Chapter - I

Chapter - I
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER- I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Sport psychology is the scientific study of people and their behaviors in sport contexts
and the practical application of that knowledge. Sport psychologists identify
principles and guidelines that professionals can use to help adults and children
participation and benefit from sport and exercise activities in both team and individual
environments. Sport psychologists have two objectives in mind: (a) to understand how
psychological factors affect an individual’s physical performance and (b) to
understand how participation in sport and exercise affects a person’s psychological
development, health and well-being. Sport psychology is deals with increasing
performance by managing emotions and minimizing the psychological effects of
injury and poor performance. Some of the most important skills taught are goal
setting, relaxation, visualization, self-talk, awareness and control, concentration,
confidence, using rituals, attribution training, and periodization.
Sports psychology was defined by Singer in 1978 as “the science of psychology

applied to sport.” Sports psychologists provide two major types of services:
performance enhancement as a competitive strategy and counseling for a variety of
issues affecting the athlete. Although not all athletes have access to a qualified sport
psychologist, much can be learned from the available research. Although still in its
infancy, this field already has much to offer. Many research findings have still not
been communicated to the player and coach in an easily available format. Much
knowledge is just waiting to be tapped. (Singer, 1986)
Understanding of sports psychology is very important to achieve optimum

performance and has lots of benefits such as it helps to assess the fit between persons
and sports and even positions on a team, helps athletes and coaches value their
strengths and become more aware of those areas in which development may be
warranted, helps coaches and athletes in a strained relationship, analyze the source of
1 Chapter 1: Introduction
the conflict and build a strategy to reduce it. It can lead to motivated and committed
behavior, useful for the athlete and sports professional in career and life planning,
self-management (such as stress/time management) and interpersonal skills areas.
There are several areas involved and services provided by the sport psychologist. Few
domains where sport psychology plays an active role and eventually helping
sportsmen gain competitive strategies are professional athletes and coaches, national
team programs, sport organizations, youth development programs, student athletes
and coaches, families of athletes, players coping with injuries and recreational
programs.
The contemporary sport psychologist is expected to fill three primary roles the first
being research. The primary role of any participant in tertiary education is to further
the knowledge in that field. Sport psychologists conduct research in many areas. They
may study the arousal levels of athletes before a hockey game, or ask children why
they play a certain sport. The findings are then shared with colleagues, allowing
others to benefit from this research. The second role is teaching in which sport
psychologists are expected to teach in their chosen field, whether it is at a tertiary
level or teaching an intern in the field of psychology. This is so the skill is passed on
and sport psychology remains strong around the world. Third is consulting which is
very important one has to consult with individual athletes or team athletes to derive
skills to enhance performance levels. Some sport and exercise psychologists work in
the fitness industry to design exercise programs that maximize participation and
promote psychological well-being.
Some typical services provided by the sport psychologist are imagery training, arousal
management/attention focus, substance abuse management, eating disorders/weight
management, relaxation training, motivational strategies, competitive pressure
management and programs to cope with retirement from sport. Sports psychology has
much to offer athletes and coaches at all levels. If coaches are looking for competitive
strategies, or trying to help their players achieve at their maximum level, than they
should take help of sport psychology.
Sport psychology may not be appropriate for every athlete. Not every person who
plays a sport wants to “improve performance.” Sport psychology is probably not for
recreation athletes who participate for the social component of a sport or do not spend
time working on technique or fitness to improve performance. Young athletes whose
parents want them to see a sports psychologist are not good candidate either. It is very
important that the athlete desires to improve his or her mental game without having
the motive to satisfy a parent. Similarly, an athlete who sees a mental game expert
only to satisfy a coach is not going to fully benefit from mental training.
Mental game coaching or training is that the segment of sports psychology that
concentrates specifically on helping athletes break through the mental barriers that are
keeping them from performing up to their peak potential. By focusing on the mental
skills needed to be successful in any sporting competition, mental game coaching
seeks to achieve the overall goal of performance improvement. There are a few
objectives which need to be fulfilled to achieve optimum performance in sports
competition to improve focus and deal with distractions, to grow confidence in
athletes who have doubts, to develop coping skills to deal with setbacks and errors, to
find the right zone of intensity for your sport, to help teams develop communication
skills and cohesion, to instill a healthy belief system and identify irrational thoughts,
to improve or balance motivation for optimal performance, to develop confidence
post-injury and to develop game-specific strategies and game plans.
The first attempt to predict human performance on scientific basis was made by
Professor Arthur Kelly of Harvard University in 1906. But not all factors that affect
human performance are susceptible to easy measurement. The various factors that
affect human performance are anthropometric, biomechanical, physiological,
psychological, social-economical, environmental and technical etc. It goes without
saying that it is impossible to predict performance that cannot be measured in
numbers.
“Sports performance is not simply a product of physiological (for example stress and
fitness) and biomechanical (for example technique factors) but psychological factors
also play a crucial role in determining performance” .However, every athlete has a
certain stress level that is needed to optimize his or her game. That bar depends on
factors such as past experiences, coping responses and genetics.
Although psychological preparation is a component that has been often neglected by
athletes and coaches alike, studies have shown that mental readiness was felt to be the
most significant statistical link with Olympic ranking. Athletes have frequently been
quoted to state how the mental aspect is the most important part of one’s performance.
Interest in researching sports psychology has skyrocketed over the past few years. A
myriad of hypotheses have been developed to attempt to clarify the relationship
between stress and performance. In 1943, the drive theory was introduced, claiming
that an athlete who is appropriately skilled will perform better if his/her drive to
compete is aroused or if they are “psyched up”. In 1962, the inverted-U hypothesis
was formed on the notion that there is an optimal amount of arousal that an athlete
will perform at. However, “if that level of arousal is passed, then the levels of
performance will decrease. The same thing happens when the level of arousal is lower
than the optimal level” (Triplett, 1897).
Although the development of sport psychology has been documented for over 90
years beginning with efforts of Triplett (1897), only within the last decade has the
emphasis on psychological components of athletics moved from the research
laboratory and gained on-the-field support as a major influence on sport performance
(Tammen, 1998).
Sport psychology research and practice have been in existence for almost a century,
during which time scholars and professionals alike have made ongoing efforts to learn
more about the psychosocial variables related to enhanced athletic performance. From
internal variables such as personality, achievement motivation, and self-efficacy to
external variables such as athletic performance and group cohesion numerous factors
have been considered in an effort to better understand the development and
maintenance of performance excellence. Although researchers have amassed an
extensive body of literature examining both internal and external variables related to
sport performance, the efficacy and maintenance of sport psychology interventions
remains a notable concern for professional practice (Otten, 2009).
Early research evidence has supported an association between psychological

characteristics and sport performance. Results have often been controversial since the
level of competitive stress, and the ability of an individual to cope, were found to be
directly related to the type of sport, the position played, as well as the physical/mental
ability of the athlete. Further research has quantified differences in psychological
response between elite versus non elite athletes. However, the difficulty of matching
psychological variables with physiological response and the subsequent problems in
interpreting these findings are well recognized (May, 1985).
During the last few decades, coaches and athletes from a wide variety of sports have
begun to realize the importance of the mental side of athletic performance. More
specifically, individuals involved with organized sport now understand that for
athletes to perform at their peak level of efficiency, they must possess and use a
number of psychological skills. This is also true within the world of track and field as
coaches and athletes have become interested in enhancing their athletes' psychological
skills (Caudil, 1983).
Flow and Optimal Performance in Sport
Sport psychology aims at optimizing athletic performance. One mental state that is
closely linked to optimal performance in sport is flow. It has been defined as “the
state in which people are so involved inan activity that nothing else seems to matter”.
Nine fundamentals of the flow experience have been identified. First, the challenge of
the situation matches the skills of the athlete. Second, awareness and action merge.
Third, the goals are clear. Fourth, the athlete is passively told that his performance is
correct by unambiguous feedback. Fifth, the athlete is absolutely concentrated. Sixth,
the athlete has a clear sense of being in control over his performance. Seventh, the
athlete loses his sense of self-consciousness. Eighth, the athlete experiences a
transformation of time. Finally, the athlete feels the flow experience as being
automatic going along with the experience being fun, enjoyable and highly motivating
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).
This flow experience is highly related to outstanding sport performances

(Hammermeister & Von Guenthner, 2005). Jackson (1992) found evidence for this in
interviews about top performances with international elite level athletes. The athletes
described their psychological states in terms that match with the flow experience:
being in total control, being confident, being completely absorbed by the activity and
perceiving a sense of “I can do no wrong” (Jackson, 1992).
Mental Skills Training and the Flow Experience
Mental skills training are a useful product to reach the flow experience and optimal
performance in sport. The author defined mental skills training as a collective noun
for all activities aiming at learning mental skills to improve sport performance. A
compact overview over mental training is given by Gabler, Jansen &Nitsch (1990).
They mention the intention, the subject and the methods of mental training. The
intention of mental training is reaching a goal like enhancing sport performance,
health or quality of life. Subject of mental training can be an individual or a team. The
method of mental training is the development of mental training program to reach
formulated goals (Dudnik, 1994).
Although mental training for athletes has been used for a number of years, it is only
within the last decade that comprehensive mental training programs have become
popular. These programs are commonly referred to as psychological skills training (or
PST) programs. PST programs are comprehensive intervention pack-ages designed to
educate and train athletes in mental preparation. Because PST programs involve
assisting athletes in the improvement of multiple psychological skills, these programs
have a distinct advantage over programs designed only to improve an athlete's ability
in one area (Gould, 2003).
It has been suggested that applied sport psychology interventions should be founded
on a basis of theory and research. A great deal of research effort has concentrated on
attempting to predict performance from psychological variables. Evidence showing
relationships between psychological variables could be used to guide sport
psychology interventions, and it has been proposed that sport psychologists can
enhance performance by enhancing psychological skills (Tammen, 1998).
The Fundamentals Aspects
Every sport is comprised of four fundamental components, namely: the technical,

