ROCKET PROPELLANT

Rocket propellant is a material used either directly by a rocket as the reaction mass (propulsive mass) that
is ejected, typically with very high speed, from a rocket engine to produce thrust, and thus provide
spacecraft propulsion, or indirectly to produce the reaction mass in a chemical reaction. Each rocket type
requires a different kind of propellant: chemical rockets require propellants capable of undergoing
exothermic chemical reactions, which provide the energy to accelerate the resulting gases through the
nozzle. Thermal rockets instead use inert propellants of low molecular weight that are chemically
compatible with the heating mechanism at high temperatures, while cold gas thrusters use pressurized,
easily stored inert gases. Electric propulsion requires propellants that are easily ionized or made into plasma,
and in the extreme case of nuclear pulse propulsion the propellant consists of many small, non-weapon
nuclear explosives of which the resulting shock wave propels the spacecraft away from the explosive,
thereby creating propulsion.

1) Overview
Rocket propellant is either a high oxygen-containing fuel or a mixture of fuel plus oxidant, whose
combustion takes place, in a definite and controlled manner with the evolution of a huge volume of gas. In
the rocket engine, the propellant is burnt in the combustion chamber and the hot jet of gases (usually at a
temperature of 3,000°C and a pressure of 300 kg/cm^2) escapes through the nozzle at very high velocity.
Rockets create thrust by expelling mass backward in a high-speed jet. Chemical rockets, the subject of this
article, create thrust by reacting propellants within a combustion chamber into a very hot gas at high
pressure, which is then expanded and accelerated by passage through a nozzle at the rear of the rocket. The
amount of the resulting forward force, known as thrust, that is produced is the mass flow rate of the
propellants multiplied by their exhaust velocity (relative to the rocket), as specified by Newton's third law
of motion. Thrust is, therefore, the equal and opposite reaction that moves the rocket, and not by the
interaction of the exhaust stream with air around the rocket. Equivalently, one can think of a rocket being
accelerated upwards by the pressure of the combusting gases against the combustion chamber and nozzle.
This operational principle stands in contrast to the commonly-held assumption that a rocket "pushes"
against the air behind or below it. Rockets in fact perform better in outer space (where there is nothing
behind or beneath them to push against), because there is a reduction in air pressure on the outside of the
engine, and because it is possible to fit a longer nozzle without suffering from flow separation, in addition
to the lack of air drag.

Typically, a single-stage rocket might have a mass fraction of 90% propellant, 10% structure, and hence a
mass ratio of 9:1. The impulse delivered by the motor to the rocket vehicle per weight of propellant
consumed is the rocket propellant's specific impulse. A propellant with a higher specific impulse is said to
be more efficient as more thrust is produced per unit of propellant.
 Lower rocket stages usually use high-density (low volume per unit mass) propellants due to their lighter
tankage to propellant weight ratios and because higher performance propellants require higher expansion
ratios for maximum performance than can be attained when operated in the atmosphere. Thus, the Saturn
V first stage used kerosene-liquid oxygen rather than the liquid hydrogen-liquid oxygen used on its upper
stages. Similarly, the Space Shuttle used high-thrust, high-density solid rocket boosters for its lift-off with
the liquid hydrogen-liquid oxygen Space Shuttle Main Engines used partly for lift-off but primarily for
orbital insertion.

2) Types of propellants:
1) Solid propellants:
a) Description:
Solid propellants are either "composites" composed mostly of large, distinct macroscopic particles or
single-, double-, or triple-bases (depending on the number of primary ingredients), which are
homogeneous mixtures of one or more primary ingredients. Composites typically consist of a mixture
of granules of solid oxidizer (examples: ammonium nitrate, ammonium dinitramide, ammonium
perchlorate, potassium nitrate) in a polymer binder (binding agent) with flakes or powders of energetic
compounds (examples: RDX, HMX), metallic additives (examples: aluminum, beryllium), plasticizers,
stabilizers, and/or burn rate modifiers (iron oxide, copper oxide). Single-, double-, or triple-bases are
mixtures of the fuel, oxidizer, binders, and plasticizers that are macroscopically indistinguishable and
often blended as liquids and cured in a single batch. Often, the ingredients of a double-base propellant
have multiple roles. For example, RDX is both a fuel and oxidizer while nitrocellulose is a fuel,
oxidizer, and plasticizer. Further complicating categorization, there are many propellants that contain
elements of double-base and composite propellants, which often contain some amount of energetic
additives homogeneously mixed into the binder. In the case of gunpowder (a pressed composite without
a polymeric binder) the fuel is charcoal, the oxidizer is potassium nitrate, and sulphur serves as a
catalyst. During the 1950s and 60s researchers in the United States developed ammonium perchlorate
composite propellant (APCP). This mixture is typically 69-70% finely ground ammonium perchlorate
(an oxidizer), combined with 16-20% fine aluminium powder (a fuel), held together in a base of 11-
14% polybutadiene acrylonitrile (PBAN) or Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (polybutadiene rubber
fuel). The mixture is formed as a thickened liquid and then cast into the correct shape and cured into a
firm but flexible load-bearing solid. Historically the tally of APCP solid propellants is relatively small.
The military, however, uses a wide variety of different types of solid propellants some of which exceed
the performance of APCP. A comparison of the highest specific impulses achieved with the various
solid and liquid propellant combinations used in current launch vehicles is given in the article on solid-
fuel rockets.

