later. The father plans well in advance, tries to collect
information through advertisements, brochures, trade journals, visits to dealers, and word of
mouth from peers and colleagues. Within this period he gets involved with the product
category and after three years is in a position to take a decision based on the facts that he has
collected. This is referred to as enduring involvement. Enduring involvement with a product
category often gives birth to an opinion leader. An opinion leader is a person who holds
interest in a particular product/service category, and becomes a specialist; he makes efforts to
gather all information about the category, the brand offering etc.; he talks about and spreads
the information and the knowledge that he possesses. When a person wants to make a
purchase, he seeks the advice and guidance of such an opinion leader who helps him make a
decision. Opinion leaders are product specific. In the example above, if the lady approaches
her neighbour and takes his advice/guidance because the neighbour is young, techno savvy
and knows a lot about electronics and in particular laptops, she would actually be taking help
of what is known as an “opinion leader”.

Consumer Buying Behaviour Models Based on Involvement:

Consumer involvement affects the ways in which consumers seek, process, and transmit
information, make purchase decisions and make post-purchase evaluation. As the level of
consumer involvement increases, the consumer has greater motivation to gather, comprehend,
elaborate and assimilate on information. A marketer needs to design his marketing mix in a
manner that he can activate the involvement process to his favour, and marketing
communication has a key role to play. A few models have been proposed that are based on
consumer involvement; these are discussed below.

1. The Low-Involvement Learning Model:

As explained in the previous section, low involvement products are those products that are
inexpensive or maybe moderately priced; they are low in value and risk; and, are frequently
purchased. Often, they are purchased as a matter of routine. Example, toothpaste, soap, bread
etc. For such products, the consumer gives little thought, and feelings may not be formed for
the product until after the purchase has been made. So the tri-component, cognition, attitude
and behaviour are arranged in a manner such that cognition leads to behaviour that finally
leads finally to attitude.
Marketing communication through audio visual media, i.e. TV and radio follows this
principle. Through the advertisement, the marketer educates the consumers about his product
offering and the brand; this may be a new product or a modified version of an existing
product; he tries to create awareness and form beliefs about the brand.

2. The Learn-Feel-Do Hierarchy Model:

With implications for marketing communication, the learn-feel-do-hierarchy model, was

proposed by Vaughn and his colleagues in the 1980’s at Foote, Cone and Belding; thus, it
also acme to be known as the FCB Matrix,. Consumer decision making varies across the
nature of product/service offerings. According to the model, some purchases are backed by a
lot of cognition and thinking, while others are based on feelings and emotions. The
combination of these reference points produces a strategy matrix. The marketer has to choose
appropriate strategies for different kinds of product/service offerings. He needs to analyze the
nature of his product, and design his promotion strategy accordingly; the advertising medium
should relate to the product category.The learn-feel-do model is a simple matrix that links
consumer decision making and consumer choices to three components which are information
(learn), attitude (feel), and behaviour (do). The matrix classifies consumer decision-making
along two dimensions, high/low involvement and thinking/feeling.

a) High Involvement/High Thinking: This quadrant of the matrix consists of high

involvement and thinking, typically signifying higher level of rationality. Products
that fall into this quadrant are high involvement products, where decision making
involves a lot of thinking. Because of the nature of product/service offerings that fall
in this category, consumers have a high need for information. Also, consumer
decision making is driven by economic motives. Examples of products that would fall
into this quadrant include cars, laptops, real estate etc as well as innovative products.
The strategy model is learn feel do.
b) High Involvement/High Feeling: This quadrant is representative of situations which
are high involvement and high feeling; while there is a level of involvement,
information and thinking is less important than the feeling factor; this is because such
purchases are related to the person’s self-esteem. The affect component is stronger
than the information factor. The person is drawn by the feeling, emotional and
psychological motives; and, they become a "feeler" about the product. Examples
 include sports cars and motorcycles, fashion apparel and jewellery, perfumes etc. The
strategy model is feel learn do.
c) Low Involvement/Low Thinking: The third cell requires minimal effort on the part of
the consumer, both in terms of involvement and thinking. It actually results from habit
forming within the consumer (or the doer), as a result of habitual buying and
purchase. He becomes a reactor in the sense that whenever he has a need, he reacts
and immediately purchases whatever brand he has been purchasing. Over a period of
time, almost all products would fall into this quadrant. Examples of products that
would involve the low involvement/thinking dimensions include staples, bread,
stationery, soap etc. The strategy model is feel learn do.
d) Low Involvement/Low Feeling: The products that fall in this quadrant signify low
involvement and low feeling; yet, they promote self satisfaction. Consumers buy such
products to satisfy personal tastes, many a times influenced by peer influence and
social pressures. Examples include cigarettes, liquor, movies etc. The strategy model
is do feel learn.

3. The Level of Message Processing Model:

The level of involvement has an impact on the information gathering and processing. Based
on this premise, the level of message processing model states that a consumer’s attention to
advertising is influenced by varying levels of involvement, and runs across pre attention,
focal attention, comprehension, and elaboration. Each of these levels is indicative of different
level of message processing, and is explained as follows:

a) Preattention: This level of involvement requires only a limited processing and, thus
the desire is just to gain some amount of familiarity;
b) Focal attention: A degree greater than the first stage, here the consumer concentrates
on the message source and context, and becomes receptive to basic information like
product/brand name and usage.
c) Comprehension: At this level, the consumer focuses on the message content and tries
to understand it in terms of features, attributes, benefits, price, availability etc.
d) Elaboration: During this highest stage of involvement, the consumer integrates the
message into his memory, forms beliefs and either adds to or modifies the information
that already exists in his memory.

4. The Product versus Brand Involvement Model:

This model assesses consumer involvement at two levels, product and brand. A consumer
may be involved with a product/service category but may not be necessarily involved with
the brand. The converse may also be true, where he may be involved with the brand and not
with the product/service category. According to the model, consumers can be classified into
four types according to their involvement with the product/service category and with the
brand. These categories are: Brand loyalists, Information seekers, Routine brand buyers and,
Brand switchers.

a) Brand loyalists: Brand loyalists are consumers that are highly involved with the
product category as well as the brand. As both product and brand are of high
involvement, the marketer should provide information about the product category as
well as the brand. As the consumers are involved with the brand as well, they exhibit
brand loyalty.
b) Information seekers: This is a consumer category that is highly involved with the
product category but shows low involvement with the brand. The consumers here do
not think much about the brand, show less preference towards the brands and would
not have established a preferred brand; brand loyalty is absent in most cases, and
maybe very low in a few cases. Such consumer put in efforts to search out collect
information about the product category and the various brands. After they have
processed such information and compared the various options, they make a decision
on which brand is best.
c) Routine brand buyers: Routine brand buyers are not highly involved with the product
category but shows involvement with a particular brand within that category. They
tend to show a level of loyalty towards the brand, although they are not particularly
interested in the product category. If and when they need to use a product, they
patronize a particular preferred brand only.
d) Brand switchers: Consumers who fall in this category are neither involved neither
with the product category nor with the brand. They buy anything they can get hold off
and not particular about the product or the brand. As the term suggest, they keep on
switching their brands. They do not have an emotional bond with any brand.
Generally, such consumers are price sensitive and respond to price.
Consumer Involvement and Implications for Marketers:

Consumer involvement has implications for a marketer. Consumer involvement affects how
consumers gather, comprehend and transmit information, make purchase decisions and make
post-purchase evaluation. Thus a marketer needs to understand the process and design his
marketing mix in a manner that can activate the involvement process to his favour. The study
of consumer involvement can be useful for a marketer in the following ways:

1. The study of consumer involvement helps a marketer assess how the majority of your
target market relates to the purchase of the particular product/service category, in
terms of high/low involvement. If the majority of the target segment views it as a high
involvement, the decision making becomes rational, although there may be an
emotional and egoistic element too. For example, while buying an automobile, a
rational mind would look to mileage, engine etc.; an emotional mind would think of
colour, aesthetics, style; and an egoistic mind would relate it to pride and prestige. On
the other hand, if the majority of the segment treats it as of low involvement, the
decision making becomes emotional.
2. The marketer could gain insights into high involvement and low involvement
purchase situations, and accordingly bring about changes in his marketing strategy.
For high-involvement purchases, the consumer searches for information extensively;
thus a marketer the marketer needs to provide information about the product category
as well as the brand. Marketing communication should focus on product features,
attributes, benefits etc. Information on brand differences also needs to be emphasized
upon. Longer format media need to be used like (i) print in newspapers, magazines,
journals and brochures; (ii) videos. As far as low-involvement purchases are
concerned, these are generally routine in nature; the marketer needs to use emotional
appeals. Attempts should be made to create and maintain brand loyalty. Point-of-
purchase stimuli, store display and attractive merchandise can also help boost sales.
Advertising should focus on audio visual media through emotional appeals.
3. If a marketer is confronted with both high involvement and low involvement
segments, he can deal with both the segments separately by bringing about changes in
the marketing mix. However he needs to take such a decision after understanding the
size and potential of each of such segments; if only a small segment operates on a
low-involvement or on high involvement, may not be feasible to cater to both.
 CHAPTER 3

INDIVIDUAL INFLUENCE ON BUYING BEHAVIOUR

Introduction

While making decisions related to purchase activity, consumers vary amongst each other.
They also differ within themselves across buying situations. This is because the dynamics
that operates while consumer decision making are significantly different. The consumer
decision making process is impacted by (i) individual determinants that are specific to an
individual and his self; these primarily take the form of psychological influences; and, (ii)
group influences that are general across a class (es) of customers and take the form of
sociological influences. This CHAPTER deals with the psychological influences on
consumer decision making. Such psychological influences include the forces that impact
consumer decision making; these are (i) Consumers Needs & Motivation, Emotions and
Mood, Consumer Involvement; (ii) Consumer Learning; (iii) Personality, Self-concept and
Self-image; (iv) Consumer Perception, Risk and Imagery; (v) Consumer Attitude; and (vi)
Consumer Communication.

The study of Consumer Buying Behaviour indicates how individuals, groups, and
organisations select, buy, use of dispose goods, services, ideas or experiences to satisfy their
needs and desires. The various factors influencing buyer behaviour are as following:

I. Marketing Factors

Each element of the market mix – product, pricing, promotion and place (distribution) – has
the potential to affect the buying process at various stages.

A. Product: The uniqueness of the product, the physical appearance and packaging can
influence buying decision of a consumer.
B. Pricing: Pricing strategy does affect buying behaviour of consumers. Marketers must
consider the price sensitivity of the target customers while fixing prices.

C. Promotion: The various elements of promotion such as advertising, publicity, public

relations, personal selling, and sales promotion affect buying behaviour of consumers.
Marketers select the promotion mix after considering the nature of customers.

D. Place: The channels of distribution, and the place of distribution affects buying behaviour
of consumers. Marketers make an attempt to select the right channel and distribute the
products at the right place.

II. Personal Factors:

The personal factors of a consumer may affect the buying decisions. The personal factors
include:

A. Age Factor: The age factor greatly influences the buying behaviour. For instance,
teenagers may prefer trendy clothes, whereas, office- executives may prefer sober and
formal clothing.
B. Gender: The Consumer Buying Behaviour varies across gender. For instance, girls
may prefer certain feminine colours such as pink, purple, peach, whereas, boys may
go for blue, black, brown, and so on.
C. Education: Highly educated persons may spend on books, personal care products, and
so on. But a person with low or no education may spend less on personal grooming
products, general reading books, and so on.
D. Income Level: Normally, higher the income level, higher is the level of spending and
vice-versa. But this may not be always the case in developing countries, especially in
the rural areas.
E. Status’ in the Society: Persons enjoying higher status in the society do spend a good
amount of money on luxury items such as luxury cars, luxury watches, premium
brands of clothing, jewellery, perfumes, etc.
F. Other Personal Factors: The other personal factors such as personality, lifestyle,
family size, etc., influence Consumer Buying Behaviour.