tactical, physiological and psychological. Briefly, the technical components represent
the actual skill necessary to play a given sport. Examples include dribbling in soccer,
shooting in basketball, passing in football, etc. The tactical aspect refers to the
strategies and concepts employed to showcase those techniques in competition.
Examples include what system to play in soccer, what offense to run in basketball, or
what offensive schemes to utilize in football. The physiological components refer to
the physical demands of a given sport. Examples include the cardio-respiratory
demands, strength, flexibility, anaerobic needs, etc. The fourth component is the focus
of “Colleen's Psychological Skills,” the psychological dimension. Examples include:
motivation to compete, mental toughness, self-confidence, imagery, goal setting, etc.
Baseball psychology can be a broad term used to cover very different topics. Baseball
Psychology can cover conditions such as superstitions, Obsessions, confidence issues,
baseball lore and mental aptitude while also covering player mentality and decision
making. Of course Baseball Psychology also includes the mental side of hitting and
fielding, scouting, mentality of pitchers, and finally; streaks, slums and momentum.
Some interesting things in baseball psychology are the superstitions of the players.
More than any other sport, baseball is known for some players possessing quirky good
luck charms, routines and even dances. For example, some pitchers and coaches
would step on the foul line when running on and off the field and some players have
this big production after every single pitch. Here's an example of what it would be
like: The batter has swung and misses the pitch, then he steps out of the batter's box,
touches the top of the batting helmet with one hand, then he puts two hands on the bat
and balances it between both knees why re-securing each batting glove.
The game of baseball has been known to be superstitious; Wade Boggs (former Red
Sox and NY Yankee) ate chicken before every single game. Many players have been
very superstitious about the uniform number they wore. Some even goes as far as
paying tens of thousands of dollars to teammates in a “buyout” of a uniform number
from one player to the other. Baseball Psychology could also cover the beliefs,
teachings, programs and practices, such as meditation, yoga and positive thinking. In
the last 10 to 20 years baseball has crept into the mental realm for clues to mental
superiority.
Whether you are an athlete or a coach, mastering the mental game of sport will allow
you to reach greater heights as a competitor than you could otherwise achieve by
focusing exclusively on the physical side of sport. You can use these tips in a variety
of ways including incorporating them completely, sequentially and additively into
your own game plan or selectively choosing from among a variety of techniques -- the
ones that most interest you at a particular time.
1.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL VARIABLES
Physical discipline has always been the major focus of training in the exercise and
sport world, but more recently, research has turned its eye to the mind as a tool that
may facilitate the ability to overcome physical limitations and help
performance. Coaches and others both within and outside of the exercise arena have
often acknowledged the importance of the mental discipline of imagery or
visualization as a major factor in improving performance, whether it is in sport and
exercise, business or physical rehabilitation.
IMAGERY
Imagery is a mental discipline tool that is sometimes used to improve performance

and technique, facilitate focus and motivation, to alter arousal and anxiety, to rehearse
various situations and even to facilitate healing for the injured or infirmed. Imagery,
visualization, mental rehearsal, etc. refer to “creating or recreating an experience in
the mind” (Weinberg & Gould). Some see Imagery as nonsense, but it is widely
known that many elite athletes have incorporated its use into their training with the
hope that it will help them perform at their best. Perhaps less known, is the fact that
imagery is now being adopted in physical therapy practice (Gould, 2007).
Psychological skills have long been considered an integral part of what makes an
athlete successful at elite levels. Perhaps one of the most widely researched and
popular intervention strategies to date has been the use of mental imagery, which has
been defined as a psychological activity that evokes physical characteristics of any
object, person, or place that is absent from our perception. White and Hardy (1998)
suggest that through imagery “we can be aware of ‘seeing’ an image, feeling
movements as an image, or experiencing an image of smell, taste or sounds without
experiencing the real thing”. Furthermore, they distinguish imagery from dreaming
because “we are awake and conscious when we form an image”. Meta analyses
examining the influence of imagery training on performance have found moderate
effect sizes ranging from .48 to .68. These findings have led researchers to conclude
that in comparison to no practice at all, imagery usually benefits performance. As a
result, Hall (2001) has suggested that imagery can serve as an effective supplement to
regular physical practice and as a substitute for some amounts of physical practice
when athletes are unable to train (Durand, 1997).
Imagery is a skill, a cognitive process in which you use your mind to create an
experience that is not unlike the physical event. The goal is to use your mind to work
on all aspects of your performance. For example, recalling your best performance,
correcting technical errors and putting yourself in different situations under all sorts of
conditions to help take away the element of surprise.
With regard to the use of Imagery in sport, and in particular, evaluating the
effectiveness of different types of imagery, the implications of the penalty flick study
seem to be significant, since it is widely held that novices experience a smaller
improvement with imagery than experienced athletes. If stimulus-only imagery can
improve scores by almost 30% and stimulus-response imagery by almost 50% in
novices without physical practice, it seems stimulus-response imagery training could
be a very effective way to improve performance in athletes during physical rest
phases, in between practices or during injury recovery periods. Also worth noting is
the use of a personalized script for the more successful group.
Key Elements to Consider Using Imagery:
1. Use all of your senses: The better and more detailed the image, the better
your body can understand what it has to do. You need to make sure you are
adding in not only what you see; but also what you hear, smell, taste, and what
you feel.
2. You are in control: You need to be able to control the images you create in
your mind. You control the movements and the outcome. You want to make
sure you are only visualizing the positive.
3. Consistent practice: Just as with physical training, mental training should be

done habitually. It should become a regular part of your practice schedule.
You need to make the commitment and take the time to utilize this skill. It’s
your choice to make this a priority or not. Practice is always in season, your
mind is your practice field any day, any time, any place — it is always
accessible.
4. Real time: If you participate in a sport that is timed (track, swimming, speed
skating, skiing, figure skating, etc.), your imagery of a particular race should
be equal to the time of the actual event.
5. External vs. internal imagery: You can visualize from either an internal or
external perspective. For the most part, it is best to try and be the person
actually going through the motions so that you have a keen awareness of how
it feels to do things the correct way. External imagery (as if you are a spectator
or watching a video of yourself) is good for error correction, this way you can
see what it is you are actually doing wrong, as would your coach.
Mental Imagery
Mental imagery involves the athletes imagining themselves in a specific environment

or performing a specific activity. The images should have the athlete performing these
items very well and successfully. They should see themselves enjoying the activity
and feeling satisfied with their performance. They should attempt to enter fully into
the image with all their senses. Sight, hear, feel, touch, smell and perform, as they
would like to perform in real life.
Mental imagery, also called visualization and mental rehearsal, is defined as

experience that resembles perceptual experience, but which occurs in the absence of
the
appropriate stimuli for the relevant perception (plato.stanford.edu/entries/mental-
imagery). Whenever we imagine ourselves performing an action in the absence of
physical practice, we are said to be using imagery. While most discussions of
imagery focus on the visual mode, there exists other mode of experience such as
auditory and kinesthetic that is just as important. When an athlete is in a fully relaxed
state, he/she is particularly receptive to mental imagery. The next stage is then to learn
how to develop and apply mental imagery skills.
Mental Imagery can be used for:
 To see success. Many athletes “see” themselves achieving their goals on a

regular basis, both performing skills at a high level and seeing the desired
performance outcomes
 To motivate. Before or during training sessions, calling up images of your

goals for that session, or of a past or future competition or competitor can
serve a motivational purpose. It can vividly remind you of your objective,
which can result in increased intensity in training.
 To perfect skills. Mental imagery is often used to facilitate the learning and
refinement of skills or skill sequences. The best athletes “see” and “feel”
themselves performing perfect skills, programs, routines, or plays on a very
regular basis.
 To familiarize. Mental imagery can be effectively used to familiarize yourself

with all kinds of things, such as a competition site, a race course, a complex
play pattern or routine, a pre-competition plan, an event focus plan, a media
interview plan, a refocusing plan, or the strategy you plan to follow
 To set the stage for performance. Mental imagery is often an integral part of
the pre-competition plan, which helps set the mental stage for a good
performance. Athletes do a complete mental run through of the key elements
of their performance. This helps draw out their desired pre-competition
feelings and focus. It also helps keep negative thoughts from interfering with a
positive pre-game focus.
 To refocus. Mental imagery can be useful in helping you to re-focus when the
need arises. For example, if a warm-up is feeling sluggish, imagery of a
previous best performance or previous best event focus can help get things
back on track. You can also use imagery as a means of refocusing within the
event, by imagining what you should focus on and feeling that focus.
Mental imagery should not focus on the outcome but on the actions to achieve the
desired outcome. Imagery has been shown to be very effective for improving
accuracy in sport. Thomas and Fogarty (1997) found that imagery combined with
positive self-talk improved not only putting performance, but psychological factors as
well. It was found that positive imagery participants, in comparison to negative
imagery training and control group participants, experienced significant increases in
putting performance. Moreover, imagery has been shown to positively enhance free-
throw shooting among collegiate basketball players. The authors have determined
imagery to be to some degree effective for most individuals at enhancing free-throw
performance (Forgarty, 1997).
A pitcher may be asked to imagine the ball in hand before a throw, to feel the laces
and texture on the palm, maybe even to brush the dirt off, as if the ball was just
grabbed from the ground. Bess notes that the image should be as clear and detailed as
possible, and his Bess Scale measures the vividness of the visualizations practiced
with seven classifications of vagueness and vividness. However, it was found that
individuals can vary greatly in their ability to visualize, even when their Bess Scale
scores are alike. Moreover, Stoksahl and Ascough (1998) also found that some
athletes were very detailed in their imaging, while others were very vague; they
concluded that the less vivid images may not be as effective for enhancing
performance. Therefore, athletes with lower imagery ability may not reap full
performance-enhancement benefits from imagery training. Such findings provide one
more reason to investigate the effects of video imagery: Individuals who lack vivid
imaging skills may find that a video re-enactment of the task allows them to see the
desired performance very clearly, aiding mental preparation for an actual event or task
demonstration (Ascough, 1998).
Mental Imagery and Sports Performance
After reading through numerous studies, visual mental imagery seems somewhat
promising and beneficial. Although it is not as beneficial as physical practice, visual
imagery fairs better than no practice at all. Hence, a program with physical practice
combined with mental training seems to be the best method. Virtually all of the
studies show that mental training improves motor skills. More recently a lot of
studies go even further and prove that visual imagery can improve various skills
related to sports in actual field contexts. Visual imagery seems to be beneficial to
anyone who wants to improve at their sport. Whether you are a recreational athlete or
a professional does not matter. The benefits of mental imagery have proved
successful at any level. So if you are a professional looking to break into the top, or a
club player who simply wishes to defeat his/her friend, I recommend incorporated
mental imagery along with physical practice. Not only can mental imagery improve
specific motor skills but it also seems to enhance motivation, mental toughness and
confidence, all which will help elevate your level of play. However, even though most
of the studies demonstrate that mental imagery results in significant sports
improvement, I am skeptical to the extent of the external validity of these
experiments. If one can return a serve more precisely in volleyball, does that mean
that it will work under real pressure situations? In addition, does this mean that
improvements will be made in other areas of the game besides the serve? Will this
work in other sports not yet tested such as football? It seems rather naive to
generalize these finding to real world, intense pressure situations of all sports. There
also lies a shortage of evidence regarding exactly how mental imagery works to
enhance performance. More studies need to be done to determine when and why
imagery techniques are and are not effective. If this problem can be addressed, then
more effective techniques can be created and will in turn further increase the effects
of mental imagery. In addition, it might also help solidify the validity of the previous
experiments. (Annie Plessinger, 1997).
Imagery has been widely researched as a crucial component for elite athletes. Jowdy,
Murphy, & Durtschi (1989) reported that 90% of athletes qualifying for the 1988
Olympics used mental imagery during training and competition. Orlick and Partington
(1988) interviewed 235 Olympic athletes and found that 99% of them relied on some
form of mental imagery. More recent surveys of athletes have looked to quantify the
type of imagery that leads to the best performance.
The Sports Imagery Questionnaire was developed to assess the effectiveness of four
Mental Attention or four types of imagery: cognitive general, motivational general,
cognitive specific, and motivational specific (Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas,
1998). Orlick and Partington (1998) concluded that “attentional focus and the quality
and control of performance imagery were the most important statistically significant
athlete skills directly related to high level performance at the Olympic Games”. The
majority of mental imagery research has focused on cognitive specific imagery, where
a certain task is rehearsed and performed. Research typically follows three standard
conditions: a physical practice condition, a mental imagery condition, and a control
condition. Subjects perform a base line task, practice the task using one of the three
conditions, and are measured on performance of the task following the practice
session.
The mental and physical conditions involve the same number of trials of the task,
whereas the control conditions either restore perform a distraction task. Most
researches have reported that the mental skills significantly better than the control
conditions, yet not as effective as physical practice. (Issac, 1992, Singer, Haus &
Janelle, 2001). Based on the findings it is generally accepted that imagery facilitates
the learning and performance of motor skills. (Singer, et. al., 2001).
ATTENTION
After it was revealed that the concepts of association and dissociation were important
factors in endurance sports these concepts quickly were found to be applicable to a
broader range of sports. It is obvious that attention plays a crucial role in performing
well in sport. Every sport enthusiast will have witnessed an event where a moment of
inattention made the difference between winning and losing for an individual or team.
The ability to focus and sustain attention determines the success of athletes in their
sports (Pollock, 1977).
A broadly applied scale to measure the focus of attention during an endurance run is
the Attentional Focus Questionnaire (AFQ: Brewer, Raalte & Linder, 1996). It is a
30-item inventory and contains the three subscales association (11 items), dissociation
(12 items) and distress (7 items). On a 7-point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 7 = all the
time) respondents indicate in how far they engage in each of the three cognitive
activities. Internal reliability coefficients are in the acceptable range with Cronbach’s
alpha = .79 and .66 for the association scale, .77 and .66 for the dissociation scale and
.85 and .88 for the distress scale (Brewer, 1996).
Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the