b) Advantages:
Solid propellant rockets are much easier to store and handle than liquid propellant rockets. High
propellant density makes for compact size as well. These features plus simplicity and low cost make
 solid propellant rockets ideal for military applications. In the 1970s and 1980s, the U.S. switched
entirely to solid-fueled ICBMs: the LGM-30 Minuteman and LG-118A Peacekeeper (MX). In the
1980s and 1990s, the USSR/Russia also deployed solid-fueled ICBMs (RT-23, RT-2PM, and RT-
2UTTH), but retains two liquid-fueled ICBMs (R-36 and UR-100N). All solid-fueled ICBMs on both
sides had three initial solid stages, and those with multiple independently targeted warheads had a
precision maneuverable bus used to fine tune the trajectory of the re-entry vehicles. U.S. Minuteman
III ICBMs were reduced to a single warhead by 2011 in accordance with the START treaty leaving
only the Navy's Trident sub-launched ICBMs with multiple warheads.

Their simplicity also makes solid rockets a good choice whenever large amounts of thrust are needed
and the cost is an issue. The Space Shuttle and many other orbital launch vehicles use solid-fueled
rockets in their boost stages (solid rocket boosters) for this reason.

c) Disadvantages
Relative to liquid fuel rockets, solid fuel rockets have lower specific impulse, a measure of propellant
efficiency. The propellant mass ratios of solid propellant upper stages are usually in the .91 to .93 range
which is as good as or better than that of most liquid propellant upper stages but overall performance
is less than for liquid stages because of the solids' lower exhaust velocities. The high mass ratios
possible with (unsegmented) solids is a result of high propellant density and very high strength-to-
weight ratio filament-wound motor casings. A drawback to solid rockets is that they cannot be throttled
in real time, although a programmed thrust schedule can be created by adjusting the interior propellant
geometry. Solid rockets can be vented to extinguish combustion or reverse thrust as a means of
controlling range or accommodating warhead separation. Casting large amounts of propellant requires
consistency and repeatability which is assured by computer control. Casting voids in propellant can
adversely affect burn rate so the blending and casting take place under vacuum and the propellant blend
is spread thin and scanned to assure no large gas bubbles are introduced into the motor. Solid fuel
rockets are intolerant to cracks and voids and often require post-processing such as X-ray scans to
identify faults. Since the combustion process is dependent on the surface area of the fuel; voids and
cracks represent local increases in burning surface area. This increases the local temperature, system
pressure and radiative heat flux to the surface. This positive feedback loop further increases burn rate
and can easily lead to catastrophic failure typically due to case failure or nozzle system damage.

2) Liquid propellants:
The most common liquid propellants in use today:

Liquid oxygen (LOX) and highly refined kerosene (RP-1). Used for the first stages of the Saturn V,
Atlas V and Falcon, the Russian Soyuz, Ukrainian Zenit, and developmental rockets like Angara and
Long March 6. Very similar to Robert Goddard's first rocket, this combination is widely regarded as
the most practical for boosters that lift off at ground level and therefore must operate at full atmospheric
pressure.
 LOX and liquid hydrogen, used in the Space Shuttle orbiter, the Centaur upper stage of the Atlas V,
Saturn V upper stages, the newer Delta IV rocket, the H-IIA rocket, and most stages of the European
Ariane 5 rocket.

Dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) and hydrazine (N2H4), MMH, or UDMH. Used in military, orbital, and
deep space rockets because both liquids are storable for long periods at reasonable temperatures and
pressures. N2O4/UDMH is the main fuel for the Proton rocket, older Long March rockets (LM 1-4),
PSLV, and Fregat and Briz-M upper stages. This combination is hypergolic, making for attractively
simple ignition sequences. The major inconvenience is that these propellants are highly toxic, hence
they require careful handling.

Monopropellants such as hydrogen peroxide, hydrazine, and nitrous oxide are primarily used for
attitude control and spacecraft station-keeping where their long-term storability, simplicity of use, and
ability to provide the tiny impulses needed, outweighs their lower specific impulse as compared to
bipropellants. Hydrogen peroxide is also used to drive the turbopumps on the first stage of the Soyuz
launch vehicle.