Ill. Psychological Factors:

A person’s buying behaviour is influenced by psychological factors such as follows:

A. Learning: It refers to changes in individual behaviour that are caused by information

and experience. For example, when a customer buys a new brand of perfume, and is
satisfied by its use, then he/she is more likely to buy the same brand the next time.
Through learning, people acquire beliefs and attitudes, which in turn influence the
buying behaviour.
B. Attitude: It is a tendency to respond in a given manner to a particular situation or
object or idea. Consumers may develop a positive, or negative or neutral attitude
towards certain product or brands, which in turn would affect his/her buying
behaviour.
C. Motives: A motive is the inner drive that motivates a person to act or behave in a
certain manner. The marketer must identify the buying motives of the target
customers and influence them to act positively towards the marketed products. Some
of the buying motives include:

- Pride and possession

- Love and affection

- Comfort and convenience

- Sex and romance, etc.

D. Perception: It is the impression, which one forms about a certain situation or object. A
motivated person is ready to act. But the way or the manner in which he acts is influenced by
his/her perception of the situation. For instance, a student may perceive examinations as an
important event, and therefore, he/she would make every possible effort including purchase
of new stationery like pens, whereas, another student may be casual about the examinations,
and therefore, would not make extra efforts.

F. Beliefs: A belief is a descriptive thought, which a person holds about certain things. It may
be based on knowledge, opinion, faith, trust and confidence. People may hold certain beliefs
of certain brands/products. Beliefs develop brand images, which in turn can affect buying
behaviour.
IV. Situational Influences:

Major situational influences include the physical surroundings, social surroundings, time, the
nature of the task, and monetary moods and conditions.

A. Physical Surroundings: The physical surroundings at the place of purchase affects

buying behaviour. For instance, when a customer is shopping in a store, the features that
affects buying behaviour would include the location of the store, the decor, the layout of the
store, the noise level, the way merchandise is displayed, and so on.

B. Social Surroundings: The social surroundings of a situation involve the other people
with the customer that can influence buying decision at the point of purchase. For instance, a
bargain hunter shopping with an impatient friend may do quick purchases, and may not
haggle over the price, so as to please the impatient friend.

C. Time Factor: Customers may make different decisions based on when they purchase –
the hour of the day, the day of the week, or the season of the year. For instance, a consumer
who has received a pay cheque on a particular day may shop more items, than at the end of
the month when he is short of funds.

D. Task: A customer may make a different buying decision depending upon the task to
be performed by the product. For instance, if the product is meant as a gift rather than for
personal use, then the customer may buy a different brand/product depending upon to whom
the gift is purchased.

E. Momentary Conditions: The moods and condition of the customer at the time of
purchase may also affect the buying decision. A customer who is very happy would make a
different buying decision, as compared to when he is not in a happy mood

V. Social Factors:

The social factors such as reference groups, family, and social and status affect the buying
behaviour:

A. Reference Groups: A reference group is a small group of people such as colleagues at

work place, club members, friends circle, neighbours, family members, and so on.
Reference groups influence its members as follows:
- They influence members’ values and attitudes.

- They expose members to new behaviours and lifestyles.

- They create pressure to choose certain products or brands.

B. Family: The family is the main reference group that may influence the CONSUMER
BUYING BEHAVIOUR. Nowadays, children are well informed about goods and services
through media or friend circles, and other sources. Therefore, they influence considerably in
buying decisions both FMCG products and durables.

C. Roles and Status: A person performs certain roles in a particular group such as family,
club, organisation, and so on. For instance, a person may perform the role of senior executive
in a firm and another person may perform the role of a junior executive. The senior executive
may enjoy higher status in the organisation, as compared to junior executive. People may
purchase the products that conform to their roles and status, especially in the case of branded
clothes, luxury watches, luxury cars, and so on.

VI. Cultural Factors:

Culture includes race and religion, tradition, caste, moral values, etc. Culture also include
sub-cultures such sub-caste, religious Sects, language, etc.

A. Culture: It influences Consumer Buying Behaviour to a great extent. Cultural values

and elements are passed from one generation to another through family, educational
institutions, religious bodies, social environment, etc. Cultural diversity influences
food habits, clothing, customs and traditions, etc. For instance, consuming alcohol and
meat in certain religious communities is not restricted, but in certain communities,
consumption of alcohol and meat is prohibited.
B. Sub-Culture: Each culture consists of smaller sub-cultures that provide specific
identity to its members. Subcultures include sub-caste, religious sects (Roman
Catholics, Syrian Catholics, Protestant Christians, etc), geographic regions (South
Indians, North Indians), language (Marathi, Malayali, Tamilian, Guajarati) etc. The
behaviour of people belong to various sub-cultures is different. Therefore, marketers
may adopt multicultural marketing approach, i.e., designing and marketing goods and
services that cater to the tastes and preferences of consumers belonging to different
sub-cultures.
Consumer as an individual

The central focus of marketing is the consumer. To devise good marketing plans, it is
necessary to examine Consumer Buying Behavioural attributes and needs, lifestyles, and
purchase processes and then make proper marketing-mix decisions. The study of Consumer
Buying Behaviour includes the study of what they buy, why they buy, how they buy, when
they buy, from where they buy, and how often they buy. An open-minded consumer-oriented
approach is imperative in today’s diverse global marketplace so a firm can identify and serve
its target market, minimize dissatisfaction, and stay ahead of competitors. Final consumers
purchase for personal, family, or household use.

Consumers’ Personality and Theories of personality

Personality- meaning:-

To understand the buyer and to make a customer out of him is the main purpose of the study
of Consumer Buying Behaviour. Though this problem has been analysed from different
viewpoints under different premises, it still remains a complex one. On the other hand the
buyers a riddle. He is a highly complex entity. His needs and desires are innumerable. Some
are latent, some manifest and some others are highly dominant. These have different
priorities in the scheme of things. The buyer has his own ideas and plans about realising these
needs and desires. The first and foremost task of the marketer is to get close to the buyer and
understand his need-structure and priorities. There are four major factors which influence the
behaviour of the consumers. They are:

1. Psychological factors influencing Customer Behaviour

2. Social Psychological factors influencing Customer Behaviour

3. Sociological factors influencing Customer behaviour

4. Economic factors influencing Customer Behaviour

Psychological Factors

These are the factors which are the personal attributes of an individual. We shall study Fiveof
them : Attitude, Motivation, Perception, Personality and Learning.
Personality

Each individual has inherent personality characteristics that influence his buying behaviour.

According to Kotler,

“Personality” is a set of distinguishing human psychological traits that lead to relatively

consistent and enduring responses to environment stimuli. It is often referred to as such traits
like : self-confidence, dominance, autonomy, deference, sociability, defensiveness, and
adaptability.

According to Schiffman and Kanuk,

“Personality” is defined as those inner psychological characters that both determine and
reflect how a person responds to his environment. The single most important element in
personality is inner characteristics of an individual. These are the specific qualities, attributes,
traits, factors, and mannerisms that distinguish one individual from another.

The Nature of Personality:

The following are the three important and distinct properties of Personality:

1. Personality Reflects Individual Differences:

Because the inner inherent characteristics which constitute an individual’s personality are
acomplex combination of factors, no two individuals are identical or exactly alike. But
fortunately, any individuals may be similar on the basis of a single personality trait, but not
others. Like for example, out-going type, quiet type, shy type, family-oriented type, etc. So it
has become easier for the marketers to group or categorise consumers into different groups on
the basis of one or several traits.

2. Personality Is Consistent and Enduring:

The personality of an individual is both consistent (that is, it doesn’t change in the short
run)and enduring (that is, it doesn’t change in the long run). Both of these qualities are thus
useful for marketers to predict the behaviour of the consumers in terms of personality. It’s
very difficult to change an individual’s personality characteristics. The marketers can’t
change them. But if the marketers know which personality characteristics influence which
specific consumer responses, then they can attempt to appeal to those relevant traits in their
target consumer group. Even if the personality of an individual is fairly consistent, still then
the buying andconsumption pattern often varies with several external factors like, time,
environment, social, psychological, cultural, situational, change in fashion, availability of
goods and services. We have to consider the whole combination of influencing factors of
which personality is just one attribute to the change in a buyer’s behaviour.

3. Personality Can Change: Under certain circumstances the personality of an individual can
change. It may be gradual and slow like a child grows into a changed personality. It can be
also sudden on account of any major events in life, like birth of a child, death of a dear one,
divorce, major career promotion, accident, loss of job, migration, natural calamity, etc. There
are also instances where the personality stereo-types may change over a period of time. For
example, over the last 50 years, men’s personality has generally remained relatively
unchanged, as compared to women’s, which has undergone significant change. This is
because of women moving into professions which were traditionally held by men earlier.
simply Personality is the sum total of an individual’s enduring internal psychological traits
that make him or her unique. Self-confidence, dominance, autonomy, sociability,
defensiveness, adaptability, and emotional stability are selected personality traits. The sum
total of an individual defines his personality. Just as an individual has a personality, similarly
products also have a personality of their own.

Implications for a marketer:

The theory has relevance for a marketer. After gaining an insight into the various personality
types, a marketer could design his marketing strategy so to be able to serve consumers with
the varying personality types in a better manner, leaving them more satisfied.

Neo-Freudian theory:

There were a group of psychologists who believed that social interaction and resultant
relationships formed the basis for the growth and development of personality. Here, they
disagreed with their contemporary, Freud who believed that personality was i) biological and
rooted in genetics, and ii) was groomed as a result of early childhood experiences. This group
of researchers who laid emphasis on the process of socialization came to be known as the
Neo-Freudians. Noteworthy among them are Alfred Adler, Harry Stack Sullivan and Karen
Homey.
A) Alfred Adler: Adler, who is regarded as the father of individual psychology, was a
disciple of Freud. He later broke away from the Freudian philosophy due to disagreement
over the importance that Freud gave to the “unconscious”. Adler was the first psychologist to
speak of the term ‘inferiority complex’, something that arose out of a sense of inferiority or
inadequacy. He believed that:

- people are goal oriented, with an urge for personal growth, and “the will to power”;
they have within them a "self perfecting" drive; this drive is the single "drive" or motivating
force behind all behaviour and experience

- individuals seek to overcome feelings of anxiety and feelings of inferiority; the basic
drive in human beings is to strive from an initial state of inadequacy, or what he termed
"inferiority", toward "superiority” or self-actualization. People compensate (strive to
overcome) for inferiorities by making necessary adjustments.

- People strive for goals that can be referred to as style of life;

- social drives, especially family, friends and culture have an impact on behaviour and
feelings; right from birth across a life span, people involve themselves in social relationships;

- The primal social influences in an individual can be modified in a manner such that
that each one of us develops personal styles in dealing with our life and achieving goals.

According to Adler’s theory individuals’ buy to overcome feelings of inferiority.

