8 Complex Vector

Spaces
8.1 Complex Numbers
8.2 Conjugates and Division of Complex Numbers
8.3 Polar Form and DeMoivre’s Theorem
8.4 Complex Vector Spaces and Inner Products
8.5 Unitary and Hermitian Matrices

Quantum Mechanics (p. 433)

Signal Processing (p. 425)

Elliptic Curve Cryptography (p. 414)

Mandelbrot Set (p. 408)

Electric Circuits (p. 403)

Clockwise from top left, James Thew/Shutterstock.com; Mikhail/Shutterstock.com;
Sybille Yates/Shutterstock.com; Lisa F. Young/Shutterstock.com; Štepán Kápl/Shutterstock.com 399

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 400 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

8.1 Complex Numbers

Use the imaginary unit i to write complex numbers.
Graphically represent complex numbers in the complex plane as
points and as vectors.
Add and subtract two complex numbers, and multiply a complex
number by a real scalar.
Multiply two complex numbers, and use the Quadratic Formula to
find all zeros of a quadratic polynomial.
Perform operations with complex matrices, and find the determinant
of a complex matrix.

REMARK Complex Numbers

When working with products So far in the text, the scalar quantities used have been real numbers. In this chapter, you
involving square roots of will expand the set of scalars to include complex numbers.
negative numbers, be sure to In algebra it is often necessary to solve quadratic equations such as
convert to a multiple of i before x 2 − 3x + 2 = 0. The general form of a quadratic equation is ax 2 + bx + c = 0, and
multiplying. For example, its solutions can be found using the Quadratic Formula
consider the operations below.
−b ± √b2 − 4ac
√−1√−1 = i ∙i x=
2a
= i2
where the quantity under the radical, b2 − 4ac, is the discriminant. If b2 − 4ac ≥ 0,
= −1  Correct
then the solution(s) are real numbers. But what can you conclude about the solutions
√−1√−1 = √(−1)(−1) of a quadratic equation whose discriminant is negative? For example, the equation
= √1 x2 + 4 = 0 has a discriminant of b2 − 4ac = −16, but there is no real number whose
square is −16. To overcome this deficiency, use the imaginary unit
= 1   Incorrect
i = √−1
where i 2 = −1. In terms of the imaginary unit, √−16 = 4√−1 = 4i.
With the imaginary unit i, you can define the system of complex numbers.

Definition of a Complex Number

If a and b are real numbers, then the number
a + bi
is a complex number, where a is the real part and bi is the imaginary part of
the number. The form a + bi is the standard form of a complex number.

Some examples of complex numbers written in standard form are 2 = 2 + 0i,

4 + 3i, and −6i = 0 − 6i. The set of real numbers is a subset of the set of complex
numbers. To see this, note that every real number a can be written as a complex
number using b = 0. That is, for every real number, a = a + 0i.
A complex number is uniquely determined by its real and imaginary parts. So, two
complex numbers are equal if and only if their real and imaginary parts are equal. That
is, if a + bi and c + di are two complex numbers written in standard form, then
a + bi = c + di
if and only if a = c and b = d.

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 8.1  Complex Numbers 401
Imaginary
axis
The Complex Plane
As mentioned on the preceding page, a complex number is uniquely determined by its real
(a, b) or a + bi and imaginary parts. So, it is natural to associate the number a + bi with the ordered pair
(a, b). With this association, complex numbers can be represented graphically as points in
b a coordinate plane called the complex plane. This plane is an adaptation of the rectangular
Real
axis coordinate plane. Specifically, the horizontal axis is the real axis and the vertical axis is
a the imaginary axis. The point that corresponds to the complex number a + bi is (a, b),
as shown in Figure 8.1.
The Complex Plane
Figure 8.1 Plotting Complex Numbers

Plot each number in the complex plane.

a.  4 + 3i   b.  −2 − i   c.  −3i   d.  5
SOLUTION
The figures below show each number plotted in the complex plane.
a.  Imaginary b.  Imaginary
axis axis

4 2
3 4 + 3i 1
Real
2 or (4, 3) axis
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
1
Real −2 − i
axis or (− 2, − 1)
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 −3
−2 −4

c.  Imaginary d. 