3) Historical propellants:
These include propellants such as the letter-coded rocket propellants used by Germany in World War
II used for the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet's Walter HWK 109-509 motor and the V-2 pioneer SRBM
missile, and the Soviet/Russian utilized syntin, which is synthetic cyclopropane, C10H16 which was
used on Soyuz U2 until 1995.[citation needed] Syntin develops about 10 seconds greater specific
impulse than kerosene.

a) Advantages:
Liquid-fueled rockets have higher specific impulse than solid rockets and are capable of being throttled,
shut down, and restarted. Only the combustion chamber of a liquid-fueled rocket needs to withstand
high combustion pressures and temperatures and they can be regeneratively cooled by the liquid
propellant. On vehicles employing turbopumps, the propellant tanks are at very much lower pressure
than the combustion chamber. For these reasons, most orbital launch vehicles use liquid propellants.
While liquid propellants are cheaper than solid propellants, for orbital launchers, the cost savings do
not, and historically have not mattered; the cost of the propellant is a very small portion of the overall
cost of the rocket.

b) Disadvantages:
The main difficulties with liquid propellants are also with the oxidizers. These are generally at least
moderately difficult to store and handle due to their high reactivity with common materials, may have
extreme toxicity (nitric acid, nitrogen tetroxide), require moderately cryogenic storage (liquid oxygen),
or both (FLOX, a fluorine/LOX mix). Liquid-fueled rockets also require potentially troublesome valves
and seals and thermally stressed combustion chambers, which increase the cost of the rocket. Many
employ specially designed turbopumps which raise the cost enormously due to difficult fluid flow
patterns that exist within the casings.
4) Gas propellants:
A gas propellant usually involves some sort of compressed gas. However, due to the low density of
the gas and high weight of the pressure vessel required to contain it, gases see little current use but are
sometimes used for vernier engines, particularly with inert propellants like nitrogen.GOX (gaseous
oxygen) was used as the oxidizer for the Buran program's orbital maneuvering system.

5) Hybrid propellants:
A hybrid rocket usually has a solid fuel and a liquid or NEMA oxidizer. The fluid oxidizer can make it
possible to throttle and restart the motor just like a liquid-fueled rocket. Hybrid rockets can also be
environmentally safer than solid propellants.

Hybrid motors suffer two major drawbacks. The first, shared with solid rocket motors, is that the casing
around the fuel grain must be built to withstand full combustion pressure and often extreme
temperatures as well. However, modern composite structures handle this problem well, and when used
with nitrous oxide and a solid rubber propellant (HTPB), relatively small percentage of fuel is needed
anyway, so the combustion chamber is not especially large.

The primary remaining difficulty with hybrids is with mixing the propellants during the combustion
process. In solid propellants, the oxidizer and fuel are mixed in a factory in carefully controlled
conditions.

There has been much less development of hybrid motors than solid and liquid motors. For military use,
ease of handling and maintenance have driven the use of solid rockets. For orbital work, liquid fuels
are more efficient than hybrids and most development has concentrated there. There has recently been
an increase in hybrid motor development for nonmilitary suborbital work.

Several universities have recently experimented with hybrid rockets. Brigham Young University, the
University of Utah and Utah State University launched a student-designed rocket called Unity IV in
1995 which burned the solid fuel hydroxy-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) with an oxidizer of
gaseous oxygen, and in 2003 launched a larger version which burned HTPB with nitrous oxide.
Stanford University researches nitrous-oxide/paraffin wax hybrid motors. UCLA has launched hybrid
rockets through an undergraduate student group since 2009 using HTPB.

6) Gel propellant:
Some work has been done on gelling liquid propellants to give a propellant with low vapor pressure to
reduce the risk of an accidental fireball. Gelled propellant behaves like a solid propellant in storage and
like a liquid propellant in use.

7) Inert propellant:
Some rocket designs have their propellants obtain their energy from non-chemical or even external
sources. For example, water rockets use the compressed gas, typically air, to force the water out of the
rocket.
Solar thermal rockets and nuclear thermal rockets typically propose to use liquid hydrogen for an Isp
(Specific Impulse) of around 600–900 seconds, or in some cases water that is exhausted as steam for an Isp
of about 190 seconds.

Additionally, for low performance requirements such as attitude control jets, inert gases such as nitrogen
have been employer. Nuclear thermal rockets pass a propellant over a central reactor, heating the propellant
and causing it to expand rapidly out a rocket nozzle, pushing the craft forward. The propellant itself is not
directly interacting with the interior of the reactor, so the propellant is not irradiated.

Solar thermal rockets use concentrated sunlight to heat a propellant, rather than using a nuclear reactor.

3) Mixture ratio
The theoretical exhaust velocity of a given propellant chemistry is a function of the energy released per unit
of propellant mass (specific energy). Unburned fuel or oxidizer drags down the specific energy. However,
most rockets run fuel-rich mixtures.

The nozzle of the rocket converts the thermal energy of the propellants into directed kinetic energy. This
conversion happens in a short time, on the order of one millisecond. During the conversion, energy must
transfer very quickly from the rotational and vibrational states of the exhaust molecules into translation.
Molecules with fewer atoms (like CO and H2) store less energy in vibration and rotation than molecules
with more atoms (like CO2 and H2O). These smaller molecules transfer more of their rotational and
vibrational energy to translation energy than larger molecules, and the resulting improvement in nozzle
efficiency is large enough that real rocket engines improve their actual exhaust velocity by running rich
mixtures with somewhat lower theoretical exhaust velocities.