B) Herbert Harry Stack Sullivan: Sullivan, a psychiatrist extended Freud’s theory of

psychoanalysis, and concluded that failures in interpersonal relationships were largely
responsible for mental illnesses and disorders. He referred to such causes as “interactional”,
which needed to be assessed to cure any kind of psychoses. According to him, social
relationships were extremely important for human beings and loneliness was the most painful
of human experiences. He developed a theory of psychiatry based on interpersonal
relationships where social forces are largely responsible for mental illnesses. Sullivan
referred to his approach an interpersonal theory of psychiatry, to focus on “what goes on
between people”, sharp in contrast to Freud, who focused on “what goes on inside people”.
He believed that social relationships are primary, which actually lead to personality. In fact
personality manifests itself in such social relationships.
He proposed that human beings are driven towards two sources of motivation viz., the pursuit
of satisfactions and the pursuit of security. With respect to satisfaction, human beings seek
satisfaction of mainly bodily needs, with the goal to reduce tension. With respect to security,
human beings seek to reduce the insecurity that arises from social and cultural needs.
Personality manifests and strives for avoidance and reduction of anxiety. Thus, Sullivan
focused on how human beings try to form and maintain social relationships with each other,
especially if such relationships are significant and rewarding. He also spoke about anxiety in
human beings. He elaborated on how personality is impacted as people put in efforts to
reduce tensions, particularly anxiety. He said that human beings develop particular
personality traits to reduce anxiety.

C) Karen Homey: Karen Homey, a prominent female personality theorist of her time,
added on to Freud’s work by emphasizing the role of social factors. Her approach came to be
known as the psychosocial analysis. Her work focused on the emotional relationship that
exists between parent and child early in the child's life. Like other Neo-Freudists, Homey also
spoke on anxiety. While focusing on child parent relationships, she also researched on how
people strive to overcome feelings of anxiety. According to her, people experience anxiety
and tend to act as neurotics; the irrational defences against anxiety become a permanent part
of personality and that affect human behaviour; based on their approach towards overcoming
feelings of anxiety, people could be classified into three groups viz.,compliant, aggressive,
and detached (CAD).

- Compliant: Some people who experience a great deal of anxiety and helplessness
move toward other people in order to gain help and acceptance; they seek social support,
approval and acceptance and so they move towards others. Such people are regarded as
complaints. They want to be loved, admired, wanted and appreciated.

- Aggressive: Some people try to overcome their insecurities and anxieties by forcing
their power over others, dominating them, or even excelling over them. This makes them feel
secured; the objective is to 'get them before they get me.' Such people are aggressive; they
move against others, in other words they want to excel over others. They want to successful
and powerful and have a desire for personal admiration and achievement. In the process, they
could be demanding, selfish, rude and cruel.

- Detached: There are some people who want to move away from others; They are
asocial and indifferent towards others. They believe that if they do not involve with others,
they would escape being hurt from them. Such people are referred to as detached; they seek
freedom from obligations, and desire total independence, leaving them lonely and empty.
They like to create their own style. Based on the three types, a personality test has been
developed which is referred to as the CAD scale. The scale has been widely used in studies
related to Consumer Buying Behaviour. In fact, the three types have Ratheeshifications for
marketers; the three personality groups are illustrative of personality types that are varied,
and would react differently to the marketing mix. According to Homey’s theory, different
types of people buy different types of products/services. They could be treated as three
distinct segments, and the marketing mix designed accordingly. For example, the compliant
consumers who would like to be in company of other people would be more likely to use a
toothpaste with a mouth freshener (Close-Up); an aggressive consumer who would like to
excel over others would like to drink health drinks (Boost, Secret of my Energy); and
detached consumers who seek total independence and like to create their own style would
like to go for meditation and rejuvenation camps (Vipassana).

An Assessment of the Theory: The Neo-Freudian theories draw themselves from various
contributors and are an expanse in content and processes in so far as the subject matter of
personality is concerned. However, while the Neo-Freudians speak of human tendencies to
strive for perfection, fight anxiety and inadequacies, and of social relationships, they tend to
ignore the biological traits and the genetics involved.

Implications for marketers:

The Neo-Freudian theories emphasize the role that socialization has to play. Marketers could
draw in heavily in so far as the impact that opinion leaders, as well as interpersonal
communication and word of mouth could have on consumer decision processes and
consumption processes. This would also include the impact that family, friends, social class,
culture and sub-culture. Marketers have also tended to use Neo-Freudian theories while
segmenting markets and positioning their products, e.g. Personality types have been used to
segment markets and position products as per the segment.

Trait theory

Theories on personality can be categorized as i) individual theories; ii) social learning

theories. However, we would elaborate upon these without any such classification, as it is
rightly believed that it is the combination of both individual characteristics/traits (genetics) as
well as social learning (social environment) that impacts personality. The previous lesson
deals with The Freudian theory, the Jungian theory and the Neo-Freudian Theory.

According to the Trait theorists, an individual’s personality make-up stems out of the traits
that he possesses, and the identification of traits is important. People possess specific
psychological characteristics that are referred to astraits; and all those who possess a
particular trait, are said to belong to a personality type. A trait is a predisposition to behave in
a certain manner. In order to identify traits within individuals and differentiate amongst
themselves, the trait theorists rely on personality tests, scales and inventories. Hence, they
assume some kind of a quantitative orientation unlike the Freudian, and Neo-Freudian
schools. Once they have identified the traits, they classify individuals into groups of people
on the basis of then pattern of traits that they possess.

The trait theories can be of two broad categories, viz., simple trait theories and general trait
theories. While

i) Simple trait theories: A limited number of traits are identified, and people are
identified and classified on the basis of these traits.

ii) General trait theories: A large variety of traits are identified. An Assessment of the
Theory: Unlike the Freudian and the Neo-Freudian theories, the Trait Theories possess a
degree of quantification while classifying individuals into personality types. Through the
application of tests and scales, people are objectively assessed for presence/absence of
personality traits and accordingly classified into personality types. Thus, unlike the previous
theories, the Trait approach seems to be a more realistic and objective approach. However,
the limitation lies in the fact that sometimes traits tend to be indefinable, vague and
indescribable; nevertheless the personality tests are widely used.

Examples of general versus consumption specific traits:

General personality traits Consumption-specific personality traits

- Dogmatism - Innovativeness

- Compliance - Social directedness or other directed

- Expertise and Involvement - Opinion leadership

- Self confidence - Early adopters (high confidence) versus late
majority or Laggards (low confidence)

- Impulsiveness - Deal prone

- Need for cognition - High versus Low

- Extroversion -Prefer to shop with others than alone; Socially directed.

-Openness to experience - Variety novelty seeker; Innovative

-Conscientiousness - Careful; Logical and rational

- Agreeable - Socially directed; Looks towards others for help,

advice and decision, Compliant.

Brand Personality: Just as individuals’ have a personal make-up with

characteristics/traits/qualities, similarly products/services also have personalities. Brand
personality refers to a set of characteristics/qualities similar to human beings that become
associated with a brand. Based on their understanding, consumers’ begin to ascribe certain
characteristics or traits to a brand. This association between the characteristic/trait and the
brand gets generated out of the manner in which it is positioned by the marketer. Thereafter,
consumers match the product and/or brand personalities, with their own personalities, self-
image and self concept; and they buy those where they find a close or perfect match.
Sometimes they buy such product/brands that help them bolster their weak or inferior self.
Some personality traits with examples of brands are mentioned below:

a) Sophistication: Dove, Titan Raga

b) Ruggedness: Levi’s Jeans, Bajaj Pulsar

c) Power: Surf, Rin, Hero Honda

d) Achievement: Boost, Glucon C

e) Competence: Kingfisher Airlines, IBM

f) Sincerity: Life Insurance Corporation, Western Union Money Transfer

Consumer personality and market segmentation

Market segmentation can be defined as the process of dividing a market into different
homogeneous groups of consumers.

Market consists of buyers and buyers vary from each other in different ways. Variation
depends upon different factors like wants, resources, buying attitude, locations, and buying
practices. By segmentation, large heterogeneous markets are divided into smaller segments
that can be managed more efficiently and effectively with products and services that match to
their unique needs. So, market segmentation is beneficial for the companies serving larger
markets.

Learning and Consumer Buying Behaviour

Introduction / definition

Different theorists have different views about Learning. But somehow the following are th
emost generally accepted definitions in the context of Marketing Management.

Kotler’s Definition: Learning involves changes in an individual’s behaviour arising out of

experience. Most of the human behaviour is learned over time out of experience.

Schiff man and Kanuk’s Definition: Learning is a process by which individuals acquire the
purchase and consumption knowledge and experience that they apply to future related
behaviour.

Loudon and Della Bitta’s Definition: Learning can be viewed as a relatively permanent
change in behaviour occurring as a result of experience.

The following are the salient features of Learning:

1. Consumer learning is a process, and thus it continuously changes and evolves as a

result of newly acquired knowledge

2. This knowledge can be obtained from reading, discussing, observing, thinking, etc. Or
from actual experience.

3. Both the newly acquired knowledge and personal experience serve as a feedback.

4. This also serves as a future behaviour in similar situations.

5. Not all learning is deliberate. Learning can be:

A. Intentional: acquired as a result of careful search for information with effort.

B. Incidental: acquired as a result of accident or by the way, without much effort.

6. The term “Learning” generally covers all ranges of learning from simple reflexive
responses to abstract concepts or complex problem solving capability.

Elements of Learning

Consumers learn in various ways. In order for learning to take place, certain elements must
be present. The exact nature and strength of these elements or components influence what are
learned, how and at what pace. The most important among them are presented below:

Motives: Motives, motivation or drive is very important for learning. People learn by being
driven by some motives or motivating factor. Motives arouse individuals in increasing their
readiness to respond to a leaning activity. It also activates the energy needed to do so. The
degree of relevance or involvement determines the consumer’s level of motivation to search
for information about a product / service. Marketers must be aware of this kind of motive so
that they are ready to provide product info right at that moment. For example, showing ads
for winter goods just before winter and summer products just before summer.

Cues: Motives stimulate learning, whereas “Cues” are the stimuli that give direction to these
motives. These are not so strong as motives, but they can influence in the manner consumers
respond to a motive. For example, in the market place, price, styling, packaging, store display
all serve as cues to help consumer to decide a particular product from a group. But if the
consumer doesn’t have a motive to buy a particular product group, he may not buy.
Marketers must be careful in providing cues so that they don’t upset the consumers’
expectations driven by motives.

Response:

Response is how the consumers react to the motives or a cue, and how they behave.
Response can be overt (open, physical or visible) or covert (hidden or mental), but in either
case learning can occur. Responses appropriate to a particular situation are learned overtime
thro’ experience in facing that situation. Often marketers may not succeed in stimulating a
purchase. But over a period of time they may succeed in forming a favourable image of a
particular product in the consumer’s mind. So when the consumer is ready, he is likely to buy
that.
Reinforcement:

Reinforcement is an important element which increases the probability (tendency or

likelihood) of a particular response to occur in future as a result of a given set of motives and
cues. Because reinforced behaviour tends to be repeated, consumers can learn to develop
successful means of responding to their needs or changing conditions.

Behavioural Learning Theories

Various theories have been developed to explain different aspects of learning. The most
acceptable are those based on stimulus-response theory. These theories assume that
observable response to specific external stimuli indicate that learning has taken place. When a
person acts or responds in a predictable manner to a known stimulus, then he is said to have
“learned”.

The “process” of leaning is not at all important here. The only important factors are “inputs”
or stimulus and the “outcomes” or response of learning. There are two distinct types:

1. Classical (or respondent) conditioning, and

2. Instrumental (or operant) conditioning. They are discussed below:

Classical Conditioning:

This theory says that all living beings learn from or taught by “repetition”. This is referred to
as “conditioning” which means a kind of spontaneous response to a particular situation
achieved by repeated exposure. Classical conditioning or respondent conditioning pairs or
connects one stimulus with another that has already established a given response. Over
repeated trials of exposure, the new stimulus will also begin to get the same or similar
response.