environment while ignoring other things. Attention has also been referred to as the
allocation of processing resources. Athletes are dependent upon a constant supply of
accurate and reliable information from the environment whilst performing complex
movements.
“Everyone knows what attention is states,” William James in his Principles of

Psychology (1890). “It is the taking possession by the mind in clear and vivid form, of
one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought...It
implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others, and is a
condition which has a real opposite in the confused, dazed and scatterbrained state”
(James, 1890).
Attention Control Theory in Sport Psychology
Psychologists who work in the area of sport and exercise psychology developed the
theory of attention control to help understand what psychological factors underlie
optimal performance in sports competition.
Optimal performance and Attention
1. Issues- The practical goal of attention control theory is to try to come up with
a set of training techniques to support those mental skills that underlie optimal
performance.
2. Goal Setting- Csikszentmihalyi, in his book “Flow: The Psychology of

Optimal Experience,” says flow, the psychological experience which underlies
peak performance, requires good goal setting skills.
3. Arousal Control- The Yerkes-Dodson law says that optimal performance is

supported by a level of arousal that’s “just right.” Too little or too much
arousal negatively affects performance.
4. Concentration and Focus- Often when an athlete fails to performance, or

“chokes,” it’s because of a lack of sufficient concentration and focus at a
critical moment. Attention control theory is concerned with understanding the
attention factors that underlie optimal performance.
5. Psychological Recovery from Injury- When an athlete is injured, especially

during a performance season, the injury is not only physical but also
psychological. The negative psychological consequences of injury can be loss
of confidence and fear of further injury. Attention control theory is concerned
with finding the best way to help an athlete psychologically recover from
injury.
GOAL SETTING
The first skill goal setting was introduced by Locke in 1968. He presented a model of
motivation based on conscious goals and intentions. After that goal setting became
one of the most popular motivational techniques for improving performance and
productivity. (Jackson, 1992).
According to Locke’s goal setting theory task performance is regulated directly by

goals an athlete consciously sets to achieve (Locke & Latham, 1985). Goals can be
seen as immediately regulating human action (Weinberg, 1994). Through the goal
setting process the athlete can become motivated to focus his behavior and monitor
progress or goal attainment. (Burton, 1992).
Difficulty is an aspect in which goals can differ. A difficult goal is defined by Locke
(1991) as a goal set at a level at which no more than 10% of participants can achieve.
Locke and Latham (1985) found that difficult goals that are unrealistic to achieve
should not be set because they could lead to continuous failure, decrease motivation
and hence to worse performance. But it seems to push the performance of athletes if
they set challenging goals. A study revealed that elite athletes set more challenging,
yet realistic goals than their less skilled rivals (Weinberg, 1993).
Another aspect in which goals can differ is the temporal nature (short-term or long-
term) of the goals. Short-term goals result in longer-lasting self-regulated behavioral
changes and provide the athlete with immediate incentives and feedback about his
performances. Long-term goals on the contrary are often aiming too far into the future
to maintain effort and attention of an athlete. Research shows that a combination of
short and long-term goals yields the greatest performance improvements as compared
to long-term goals or short-term goals alone. (Latham, 1985)
Another distinction can be made is between outcome and performance goals.
Outcome goals are product oriented and characterized by social comparison and
object outcome like winning a certain match or competition. Performance goals are
progress focused and characterized by the emphasis on a certain execution, movement
or achievement of a performance standard (e.g. swimming a certain distance in a
certain time). These performance goals have been split into process and performance
goals by Kingston and Hardy (1994, 1997). Process goals focus on improving form,
technique and strategy (e.g. keeping the elbow high while front crawling) and
performance goals focus on improving overall performance (e.g. swimming faster
split times). Perceived control and increased self-confidence are the result from
setting process and performance goals so that goal setting is a useful tool taught in
mental skills training (Hardy, 1997).
Important concepts of goal setting are consequently the difficulty of the goal, the
temporal nature of the goal and the distinction between outcome, process and
performance goals.
A frequently used tool to assess the goal setting ability of athletes is the Goal Setting
in Sport Questionnaire. This tool measures how often athletes set various goals and
how effective these goals are for improving the actual performance of the athletes.
The GSISQ consists of 57 items. 52 items are answered on a 9-point Likert scale (1 =
not often at all, 9 = very often) and relate to goal frequency, goal effectiveness and
goal commitment and effort. The remaining five items measure the respondents’ goal
setting preferences with two ranks ordered and three open-ended questions. A
separate factor analyses on the frequency and the effectiveness scales conducted by
Burton et al. (1998) revealed quasi identical factors for each scale which were
process-related goals, product-related goals and goal implementation strategy
(Burton, 1992).
Goal setting is a tremendously powerful tool for sport because Goal setting is a key
element in your overall sporting Mental Preparation Program (MPP). Simplistically a
Mental Preparation Program has two elements – Competition Day Preparation and a
Goal Achievement Program (GAP).
Typically Goal Setting is the platform on which both a Goal Achievement Program
and your overall Mental Preparation Program is built. Goal Setting will help you
focus on what your really want and it will help you appreciate what you need to do in
order to achieve your goal.
The key steps in the goal achievement program are:
 Decide on your goal
 Document your goal
Goal-setting is a powerful technique that appears to work by providing a direction for

our efforts, focusing our attention, promoting persistence and increasing our
confidence (providing we achieve the goals we set ourselves).
But, while goal-setting is an easy concept to understand, its application needs more
thought and planning than most people realize. One of the main problems is that not
all coaches are aware of the principles of goal-setting and how to apply them
effectively.
A common view of goals is as a tool to be used in the quest for higher levels of
motivation. Goal-Setting Theory and subsequent refinements based on research and
practice provide a process to create goals that will motivate us to higher levels of
performance. Goals, in this sense, provide a motivational focus; a purpose if you like.
If you set goals appropriately you will find that you gain access to feelings of
satisfaction, confidence and calm. The flip side is that inappropriate goals can be a
source of anxiety or stress.
Role of Goal Setting in Sports:
Setting goals in sports is important, as it encourages you to continue to improve and

gives you a standard measurement of your progress.
Short-Term
Short-term goals give athletes a chance to focus on one particular game, or even one
particular moment or aspect of a game.
Long-Term
Having a goal for an entire season would be considered a long-term goal. Setting a
long-term goal can provide you with a good measure of your progress throughout the
season.
Sense of Direction
Goals give you a sense of direction, and provide you with motivation to improve in a
number of areas.
Performance Goals
Instead of focusing on the result, performance goals focus on the work that it takes to
get to that particular result.
Outcome Goals
Outcome goals are the opposite of performance goals. While the work that it takes to
meet a goal is very important, outcome goals focus on the result of the work put in
and not the actual work.
Goal Setting and Performance in Team Sport
Sports teams should set a range of goals that are both task- and ego-oriented to help
their sports performance. It is beneficial if a sports team does not get caught up purely
in wins and losses. External factors such as weather and refereeing can at times
impact results, so it is preferable to focus on the overall performance. While including
results, it is beneficial to set a range of goals for a season. An example would be an
American football team that set goals of winning 10 games in a season. In addition,
the team could aim to achieve 20 first downs in a game, concede less than 20 first
downs and complete over 50 percent of their passes.
ANXIETY
Anxiety is an emotional state, represented by a feeling of dread, apprehension, or fear.