The effect of exhaust molecular weight on nozzle efficiency is most important for nozzles operating near
sea level. High expansion rockets operating in a vacuum see a much smaller effect, and so are run less rich.
The Saturn-II stage (a LOX/LH2 rocket) varied its mixture ratio during flight to optimize performance.

LOX/hydrocarbon rockets are run only somewhat rich (O/F mass ratio of 3 rather than stoichiometric of
3.4 to 4) because the energy release per unit mass drops off quickly as the mixture ratio deviates from
stoichiometric. LOX/LH2 rockets are run very rich (O/F mass ratio of 4 rather than stoichiometric 8)
because hydrogen is so light that the energy release per unit mass of propellant drops very slowly with extra
hydrogen. In fact, LOX/LH2 rockets are generally limited in how rich they run by the performance penalty
of the mass of the extra hydrogen tankage, rather than the mass of the hydrogen itself.

Another reason for running rich is that off-stoichiometric mixtures burn cooler than stoichiometric
mixtures, which makes engine cooling easier. Because fuel-rich combustion products are less chemically
reactive (corrosive) than oxygenated products, a vast majority of rocket engines are designed to run fuel-
rich, with at least one exception for the Russian RD-180 preburner, which burns LOX and RP-1 at a ratio
of 2.72.
Additionally, mixture ratios can be dynamic during launch. This can be exploited with designs that adjust
the oxidizer to fuel ratio (along with overall thrust) during the flight to maximize overall system
performance. For instance, during lift-off thrust is a premium while specific impulse is less so. As such, the
system can be optimized by carefully adjusting the O/F ratio so the engine runs cooler at higher thrust
levels. This also allows for the engine to be designed slightly more compactly, improving its overall thrust
to weight performance.

4) Propellant density:
Although liquid hydrogen gives a high Isp, its low density is a significant disadvantage: hydrogen occupies
about 7x more volume per kilogram than dense fuels such as kerosene. This not only penalizes the tankage,
but also the pipes and fuel pumps leading from the tank, which need to be 7x bigger and heavier. (The
oxidizer side of the engine and tankage is of course unaffected.) This makes the vehicle's dry mass much
higher, so the use of liquid hydrogen is not as advantageous as might be expected. Indeed, some dense
hydrocarbon/LOX propellant combinations have higher performance when the dry mass penalties are
included.

Due to lower Isp, dense propellant launch vehicles have a higher takeoff mass, but this does not mean a
proportionately high cost; on the contrary, the vehicle may well end up cheaper. Liquid hydrogen is quite
an expensive fuel to produce and store, and causes many practical difficulties with design and manufacture
of the vehicle.

Because of the higher overall weight, a dense-fueled launch vehicle necessarily requires higher takeoff
thrust, but it carries this thrust capability all the way to orbit. This, in combination with the better
thrust/weight ratios, means that dense-fueled vehicles reach orbit earlier, thereby minimizing losses due to
gravity drag. Thus, the effective delta-v requirement for these vehicles is reduced.

However, liquid hydrogen does give clear advantages when the overall mass needs to be minimized; for
example, the Saturn V vehicle used it on the upper stages; this reduced weight meant that the dense-fueled
first stage could be made significantly smaller, saving quite a lot of money.

5) Solid propellants: AP/HTPB composite propellants

Introduction
Solid propellants are mainly used in gun and rocket propulsion applications. They are very energetic and
produce high temperature gaseous products on combustion. The high material density of solid propellants
leads to high energy density needed for producing the required propulsive force. Propellants in onboard
rocket are burned in a controlled way (deflagration) to produce the desired thrust. A solid propellant consists
of several chemical ingredients such as oxidizer, fuel, binder, plasticizer, curing agent, stabilizer, and cross-
linking agent. The specific chemical composition depends on the desired combustion characteristics for a
particular mission.
Ammonium perchlorate (AP)-based composite propellants have been a workhorse in the field of solid
rocket propulsion for more than five decades. This type of propellant typically contains a multi-modal
distribution of AP (NH4ClO4) grains (∼20 to 200 mm) embedded in the hydroxyl-terminated
polybutadiene (HTPB) matrix. The physiochemical processes that occur during the combustion of
AP/HTPB propellant include condensed-phase heating, degradation of AP and HTPB, melting and surface
pyrolysis, and gas-phase reactions. The flame structures and burning behavior depend on several factors,
such as propellant composition, AP grain size, initial and ambient conditions, and propellant morphological
configuration.