IVAN PAVLOV, a Russian physiologist was the first to postulate the above theory about
classical conditioning. (Hence. some authors call it Pavlovian Learning Theory). He made a
study of dogs. The dogs are hungry and eagerly waiting for the food. Pavlov rang a bell, and
immediately after it, gave some meat to the dogs. This caused the dogs to salivate. Here the
meat is the “unconditioned stimulus” and the dogs are already associated with it by showing a
response of salivating. After a sufficient number of repetitions of this procedure, learning
(conditioning) occurs and the dogs started associating the bell sound (conditioned stimulus)
with the meat and showed the same response of salivating. That means now if the bell rang,
the dogs would start salivating. Thus the pairing or associating of an “unconditionedstimulus”
and a “conditioned stimulus” is said to be successfully done.

In the context of Consumer Buying Behaviour, unconditioned stimulus may be a well known
brand (say Amul milk and milk products) whose product quality is well known. This
previously acquired perception of Amul is the “unconditioned response”. The conditioned
stimulus maybe a new product (Amul Ice-cream) having the same brand name. And the
“conditioned response” would be trying the Ice-Cream because of the belief that the product
may have the same quality attributes as the Amul name is associated with.

Instrumental Conditioning:

This theory suggests that living beings learn by a method of trial-and-error, and finding out
the particular stimulus having the best (or the most favourable / satisfactory) response. And
subsequently this is formed as a habit with the rewards received for certain response of
behaviour.

B F SKINNER, an American psychologist was the first to develop this model of learning. He
suggested that most of the individual learning take place in controlled environment in which
individuals are rewarded by choosing a right behaviour. This theory, named as instrumental
conditioning was shown by an experiment by working with animals. He made a box called
the Skinner box and placed a few small animals. The box was fitted with several keys /
levers. When an animal pressed the right lever, it got some food as reward. Pressing other
levers didn’t get any rewards. In the beginning the animals pressed the levers at random. But
slowly the “discovered” the right one. This kind of learning and teaching has wonderful and
successful results.

In the context of Consumer Buying Behaviour, this model is very important and applies to
many common situations. It suggests that consumers learn by means of trial-and-error
method in which some purchase behaviours result in more favourable outcomes (i.e.,
rewards) than other purchase behaviours. Thus, a favourable experience becomes
“instrumental” in teaching the individual to repeat a specific behaviour. For example, the
consumer, who tries several brands and styles of jeans finally finds a particular brand and
style that fits her figure and personality best, has in fact undergone instrumental learning.

Communication and Persuasion:

Communication with existing and potential consumers, for moulding CONSUMER BUYING
BEHAVIOUR, is a must for any company. Persuasion is the subtle part of communication
that will encourage continued favourable behaviour of existing consumers and convert
potential consumers into Customers. Communication and persuasion is important tool in the
hands of the marketers used by them to create a customer base large enough to generate
profitability, to keep and expand the base, to keep existing business and develop it for further
new business.

Communication can be defined as the transmission of information and message to consumer

via the media or personal contact, mail, print tele / electronic means and broadcast. Receiving
feedback and learning from it is also a part of communication.

Communication Mix

Today the concept of communication mix is equally important for a company to achieve the
most effective communication. The following are the elements from among which choices
are to be made by the marketer in arriving at the most appropriate communications mix.

1. Face to face (vis-à-vis) meetings and interactions between sales force and customers.

2. Direct marketing by means of mailing of letter and catalogues, telephone, fax, or e-

mail, to convey information, develop dialogue and achieve interaction.

3. Advertising in one or several mass media available like Print/Radio/TV/Internet.

4. Sales promotion, which may include a variety of incentives, to stimulate trial

purchases and to establish dialogue with the consumers.

5. Publicity and Public relations exercises to project a general favourable image of the
company or the product to consumers at large. Some Marketplace Beliefs and Myths Develop
Due to Insufficient Communication.

Where there is insufficient communication, consumers form their own assumptions and these
assumptions solidify into beliefs and myths. Some examples particularly encountered in the
developing world are the following:

• Price and Quality are directly related and therefore a low-priced product cannot have
good quality.
• A big company’s products are costlier per se and its consumer is made to pay for the
high overheads of the company.

• New products are always costly. If you wait sufficiently the prices will come down.

• Synthetic products are lower in quality than those made of natural materials.

• Large quantities of a same product presented in economy packages are always

economical.

• If the seller is losing (clearance sale, closing down sale etc.) it must be a good
bargain.

• Advertised goods are costly because customers pay for the advertisements.

Communication and the consumer profile

The profile of the consumer exhibits among other things ‘exposure to media’ and ‘values’.
Depending on these the marketer can decide on the selection of media for communication and
the strategy for appeal in the communication. In fact, the other particulars in the consumer
profile like the age, income, and education etc. of the consumer will also help in formulating
the message about the benefit of the product.

Strategies

It is worthwhile to examine the actual strategies available to the marketer for making benefit
appeals and emotional appeals. In the benefits route the communication focuses on one or
more of the following:

• Economy of price

• Guarantees

• Value for money

• Economy in maintenance

• Technical features

• Expert endorsement
Groups and Reference Groups

A group may be defined as two or more people who interact to accomplish some goals.
Within the broad scope of this definition are both an intimate “group” of two neighbours who
informally attend a fashion show together and a larger, more formal group, such as a
neighbourhood.

Types of Groups

To simplify our discussion, we will consider four different types of group classification:

Primary versus secondary groups, formal versus informal groups, large versus small groups,
and membership versus symbolic groups.

1. Primary versus Secondary Groups

If a person interacts on a regular basis with other individuals (with members of his or her
family, with neighbours, or with co-workers whose opinions are valued), then these
individuals can be considered as a primary group for that person. On the other hand, if a
person interacts only occasionally with such others, or does not consider their opinions to be
important, then these others constitute a secondary group for that person.

2. Formal versus Informal Groups

Another useful way to classify groups is by the extent of their formality; that is, the extent to
which the group structure, the members’ roles, and the group’s purpose are clearly defined. If
a group has highly defined structure (e.g., a formal membership list), specific roles and
authority levels (a president, treasurer, and secretary), and specific goals (to support a
political candidate, improve their children’s education, increase the knowledge or skills of
members), then it would be classified as a formal group. On the other hand, if a group is more
loosely defined, if it consists, say, of four women who were in the same college sorority and
who meet for dinner once a month, or three co-workers who, with their spouses, see each
other frequently then it is considered an informal group.

3. Large versus Small Groups

It is often desirable to distinguish between groups in terms of their size or complexity. A

large group might be thought of as one in which a single member is not likely to know more
than a few of the group’s members personally, or be fully aware of the specific roles or
activities of more than a limited number of other group members. In contrast, members of a
small group are likely to know every member personally and to be aware of every member’s
specific role or activities in the group.

4. Membership versus Symbolic Groups

Another useful way to classify groups is by membership versus symbolic groups. A

membership group is a group to which a person either belongs or would qualify for
membership. In contrast, a group in which an individual is not likely to receive membership,
despite acting like a member by adopting the group’s values, attitudes, and behaviour, is
considered a symbolic group.

Consumer Relevant Groups

To more fully comprehend the kind of impact that specific groups have on individuals, we
will examine six basic consumer-relevant groups: the Family, Friendship groups, Formal
social groups, Shopping groups, Consumer action groups and Work groups.

The Family

An individual’s family is the most important group to influence his or her consumer
decisions. The family’s importance in this regard is due to the frequency of contact that the
individual has with other family members and that the family has a greater extent of influence
on the establishment of a wide range of values, attitudes, and behaviour.

Friendship Groups

Friendship groups are informal groups because they are, usually unstructured and lack
specific authority levels. In terms of relative influence, after an individual’s family, it is
friends who are most likely to influence the individual’s purchase decisions. Seeking and
maintaining friendships is a basic drive of most people. Friends fulfil a wide range of needs:
they provide companionship, security, and opportunities to discuss problems that an
Individual may be reluctant to discuss with members of his or her own family. Friendships
are also a sign of maturity and independence, for they represent a breaking away from the
family and the forming of social ties with the outside world. Consumers are more likely to
seek information from those friends they feel have values or outlooks similar to their own.
Formal Social Groups

In contrast to the relative intimacy of friendship groups, formal social groups are more
remote and serve a different function for the individual. A person joins a formal social group
to fulfil such specific goals as making new friends, meeting “important” people (e.g., for
career advancement), or promoting a specific cause. Membership in a formal social group
may influence a consumer’s behaviour in several ways. For example, members of such
groups have frequent opportunity to informally discuss products, services, or stores. Some
members may copy the, consumption behaviour of other members whom they admire.

Shopping Groups

Two or more people who shop together-whether for food, for clothing, or simply to pass the
time, can be called a shopping group. Such groups are often offshoots of family or friendship
groups. People like to shop with others who they feel have more experience with or
knowledge about a desired product or service. Shopping with others also provides an element
of social fun to an often boring but necessary task. In addition, it reduces the risk that a
purchase decision will be socially unacceptable.

Consumer Action Groups

A particular kind of consumer group-a consumer action group- has emerged in response to
the consumerist movement. This type of consumer group has become increasingly visible
since the 1960s and has been able to influence product design and marketing practices of both
manufacturers and retailers. Consumer action groups can be divided into two broad
categories: those that organize to correct a specific consumer abuse and then disband, and
those that organize to address broader, more pervasive, problem areas and operate over an
extended or indefinite period of time. A group of tenants who band together to
dRatheeshatize their dissatisfaction with the quality of service provided by their landlord, or a
group of irate community members who unite to block the entrance of a fast-food outlet into
their middle-class neighbourhood, are examples of temporary, cause-specific consumer
action groups.

Work Groups

The sheer amount of time that people spend at their jobs, frequently more than thirty five
hours per week, provides ample opportunity for work groups to serve as a major influence on
the consumption behaviour of members. Both the formal work group and the informal
friendship/work group have the potential for influencing CONSUMER BUYING
BEHAVIOUR. The formal work group consists of those individuals who work together as a
team. Their direct and sustained work relationship offers substantial opportunity for one or
more members to influence the consumer-related attitudes and activities of other team
members. Members of informal work groups may influence the consumption behaviour of
other members during coffee or lunch breaks or after-hours meetings.

Reference Groups

Reference groups are groups that serve as a frame of reference for individuals in their
purchase decisions. This basic concept provides a valuable perspective for understanding the
impact of other people on an individual’s consumption beliefs, attitudes, and behaviour. It
also provides some insight into methods that Groups can be used to effect desired changes in
Consumer Buying Behaviour. A reference group is any person or group that serves as a point
of companion (or reference) for an individual in the formation of either general or specific
values, attitudes, or behaviour. The usefulness of this concept is enhanced by the fact that it
places no restrictions on group size or membership, nor does it require that consumers
identify with a tangible group (i.e., the group can be symbolic: prosperous business people,
rock stars, and sports heroes). Reference groups that influence general values or behaviour
are called normative reference groups. An example of a child’s normative reference group is
the immediate family, which is likely to play an important role in moulding the child’s
general consumer values and behaviour (e.g., which foods to select for good nutrition,
appropriate ways to dress for specific occasions, how and where to shop, what constitutes
“good” value).

Types of Reference Groups

Reference groups can be classified in terms of a person’s membership or degree of

involvement with the group and in terms of the positive or negative influences they have on
his or her values, attitudes, and behaviour. Four types of reference groups that emerge from a
cross-classification of these factors: contactual groups, aspirational groups, disclaimant
groups, and avoidance groups.

1. A contactual group is a group in which a person holds membership or has regular

face-to-face
contact and of whose values, attitudes, and standards he or she approves. Thus a contactual
group has a positive influence on an individual’s attitudes or behaviour.