In humans, this can be defined by description using language.
A considerable amount of research in sport psychology has examined the nature of
competitive anxiety and how it relates with various motivational and cognitive
variables. The aim of that line of inquiry is to provide important information with
regard to situations where athletes may experience negative affective states, the
antecedents of such situations, and the possible means that will enable sport
performers to cope successfully with their negative emotions. Current research in
sport (competitive) anxiety has primarily based its analysis on the multidimensional
conceptualization and measurement of anxiety symptoms in other areas of
psychology. Specifically, it has distinguished between cognitive anxiety (worry) and
somatic anxiety (emotionality). They referred to negative expectations and cognitive
concerns about oneself and the situation as the elements of cognitive anxiety, while
the somatic component of anxiety was considered to reflect perceptions of
physiological responses such as nervousness and tension (Morris, 1981).
A significant number of studies in sport psychology have explored competitive

anxiety using a multidimensional measurement instrument, the Competitive State
Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2), which measures cognitive and somatic anxiety as well
as self-confidence. The results of those studies have provided support for the
distinction between cognitive and somatic anxiety components, since they have been
shown to have different antecedents, different temporal characteristics, different
performance consequences, and also to respond differently to interventions. However,
despite these significant advances, quite often the results of various studies have not
been very enlightening or encouraging, such as in explaining much of the variance in
performance (Jones, 1995).
One significant advance in the understanding of the nature of competitive anxiety was
the introduction of the notion of “direction” of anxiety. This refers to how sport
performers label the intensity of the cognitive and physiological symptoms they
experience on a debilitative-facilitative continuum. Furthermore, in an effort to
illustrate mechanisms that may explain how sport performers interpret their anxiety
symptoms, anxiety symptoms are perceived as facilitative or debilitative depending
on athletes’ perceptions of the control they can exert over both the environment and
the self, and also on their belief regarding their ability to cope with the anxiety they
experience and to attain their goals (Hardy, 1990).
A number of studies have investigated the relationship between psychological skills
and competitive anxiety. For example, Hanton, (2001) examined the intensity and
direction of competitive state anxiety in swimmers who differed in their use of
psychological skills. Findings showed that performers who reported a greater usage of
relaxation strategies experienced lower levels of anxiety and interpreted symptoms as
more beneficial to performance than their comparison groups. Maynard and
colleagues found similar results when they employed an intervention approach with
nonelite soccer players (Maynard et al., 1995a; 1995b). A number of other
intervention investigations have also found support for the use of both individual
skills and multimodal psychological skill packages in changing interpretations of
symptoms in elite and non-elite populations respectively (Hanton, 2001).
The multidimensional conceptualization of competitive anxiety incorporating

cognitive and somatic components has provided a clearer understanding of how
athletes respond to competitive stressors (Jones, 1995; Woodman and Hardy, 2001).
However, scales designed to assess the construct, such as the Competitive State
Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2; Martens et al., 1990) and Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS;
Smith et al., 1990), like many other traditional anxiety instruments, measure the
“intensity” of cognitive and perceived physiological symptoms that are purported to
signify the presence of anxiety. Therefore, they do not consider the interpretation of
symptoms in relation to the upcoming sporting event. Indeed, Jones (1991; 1995)
proposed that researchers should examine the direction of anxiety, which refers to the
extent that individuals’ interpret the intensity of their symptoms associated with pre
competition anxiety as either facilitative or debilitative to performance (Swain, 1992).
The study of anxiety-related performance issues has been an active area of research in
the sport psychology literature for several decades. A cognitive-based interactions
approach states that anxiety occurs as a result of one’s inability to use or strained
usage of their coping resources to meet the demands of a given situation. Competitive
anxiety falls under the umbrella of this general definition of anxiety. However,
competitive anxiety consists of both state-anxiety and trait-anxiety. Whereas state-
anxiety is the transitory feeling of inadequacy or fear, trait-anxiety is an individual’s
common behavior to respond anxiously to demands. Spielberg (1972) identified trait-
anxiety by how anxious one feels in general and state-anxiety by how anxious one
feels at a particular time in a particular situation. A rich literature has documented the
role of state-anxiety as a component of competitive anxiety that effects athletic
competition (Smoll, 1990).
This multidimensional theory of anxiety differentiates between cognitive and somatic

anxiety. Whereas cognitive anxiety is characterized by negative thoughts about
performance, inability to concentrate, and disrupted attention, somatic anxiety is
characterized by perceptions of bodily symptoms of autonomic arousal such as
butterflies in the stomach, sweating, shakiness, clammy hands, tense muscles, and
increased heart rate (Davidson & Schwartz, 1976). The distinction between cognitive
and somatic anxiety is considered important because theoretical and empirical
evidence demonstrates that each component is related to performance in a different
manner. Nevertheless, research findings have consistently indicated that better athletic
performance is associated with lower levels of cognitive and somatic anxiety and that
athletes competing in individual competitions have higher cognitive and somatic
anxiety than athletes competing in team competitions (Schwartz, 1976).
The directionality of an athlete’s perceived anxiety has also been explored as a

contributing factor in pre-competitive anxiety. Specifically, the differences in
intensity and direction of team competitors’ symptoms of competitive state anxiety
were examined. Participants in their study consisted of both high and low level
competitors who rated the intensity of perceived anxiety symptoms as either
facilitative or debilitative to performances. Results indicated that the highly
competitive performers reported their anxiety as more facilitative than the less
competitive performers. Jones and Swain concluded that an athlete’s directional
perceptions of anxiety contribute to understanding a competitive anxiety response.
Competitive Anxiety
Competition can cause athletes to react both physically (somatic) and mentally
(cognitive) in a manner which can negatively affect their performance abilities. Stress,
arousal and anxiety are terms used to describe this condition. The major problem in
competition is letting your mind work against you rather than for you. You must
accept anxiety symptoms as part and parcel of the competition experience; only then
will anxiety begin to facilitate your performance.
Performance Relationship Theories of Anxiety
Drive Theory- According to the Drive Theory if an athlete is appropriately skilled

then it will help them to perform well if their drive to compete is aroused — they are
“psyched up” (Hull, 1943).
Inverted-U hypothesis- An alternative approach to Drive Theory is known as the

Inverted-U hypothesis that predicts a relationship between arousal and performance
approximates to an inverted U shape. The theory is that as arousal is increased then
performance improves but only up to a certain point (top of the inverted U). If the
athlete’s arousal is increased beyond this point then performance diminishes.
Multi-dimensional Anxiety Theory- Multi-dimensional Anxiety Theory is based on

the distinction between cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety. The theory makes a
series of predictions:
 There will be a negative but linear relationship between cognitive anxiety and
performance
 There will be an inverted U relationship between somatic anxiety and

performance
 Somatic anxiety should decline once performance begins but cognitive anxiety
may remain high if confidence is low
Catastrophe Theory- Catastrophe Theory suggests that:
 stress and anxiety will influence performance
 each athlete will respond in a unique way to competitive anxiety
 performance will be effected in a unique way which may be difficult to predict

using general rules
Optimum Arousal Theory- According to the Optimum Arousal Theory each athlete
will perform at their best if their level of arousal or competitive anxiety falls within
their optimum functioning zone. The challenge for the coach is to determine the
athlete’s zone and identify the techniques that will place the athlete in this zone prior
to competition (Hanin, 1997).
The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory or CSAI-2 takes into account the difference
between A-state, A-trait and distinguishes between cognitive and somatic anxiety.
Anxiety and Performance in Team Sport
The feeling of restlessness and nervousness gradually leading to self-doubt is known

as anxiety. It is common in sportspersons, who are required to present themselves and
their skills to a large crowd. It is believed that the pressure of attaining excellence as
marked by the audience is one of the greatest triggers that cause a sportsperson to
choke.
Anxiety can be classified in two ways: trait anxiety and state anxiety. State anxiety is
situational stress induced by situations in the game. A sportsperson’s autonomic
nervous system is aroused in this state, which is the natural reaction of any individual.
On the other hand, trait anxiety can be thought of as a world view that an individual
uses when coping with stress.
In sports, individuals who are state anxious and low on the trait anxiety in tough
situations, often deliver good performances consistently. On the other hand, athletes
who have higher levels of trait anxiety, added with state anxiety, tend to perform
below expectations.
MENTAL-PREPARATION
An increasing number of athletes and coaches are turning to sport psychologist’s

services to learn how to improve performance and cope with competitive pressure. A
great deal of research has been addressed to the study of mental training procedures
applied to the athletic setting and, as a consequence, considerable scientific and
experiential knowledge has been gained, particularly starting from the 1980s. This
knowledge was then translated into practical suggestions for competitors, for example
teaching them how to control arousal and concentration, cope with competitive stress
and, ultimately, achieve peak performance (Feltz, 1989).
The high proficiency of elite athletes in applying psychological skills (i.e. arousal
control, self-talk, imagery, focusing) has led sport psychologist consultants to develop
mental training programmes aimed at helping less proficient performers to improve
those skills. In addition, the idiosyncratic nature of the pre-competition and
competition strategies, adopted by athletes of different sports to face performance
requirements and competition pressure, urge consultants to adapt and refine mental
preparation procedures taking into account the specific needs of the athlete and the
particular demands of their sport. Psychological skills training programmes recently
implemented in sport have been, among many others, reported for Australian Rules
football players, basketball players, golfers, gymnasts and tennis players (Morris,
1997).
Taylor provided a conceptual model that describes some critical aspects in the
development of competitive mental preparation strategies. In that model, the
importance of gaining full understanding of athlete’s needs as well as sport demands
(physical, technical and psychological) is stressed. Comprehensive and specific
knowledge can be attained through a qualitative research methodology, such as in-
depth interviewing of athletes practicing a particular sport and observing them while
performing. As already discussed, it is now well documented in the literature that
expert subjects are able to accomplish their competition goals by adopting mental
strategies, routines and competition plans, provided they have the physical and
technical abilities required to perform. Hence, in the sample of elite archers of this
research, similar mental preparation strategies (e.g. arousal regulation, imagery,
focusing) were predicted to be employed immediately prior to, and during,
performance (Taylor, 1995).
Moreover, idiosyncratic procedures spontaneously developed by archers and

automated after many thousand shootings were also expected to emerge. The
understanding of the individual’s affects, thoughts and behaviors is necessary to be
able to provide effective psychological services.
In the first study from the USOC project focus group interviews were conducted with
athletes from four teams that met or exceeded performance expectations and four
teams that failed to meet expectations. Results revealed that teams that met or
exceeded expectations participated in resident training programs, experienced crowd,
family and friend support, utilized mental preparation, and were highly focused and
committed. Teams that failed to meet expectations experienced planning and team
cohesion problems, and encountered problems related to focus and commitment. It
was concluded that the achievement of peak performance at the Olympic Games is a
complex and delicate process (Gould, 2002).
Understanding Mental Preparation Routines
To prepare physically to race, most athletes have a standard warm-up they go through
that typically includes stretching, easy swimming, stroke drills, and pace work.
Athletes have individualized their warm up to optimally prepare their body to race
fast; they do what is best for them and not necessarily what their teammates are doing.
A similar approach should be taken regarding mental preparation in that an athlete
should have specific thoughts, words, images, and feelings leading up to a race to
optimally prepare the mind for fast racing. This mental routine often occurs in
conjunction with physical preparation so as the athlete is warming up his body he is
also warming up his mind.
Benefits of Developing and Using a Mental Preparation Routine
Now that everyone is convinced of the importance of mental preparation, it is

probably critical to identify the benefits of developing and consistently using a mental
preparation routine. Doing so will enhance commitment when athletes are asked to
change their behavior or to dedicate time to mental preparation.
Benefits of mental preparation include:
Attain an Ideal State or “Zone”: The primary benefit or purpose of a mental

preparation plan is to get the athlete in a “mental state” that seems to relate to success
performance for individual.
High self-confidence: Success breeds confidence! When an athlete is able to see and
feel past and future successes as part of her mental preparation, confidence is not far
behind. Imaging a successful upcoming race is the “dress rehearsal” to the real deal - -
visualizing a great performance enhances the athlete’s belief that they can really do it.
Control of Mental Energy: As was discussed in an earlier chapter, it is critical to
manage mental energy so the athlete is not too flat or too manic. During preparation,
athletes can listen to certain songs on their Walkman to get jazzed about racing or
image a relaxing scene to slow their racing thoughts. Such strategies can be a
purposeful part of a mental routine to manage mental energy.
Effective Focus: A mental preparation routine can help the swimmer focus on
important aspects of her performance. Technical cues (“explode off the blocks” “hold
your streamline”) or images (“torpedo”) can be integrated into preparation to direct
attention where it needs to be (as opposed to having one’s focus on unproductive or
negative things).
Comfort in Structure: A mental routine can be a ‘security blanket’—something to