1) Components and properties

The choosing of propellant type is at the core of any solid rocket motor design. The desirable characteristics
for a solid propellant are high specific impulse, predictable and reproducible burning rate and ignition
characteristics, high density, ease of manufacturing, low cost, and good aging characteristics. In safety point
of view propellants should produce low-smoke exhaust and not be prone to combustion instability. In
addition, they should have adequate thermophysical and mechanical properties over the intended range of
operating and storage conditions. Propellants are typically classified as homogeneous or heterogeneous,
according to their chemical composition and physical structure. The former contain fuels and oxidizers,
which are chemically linked at the molecular level. The latter include fuel and oxidizers, which are mixed
physically.

The material densities are typically in the range of 1.2–2.0 g cm−3. The heat of formation varies widely
and is instrumental in determining the flame temperature and the total energy released during combustion.
Numbers of experimental diagnostics and analytical models have helped obtain reliable data for the thermal
decomposition, thermophysical properties, and flame structures of these propellants. Different chemical
ingredients present in a solid propellant and their functions are as follows.

a) Oxidizers
Oxidizers are principle ingredients, which produce the high energy on combustion. One of the
most commonly used oxidizers is AP. AP dominates the oxidizer list because of its good
characteristics that include compatibility with other propellant ingredients, good performance, and
availability. Although the inorganic nitrates are relatively low-performance oxidizers compared to
perchlorates, they are used because of low cost and smokeless and non-toxic exhaust.

b) Metal fuel
Metal fuels such as aluminum and boron are frequently added to propellant mixtures. Aluminum,
one of the widely used metal additives, is used in the form of small spherical particles (5–60 μm)
in a wide variety of solid propellants. Aluminum particles usually comprise 14–20% of the
propellant weight. Addition of metal fuel enhances the heat of combustion, propellant density,
combustion temperature, and hence the specific impulse.

c) Binder
Binders provide structurally a matrix in which solid granular ingredients are held together in a
composite propellant. The raw materials are liquid prepolymers or monomers. The binder impacts
 the mechanical and chemical properties, propellant processing and aging of the propellant. Binder
materials typically act as a fuel, which gets oxidized in the combustion processes. Commonly used
binders are HTPB, CTPB, and NC. Sometimes GAP is also used as energetic binder, which
increases the energy density and performance of the propellant. HTPB has been abundantly used
in the recent years, as it allows higher solid fractions (total 88–90% of AP and Al) and relatively
good physical properties.

d) Modifier or Catalyst
A burning-rate catalyst helps increase or decrease the propellant burning rate. It is sometimes also
referred to as burning-rate modifier. It can be used to modify the burning rate of specific grain
design to a desired value. Substances such as iron oxide increase the burning rate, while lithium
fluoride decreases the burning rate. These materials help tailor the burning rate to fit the grain
design and the thrust-time requirement.

In recent researchers mainly focus on catalyst of nano size. Several experimental results show that
catalytic activity of nano sized catalyst remarkably increased as compared to their bulk size.
Complete thermal decomposition of AP occurs at much lower temperature. Burning rate of
propellants also enhanced with nano sized catalyst.

e) Plasticizer
It is a relatively low-viscosity organic liquid, which also contributes to the thermal energy on
oxidation. Addition of plasticizer improves the processing properties of propellant remarkably.
Some of the commonly used plasticizers are DOA, NG, GAP, and DEP.

f) Curing agent
A curing agent causes the prepolymers to form longer chains of larger molecular mass and
interlocks between chains. Curing agents are also referred to as crosslinkers. They solidify and
harden the binder. Although present in a minor amount, its presence impacts the propellant
physical properties, manufacturability, and aging considerably. It is used only with composite
propellants. HMDI, TDI, and IPDI are some examples of curing agents.

g) Additive
Other substances in minor quantities are often added to solid propellants. Opacifier is an additive
to make the propellant more opaque to prevent radiative heating at places other than burning
surface. Bonding agents improve the adhesion between the solid propellant and the motor case.
Desensitizing agents are added to make the propellant resistant to accidental ignition from
unwanted energy stimulus. Organic oxidizers, which are explosive organic compounds with – NO2
radical or other oxidizing fractions, are also incorporated into the molecular structure.

2) Classification
Mainly two types of solid propellants (homogeneous and heterogeneous) are distinguished by their
constituent ingredients and the condition in which they are linked. In a homogeneous propellant,
the ingredients are linked chemically and the resulting physical structure is homogeneous
 throughout. Typical examples of homogeneous propellants are single-base (NC and additives),
double-base (NC, NG and additives), and triple-base (NC, NG, NQ, and additives) propellants. In
a heterogeneous or composite propellant, the ingredients are physically mixed, leading to a
heterogeneous physical structure. It is composed of crystalline particles acting as oxidizer and
organic plastic fuels acting as binder to adhere oxidizer particles together. The ingredients often
used as oxidizers are AP, AN, ADN, RDX, and HMX. The most commonly employed binders are
either inert (typically HTPB, ballistic modifiers, and cross-linking agents) or active (NG and NC,
polyether polymer, and azide polymer such as GAP, BAMO, and AMMO).

a) Homogeneous solid propellants

(i) Single-base propellants
The main ingredient in a single-base propellant is NC, gelatinized with ethyl alcohol as solvent. NG is
made by acid nitration of natural cellulose fibers from wood or cotton and is a mixture of several organic
nitrates. Small amounts of chemical stabilizer and flame suppressant are also added. The propellant
grain is coated with carbon black to keep the surface smooth.