2. An aspirational group is a group in which a person does not hold membership and
does not have face-to-face contact, but wants to be a member. Thus it serves as a positive
influence on that person’s attitudes or behaviour.

3. A disclaimant group is a group in which a person holds membership or has face-to-

face contact but disapproves of the group’s values, attitudes, and behaviour. Thus the person
tends to adopt attitudes and behaviour that are in opposition to the norms of the group.

4. An avoidance group is a group in which a person does not hold membership and does
not have face-to-face contact and disapproves of the group’s values, attitudes, and behaviour.
Thus ‘the person tends to adopt attitudes and behaviour that are in opposition to those of the
group.

Consider Ratheesh, a senior graduate student in advertising at the Calicut University. The
University Advertising Club, of which he is Student coordinator, serves as one of Ratheesh’s
contractual groups. Ratheesh believes that continuing his education to obtain an MBA will
enhance his career opportunities. It is clear those individuals who hold the MBA degree serve
as an aspirational group for him. Still further, although he enjoys his position as a writer on
the university’s magazines, the recent editorials (endorsed by most of the staff) urging
students to adopt more conservative political philosophy run counter to his own views. Thus
the newspaper staff is currently a disclaimant group. Finally, Ratheesh personally knows a
number of students who have quit college during their final year; these former students serve
as an avoidance group.

Factors that Affect Reference Group Influence

The degree of influence that a reference group exerts on an individual’s behaviour usually
depends on the nature of the individual and the product and on specific social factors. This
section discusses how and why some of these factors operate to influence CONSUMER
BUYING BEHAVIOUR.

1. Information and Experience

An individual who has firsthand experience with a product or service, or can easily obtain full
information about it, is less likely to be influenced by the advice or example of others. On the
other hand, a person who has little or no firsthand experience with a product or service, and
does not expect to have access to objective information about it (e.g., a person who believes
that relevant, advertising may be misleading or deceptive), is more likely to seek out the
advice or example of others.

For example, if a medical student wants to impress his new girl-friend, he may take her to a
restaurant that he knows from experience to be good or to one that has been highly
recommended by the local newspaper’s Dining-Out Guide. If he has neither personal
experience nor information he regards as valid, he may seek the advice of friends or imitate
the behaviour of others by taking her to a restaurant he knows is frequented by physicians
whom he admires.

2 . Credibility, Attractiveness, and Power of the Reference Group

A reference group that is perceived as credible, attractive, or powerful can induce consumer
attitude and behaviour change. For example, when consumers are concerned with obtaining
accurate information about the performance or quality of a product or service, they are likely
to be persuaded by those they consider to be trustworthy and knowledgeable. That is, they are
more likely to be persuaded by sources with high credibility.

When consumers are primarily concerned with the acceptance or approval of others they like,
with whom they identify, or who offer them status or other benefits, they are likely to adopt
their product, brand, or other behavioural characteristics.

When consumers are primarily concerned with the power that a person or group can exert
over them, they might choose products or services that conform to the norms of that person or
group in order to avoid ridicule or punishment. However, unlike other reference groups that
consumers follow either because they are credible or because they are attractive, power
groups are not likely to cause attitude change.

3. Conspicuousness of the Product

The potential influence of a reference group varies according to how visually or verbally
conspicuous a product is to others. A visually conspicuous product is one that can be seen
and identified by others, and that will stand out and be noticed (e.g., a luxury item or novelty
product). Even if a product is not visually conspicuous, it may be verbally conspicuous it may
be highly interesting or it may be easily described to others. Products that are especially
conspicuous and status-revealing (a new automobile, fashion clothing, home furniture) are
most likely to be purchased with an eye to the reactions of relevant others. Products that are
less conspicuous (canned fruits, laundry soaps) are less likely to be purchased with a
reference group in mind.

Marketers are particularly interested in the ability of reference groups to change consumer
attitudes and behaviour (i.e., to encourage conformity). To be capable of such influence, a
reference group must

1. Inform or make the individual aware of a specific product or brand;

2. Provide the individual with the opportunity to compare his or her own thinking with
the attitudes and behaviour of the group;

3. Influence the individual to adopt attitudes and behaviour that are consistent with the
norms of the group;

4. Legitimize an individual’s decision to use the same products as the group. The ability
of reference groups to influence consumer conformity is demonstrated by the results of a
classic experiment designed to compare the effects.

Benefits of the Reference Group Appeal

Reference group appeals have two principal benefits for the advertiser: they increase brand
awareness and they serve to reduce perceived risk.

1. Increased Brand Awareness

Reference group appeals provide the advertiser with the opportunity to gain and retain the
attention of prospective consumers with greater ease and effectiveness than is possible with
many other types of promotional campaigns. This is particularly true of the celebrity form of
reference group appeal, where the personality employed is generally well known to the
relevant target segment. Celebrities tend to draw attention to the product through their own
popularity. This gives the advertiser a competitive advantage in gaining audience attention,
particularly on television where there are so many brief and similar commercial
announcements.
2. Reduced Perceived Risk

The use of one or more reference group appeals may also serve to lower the consumer’s
perceived risk in purchasing a specific product. The example set by the endorser or
testimonial-giver may demonstrate to the consumer that uncertainty about the product
purchase is unwarranted: Following are examples of how reference group appeals serve to
lower the consumer’s perceived risk. Celebrity: Consumers who admire a particular celebrity
often have the following reactions to the celebrity’s endorsement or testimonial. For eg. “She
wouldn’t do a commercial for that product if she didn’t believe it was really good.” Expert:
When consumers are concerned about the technical aspects of a product, they welcome the
comments of an acknowledged or apparent expert. For eg. “If he says it works, then it really
must work.”

Common Man: When consumers are worried about how a product will affect them
personally, they are likely to be influenced by a common man endorsement or testimonial.
For eg. “People just like me are using the product”

The Family and Family Life Cycle

The importance of the family or household unit in CONSUMER BUYING BEHAVIOUR

arises for two reasons:

1. Many products are purchased by a family unit.

2. Individuals’ buying decisions may be heavily influenced by other family members.

How families or households make purchase decisions depends on the roles of the various
family members in the purchase, consumption, and influence of products. Household
products like food and soaps may be purchased by a person but consumed by many, whereas
personal care items, such as cosmetics or shaving cream, might be purchased by an individual
family member for his or her own consumption. Homes and cars, on the other hand, are often
purchased by both spouses, perhaps with involvement from children or other member of the
extended family. Visits to shopping malls often involve multiple family members buying
clothing and accessories, something with a heavy dose of influence by family member’s
children may buy clothing paid for and approved of by parents, whereas teenagers may
influence the clothing purchase of a parent.

What is a Family?
A family is a group of two or more persons related by blood, marriage, or adoption who
reside together. The nuclear family is the immediate group of father, mother, and child (ren)
living together. The extended family is the nuclear family, plus other relatives, such as
grandparents, uncles and aunts, cousins, and parents-in-law. The family into which one is
born is called the family of orientation, whereas the one established by marriage is the family
of procreation. In a more dynamic sense, the individuals who constitute a family might be
described as members of the most basic social group who live together and interact to satisfy
their personal and mutual needs.

What is a Household?

The term household is used to describe all person, both related and unrelated, who occupy a
housing unit. There are significant differences between the terms household and family even
though they are sometimes used interchangeably. It is important to distinguish between these
terms when examining data.

The term household is becoming a more important unit of analysis for marketers because of
the rapid growth in non-traditional families and non-family households. Among non-family
households, the great majority consist of people living alone. The remaining non-family
households include those consisting of elderly people living with non-family members. For
example, persons of Opposite Sex Sharing Living Quarters, friends living together, and same
sex couples.

Sociological Variables Affecting Families and Households

Marketers can understand family and household decisions better by examining the
sociological dimensions of how families make consumer decisions. Three sociological
variables that help explain how family’s function includes cohesion, adaptability, and
communication.

Cohesion is the emotional bonding between family members. It measures how close to each
other family members feel on an emotional level. Cohesion reflects a sense of connectedness
to or separateness from other family members.

Adaptability measures the ability of a family to change its power structure, role relationships,
and relationship rules in response to situational and developmental stress. The degree of
adaptability shows how well a family can meet the challenges presented by changing
situations. Communication is a facilitating dimension, critical to movement on the other two
dimensions. Positive communication skills (such as empathy, reflective listening, and
supportive comments) enable family members to share their changing needs as they relate to
cohesion and adaptability. Negative communication skills (such as double messages, double
binds, criticism) minimize the ability to share feelings, thereby restricting movement in the
dimensions of cohesion and adaptability. Understanding whether family members are
satisfied with family purchase requires communication within the family.

To determine how the family makes its purchase decisions and how the family affects the
future purchase behaviour of its members, it is useful to understand the functions provided
and the roles played by family members to fulfil their consumption needs.

Functions of the Family

Four basic functions provided by the family are particularly relevant to a discussion of
Consumer Buying Behaviour. These include:

(1) Economic Well-Being

Providing financial means to its dependents is unquestionably a basic family function. How
the family divides its responsibilities for providing economic well-being has changed
considerably during the past 25 years. The traditional roles of husband as economic provider
and wife as homemaker and child rearer are still valid. The economic role of children has
changed. Today, even if some teenage children work, they rarely assist the family financially.
Their parents are still expected to provide for their needs. But some of them get enough
pocket money to decide their consumption of discretionary items.

(2) Emotional Support

The provision of emotional nourishment (including love, affection, and intimacy) to its
members is an important basic function of the contemporary family. In fulfilling this
function, the family provides support and encouragement and assists its members in coping
with personal or social problems.

(3) Suitable Family Lifestyles

Another important family function in terms of CONSUMER BUYING BEHAVIOUR is the

establishment of a suitable lifestyle for the family. Family lifestyle commitments, including
the allocation of time, greatly influence consumption patterns. For example, the increase in
the number of married women working outside the home has reduced the time they have
available for house, and has created a market for convenience products and fast-food
restaurants.

(4) Socialization of Children and Other Family Members

The socialization of family members, especially young children, is a central family function.
In large part, this process consists of imparting to children the basic value and modes of
behaviour consistent with the culture. These generally include moral and religious principles,
interpersonal skills, dress and grooming standard, appropriate manners and speech, and the
selection of suitable educational and occupational or career goals. Marketers often target
parents looking for assistance in the task of socializing preadolescent children.

Family Life Cycles

Families pass through a series of stages that change them over time. This process historically
has been called the family life cycle (FLC). The concept may need to be changed to
household life cycle (HLC) or consumer life cycle (CLC) in the future to reflect changes in
society. However, we will use the term FLC to show how the life cycle affects Consumer
Buying Behaviour.

Family Life Cycle Characteristics

The traditional FLC describes family patterns as consumers marry, have children, leave
home, lose a spouse, and retire.

Family Decision-Marking

Families use products even though individuals usually buy them. Determining what products
should be bought, which retail outlet to use, how and when products are used, and who
should buy them is a complicated process involving a variety of roles and actors.

Role Behaviour

Families and other groups exhibit what sociologist Talcott Parsons called instrumental and
expressive role behaviours.
  Instrumental roles, also known as functional or economic roles, involve financial,
performance, and other functions performed by group members.

 Expressive roles involve supporting other family members in the decision making
process and expressing the family’s aesthetic or emotional needs, including upholding
family norms.

Individual Roles in Family Purchases

Family consumption decisions involve at least five definable roles, which may be assumed by
spouses, children, or other members of a household. Both multiple roles and multiple actors
are normal. Marketers need to communicate with consumers assuming each of these roles,
remembering that different family members will assume different roles depending on the
situation and product. Children, for example, are users of cereals, toys, clothing, and many
other products but may not be the buyers. One or both of the parents may be the decider and
the buyer, although the children may be important as influencers and users.

