Section 3.1: Direct Proof and Counterexample 1
Section 3.1: Direct Proof and Counterexample 1
1. Definitions
As stated at the beginning of the course, one of the most important
parts of mathematical proof is knowing and understanding the defini-
tions of what you are trying to prove things about. In this class and
all future classes if you do not learn and understand the definitions
you will not be able to prove things. Again, just for emphasis, defini-
tions are one of the most important parts of a mathematical
proof. For a comparison, you wouldn’t write an essay using words
which you don’t know what they mean, so why would you try to write
a mathematical proof about things you don’t understand?
As remarked above, in this chapter, we shall be considering a number
of different proofs in number theory, so we start by writing formal
definitions. Note that none of the definitions we are going to write
down are new to us, but the formal definition probably is.
Definition 1.1. (Odd and Even Integers) An integer n is even if and
only if n = 2k for some integer k. An integer is odd, if and only if
n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. Symbolically:
∀n ∈ Z, n is even ⇐⇒ ∃k ∈ Z, n = 2k
∀n ∈ Z, n is odd ⇐⇒ ∃k ∈ Z, n = 2k + 1
Definition 1.2. (Prime Numbers) An integer n is prime if and only
if n > 1 and for all positive integers r and s, if r · s = n, then r = 1
or s = 1. An integer n is composite if and only if n > 1 and n = r · s
for some positive integers r and s with r 6= 1 and s 6= 1. In formal
notation:
n is prime ⇐⇒ ∀r ∈ Z+ , ∀s ∈ Z+ , n = r · s → (s = 1 ∨ r = 1)
1
2
Example
√ √2.3. Show
√ that there exists real numbers a and b such that
a + b = a + b.
Take a = 0 and b = 1. Then
√ √ √ √
0+1= 1= 0+ 1
To disprove an existential statement, we need to prove its negation i.e.
to disprove an existential statement, we need to prove the universal
statement which is the negation of the existential statement. Since we
shall be considering universal statements until later, we shall return to
this problem then.
we can simply check for every element in D that if P (x) is true, then
so is Q(x).
It seems that the method of exhaustion is the best way to prove univer-
sal conditionals. However, it has one huge obstacle - it only works for
finite sets! (and in math, we are nearly always considering statements
about infinite sized sets). Therefore, in general, we would try a method
more like the following:
Result 4.2. (Method of Direct Proof) Suppose you are trying to prove
a universal conditional statement. Then we do the following:
(i ) Express the expression in logical form i.e. identify the hypoth-
esis and conclusion of the statement and the domain.
(ii ) Start the proof by supposing that x is a particular, but arbi-
trary chosen element of D for which P (x) is true.
(iii ) Show that the conclusion Q(x) is true by using definitions, pre-
viously established results, and the rules of logical inference.
The last two steps are sometimes called “The method of generalizing
from the generic particular”.
We illustrate these proof techniques with a couple of examples.
Example 4.3. For each integer n with 1 6 n 6 5, n2 − n + 11 is prime.
Since there are only finitely many integers with 1 6 n 6 5, we can use
the method of exhaustion. Specifically, we have
12 −1+11 = 11, 22−2+11 = 13, 32 −3+11 = 17, 42 −4+11 = 23, 52−5+11 = 31.
In each case, the resulting number is prime, so the statement is true.
As remarked before, proving universal statements with infinite domains
is much more difficult. The following three steps will usually help with
such problems:
(i ) (Formal Restatement) Always try to write a formal restate-
ment of the theorem you are trying to prove i.e. transform the
statement from informal language to logic.
(ii ) (Starting Point) Write down the things you are allowed to
assume given the statement of the theorem i.e. to prove a
statement ∀x, P (x) → Q(x), you need to suppose x is an arbi-
trary object which makes P (x) true, and then show that Q(x)
is true. For example, in the last problem we considered, the
starting point was the assumption that x was odd.
(iii ) (The Conclusion) Always keep in mind what the conclusion
is going to be. Sometimes, it may even be useful to have it
written somewhere on the page so you have a “roadmap” of
where you want to go.
5
Example 4.4. Show that for any integer n, if n is odd, then n2 is odd.
In this case, we cannot use the method of exhaustion since there are
infinitely many different odd integers. Therefore, we must use the
method of generalizing from the generic particular. Specifically, as-
suming that x is an odd integer, we need to show that without any
further assumptions that x2 is odd. We shall follow the steps above.
(i ) (Formal Restatement) ∀x ∈ Z, x is odd → x2 is odd
(ii ) (Starting Point) Our only assumption is that x is some odd
integer. This means that x = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
(iii ) (Body) Since x = 2k + 1, we have x2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1
(using standard rules of algebra). Therefore, if m = 2k 2 + k,
then x2 = 2m + 1.
(iv ) (Conclusion) Therefore x2 is an odd integer