turn to in the stressful moments leading up to the competition. It is a mental routine
they can use whether they are swimming in a dual meet or at Olympic Trials; to bring
consistency to their preparation and their performance. To a degree, a mental
preparation routine can help take the “environment” out of the performance (for
athletes who tend to be negatively affected by competitive environments).
Engage the Mind: The mind is a valuable commodity. And, when purposefully
recruited and engaged, the athlete has the additional support of positive emotions,
feelings, and thoughts. Athletes should make wise use of all the resources at their
disposal.
Putting the pieces together: Now, it is the time to put all the pieces together. It’s
like a puzzle. We have supplied all the mental tools that the athlete needs to excel.
Choose the tools wisely and put them together in the form of a mental preparation
plan. Two steps need to be taken by the athlete to complete the puzzle.
First, the athlete needs to figure out the desired results: That is, how does she
want to think and feel prior to racing? What “mindset” seems to relate to successful
swimming for the athlete? Does she want to be very confident, nervous, relaxed,
happy, a little worried, controlled, high energy etc.?
Second, the athlete needs to determine how she is going to get into this mental
state: What tools is she going to use to attain the ideal mindset? Following is an
example to bring this to life. As part of an interview, a World Championship Team
athlete was asked to describe in detail how she prepares herself for races. She
discussed specific things she does, thinks, and says to herself prior to races. Then, she
noted that “I need to be nervous before I race” (awareness of an Ideal state/ desired
end result of preparation). Great! The next question, of course, was how do you get
nervous? “Simple, I stare at my competitors in the ready room” (this is part of the
process she uses to attain her desired state). She also identified other mental tools she
uses to get herself mentally ready to compete.
Mental Preparation is best covered by a sports psychologist, but may be addressed by

a sports coach or performance coach who has specific schooling in this area. Mental
preparation strategies can be executed in each performance training session, as well as
practices and scrimmage competitions. Mental preparation techniques are used by all
of the best athletes in the world.
Youth sports involve the consideration of physical and mental training issues that are
absent in adult athletic training, As a youth, by definition, is an adolescent person,
typically one who has entered puberty, a young athlete is generally in the midst of the
most rapid physical growth cycle that he or she will ever experience, with the
exception of infancy. All youth sports training must take into account the fact that as
the athlete’s body is growing, the bones and connective tissues are especially
vulnerable to injury, particularly those related to overuse of a particular joint, or the
forces generated by the repetitive stress of various sports accumulating to cause injury
to an immature musculoskeletal structure.
Mental Preparation and Performance in Team Sport
Psychological preparation for sport is an essential aspect of successful sports

performance at all levels. Elite sports performers make great use of psychological
techniques before, during and after sports performance, both consciously and
unconsciously. The higher the level of competition, the greater the psychological
demands on the performer(s). Indeed many sport psychologists would argue that
psychological preparation for sports performance is the most important part of sports
performance. To effectively prescribe strategies to improve the performer’s
psychological mindset an in-depth understanding of the theories and models
underpinning psychological strategies is essential. Psychological preparation for sport
is dependent on a wide range of factors, which differ for each individual sports
performer. Therefore, understanding the underlying psychological principles and
models will enable strategies to be adapted for a wide range of specific situations.
(Bull, 2000).
Achieving peak athletic performance with consistency requires a combination of

sports specific training, seasonally-adjusted physical conditioning, injury prevention /
rehabilitation, life balance, and mental preparation. The integrated use of a group of
basic and complex mental skills that can be learned through repetition produces high
achievement in persons with athletic talent regardless of the competitive level or
sport. The basic skills are relaxation, positive self-talk, imagery/visualization,
focus/attention shifting, and commitment/persistence. The complex skills are goal-
setting, self-evaluation, pre-game routine, intensity/emotional regulation, and stress
control. Each of these mental preparation skills can link to and enhance general
fitness and sports specific training to produce consistent competitive self-confidence.
When physical and mental training are integrated, then athletic competition occurs
with a quiet mind, relaxed body, raised energy, and narrowed and rapidly shifting
attention.
MOTIVATION
The briefest definition of motivation is ‘The activation of goal-oriented behavior’ . . .

to create enthusiasm and incentive, and generate the desire for action. Often
connected to a goal-oriented outcome, these definitions of motivation can apply to
groups, individual or to the self.
Motivation is at the heart of many of sport’s most interesting problems, both as a

developmental outcome of social environments such as competition and coaches’
behaviors, and as a developmental influence on behavioral variables such as
persistence, learning, and performance. In light of the importance of these
consequences for athletes, one can easily understand researchers’ interest in
motivation as it pertains to sport settings. Several conceptual perspectives have been
proposed to better understand athletes’ motivation. One perspective that has been
found to be useful in this area posits that behavior can be intrinsically motivated,
extrinsically motivated, or amotivated. This theoretical approach has generated a
considerable amount of research and appears pertinent to the field of sports (Duda,
1989).
Motivation is an internal energy force that determines all aspects of our behavior; it
also impacts on how we think, feel and interact with others. In sport, high motivation
is widely accepted as an essential prerequisite in getting athletes to fulfill their
potential. However, given its inherently abstract nature, it is a force that is often
difficult to exploit fully. Some coaches, like Portugal manager Luiz Felipe ‘Big Phil’
Scolari, appear to have a ‘magic touch’, being able to get a great deal more out of a
team than the sum of its individual parts; others find motivation to be an elusive
concept they are forever struggling to master.
There are numerous approaches to the study of motivation. Some are based on
schedules of positive and negative reinforcement while others focus on an
individual’s sense of mastery over a set of circumstances What is it that makes
individuals like the 45-year-old sprinter, who competed in her seventh Olympics in
Athens 2004, churn out outstanding performances year in, year out? Elite athletes
such as author have developed an ability to channel their energies extremely
effectively. Indeed, motivation is essentially about the direction of effort over a
prolonged period of time (Otten, 2009).
Different types of Motivation
One of the most popular and widely tested approaches to motivation in sport and other
achievement domains is self-determination theory. This theory is based on a number
of motives or regulations, which vary in terms of the degree of self-determination they
reflect. Self-determination has to do with the degree to which your behaviors are
chosen and self-initiated. The behavioral regulations can be placed on a self-
determination continuum. From the least to the most self-determined they are
30motivation, external regulation, interjected regulation, identified regulation,
integrated regulation and intrinsic motivation.
Amotivation represents a lack of intention to engage in a behavior. It is accompanied

by feelings of incompetence and a lack of connection between one’s behavior and the
expected outcome. For example, an amotivated athlete might be heard saying, ‘I can’t
see the point in training any more – it just tires me out’ or ‘I just don’t get any buzz
out of competition whatsoever’. Such athletes exhibit a sense of helplessness and
often require counseling, as they are highly prone to dropping out.
External and interjected regulations represent non-self-determined or controlling types

of extrinsic motivation because athletes do not sense that their behaviour is choiceful
and, as a consequence, they experience psychological pressure. Participating in sport
to receive prize money, win a trophy or a gold medal typifies external regulation.
Participating to avoid punishment or negative evaluation is also external. Introjections
are an internal pressure under which athletes might participate out of feelings of guilt
or to achieve recognition.
Identified and integrated regulations represent self-determined types of extrinsic

motivation because behaviour is initiated out of choice, although it is not necessarily
perceived to be enjoyable. These types of regulation account for why some athletes
devote hundreds of hours to repeating mundane drills; they realize that such activity
will ultimately help them to improve. Identified regulation represents engagement in
behaviour because it is highly valued, whereas when behaviour becomes integrated it
is in harmony with one’s sense of self and almost entirely self-determined.
Completing daily flexibility exercises because you realize they are part of an
overarching goal of enhanced performance might be an example of integrated
regulation.
Intrinsic motivation comes from within, is fully self-determined and characterized by

interest in, and enjoyment derived from, sports participation. There are three types of
intrinsic motivation, namely intrinsic motivation to know, intrinsic motivation to
accomplish and intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation. Intrinsic motivation is
considered to be the healthiest type of motivation and reflects an athlete’s motivation
to perform an activity simply for the reward inherent in their participation.
Content Theories of Motivation- Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
When motivation theory is being considered the first theory that is being recalled is
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs which he has introduced in his 1943 article named as “A
Theory of Human Motivation”. According to this theory, individual strives to seek a
higher need when lower needs are fulfilled. Once a lower-level need is satisfied, it no
longer serves as a source of motivation. Needs are motivators only when they are
unsatisfied.
 In the first level, physiological needs exist which include the most basic needs for
humans to survive, such as air, water and food.
 In the second level, safety needs exist which include personal security, health;
well-being and safety against accidents remain.
 In the third level, belonging needs exit. This is where people need to feel a sense
of belonging and acceptance. It is about relationships, families and friendship.
Organizations fulfill this need for people.
 In the fourth level, self-esteem needs remain. This is where people looks to be
respected and to have self-respect. Achievement needs, respect of others are in
this level.
 In the top-level, self-actualization needs exist. This level of need pertains to

realizing the person’s full potential.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
In 1969, Clayton P. Alderfer simplified Maslow’s theory by categorizing hierarchy of

needs into three categories:
 Physiological and Safety needs are merged in Existence Needs,
 Belonging needs is named as Relatedness Needs,
 Self-esteem and Self-actualization needs are merged in Growth Needs
Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
Frederick Herzberg introduced his Two Factor Theory in 1959. He suggested that
there are two kinds of factors affect motivation, and they do it in different ways:
Hygiene factors: A series of hygiene factors create dissatisfaction if individuals

perceive them as inadequate or inequitable, yet individuals will not be significantly
motivated if these factors are viewed as adequate or good. Hygiene factors are
extrinsic and include factors such as salary or remuneration, job security and working
conditions.
Motivators: They are intrinsic factors such as sense of achievement, recognition,

responsibility, and personal growth.
The hygiene factors determine dissatisfaction, and motivators determine satisfaction.