(ii) Double-base propellants

Double-base propellants are one of the oldest propellants. They are known to have nearly smokeless
exhaust. The main ingredients in double-base propellants are NC and an energetic nitrate ester such
as NG, TMETN, or DEGDN. These nitrate esters are liquid at room temperature and are used to
produce a plasticized gel network resulting in a homogenous physical structure. The
physiochemical properties of double-base propellants such as energy density, mechanical
properties, and combustion characteristics and stability depend on the proportions of NC, nitrate
ester, stabilizers, plasticizers, and other catalysts. Two types of double-base propellants, extruded
and cast, are distinguished by the manufacturing process. By adding crystalline nitramines the
performance and density can be improved. This is sometimes called as cast-modified double-base
propellant. Aluminum can be added to suppress combustion instability as well as improve specific
impulse. Sometimes azides (GAP) are added to double-base propellants, which can act as a
plasticizer. The energy density of the resultant propellant also increases.

(iii) Composite modified double base propellants

Composite modified double base (CMDB) propellants start with a nitrocellulose/nitroglycerin
double base propellant as a binder and add solids (typically ammonium perchlorate and powdered
aluminum) normally used in composite propellants. The ammonium perchlorate makes up the
oxygen deficit introduced by using nitrocellulose, improving the overall specific impulse. The
aluminum also improves specific impulse as well as combustion stability. High performing
propellants such as NEPE-75 used in Trident II D-5 replace most of the AP with HMX, further
increasing specific impulse. The mixing of composite and double base propellant ingredients has
become so common as to blur the functional definition of double base propellants. The physical
 structure of CMDB is somewhat heterogeneous, and the physicochemical properties are
intermediate between composite and homogeneous propellants.

(iv) Triple-base propellants

NQ can be added to a double-base propellant to form a triple base propellant. NQ contains a
relatively high amount of hydrogen atoms within its molecular structure that lowers the average
molecular weight of the propellant combustion products. If instead of NQ, crystalline AP, HMX,
or RDX particles are can used then the propellant is called as CMDB.

(b) Heterogeneous solid propellants

Heterogeneous propellants are mixtures of crystalline oxidizer particles binded within a polymeric
fuel matrix. The commonly used oxidizers such as AP and AN produce high oxygen concentrations
on thermal decomposition. The fuel used is the hydrocarbon-based polymers such as HTPB, CTPB,
and PBAN. Typically high concentrations of oxidizers are used to give high specific impulse.
Aluminum particles are usually added to further increase the specific impulse.

(i) AP-composite propellants

AP-based composite propellants usually produce white smoke on combustion. This is because one
of the combustion products HCl nucleates the condensation of moisture in the atmosphere, resulting
in fog or mist. Such smoke is not produced if AN is used, but it lowers the performance due to
reduction in the specific impulse. AP-HTPB is the most commonly used combination because
HTPB is considered to be a superior binder to achieve high combustion performance as well as
desired propellant physical and mechanical properties. Azide polymers such as GAP and BAMO
are also used with AP or AN to formulate composite propellants. The addition of metal fuel such
as Al allows a significant increase in the adiabatic flame temperatures of composite propellants.
When aluminum is used, the combustion products contain a substantial amount of aluminum oxide
(Al2O3) in the chamber, which is mostly present in the liquid phase.

(ii) Ammonium Nitrate based Propellants

One of the primary products of combustion of AP-based propellants is HCl, which in the presence of
water forms hydrochloric acid, which produces smoke and is highly toxic. Realizing the significance of
chlorine free propellants there have been many attempts have been made to develop clean burning
propellants. Many of these attempts as can be seen are based on AN as the oxidizer. Ammonium Nitrate
(AN) is one of the most appropriate oxidizer for propellant compositions that meet the above
requirements. Though the experiments on AN as a high-performance oxidizer for SRB (space shuttle’s
solid rocket boosters) in place of AP are in their infancy, gas generator compositions have established
its use as an efficient oxidizer. Both double-base and composite (without metal) propellants are used
extensively with AN or as a mixture of AN and guanidine nitrate in gas generators. AN composite
propellants provide desired exhaust properties such as high nitrogen content, low water, modest amounts
of solid particles, and a relatively nonhazardous exhaust. Further, AN propellant formulations are
 relatively insensitive to temperature and impact and have good strength properties over a wide range of
temperature. AN-based systems have several positive features including clean burning and smokeless
exhaust. They can be used as a substitution for AP. Though AN-based systems have several positive
features such as clean burning and smokeless exhaust they are not free from drawbacks, and substitution
of AP with AN for high-performance systems is not straightforward. The main problems associated with
AN in its use as an oxidizer in propellants include the following: phase transformation around room
temperature (32 °C), which is accompanied by significant volume expansion that results in crack
formation in the propellant grain; hygroscopicity; low burning rate; and low energy. Many attempts
have been made to overcome these problems and to realize a better phase transition and combustion
behavior for AN-based propellants.