Family Roles

For a family to function as a cohesive unit, roles or tasks-such as doing the laundry, preparing
meals, setting the dinner table, taking out the garbage, walking the dog must be carried out by
one or more family members. In our dynamic society, etc. family-related roles are constantly
changing.

Key Family Consumption Roles:

The roles played by the different family members will vary from product to product. While
shopping in the market, a housewife comes across a new variety of juice that she buys for the
family. Her decision to purchase does not directly involve the influence of other family
members. She is the decider, buyer; but she may or may not be the preparer and is not the
only user. In case of products such as television, car, music systems, furniture or any other
product which is likely to be used by some or all the family members, the purchase decision
is likely to be joint or group decision.
There are eight distinct roles in the family decision-making process. A look at these roles
provides further insight into how family members act in their various consumption related
roles:

1. Influencers: Those family members who provide information and advice and thus
influence the purchase. The housewife tells her family about the new eatery that has opened
in the neighbourhood and her favourable description about it influences her husband and
teenaged children.

2. Gatekeepers: Those family members who control the flow of information about a
product/service thus influencing the decisions of other family members. The teenaged son
who wants a racing bicycle, may withhold from his father much of the relevant information
on all brands except the one that he fancies, thereby influencing his father’s decision in
favour of his preferred brand.

3. Deciders: Family members who have the power to unilaterally or jointly decide
whether or not to buy a product or service. The husband and wife may jointly decide about
the purchase of a new refrigerator.

4. Buyers: Those family members who actually buy a particular product or service. A
housewife may be the person who actually buys all the foodstuffs, rations and toiletries,
which are consumed by all the family members.

5. Preparers: Those family members who transform or prepare the product into the form
in which it is actually consumed. The housewife may prepare the family meal using raw
vegetables, lentils, spices, oil and other ingredients.

6. Users: Those family members who use or consume a particular product or service. All
family members may use the car, watch the television, and listen to the stereo music system

7. Maintainers: Family member(s) who service or repair the product so that it will
provide continued satisfaction.

8. Disposers: Family member(s) who initiate or carry out the disposal or discontinuation
of a particular product or service.

Social Class And Consumer Buying Behaviour

Social class is more of a continuum, i.e., a range of social positions, on which each member
of society can be place. But, social researchers have divided this continuum into a small
number of specific classes. Thus, we go by this framework, social class is used to assign
individuals or families to a social-class category.

Social class can be defined as ‘The division of members of a society into a hierarchy of
distinct status classes, so that members of each class have relatively the same status and the
members of all other classes have either more or less status.’

The main characteristics of Social class

1. Persons within a given social class tend to behave more alike

2. Social class is hierarchical

3. Social class is not measured by a single variable but is measured as a weighted

function of one’s occupation, income, wealth, education, status, prestige, etc.

4. Social class is continuous rather than concrete, with individuals able to move into a
higher social class or drop into a lower class. Impact of social class

 Provides a sense of identity

 Imposes a set of ‘normative’ behaviours
 Classes share values, possessions, customs and activities
 Marketing response to customers of different economic means
 Marketing to the low-income consumer
 Some marketers ambivalent as not perceived as long-term customers constitutes a
substantial group
 Target with value-oriented strategies.
 CHAPTER 4

CONSUMER BUYING PROCESS

Marketers are interested in consumers’ purchase behaviours, i.e., the decision making
process. The consumers’ decision making is a choice amongst various alternatives that
address problematic issues like:

- What to buy;

- Where to buy;

- When to buy;

- How to buy;

- How much to buy.

Consumer decision making involves a continuous flow of interactions among environmental

factors, cognitive and affective processes and behavioural actions. Consumer’s decisions are
based on knowledge, affect and behaviour related to the marketing mix.

Stages in Consumer Decision Making Process: There are five stages in the consumer decision
making process. These are

1. Need recognition/Problem recognition

2. Pre-purchase information search

3. Evaluation of alternatives

4. Purchase decision

5. Post-purchase outcome and reactions Each of these stages is explained as follows:

1. Need recognition/Problem recognition:

This is a stage of perceiving a deficiency/need. A need could be triggered off by an internal

stimulus or an external stimulus. For example, a person is thirsty and feels like having a cola
drink. The stimulus is internal. On the other hand, while walking across the street, he sees a
hoarding which shows a person having a frosted, chilled cola, and he too desires to have the
same, the need is said to have been stimulated by an external stimuli.

A need or problem recognition could be simple or Complex.

A) Simple: Simple problem recognition is similar to Structured Problems; they occur

frequently as a routine and can be dealt with automatically without much effort.

B) Complex: Complex problem recognition is similar to Unstructured Problems; they occur

infrequently as unique and non-routine and need considerable effort to be solved.

A need or problem recognition could result when:

The Actual State changes (AS type):

The product is failing, or the consumer is running short of it;

There is a problem that exists.

Consumers who react in such situations are called AS Types.

Example: A product stops functioning and the customer needs a replacement; e.g. A
refrigerator; Samsung One door: Standard;

b) The Desired State changing (DS type):

• there is an imbalance between the actual state and the desired state • another
product seems better and superior to the one that is being currently used; Consumers who
react in such situations are called DS Types.

Example: The product is functioning properly; but the consumer wants to buy an upgraded
model;

e.g., the refrigerator is functioning properly; however, the customer wants to buy another one
which has more features and is more modern; Samsung Two doors: Deluxe: Frost free;

Which of the particular styles operates’ depends on the product or service in question as well
as the situation.
Whether a problem is an AS or DS Type also gets affected by an individual and his
personality. Some consumers are AS Types, who realize that there is a problem after it has
arisen, and so they go in for a purchase; they are reactive by nature; e.g. The consumer reacts
after the refrigerator breaks down. Other consumers are the DS Types, who want to upgrade
to better/newer products; They are proactive; E.g. Want to purchase a newer model of the
refrigerator.

A need is recognized in any of the following situations:

a) When a current product brand X is not performing well.

b) When the current product brand X is nearing depletion.

c) When another brand Y seems superior to the one currently owned, X.

2. Pre-purchase information search:

After a need is recognized, the consumer goes for an information search, so as to be able to
make the right purchase decision. He gathers information about the:

(i) Product category and the variations

(ii) Various alternatives

(iii) Various brands.

The amount of information a consumer will gather depends on the following:

i) The consumer: demographics (age, gender, education), psychographics (learning,

attitudes, involvement, personality type)
ii) Product category: differentiation and alternative brands available, risk, price,
social visibility and acceptance of the product.
iii) Situation: time available at hand, first time purchase, quantity of information
required, availability of information.
Types of Search Activity:

The information search activity may be of various types, viz, specific, ongoing and
incidental.

(i) Specific: This type of search activity is specific to the problem and/ immediate
purchase; it is spurred as the need arises, and the consumer actively seeks information.
Example: student enters college and needs to buy a laptop so that he can work on his
assignments.

(ii) Ongoing: Here the search activity is a gradual process that could span over time.
Example: the same student has been thinking of purchasing the laptop since the past five
years, and over these past 5-6 years, he has been gathering information specific to the laptop
as a product category and also about the various brands available.

(iii) Incidental: This is a by-product of another search activity or experiences. Consumers

absorb information from their day to day routine activities and experiences. Example: the
student goes to a mall; he has gone there to help his mother buy a microwave oven; there in
the store, he attends a demonstration of a new laptop that is being launched.

Information Sources:

The information sources are of two types:

i) Internal sources: This includes the consumer and his self. He recalls information that
is stored in his memory (comprising information gathered and stored, as well as his
experiences, direct and indirect). Internal sources seem sufficient when:

• It is a routine purchase

• The product is of low involvement

ii) External sources: Here the consumer seeks information from the external
environment. External sources of information include:

• Interpersonal communication (family, friends, work peers, opinion leaders etc.)

• Marketing communication or commercial information (advertisements, salespeople,
company websites, magazines etc.)

• Other public sources (editorials, trade magazines and reports, consumer awareness
programmes on TV, Internet etc.)

External sources are resorted to in cases where:

 Past knowledge and experience is insufficient.

 The product is of high involvement and the risk of making a wrong decision is high.
 Evaluation of alternatives:

Once the consumer has gathered information and identified the alternatives, he compares the
different alternatives available on certain criteria. This involves:

i) Generation of choice alternatives;

ii) Identification of evaluative criteria: Attributes and Benefits;

iii) Application of Decision Rules.

i) Generation of choice alternatives: While generation of alternatives, a consumer moves

from an evoked set towards the choice set.

(i) The decision making and purchase relates to a high involvement product;
(ii) The purchase activity is irrevocable;
(iii) The consumer cannot return the product;
(iv) The various alternatives have desirable features and are all comparable;
(v) The alternatives are also unique in some way or the other.

Consumers try to reduce this dissonance by:

(I) Gaining more product information;

(ii) Discussing with other satisfied customers who have bought the same product/brand;

(iii) Going back to the dealer and asking for reassurances.

(i) acts as an experience and gets stored in the memory;

(ii) affects future purchase decisions;

(iii) Acts as a feedback. There could be three situations that can arise:

It is important to note that the five staged decision making process is not so simple; it is
complex. The decision making process is an interplay of reactions amongst a consumer and
his cognition, affect and behaviour on the one hand, as well as the environmental forces on
the other hand. Further, the procedure may not always follow a linear order, and the decision
making may not always proceed through all the five stages; it would vary across

(i) The nature of the product (high and low involvement);

(ii) The purchase situation (emergency or planned or routine);

(iii) The personal characteristics of the consumer; and

(iv) The type of problem solving (EPS, LPS and RPS)

Buying process and implication to the marketer

An understanding of the consumer decision making process can help a marketer formulate
appropriate marketing strategies. He can also model his marketing mix accordingly. The
implications of understanding the dynamics of CONSUMER BUYING BEHAVIOUR are
discussed as follows:

1. Need/Problem recognition

a. A marketer can create an imbalance between the actual and desired state; it would
trigger of the purchase decision process.

b. He can launch newer models; marketing communication has a big role to play.

c. He can focus on both functional (utilitarian) and emotional (hedonic) benefits that the
product purchases could offer.

d. He can activate a need through communication

2. Pre purchase information search

a. Marketing communication has an important role at this stage.

b. The marketer can identify the sources of information that the people generally access and
use these to present information about his product and service offering.

c. The marketer can also identify the functional or hedonic utility and use appeals
accordingly.

d. This would help create the right kind of cognitive and emotional touch point so as to elicit
a favourable behaviour (purchase).

e. The marketer should be able to provide the right kind of information at the right place and
at the right time.

f. The marketer must make sure that his product and service offering forms a part of the
evoked /consideration set.

3. Evaluation of alternatives:

i) positioned and promoted well;

ii) is readily available and displayed well;

iii) The product features prominently in the evoked/consideration set; and,

iv) The highlights those attributes and benefits that are regarded as most important to the
consumers, and which they are most likely to evaluate while selecting an alternative.

4. Purchase decision:

i) The marketer should make sure that he has satisfied the customer at the first time.

ii) That his offering is a part of the evoked/consideration set.