Herzberg theory conforms to satisfaction theories which assert that “a satisfied
employee tends to work in the same organization but this satisfaction does not always
result in better performance”. In other words, satisfaction does not correlate with
productivity.
McClelland’s Achievement Need Theory
In his 1961 book named as “The Achieving Society”, David McClelland identified
three basic needs that people develop and acquire from their life experiences.
 Needs for achievement: The people who have a high need for achievement seek
achievement and try to attain challenging goals. There is a strong need for
feedback as to achievement and progress, and a need for a sense of
accomplishment. The people who have a high achievement need likes to take
personal responsibility.
 Needs for affiliation: The people who have a high need for affiliation needs
harmonious relationships with people and needs to be accepted by other people.
(People-oriented rather than task-oriented).
 Needs for power: The people who have a need for power want to direct and
command other people. Most managers have a high need for power.
Although these categories of needs are not exclusive, generally individuals

develop a dominant bias or emphasis towards one of the three needs.
Entrepreneurs usually have high degree of achievement needs.
Incentive Theory- Incentive theory suggests that employee will increase her/his
effort to obtain a desired reward. This is based on the general principle of
reinforcement. The desired outcome is usually “money”. This theory is coherent with
the early economic theories where man is supposed to be rational and forecasts are
based on the principle of “economic man”.
TEAM COHESION
Team cohesion is defined as the “total field of forces causing members to remain in
the group”, “the resistance of the group to disruptive forces”, and “a dynamic process
which is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in
the pursuit of its goals and objectives”. Although team cohesion has been defined in
many ways, the underlying idea is the same: cohesion is the degree to which the team
sticks together as they pursue the team’s purpose (Festinger, 1950).
The term cohesiveness has long been associated with the amount of ‘togetherness’
displayed by a team both on and off the field. Team cohesion is commonly defined as
a dynamic process that is reflected in the tendency of a group to remain united in the
pursuit of its goals and objectives. A task dimension which reflects a team’s ability to
work together to achieve a goal is team cohesion”. (Carron, 1982)
Much of the recent research on cohesion is within the framework of the conceptual
model proposed by, who define cohesion as “a dynamic process which is reflected in
the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its
instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member affective needs”. Their
conceptual model incorporated and distinguished between ones attraction to the
group, and the perception of how well the group was integrated, and also the social
and task integration of the group. This framework was the foundation for the Group in
Environment Questionnaire or GEQ. (Carron, 1985).
Although there is no existing published research addressing cohesion and its influence
on flow state, there is an abundance of research regarding the influence of cohesion
on group performance. Carron, Colman, Wheeler, and Stevens’ (2002) meta-analysis
summarized research on the performance-cohesion relationship in sport and found
from 164 overall effect sizes that there was a significant moderate to large
relationship (ES = .66, p < .05). The mechanisms underlying the impressive effect
sizes reported by Carron et al. (2002) supported the idea that positive interactions
within groups facilitated increased performance. For example, classic social
psychology research showed group norms established for group performance (or
productivity) were highly influential to the outcome. Findings from the study
demonstrated that cohesive groups were significantly more affected by positive or
negative statements for productivity. Thus, although a group might have high
cohesion, it might display lower productivity than a group with low cohesion. To
achieve best results, a highly cohesive team should establish positive norms for high
productivity. Although athletes and teams do not spend much time in a flow state, can
a team set positive norms that are a foundation to facilitate a flow experience? If so,
can this be done individually or collectively? Although many such questions arise, it
was not the purpose of the current study to establish a causal model of cohesion and
flow state, but to identify the strength and direction of any relationship and ascertain
supportive interview and subjective assessment of the experience of rowers
(Schachter, 1951).
While there is evidence supporting the existence of flow experienced by team sport
athletes, very little is known about the influence of team dynamics on the flow
experience. Qualitative data has suggested that the interaction among teammates help
individuals attain flow although it is uncertain how important this relationship is, it
has also been supported that there is a ‘team flow’ experience. Extensive research
literature investigating the nature and influence of team cohesion has posited that task
cohesion is positively related to performance success with an effect size of .509 and
social cohesion and performance of .603 (Cosma, 1999).
Team cohesion and performance have been extensively researched in an attempt to

quantify the strength and direction of their relationship. A recent meta-analysis
identified Albert Carron and his colleagues to be the most influential researchers
within the area of team cohesion conceptual framework remains widely influential.
Early studies established the cohesion-performance relationship, though agreement
about which factor is driving this relationship (i.e., cohesion affecting performance or
vice versa) has not yet been reached. Subsequent studies investigated moderating
variables of team cohesion in an effort to devise strategies to help develop team
cohesion and thus influence performance. Initially, research focused on exploring
moderating variables of the cohesion-performance relationship with athletes,
including: sport type (i.e. coactive or interactive), gender of the athletes, the
performance measure used (i.e. self-report versus actual), and the competitive level of
the team (Carron, 2002).
The topic of teams, teaming, team-building, or leading teams has been a very popular
one in recent years. It has been written about in sport psychology text books and
management journals alike. Everyone wants to have a good team. Athletes intuitively
know that they will not win in a competitive team sport without having a team. But
beyond that, teaming is largely a mystery. There is no consensus on whether a team
should be well lead by one person or consist of a group of star performers. What is a
challenge in many organizational settings is the determination of roles for each team
member. One person may want to hold all the power. Or, there may not be a sharing
of communication or meeting of the minds. The vast majority of teams are plagued by
a lack of trust.
There have been suggested questions, observations, surveys, and assessments

designed to explain what techniques improve team cohesion. What seems to be
lacking is a measure of the effectiveness of some techniques. Authors have written
about trust-building in teams, but there is not really any concrete knowledge of its
effect on team cohesion or the resulting performance of that cohesive team.
Group cohesion is a dynamic process where the group tends to remain together and
united in the pursuit of its goal for the satisfaction of the affective needs of group
members. It is multidimensional, dynamic, instrumental, and affective. Individual and
group aspects of cohesion are based on the beliefs and perceptions of individual group
members. Group integration concerns the beliefs that individual members hold about
the team. Individual attractions to the group relates to the member’s beliefs about
what attracted him to the team. These two categories are each subdivided into task
and social orientations. These things together create an individual and group sense of
team cohesion. A highly cohesive group is more likely to be united and committed to
success that a group with low cohesion (Paskevich, 2001).
The cohesion-performance link continues to inspire researchers in exploring variables

that may impact team cohesion. Although a majority of literature in this area has
focused specifically on the athletes, studies exploring the influence that coaches have
on team cohesion have yielded promising results. Studies of the relationship among
perceived coach leadership behaviors and team cohesion have consistently shown that
coaches adopting a democratic, supportive style using positive feedback and ample
training and instruction are likely to foster a cohesive team environment in football
and baseball and softball. Further, found that coaches’ self-rated leadership behaviors
were related with team cohesion, though not as strongly as players’ ratings.
Additionally, qualitative data revealed several coaching techniques identified by
athletes in small group sports that either promoted or deterred team cohesion
advanced this line of study by showing that adding coach-athlete relationship
variables explained more variance in task and social cohesion than coach leadership
factors alone (Maby, 1997).
Martin (2002) defined coaching staff cohesion as “the degree of teamwork among
head and assistant coaches that is derived from personal and professional factors and
assists in developing a pleasing work environment and fulfillment of the individual”.
Grounding their arguments in social learning theory, Author suggested that athletic
teams model the behaviors and level of cohesion demonstrated by their coaching staff.
Therefore, developing unity among a coaching staff may be critical in building
cohesion among members of an athletic team. Although theoretically driven, the
suggestion that coaching staff cohesion, team cohesion, and success “may be
interrelated and collectively influential,” is empirically unsubstantiated (Martin,
2002).
Characteristics of an Effective Team
1. The team members share a sense of purpose and common goals, and each
team member is willing to work to achieve these goals.
2. The team is aware of and interested in its own processes and examines
norms operating within the team.
3. The team identifies its own resources and uses them, depending on its
needs. The team willingly accepts the influence and leadership of the members
whose resources are relevant to the immediate task.
4. The team members continually listen to and clarify what is being said and
show interest in others thoughts and feelings.
5. Differences of opinion are encouraged and freely expressed. The team does
not demand narrow conformity or adherence to formats that inhibit freedom of
movement and expression.
6. The team is willing to identify conflict and focus on it until it is resolved or

managed in a way that does not reduce the effectiveness of those involved.
7. The team focuses on problem solving rather than allowing by interpersonal

issues or competitive struggles to drain the team’s energy.
8. Roles are balanced and shared to facilitate both the accomplishment of tasks
and feelings of team cohesion and morale.
9. To encourage risk taking and creativity, mistakes are treated as sources of

learning rather than reasons for punishment.
10. The team is responsive to the changing needs of its members and to the
external environment to which it is related.
11. Team members are committed to periodically evaluate the team’s

performance.
12. The members identify with the team and consider it a source of both
professional and personal growth.
SELF CONFIDENCE
Self-confidence can be defined as the belief in one’s abilities to achieve success, and
it often has been identified as a most important mental skill for a success in sport by
individuals engaging in competitive sports, including athletes and coaches. For
example, John McEnroe, the former World number one ranked U.S. tennis player,
clearly specified the importance of having self-confidence for an athlete in critical
situations, by saying “I think it’s the mark of a great player to be confident in tough
situations.”Also, Libby Lenton, Australian swimmer who won five gold medals in
2007 World Championship in Melbourne, noted, “I know I’ve made huge gains in my
confidence, and knowing more about my racing and myself as a person. That has
made me a better athlete”. Similarly, one of the greatest Track and Field athletes, Carl
Lewis demonstrated his belief about confidence as a crucial factor for his success by
stating, “If you don’t have confidence, you’ll always find a way not to win” (Chase,
2008).
Self-confidence can be defined as having a positive, realistic self-image. With self-

confidence comes the ability to handle criticism, show affection, and be optimistic
and assertiveness. Self-confident people have a positive outlook and think positive
thoughts about themselves, believing that their abilities match the tasks that they must
take on. Emotional maturity and the ability to pragmatically evaluate capabilities are
also markers of confidence.
Marked by quotes, and plenty of other anecdotal evidence, as one of the most
influential psychological constructs in sport, self-confidence has been extensively
studied in a field of sport psychology. Self-confidence has been found to be related to
frequent use of imagery, efficient coping skills, lower cognitive and somatic anxiety,
and the anxiety-performance relationship in catastrophe models, adoptive goal
orientation, intrinsic motivation and better performance. How self-confidence is
related to excellence in sports, what factors affect the level of self-confidence, and
how self-confidence can be enhanced have been intriguing questions for researchers
for years (Craft, 2003).
There are two main conceptual theoretical approaches in self-confidence research in

sports. First is Bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy theory. According to Bandura (1997),
self-efficacy is defined as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the
courses of action required to produce given attainments”. Self-efficacy theory claims
that these beliefs are task and situation specific. That is, one’s capabilities include
regulating one’s physical performance, cognitive processes, affective states, and
behaviors required at the moment of constantly changing environment. Therefore,
efficacy beliefs take variable forms (e.g. behavioral self-efficacy, cognitive self-
efficacy) and fluctuate over time depending on a situation (e.g. competitive vs. non-
competitive situation). A number of researchers have utilized self-efficacy theory as a
basis for their studies in self-confidence of athletes (Lewis, 1995).
The other main theoretical conceptual approach in study of confidence in sport is
sport-confidence model. The conceptual foundation of sport-confidence was
developed from self-efficacy theory based on the need for a conceptualization of
confidence specific to competitive sport. Sport-confidence can be defined as the belief
or degree of certainty that individuals possess about their ability to be successful in
sport. A fair amount of research has been conducted utilizing the sport-confidence
model. The model has been revised a few times and the most recent model named the
Multidimensional Sport-Confidence Model was developed to supplement the
theoretical limitations of the original model. This new model accounts for social
cognitive theory, as being more consistent with) and stresses the importance of
individual social cognitive thought processes. While the original model contains one
type of sport-confidence and considers sport-confidence as a uni-dimenional
construct, the revised model views sport-confidence as multidimensional property,
therefore includes different types of confidence. Also, instead of taking trait- and
state- dichotomous approach, it contends that levels of sport-confidence can fluctuate
and be continuously changing. It is consistent with self-efficacy theory in that
perceived efficacy is a dynamic fluctuating property and not a static trait (Chase,
2008).
Based on the multidimensional sport-confidence model, examined the following six