(iii) Nitramine composite propellants

These propellants contain crystalline nitramines such as RDX and HMX mixed with a polymeric
binder. The polymeric binders are similar to the ones used in AP-based composite propellants.
Nitramine composite propellants offer the advantage of reduced infrared emissions due to the
reduced CO2 and H2O concentration as compared to AP-HTPB propellants.

(iv) Minimum-signature (smokeless) propellants

One of the most active areas of solid propellant research is the development of high-energy,
minimum-signature propellant using CL-20 (China Lake compound #20), C6H6N6(NO2)6,
which has 14% higher energy per mass and 20% higher energy density than HMX. The new
propellant has been successfully developed and tested in tactical rocket motors. The propellant is
non-polluting: acid free, solid particulates free, and lead free. It is also smoke free and has only a
faint shock diamond pattern that is visible in the otherwise transparent exhaust. Without the
bright flame and dense smoke trail produced by the burning of aluminized propellants, these
smokeless propellants eliminate the risk of giving away the positions from which the missiles are
fired. The new CL-20 propellant is shock-insensitive (hazard class 1.3) as opposed to current
HMX smokeless propellants which are highly detonable (hazard class 1.1). CL-20 is considered a
major breakthrough in solid rocket propellant technology but has yet to see widespread use
because costs remain high.

3) Combustion
Understanding the thermal decomposition and combustion characteristics of energetic materials is
crucial before they are employed in actual rocket motors. The combustion characteristics of concern
include pressure and temperature sensitivities of the burning rate, propellant surface condition, and
spatial distribution of energy release, temperature, and species concentrations. Combustion of a
solid propellant involves an array of intricate physiochemical processes evolving from the various
ingredients that constitute the propellant. Thus it is important to study and characterize the burning
properties of the specific ingredients that are used in solid propellants.
Combustion wave structure of a composite propellant is much different and more complex than that of
a homogeneous propellant. One of the main differences is the diffusion flame structure of a composite
propellant versus the premixed flame structure of a homogeneous propellant.

The AP particles first decompose in the sub-surface region to form perchloric acid (HClO4), and the
HTPB binder decomposes to produce fuel in the form of hydrocarbon fragments and hydrogen. HClO4
decomposes further to form smaller oxidizing species. These decomposed gases consisting of fuel and
oxidizer components mix together to form a diffusion flame above the propellant-burning surface. The
flame structure, however, is more complex as there are individual premixed monopropellant flames
from AP and partially mixed flames from HTPB, in addition to the diffusion flame from their
decomposition products. The luminous flame is attached to the burning surface and there is no dark
zone as seen in double-base propellants. If aluminum particles are present in a composite propellant,
they break loose from the surface and continue to react in the gas flow.

The combustion of AP/HTPB composite propellant involves an array of intricate physiochemical

processes including the following: (1) conductive preheating, decomposition, and phase transition in the
condensed phase; and (2) multi-stage reactions in the gas phase. Since the oxidizer and fuel binder are
not linked chemically, the combustion characteristics of AP and HTPB are first examined separately in
order to facilitate the construction of an integrated model for the overall propellant combustion.

a) Combustion of AP Monopropellant
Combustion of AP monopropellant has been extensively studied in the past (King, 1978). The AP
crystal first experiences a phase transition from an orthorhombic structure to a cubic structure at 513
K. As the temperature increases, the crystal lattice becomes unstable and melts around 830 K. The
dissociative sublimation and degradation of AP occurs at this temperature. The degradation results in a
thin superficial reaction layer, approx. 70% consumption of the AP crystal. The remaining 30%
undergoes a highly endothermic equilibrium dissociative sublimation (ΔHdis = 58 ± 2 kcal/mol)
through a proton transfer producing gaseous ammonium and perchlorate acid. The species so
generated subsequently undergo a sequence of chain reactions to form a premixed flame producing
final products such as O2, NO, and N2O, which act as major oxidizers in the gas phase reactions.

On the basis of this mechanism, Chu and Yang (1996) proposed a one-step kinetics model and
predicted the flame temperature and major species concentrations of AP deflagration. Results indicate
that the premixed flame is located very close to the propellant surface, with stand-off distances of
about 9 and 1 mm at pressures of 20 and 70 atm, respectively. The flame height of AP monopropellant
is about 1 to 2 orders of magnitude lower than that of the final diffusion flame in AP/HTPB composite
propellant combustion.

b) Pyrolysis of HTPB Binder

HTPB is long-chain, cross-linked, and high molecular-weight polymer. Literature reported that the
pyrolysis of HTPB is highly dependent on the heating rate. At low heating rates (less than 100
K/min), the pyrolysis is known to occur via a two-stage mechanism. The first stage involves
endothermic depolymerization, forming monomer butadiene, cyclopentene, 1,3-cyclohexadiene, and
4-vinylcyclohexene as the main gaseous products. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) studies show a
10–15% weight loss during this stage. In the second stage, the remaining residue cyclizes, cross-links,
and undergoes further degradation. At heating rates higher than 100 K/min, the first stage prevails,
with deploymerization as the main degradation process. In rocket-motor environments, since HTPB is
exposed to extreme temperatures (above 2000 K), pressures (20–100 atm), and heating rates (as high
as 106 K/s), there is very little time for exothermic crosslinking and cyclization to take place.