5. Post-purchase outcome and reactions:

The marketer can play an important role in reducing the dissonance that the consumer faces
and reassuring him that the choice he made was the right one.

i) The marketer can communicate with the customer about the various attributes/features
and benefits that the product has to offer in comparison with other alternatives.

ii) He can follow up with the customer and address queries and concerns if any (e.g.
follow up calls).
iii) Marketers’ assurances with respect to warranties, guarantees and exchange can also
pacify the cognitive dissonance state.

iv) Company websites with FAQs (frequently asked questions); satisfied customers’
comments and blogs; and customer care information (e.g. toll free numbers etc) can also
prove to be helpful.
 CHAPTER 5

CULTURE AND CONSUMER BUYING BEHAVIOUR

Culture - Meaning

For the purpose of studying Consumer Buying Behaviour, culture can be defined as the sum
total of learned beliefs, values and customs that serve to guide and direct the Consumer
Buying Behaviour of all members of that society. Howard and Sheth have defined culture as
“A selective, manmade way of responding to experience, a set of behavioural pattern”. Thus,
culture consists of traditional ideas and in particular the values, which are attached to these
ideas. It includes knowledge, belief, art, morale, law, customs and all other habits acquired by
man as a member of society. An accepted concept about culture is that includes a set of
learned beliefs, values, attitudes, habits and forms of behaviour that are shared by a society
and are transmitted from generation to generation within that society.

Culture is learned through the following three ways:

1. Formal learning: parents and elders teach children the proper way to behave. For
instance, you have been taught that you need to study to be successful and happy in life. This
learning may influence your response both as a student and individual towards education.

2. Informal learning: we learn by imitating the behaviour of our parents, friends, or by

watching TV and film actors in action.

3. Technical learning: instructions are given about the specific method by which certain
things to done such as painting, dancing, singing etc.

Culture also determines what is acceptable with product advertising. Culture determines what
people wear, eat, reside and travel. Cultural values in India are good health, education,
respect for age and seniority. But in our culture today, time scarcity is a growing problem,
which implies a change in meals. Some changes in our culture:

1. Convenience: as more and more women are joining the work force there is an
increasing demand for products that help lighten and relieve the daily household
 chores, and make life more convenient. This is reflected in the soaring sale of
Washing machines, microwaves, Pressure cookers, Mixer grinders, food processors,
frozen food etc.

2. Education: People in our society today wish to acquire relevant education and skills
that would help improve their career prospects. This is evident from the fact that so
many professional, career oriented educational centres are coming up, and still they
cannot seem to meet the demand. As a specific instance count the number of
institutions offering courses and training in computers that has opened in your city.

3. Physical appearance: Today, physical fitness, good health and smart appearance are
on premium today. Slimming centres and beauty parlours are mushrooming in all
major cities of the country. Cosmetics for both women and men are being sold in
increasing numbers. Even exclusive shops are retailing designer clothes.

4. Materialism: There is a very definite shift in the people’s cultural value from
spiritualism towards materialism. We are spending more money than ever before on
acquiring products such as air-conditioners, cars CD players etc, which adds to our
physical comfort as well as status.

Culture outlines many business norms, family norms, behaviour norms, etc. How we greet
people, how close one should stand to others while conducting business, the dress we wear
and any other patterns of behaviour. Culture keeps changing slowly over time; and is not
static. Changes take place due to rapid technologies. In case of emergency, war, or natural
calamities, marketers and managers must understand the existing culture as well as the
changing culture and culture of the country where the goods are to be marketed. Major
companies have adapted themselves to international culture and are accepted globally. Coca
Cola is sold all over the world. Procter & Gamble and other companies give cross-cultural
training to their employees.
By making cross-cultural mistakes, many companies have difficulty in pushing their products
for example; (i) Coca Cola had to withdraw its 2 litres bottle from Spain, because it did not fit
in the local refrigerator; (ii) Many countries are very traditional and do not like women
displayed on the products. This acts as a detriment to business in those countries.

Variation in Cultural Values

There are three broad forms of cultural values as shown in the following figure.

I. Other Oriented Values

This shows the relationship between individuals and the society. The relationship influences
marketing practices. If the society values collective activity, decisions will be taken in a
group. It gives rise to following questions which affect Consumer Buying Behaviour.

Individual/ collective: Whether individual initiation has more value than collective activity?

Romantic orientation: This depicts whether the communication is more effective which
Emphasizes courtship or otherwise. In many countries a romantic theme is more successful.

Adult/ child theme: Is family life concentrated round children or adults? What role do
children play in decision-making?

Masculine/ Feminine: Whether the society is male dominant or women dominant or balanced.

Competitive/ Cooperation: Whether competition leads to success. This is achieved by

forming alliances with others.

Youth/ age: Are prestige roles assigned to younger or older members of the society.
American society is youth oriented and Korean is age oriented. Decisions are taken by mature
people in Korea.

II. Environment Oriented Values

Cleanliness: If a culture lays too much stress on cleanliness. There is scope for the sale of
beauty creams, soaps, deodorants, insecticides, washing powder, vacuum cleaner, etc. In
western countries, a lot of emphasis is placed on this aspect and perfumes and deodorants are
widely used.
Performance/ status: A status oriented society cares for higher standards of living, and
chooses quality goods and established brand names and high prices items. This is true for the
United States,

Japan, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and most Arabic countries. In performance
oriented societies, where rewards and prestige is based on an individual’s performance, less

importance is given to brand names. Products which function equally well and may not be big
brand names are used. Germans do not give the same amount of emphasis to brand names.
The marketers adopt strategies accordingly.

Tradition/ change: Traditional oriented societies stick to the old product and resist innovation
or new techniques. In traditional societies, there is less scope for new products, and old
traditional products are in greater demand. In some societies which are upwardly mobile,
consumers are looking for modern methods, new products, new models and new techniques.

Risk taking/ security: An individual who is in a secure position and takes a risk can be either
considered venturesome or foolhardy. This depends on the culture of the society. For
developing new entrepreneurs risk taking is a must. It leads to new product development, new
advertising themes and new channels of distribution. Security oriented societies have little
chances of development and innovation.

Problem solving/fatalist: A society can be optimistic and have a problem solving attitude or,
be inactive and depend on fate. This has marketing implications on the registering of
complaints when consumers are dissatisfied with the purchase of the products. Advertising
plays an important part and gives guidance to the consumer, and removes these doubts to a
great extent.

Nature: There are differences in attitude over nature and its preservation. Consumers stress on
packing materials that are recyclable and environment friendly. Some countries give great
importance to stop environmental pollution and to recycling of products.

Companies like P & G, Colgate-Palmolive captured a great extent of the market by offering
products which are less harmful to the environment. They also use ingredients in the products
which are not harmful in any way.
III. Self-Oriented Values

Active/passive: Whether a physically active approach to life is valued more highly than a less
active orientation. An active approach leads to taking action all the time and not doing
anything. In many countries, women are also taking an active part in all activities. This makes
the society a highly active one, where everybody is involved in work.

Material/ non-material: In many societies money is given more importance, and a lot of
emphasis is on being material minded. While in many societies things like comfort, leisure
and relationships get precedence over being materialistic.

Hard work/leisure: This has marketing implications on labour saving products and instant
foods. Some societies value hard work and consider it as a fuller life. Others adopt labour
saving devices and instant foods to have more leisure time at their disposal.

Postponed gratification/ immediate gratification: Should one save for the rainy day or live for
the day? Sacrifice the present for the future, or live only for the day? Some countries like The
Netherlands and Germany consider buying against credit cards as living beyond one’s means,
whereas credit cards are very popular in America and other countries having a different
cultural orientation, some prefer cash to debt. Some societies save for tomorrow; others enjoy
the present and spend lavishly. Sexual gratification/Abstinence: Some traditional societies
curb their desires, food, drinks or sex, beyond a certain requirement. Muslim cultures are very
conservative, and do not want their women to be seen in public or be exposed, so the Polaroid
camera which gives instant photographs can be purchased and pictures can be taken by the
family members without their women being exposed to the developers in a photo lab.

Humour/ serious: Should we take life lightly and laugh it off on certain issues or, take
everything seriously? This is an- other aspect of culture. Advertising personnel selling
techniques and promotion may revolve around these themes and the way the appeal for a
product is to be made in various cultures.
Subcultures And Consumer Buying Behaviour

Culture can be divided into subcultures. A subculture is an identifiable distinct, cultural

group, which, while following the dominant cultural values of the overall society also has its
own belief, values and customs that set them apart from other members of the same society.

Sub-culture categories are:

 Nationality: Indian, Srilanka, Pakistan

 Religion: Hinduism, Islam
 Race: Asian, black, white
 Age: young, middle aged, elderly
 Sex: Male, Female
 Occupation: Farmer, teacher, business
 Social class: upper, middle, lower
 Geographic regions: South India, North-eastern India

1. Regional, Ethnic, and Religious Influences on Consumer Buying Behaviour

The three major aspects of culture that have important effects on Consumer Buying
Behaviour are regional, ethnic, and religious differences. Firstly, consumption patterns may
differ in various regions of India and the world, and marketing strategy can sometimes be
tailored specifically to these regions.

Secondly, our country has a number of different ethnic groups, and population trends will
dramatically alter the demographic profile of the country in the next 50 years. The very
diverse

Asian American subculture is described as young and having higher socioeconomic status,
placing strong value on the family and the group, and being strongly brand loyal. In spite of
its diversity, marketing strategies can be developed for this group.

Finally, religious beliefs and values can influence consumer. Many marketers are now
becoming multicultural in their marketing activities by trying to appeal to a variety of
cultures at the same time. Although the diversity of the Indian melting pot may be unique,
there are many important ethnic groups in other areas of the world.
2. Age, Gender, and Household Influences on Consumer Buying Behaviour

Among the four major age groups, Teens, who need to establish an identity, are the
consumers of tomorrow and have an increasing influence on family decisions. The somewhat
disillusioned Generation consists of smart and cynical consumers who can easily see through
obvious marketing attempts. Baby boomers grew up in a very dynamic and fast-changing
world, and this has affected their values for individualism and freedom. The 50 and older
segment can be divided into two groups-the young again and the gray market. Neither group
likes to be thought of as old. The affect of gender differences on Consumer Buying
Behaviour is examined next. Sex roles are changing. Women are becoming more professional
and independent, and men are becoming more sensitive and caring. Also, men and women
can differ in terms of traits, information processing, decision styles, and consumption
patterns. Gender is consistent throughout lifetime, influencing customer values and
preferences. Gender shows different consumption patterns and perceptions of consumption
situations –E.g. the wedding ceremony.

Households play a key role in Consumer Buying Behaviour. Households also exert an
important influence on acquisition and consumption patterns. First, household members can
play different roles in the decision process (gatekeeper, influencer, decider, buyer, and user).
Second, husbands and wives vary in their influence in the decision process, depending on the
situation husband- dominant, wife-dominant, autonomic, or synchronic.

3. Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles

The roles of psychographics in affecting Consumer Buying Behaviour are detailed below.

Values are enduring beliefs about things that are important. They are learned through the
processes of socialization and acculturation. Our values exist in an organized value system,
with some values being viewed as more important than others. Some are regarded as terminal
values and reflect desired end states that guide behaviour across many different situations.
Instrumental values are those needed to achieve these desired end states. Domain specific
values are those that are relevant within a given sphere of activity. Western cultures tend to
place a relatively high value on material goods, youth, the home, family and children, work
and play, health, hedonism, and technology. Marketers use tools like value segmentation to
identify consumer groups with common values. Personality consists of the distinctive patterns
of behaviours, tendencies, qualities, and personal dispositions that make people different
from one another. Approaches to the study of personality include

1. The psychoanalytic approach, which sees personality arising from unconscious

internal struggles within the mind at key stages of development;
2. Trait theories, which attempt to identify a set of personality characteristics that
describe and differentiate individuals, such as introversion, extroversion, and stability;
3. Phenomenological approaches, which propose that personality is shaped by an
individual’s interpretation of life events;
4. Social-psychological theories, which focus on how individuals act in social situations
(e.g., compliant, detached, or aggressive); and
5. Behavioural approaches, which view an individual’s personality in terms of past
rewards and punishments. Marketers also measure lifestyles, which are patterns of
behaviour (or activities, interests, and opinions). These lifestyles can provide some
additional insight into consumers’ consumption patterns. Finally, some marketing
researchers use Psychographic techniques that involve all of these factors to predict
CONSUMER BUYING BEHAVIOUR. One of the most well known Psychographic
tools is the Values and Lifestyle Survey (VALS). The newer VALS2 identifies eight
segments of consumers who are similar in their resources and self-orientations.