questions:
 First, how do personality (perfectionism and achievement goal orientation)

and social (perceived motivational climate and coaching behavior) factors
relate to athletes’ sources of sport-confidence?
 Second, how do sources of sport-confidence relate to athletes’ types of sport-

confidence?
 Third, how do sources of sport-confidence relate to changes in athletes’ types

of confidence?
 Forth, how do personality (perfectionism and achievement goal orientation)

and social (perceived motivational climate and coaching behavior) factors
relate to athletes’ types of sport-confidence?
 Fifth, how do personality and social factors relate to changes in athletes’ types
of sport-confidence?
 Sixth, how do different types of sport-confidence relate to athletes’

performance?
According to the leading sports psychologist the essence of confidence is playing with
your eyes. The eye of the confident athlete focuses on the objective allowing the brain
and body to react. The confident athlete lets his or her body and brain run on “auto
pilot.”
Self-confidence is essentially an attitude which allows us to have a positive and

realistic perception of ourselves and our abilities. It is characterized by personal
attributes such as assertiveness, optimism, enthusiasm, affection, pride, independence,
trust, the ability to handle criticism and emotional maturity.
Confidence is learned, it is not inherited. If you lack confidence, it probably means

that, as a child, you were criticized, undermined, or suffered an inexplicable tragic
loss, for which you either blamed yourself or were blamed by others. A lack of
confidence isn’t necessarily permanent but it can be if it isn’t addressed. Our religion,
the influence of the culture which formed our perspectives, our gender, social class
and our parents, in particular, are all factors which influence and contribute to our
level of confidence and esteem.
Confident people have deep faith in their future and can accurately assess their
capabilities. They also have a general sense of control in their lives and believe that,
within reason, they will be able to do what they desire, plan and expect, no matter
what the foreseeable obstacle. But this faith is guided by more realistic expectations
so that, even when some of their goals are not met, those with confidence continue to
be positive, to believe in themselves and to accept their current limitations with
renewed energy. However, having high self-confidence does not mean they will be
able to do everything they want. That view is unrealistic, one for the perfectionists. A
desire to be good at everything we do in order to impress others stems from a
competitive instinct and lack of personal reinforcement. Any truly successful life has
both rewards and the ability to learn from any setbacks, which increase our resilience,
self- belief and determination. Real confidence requires that we face the possibility of
failure constantly and deal with it. However, if we consistently lose out on both
achievement and validation, even our identity is called into question.
According to the leading sports psychologist the essence of confidence is playing with
your eyes. The eye of the confident athlete focuses on the objective allowing the brain
and body to react. The confident athlete lets his or her body and brain run on “auto
pilot.”
One way to start building self-confidence is to improve physical skill. Physical skill
typically improves through practice. There are two general types of practice that can
be used, blocked practice and random practice. With blocked practice, the athlete
practices the skills over and over. It is a great technique used for beginners to help
build self-confidence. The other type of practice is referred to as random practice, and
tends to be used with more skilled athletes. This is where the athlete practices
different skills. For example, one would practice long shots in golf and then go to the
practice green and practice putting and then move to the fringe and practice chipping.
With this technique the athlete may not see immediate improvement, but it will
become apparent in competition or actual play.
Another way to improve self-confidence is through goal setting. When setting goals
be sure that the athletes set team and individual goals. Individual goals play an
important part in developing self-confidence. If the athlete sets realistic and attainable
weekly goals, improvement in self-confidence becomes more apparent.
Self Confidence and Performance in Team Sport
The term self-confidence refers to one’s belief that he or she can successfully execute
a desired behavior; the exact relationships of Self-confidence and performance in
sport have not been scientifically clarified in a satisfactory manner. Self-confidence
(SC) is one of the most cited factors thought to affect athletic performance. Self-
Confidence is said to play a critical role in athletes ‘success; in contrast, lack of Self-
Confidence seems to be closely associated with athletic failure. Thus, confidence is an
important factor that distinguishes successful athletes from unsuccessful ones in terms
of both their mental states as well as their performances.
PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS AND SPORTS PERFORMANCE
Researchers found that athletes with high levels of psychological skills performed
more consistently than athletes with low levels of psychological skills (Nideffer et.
al., 2001). This could be explained by the fact that higher levels of psychological
skills have been shown to have a positive correlation with better execution of general
motor and cognitive tasks (Hird, Landers, Thomas & Horan, 1991), especially when
athletes are fatigued and under physical stress (Booras, 2001). In accordance with
these findings, research by Feltz and Landers (1983), as well as Greenspan and Feltz
(1989), has confirmed that subjecting athletes to the approaches inherent in various
thought processes has a beneficial impact on motor skill performance.
The question arises whether a specific selection of psychological skills exists that
would facilitate exceptional sports performance when developed optimally. One
factor that should be taken into account is that the type of sport that athletes compete
in will determine the specific psychological skills that they will need in their quest for
better performance (Martens, 1987). Hale and Collins (2002) stated that, for rugby
players to play to their full potential, they must be physically, technically,
nutritionally and psychologically prepared. They further added that the best rugby
players in the world often reach their full potential by incorporating psychological
training into their daily training and pre-match routines. It thus appears that a key
difference between a good and average performance in elite rugby could be the level
of psychological skills, rather than just good physical abilities (Hale & Collins, 2002;
Hodge & McKenzie, 1999). However, it is still unclear whether the overall
psychological skills level, or rather the eminence in certain specific psychological
skills, would differentiate between good and exceptional rugby players. This latter
statement is one of the questions that we, as sports psychologists, constantly try to
shed more light on.
Research in this regard is complicated since the effect that psychological skills will
have on a specific player might be influenced by a number of other factors.
Environmental influences, crises and life transitions, the cognitive appraisals and
coping strategies that players employ as well as the state of their general health and
well-being may influence the impact of psychological skills (Mahoney, Gabriel &
Perkins, 1987; Moos & Shaefer, 1993; Shaw, 2001; Smith & Christensen, 1995;
Smith et al., 1995). All these factors should be kept in mind by the sports psychologist
when working with elite rugby players. (Kruger, 2008).
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Elite athletes have mastered physical and mental skills over many years of diligent
practice and their physiological and psychological capabilities are likely to exceed the
levels of amateur, novice and recreational athletes. They are deserving of attention in
sport psychology research. Elite athletes have been shown to operate at relatively high
intensity levels and typically adopt associative strategies in their training and
competitive efforts. The purpose of the present study was developed and validates the
psychological assessment scale of the Baseball players and study of related literature, the
problem was design. As suggested in review of the literature and expert opinion the
psychology playing a crucial role sports performance, so it essential to measure the
psychological aspect of the player for formulating the proper training plan and
participate in competitive sports successfully. In the light of the above, investigator has
made a humble effort to identify major psychological skills in Baseball and select the
most important ones for constructing and standardizing the psychological skills scale to
serve as an objective measure in a player’s psychological assessment. Formally, the
problem was stated as- Development and Validation of Psychological Skills
Assessment Scale (PSAS) for Baseball Players.
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The scientific authentication of Psychological Skills Assessment Scale was

accomplished by computing Reliability, Validity, and Developing of the Norms for the
specific sub-scale of psychological skills for which the following objectives were
formed:
1. To develop statements for measuring Anxiety of Baseball players.
2. To develop statements for measuring Attention of Baseball players.
3. To develop statements for measuring Goal Setting of Baseball players.
4. To develop statements for measuring Imagery of Baseball players.
5. To develop statements for measuring Mental Preparation of Baseball players.
6. To develop statements for measuring Motivation of Baseball players.
7. To develop statements for measuring Self-Confidence of Baseball players.
8. To develop statements for measuring Team Cohesion of Baseball players.
9. To establish reliability of psychological skills assessment scale and its sub scales.
10. To establish factorial validity of psychological skills assessment scale and its sub
scales.
11. To establish validity through index of reliability of psychological skills assessment

scale and its sub scales.
12. To develop norms for psychological skills assessment scale and its sub scales.
1.5 DELIMITATIONS
The present study was delimited as per the objectives and purpose of the study which are
mentioned below:-
1. The study was delimited to two hundred fifty-five Baseball players from
different parts of the country.
2. The age of the subjects selected for the study was18 years and above.
3. The study was further confined to the Baseball players who have participated
in at least inter-collegiate or state level / competitions.
4. The study was further confined to male Baseball players only.
1.6 LIMITATIONS
For the purpose of the present study certain limitations which were beyond the control
of the scholar have been mentioned below:-
1. Questionnaire research has its own limitation as such biasness that might have
crept into the subjects while responding on this account was considered as
limitation of the study.
2. The questionnaire study has its own limitations. The mood state of the subject
and the depth of knowledge pertaining to the research problem that shall help
in an appropriate selection of response for each item in the questionnaire were
considered as limitation of the study.
1.7 DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS
Many terms have been used to describe the notion of psychological skills aspects of
sports performance, including psychological skills, anxiety, attention, imagery,
confidence, motivation etc. These terms, however, deserve distinctions for better
understanding and hence have been discussed independently.
PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS
Sports performance and interventions or psychological skills focusing on the ability to

reach optimal performance states (i.e. zone), management of arousal & anxiety, self-
talk, imagery, goal setting, self-confidence, motivation and modeling have been found
to contribute positively to sports performance. (Edward, 2004)
The use of psychological skills training, having high levels of confidence, work with a
sport psychology consultant, ignoring or blocking out distractions, being highly
committed to excellence, using relaxation, focusing on performance not outcome,
having team meetings to discuss strategy and mental skills, and using a loss year prior
as motivation.
ANXIETY
Anxiety is a negative emotional state characterized by nervousness, worry, and

apprehension and associated with activation or arousal of the body. (Gould, 2007).
Anxiety is a natural reaction to threats in the environment and part of the preparation
for the ‘fight or flight’ response. This is our body’s primitive and automatic response
that prepares it to ‘fight’ or ‘flee’ from perceived harm or attack. It is a ‘hardwired’
response that ensures survival of the human species. Sporting competition promotes
similar psychological and bodily responses because there is often a threat posed
towards the ego; your sense of self-esteem. Essentially, when the demands of training
or competition exceed one’s perceived ability, anxiety is the inevitable outcome.
ATTENTION
Attention is the taking possession of the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of
what may seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thoughts. It
implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others.
(James, W. 1990)
Attentional processes e.g., ability to concentrate effectively are crucial for success in
sport. Research has shown that adopting a focus of attention can increase performance
in a motor based task. Specifically, an external focus involving the effects of an
outcome can produce better results than internally focusing on the action itself.
Attention is the process that selects certain sensory inputs for inclusion in the focus of
experience. At a time, though we are overloaded with so many external and internal
sensory inputs, we respond to one stimulus. This process of selection is conducted by
the process known as attention, so attention is a critical part of perception.
The selective attention is the mental process of selecting only certain stimuli to be
responded to.
GOAL SETTING
Goal setting in broad terms is the process of deciding on something you want,
planning how to get it, and then working towards the objective. There is a natural
assumption that improved performance includes physical performance, and therefore
effective goal setting would enhance physical performance.
Goal setting is the art and science of setting targets for achievement (Reese, 1998).
Goal specificity studies indicate that goal setting is more effective when there are
clear, concise goals (specific) as opposed to broad general goals, or do best goals
(Locke, 1991). Edwin Locke (1968) is credited with conceptualizing goal setting
theory, he hypothesized two core components for goal setting theory:
1. There is a linear relationship between the difficulty of attainable goals and

performance, and
2. The specific and difficult goals lead to better performance than vague, easy, or
“do-your-best” goals (Locke, 1990).
Overall, it is agreed that goal setting is an important component of any mental skills
training package. The few inconsistent findings in goal setting research deal with
specific methods of goal setting.
IMAGERY
Imagery is actually a form of simulation. It is similar to a real sensory experience.-