(c) Combustion of AP/HTPB Propellant

Three main points should be considered for a typical AP/HTPB composite propellant. First, the mass
loading of AP is much higher than that of HTPB. Second, AP monopropellant is highly reactive and
can sustain exothermic reactions without the presence of any fuel binder. Third, the size of AP
particles plays a decisive role in dictating the burning behavior of the composite propellant. Thus AP
degradation is the main controlling factor in the modeling of condensed-phase processes. HTPB is
assumed to influence the combustion only through the participation of its degradation products in the
gas-phase reactions. Consequently, the condensed-phase modeling is conducted solely on AP, and the
HTPB regression rate is determined by the overall energy balance. A primary diffusion flame can
occur through the reactions between HTPB pyrolysis products and ammonia-derived oxidizer
(HClO4). This flame, however, may exist only at low pressures, due to the competing reaction effects.
In rocket motors, the high chamber pressure renders rapid AP deflagration with an exceedingly low
flame height. The ammonia-derived oxidizer can hardly meet HTPB pyrolysis species through the
diffusion process and is almost completely consumed in the AP primary flame. The effect of the
primary diffusion flame can thus be neglected in a high-pressure environment.

The mass fraction of AP is 80% for both cases (AP/HTPB and AP/ethylene). Fairly good agreement is
obtained for the equilibrium species concentration. The flame temperature, however, is over predicted
by 100 K if HTPB is replaced by C2H4, a phenomenon pointed to the endothermic depolymerization
and pyrolysis of HTPB to form C2H4. Both mixtures exhibit the highest flame temperature when the
AP mass fraction reaches a stoichiometric value of 88%. The substitution of ethylene for the HTPB
pyrolysis products in the current modeling of the gas-phase combustion appears to be reasonable.

4) Ignition
The ignition of a propellant grain in a rocket motor is caused by an igniter attached on the motor. The
igniters are usually solid propellants that provide a rapid heat release and high gas evolution. Extruded
double-base propellants are often employed, usually as a large number of cylindrical pellets. One of the
common igniter formulations uses 20–35% boron, 65–80% potassium nitrate with 1–5% of binder.
Solid propellant ignition consists of a series of complex rapid events, which begin on receipt of a
starting signal. This process include heat generation, transfer of heat from the igniter to the grain
surface, spreading the flame over the entire burning surface, filling the chamber free volume with gas,
and elevating the chamber pressure. The igniter generates the heat and gas required for motor ignition.
During the ignition process, the heat generated from the igniter starts the burning of propellant grain.
The flame spreads quickly until the complete grain is ignited. Then the chamber is completely filled
with combustion products for reaching the operating pressure. The ignition process is usually completed
within a fraction of a second.

5) Specific Impulse:
Total impulse was the impulse produced from burning all the propellant in the motor. We have a
better reference for comparison of different motors if we ask, "How much impulse is produced by
burning one pound of propellant?" This value is called the specific impulse and is calculated from

Units for specific impulse are lbf-sec/lbm (or more generally, just seconds).

6) Burning rate:
The performance of a rocket motor depends mainly on the burning rate of the propellant.

The velocity at which a solid propellant is consumed during operation is called the burning
rate. It is measured in a direction normal to the propellant surface and is usually expressed in
inches
per second (ips). For most ordinary propellants, the burning rate at 2000 psi chamber pressure is
between 0.03 and 2.5 ips.

Here Pc is chamber pressure.

7) Total impulse:
The impulse, usually called the total impulse, of a rocket motor is the integral of the thrust, F,
over the operating time, t. Mathematically, this is expressed as
 All the definition and equation mean is that the total impulse is equivalent to the area enclosed by
the thrust versus time curve.
Units for total impulse are, as might be expected, Ibf-sec.

8) Thrust-time curve

9) Conclusion
A solid propellant contains several chemical ingredients such as oxidizer, fuel, binder, plasticizer,
curing agent, stabilizer, and cross-linking agent. The specific chemical composition depends on the
desired combustion characteristics. Different chemical ingredients and their proportions lead to
different physical and mechanical properties, combustion characteristics, and performance. The
propulsive performance of a solid propellant critically depends on its combustion characteristics
including pressure and temperature sensitivities of the burning rate, and spatial distribution of
energy release, temperature, and species concentrations. There is also scope for further research to
improve the performance of propellants by use of nanosize catalyst. Nowadays it is the one of the
main issues for the research.