Consumer Buying Behaviour In India And Consumer Protection

India has come to be known as a nation producing value-enhanced, superior, trained human
power. Indians have made their mark in the fields of information technology, biotechnology,
pure sciences and economics. With the globalisation of the job market, demand and
acceptance of Indian skills worldwide has opened up opportunities for new jobs within the
country, particularly back office operations of multinational corporations. Furthermore, the
domestic service e sector itself is witnessing robust growth. The emerging flat world is
bringing about a confluence of cultures and new lifestyles across India. The new lifestyle
trends are altering the fabric of Indian society and also modifying its social and financial
behaviour.
Shift in Consumer Tastes

The shift in tastes and preferences of Indian consumers from traditional and conservative
looking product lines to more varied, modern and liberal assortment of commodities can be
attributed to some social and economic trends indicated below:

Gender discrimination

Career opportunities and better education have offered women greater financial and
emotional freedom; this is levelling the playing field at home. However, this change in social
standing of women is evident more in urban India, especially in upper income groups. Also,
gender discrimination persists in major sections of the society, which acts as a major
impediment for women acquiring basic education and social skills.

Rural India’s needs

Technology has also made a significant impact on the lives of consumers. With television and
the Internet extending their reach to rural India, people are better informed and their
aspirations have changed. There is a need to understand the Consumer Buying Behaviour and
needs of rural India and develop products, distribution channels and communication media
specially to address those needs.

The changing face of Indian society is bringing with it new challenges and opportunities. It
will be a new India where women and children will claim more importance, where rural folks
will be more demanding and where products and service offerings will be tailored to suit this
new set of consumers.

Profile or Characteristics of the Indian Consumer

The Indian consumers are noted for the high degree of value orientation. Such orientation to
value has labelled Indians as one of the most discerning consumers in the world. Even, luxury
brands have to design a unique pricing strategy in order to get a foothold in the Indian
market. Indian consumers have a high degree of family orientation. This orientation in fact,
extends to the extended family and friends as well. Brands with identities that support family
values tend to be popular and accepted easily in the Indian market. Indian consumers are also
associated with values of nurturing, care and affection. These values are far more dominant
that values of ambition and achievement. Product which communicate feelings and emotions
gel with the Indian consumers. Apart from psychology and economics, the role of history and
tradition in shaping the Indian CONSUMER BUYING BEHAVIOUR is quite unique.
Perhaps, only in India, one sees traditional products along side modern products. For
example, hair oils and tooth powder existing with shampoos and toothpaste.

Different Segments of Indian Consumers

The Socialites

Socialites belong to the upper class. They prefer to shop in specialty stores, go to clubs on
weekends, and spend a good amount on luxury goods. They are always looking for something
different. They are the darlings of exclusive establishments. They go for high value, exclusive
products. Socialites are also very branding conscious and would go only for the best known
in the market.

The Conservatives

The Conservatives belong to the middle class. The conservative segment is the reflection of
the true Indian culture. They are traditional in their outlook, cautious in their approach
towards purchases; spend more time with family than in partying and focus more on savings
than spending. Slow in decision making, they seek a lot of information before making any
purchase. They look for durability and functionality but at the same time is also image
conscious. They prefer high value consumer products, but often have to settle for the more
affordable one. These habits in turn affect their purchasing habits where they are trying to go
for the middle and upper middle level priced products.

The Working Women

The working woman segment is the one, which has seen a tremendous growth in the late
nineties. This segment has opened the floodgates for the Indian retailers. The working woman
today has grown out of her long-standing image of being the homemaker. Today, she is
rubbing shoulders with men, proving herself to be equally good, if not better. Working
women have their own mind in decision to purchase the products that appeal to them.

Increasing Awareness of Indian Consumers

Over the years, as a result of the increasing literacy in the country, exposure to the west,
satellite television, foreign magazines and newspapers, there is a significant increase of
consumer awareness among the Indians. Today more and more consumers are selective on
the quality of the products/services. This awareness has made the Indian consumers seek
more and more reliable sources for purchases such as organized retail chains that have a
corporate background and where the accountability is more pronounced. The consumer also
seeks to purchase from a place where his/her feedback is more valued.

Indian consumers are now more aware and discerning, and are knowledgeable about
technology,

products and the market and are beginning to demand benefits beyond just availability of a
range of products that came from ‘trusted’ manufacturers. The Indian consumers are price
sensitive and prefer to buy value for money products.

Marketing Strategies

Online Marketing

Currently, the products Indian consumers are buying through online are greeting cards,
clothes, CDs/VCDs/DVDs, cassettes, books, magazines, medicine and educational material.
The popular online shops in consumer include:

www.ebay.in

www.shopping.rediff.com www.reliablegreetings.com

www.shopping.expomarkets.com

Celebrity Influence

This is an important tool which is able to influence Indian consumer buying behaviour. In
India, celebrities are being increasingly used in marketing communication by marketers to
lend personality to their products. With the visual media becoming more popular the use of
celebrities in the TV media has increased. Celebrities create headlines. Their activities and
movements are being closely watched and imitated. What they endorse sell like hot cakes. It
is not surprising therefore that using celebrities in advertisements has become common
practice. In India especially, it is not difficult to look for the reasons as to why companies are
increasingly using celebrities. Indians always love their heroes and heroines. Consumers like
advertisements more if they are admirers of the celebrities in the advertisements. When a
consumer likes the celebrity in the advertisement, he or she is more likely to accept what the
celebrity says about the advertised product and therefore will develop more positive feelings
toward the advertisement and the brand itself. Famous celebrities are able to attract attention
and retain attention by their mere presence in the advertisements.

Quality Oriented Outlets

Indian consumers looking for quality choose expensive brands as they feel that price is an
indicator of quality. However, in the absence of well known brands in selected product range,
consumers are likely to take cues from well established retail outlets hoping that these outlets
carry quality products.

Freebies

Indian consumer buying behaviour is influenced by freebies. Freebies are consumer products
given free of charge as gifts to purchases of selected products above a certain value. TVs,
washing machines, refrigerators, and readymade clothes are some of the product categories in
which freebies are given to Indian consumers. Freebies generally comprise tooth paste, soaps,
detergent, cooking oil etc.

Eco-Friendly Products

The environmental awareness in India has started affecting marketing of products based upon
their eco-friendliness. In general, Indian consumers are likely to buy environmentally
responsible products and packs. The future key for marketing could be to select more ethical
and ecological responsible products and packaging, which is also convenient for consumers,
thus, balancing environmental concerns with commercial considerations. Consumers in India
are taking lead in prompting manufacturers to adopt technologies to produce eco-friendly
products.

Changing Trends In Indian Consumer Buying Behaviour

Bulk Purchasing

Urbanisation is taking place in India at a dramatic pace and is influencing the life style and
buying behaviour of the consumers. The working urbanites are depending more on fast and
ready-to-serve food, they take less pain in traditional method of cooking and cleaning. Bulk
purchases from hyper stores seems to be the trend these days with purchasing becoming more
of a once-a-week affair, rather than frequent visits to the neighbourhood market/store/vendor.
The popular growing shopping trend among urbanities is purchasing from super markets to
hyper stores.

Trendy Lifestyles

The current urban middle and upper class Indian consumer buying behaviour to a large extent
has western influence. There is an increase in positive attitude towards western trends. The
Indian consumer has become much more open-minded and experimental in his/her
perspective. There is now an exponential growth of western trend reaching the Indian
consumer by way of the media and Indians working abroad. Foreign brands have gained wide
consumer acceptance in India, they include items such as;

Beverages Packed food

Ready to eat food Pre-cooked food canned food

Personalcare products Audio/video products Garment and apparel Footwear

Sportswear Toys

Gift items

Foreign brands vie increasingly with domestic brands for the growing market in India.

Buyers’ Market in The Making

The sellers’ market is slowly moving towards becoming the buyers’ market. Since, India’s
economic liberalization policies were initiated in 1991, many new product offerings have
entered the Indian market and product variety has also increased manifold. Import licensing
restrictions are being eliminated and tariffs significantly reduced and this has led to large
range of consumer goods made available in India. Indian consumers have always preferred
foreign goods and with the liberalization, they now have a choice of foreign products vis-à-
vis the local products.

Consumer Protection

Consumerism is a recent and universal phenomenon. It is a social movement. Consumerism

is all about protection of the interests of the consumers. Consumerism is a movement or
policies aimed at regulating the products or services, methods or standards of manufacturers,
sellers and advertisers in the interest of buyers, such regulation maybe institutional, statutory
or embodied in a voluntary code occupied by a particular industry or it may result more
indirectly from the influence of consumer organizations.

Consumer Protection Act-1986

Consumer protection means safeguarding the rights and interests of consumers. It includes all
the measures aimed at protecting the rights and interests of consumers. Consumers need
protection due to the following reasons:

(i) Illiteracy and ignorance

(ii) Unorganised consumers

(iii) Spurious goods

(iv) Deceptive advertising

(v) Malpractices of businessmen

(vi) Freedom of enterprise

(vii) Legitimacy for existence

(viii) Trusteeship

There are four main methods of protecting the interests of consumers:

(i) Business self-regulation

(ii) Consumer self-help

(iii) Consumers’ associations

(iv) Government Regulations

The Act provides following remedies to an aggrieved consumer:

(a) Removal of defects in goods or deficiency in service

(b) Replacement of defective goods with new goods of similar description which shall be
free from any defect

(c) Return of price paid by the consumer

(d) Payment of compensation for any loss or injury suffered by the consumer

(e) Discontinue the restrictive, or unfair trade practice, and not to repeat it

(f) Withdraw the hazardous goods from being offered for sale and not to offer them for
sale

(g) Provide for adequate cost to the aggrieved party.

The Consumer Production Act provides for a three tier system of redressal agencies:

One at district level known as District Forum, second at state level known as ‘State
Commission’, and third at national level known as ‘National Commission’.

A complaint is to be made to the district forum of the concerned district where the value of
goods and services and compensation, if any, is up to Rs. 20 lakhs, to the ‘State Commission’
between Rs. 20 lakhs and Rs. 100 lakhs, and to the National Commission for more than Rs.
100 lakhs. Interestingly, there is provision for appeals against the orders of a particular
redressal forum by the aggrieved party before the next higher echelon and even from the
findings of the National Commission before the Supreme Court.

The consumer rights include

 Right to safety
 Right to information
 Right to choose
 Right to be heard
 Right to seek redressal
 Right to education.

the study of consumers helps firms and organizations improve their marketing strategies by
understanding issues such as how the psychology of how consumers think, feel, reason, and
select between different alternatives (e.g., brands, products); the psychology of how the
consumer is influenced by his or her environment (e.g., culture, family, signs, media); the
behaviour of consumers while shopping or making other marketing decisions; limitations in
consumer knowledge or information processing abilities influence decisions and marketing
outcome; how consumer motivation and decision strategies differ between products that
differ in their level of importance or interest that they entail for the consumer; and how
marketers can adapt and improve their marketing campaigns and marketing strategies to more
effectively reach the consumer.