(Gould,2007).
Imagery Training refer to all the best athletes have very well-developed mental
imagery skills and use them on a daily basis. They use imagery to prepare themselves
to get what they want out of training, to perfect skills within the training sessions, and
to “see” themselves being successful.
The refined imagery they have developed for running through skills and performances
in their mind, is one which takes an "inside" view, as if actually doing the skill, and
one which involves feeling the action and excitement, as if actually being there. Most
of these athletes call up these inside images or perfect feelings before every attempt at
executing a skill. (Terry, 1986).
MENTAL PREPARTION
Mental procedures, acquired by systematic mental training, which can be used on

certain predetermined occasion (e.g. prior to competition) to achieve an ideal
performance state. Indeed many sport psychologists would argue that psychological
preparation for sports performance is the most important part of sports performance.
To effectively prescribe strategies to improve the performer’s psychological mindset
an in-depth understanding of the theories and models underpinning psychological
strategies is essential. Psychological preparation for sport is dependent on a wide
range of factors, which differ for each individual sports performer. Therefore,
understanding the underlying psychological principles and models will enable
strategies to be adapted for a wide range of specific situations. (Bull, 2000).
Mental preparation and readiness refers to a positive state you carry into learning and
performance situations. It is dependent upon the other mental skills on the Wheel of
Excellence. To have a realistic chance of excelling you must become highly proficient
at mentally readying yourself to learn essential mental, physical and technical skills,
practice essential skills to perfection, and effectively perform those skills under
competitive conditions.
The quality of effort in training, the simulation training, the imagery training and clear
daily goals have moved these athletes along the path of excellence. But in addition to
this quality training, the best athletes have developed very sound procedures for
drawing upon their strengths in important competitions.
MOTIVATION
Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological need that

activates a behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal. Motivation refers to those
factors that activate behaviour and give it some direction to do something. Motivation
can be defined simply as the direction and intensity of one’s effort. (Sage, 1977).
Crow & Crow define; motivation is concerned with the arousal of interest in learning
and to that extent, is basic to learning.
Motivation is a latent relatively stable personality character which causes a person to
be either attracted or repulsed by the consequences of particular causes of action, it is
a tendency within a person that directing his thoughts, feelings towards the
goal/function. (Alderman, 1974).
SELF CONFIDENCE
Self-confidence is a general term referring to the beliefs an individual has about his or
her ability to be successful. Several studies have examined this relationship reporting
that the use of different types of imagery will produce increases in one’s level of self-
confidence.
Sport psychologists define self-confidence as the belief that you can successfully
perform a desired behavior. (Gould, 2007).
Self-confidence is defined as an individual’s personal belief in his or her own ability

to succeed within his or her sport (Vealey, 1986). Self-confidence is conceptualized as
both state and trait characteristics. In the sport context, state-confidence refers to the
belief an athlete has in their ability to perform a specific task or skill successfully,
whereas trait confidence refers to an athlete’s overall belief in their ability to be
successful within their sport. A construct conceptually similar to state confidence is
self-efficacy. (Vealey, 1986)
TEAM COHESION
“The way a team plays as a whole determines its success. You may have the greatest
bunch of individual stars in the world, but if they don’t play together, the club won’t
be worth a dime.” (Babe Ruth).
The group cohesiveness is the force that causes members to remain in the group. The
cause may be – common goal, liking for other members, increase one’s status by
belonging to a high status group, similarly in attitudes, beliefs and thoughts.
(Murphy, 2005)
VALIDITY
The degree to which the interpretation of test score is to lead for the correct
conclusions. (Baumgartner, 2003).
The term validity refers to the “soundness” and legitimacy of a test to accurately
measure what it is supposed to measure and to be predictive of what the test is
supposed to be used for. Validity also is a term to describe the process by which an
agency goes through to define a test standard.
Content validation
The test measures the actual job-task and the program teaches that task. Physical
fitness or ability tests cannot be validated with this approach. Only job task simulation
tests can be validated with this method.
Construct validation
The test measures an underlying fitness factor for performing job-task(s) and the
program trains that factor. Fitness tests can be validated with this approach but not
fitness standards
Criterion validation
The test measures a predictive fitness factor for performing job-tasks and the program
trains that factor. This is the preferred method for validating fitness tests and
standards
Construct Validity
Construct Validity of a test or a measurement tool is established by demonstrating its

ability to identify or measure the variables or constructs that it proposes to identify or
measure. The judgment is based on the accumulation of correlations from numerous
studies using the instrument being evaluated.
RELIABILITY
The degree to which a measure is consistent, unchanged over a period of time.

(Baumgartner, 2003).
The methods of determining reliability coefficients include Pearson Product-Moment

Correlations employing the test-retest method or the split half method stepped up by
the Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula (14). Analysis of variance and simple
regression may also be utilized in determining reliability and similar correlations are
employed in determining objectivity.
 Cronbach’s Alpha Method of Reliability
 Test-Re-Test Method
 Split Half Reliability
Test Retest Method
The procedure used to correlate the scores of a test administered on each of two days
or more used to establish stability and reliability (Baumgartner, 2003).
1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
It is extremely important that when a player has to perform at any level he must be
trained in all aspects that are physical, physiological and psychological. Elite athletes
repeatedly have to perform under high pressure, and it is therefore not surprising that
psychological characteristics often distinguish those successful at the highest standard
from their less successful counterparts. Early research evidence already supports an
association between psychological characteristics and sports performance.
Thus, the results of the study shall be immense significance in the following ways:
 It shall be helpful for physical educators and coaches in identifying the

appropriate psychological skills required for a baseball player.
 It shall assist in imparting appropriate training in the psychological skills
required for optimum performance.
 The study shall help in selecting talented players for the game of baseball with
respect to the playing position based on their psychological skills.
 The developed scale for evaluating psychological skills of baseball players shall
be helpful in bringing about the desirable improvement in the performance of the
Baseball players.
 The developed questionnaire was of great importance in outlining the

psychological skills essential for baseball players. Further, the questionnaire shall
be helpful in selecting the talent in baseball.
 The developed questionnaire was of immense importance in identifying the

standard of various psychological skills and accordingly the trainer or the
coaches can take appropriate steps in developing the same through training.
 This questionnaire is developed considering the baseball players belong to India

and hence will be an extremely useful psychological instrument.
 Since there is no such psychological instrument that could assess the

psychological skills of baseball players of our country, this validated instrument
shall fulfill the research gap and will be a new entity in the field of psychological
instrument and psychological evaluation.

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Chapter - I

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What are the objectives of sport psychology?

What are the objectives of sport psychology?

What are some of the most important skills taught in sport psychology?

What are some of the most important skills taught in sport psychology?

Chapter - I

Sports psychology was defined by Singer in 1978 as “the science of psychology

Understanding of sports psychology is very important to achieve optimum

Early research evidence has supported an association between psychological

Flow and Optimal Performance in Sport

This flow experience is highly related to outstanding sport performances

The Fundamentals Aspects

Every sport is comprised of four fundamental components, namely: the technical,

1.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL VARIABLES

Imagery is a mental discipline tool that is sometimes used to improve performance

Key Elements to Consider Using Imagery:

3. Consistent practice: Just as with physical training, mental training should be

Mental imagery involves the athletes imagining themselves in a specific environment

Mental imagery, also called visualization and mental rehearsal, is defined as

 To see success. Many athletes “see” themselves achieving their goals on a

 To motivate. Before or during training sessions, calling up images of your

 To familiarize. Mental imagery can be effectively used to familiarize yourself

Mental Imagery and Sports Performance

Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the

“Everyone knows what attention is states,” William James in his Principles of

Attention Control Theory in Sport Psychology

Optimal performance and Attention

2. Goal Setting- Csikszentmihalyi, in his book “Flow: The Psychology of

3. Arousal Control- The Yerkes-Dodson law says that optimal performance is

4. Concentration and Focus- Often when an athlete fails to performance, or

5. Psychological Recovery from Injury- When an athlete is injured, especially

According to Locke’s goal setting theory task performance is regulated directly by

The key steps in the goal achievement program are:

 Decide on your goal

 Document your goal

Goal-setting is a powerful technique that appears to work by providing a direction for

Role of Goal Setting in Sports:

Setting goals in sports is important, as it encourages you to continue to improve and

Goal Setting and Performance in Team Sport

Anxiety is an emotional state, represented by a feeling of dread, apprehension, or fear.

A significant number of studies in sport psychology have explored competitive

The multidimensional conceptualization of competitive anxiety incorporating

This multidimensional theory of anxiety differentiates between cognitive and somatic

The directionality of an athlete’s perceived anxiety has also been explored as a

Drive Theory- According to the Drive Theory if an athlete is appropriately skilled

Inverted-U hypothesis- An alternative approach to Drive Theory is known as the

Multi-dimensional Anxiety Theory- Multi-dimensional Anxiety Theory is based on

 There will be an inverted U relationship between somatic anxiety and

Catastrophe Theory- Catastrophe Theory suggests that:

 stress and anxiety will influence performance

 each athlete will respond in a unique way to competitive anxiety

 performance will be effected in a unique way which may be difficult to predict

Anxiety and Performance in Team Sport

The feeling of restlessness and nervousness gradually leading to self-doubt is known

An increasing number of athletes and coaches are turning to sport psychologist’s

Moreover, idiosyncratic procedures spontaneously developed by archers and

Understanding Mental Preparation Routines

Benefits of Developing and Using a Mental Preparation Routine

Now that everyone is convinced of the importance of mental preparation, it is