Imaginary
axis axis

2 4
1 3
Real 2
axis
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 1 5 or (5, 0)
Real
−2 axis
−1 1 2 3 4 5
−3 − 3i or (0, − 3)
−4 −2

Another way to represent the complex number a + bi is as a vector whose

horizontal component is a and whose vertical component is b. (See below.) (Note that
the use of i to represent the imaginary unit is unrelated to the use of i to represent a
unit vector.)

Imaginary
axis

1 Horizontal
component
Real
axis

−1

−2 Vertical
component 4 − 2i
−3

Vector Representation of a Complex Number

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 402 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

Addition, Subtraction, and Scalar

Multiplication of Complex Numbers
A complex number consists of a real part added to a multiple of i, so the operations
of addition and multiplication are defined in a manner consistent with the rules for
operating with real numbers. For instance, to add (or subtract) two complex numbers,
add (or subtract) the real and imaginary parts separately.

Definition of Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers

The sum and difference of
a + bi and c + di
are
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i Sum

and
(a + bi) − (c + di) = (a − c) + (b − d)i. Difference

REMARK
Adding and Subtracting Complex Numbers
Note in parts (b) and (d) of
Example 2 that the sum or
difference of two complex a.  (1 + 2i) + (4 + 5i) = (1 + 4) + (2 + 5)i
numbers can be a real number. = 5 + 7i
b.  (2 − 4i) + (3 + 4i) = (2 + 3) + (−4 + 4)i
=5
c.  (1 − 3i) − (3 + i) = (1 − 3) + (−3 − 1)i
= −2 − 4i
d.  (5 − 6i) − (8 − 6i) = (5 − 8) + (−6 + 6)i
= −3

Using the vector representation of complex numbers, you can add or subtract two
complex numbers geometrically using the parallelogram rule for vector addition. The
figures below show geometric representations of parts (b) and (c) of Example 2.

Imaginary Imaginary
axis axis
z = 3 + 4i
4 2
3 w=3+i
1
2 Real
1 axis
z+w=5 −3 1 2 3
Real
axis
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6

−2 −3
z = 1 − 3i
−3
−4 z − w = −2 − 4i
w = 2 − 4i
Addition of Complex Numbers Subtraction of Complex Numbers

Many of the properties of addition of real numbers are valid for complex numbers
as well. For instance, addition of complex numbers is both associative and commutative.
Moreover, to find the sum of three or more complex numbers, extend the definition of
addition in the natural way. For example,
(2 + i) + (3 − 2i) + (−2 + 4i) = (2 + 3 − 2) + (1 − 2 + 4)i = 3 + 3i.

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 8.1  Complex Numbers 403

Another property of real numbers that is valid for complex numbers is the
distributive property of scalar multiplication over addition. To multiply a complex
number by a real scalar, use the definition below.

Definition of Scalar Multiplication

If c is a real number and a + bi is a complex number, then the scalar multiple
of c and a + bi is
c(a + bi) = ca + cbi.

Scalar Multiplication with Complex Numbers

a.  −2(1 − 3i) = −2(1) − (−2)(3i)

= −2 + 6i
b.  3(2 + 7i) + 4(8 − i) = 6 + 21i + 32 − 4i
= 38 + 17i
c.  −4(1 + i) + 2(3 − i) − 3(1 − 4i) = −4 − 4i + 6 − 2i − 3 + 12i
= −1 + 6i

Geometrically, you can visualize the multiplication of a complex number by a real

scalar as the multiplication of a vector by a scalar, as shown below.

Imaginary Imaginary
axis axis

4 3

3 2
2z = 6 + 2i z=3+i
2 1
z=3+i Real
1 axis
Real 1 2 3
1 2 3 4 5 6
axis −z = −3 − i
−1 −2

−2 −3

Multiplication of a Complex Number by a Real Number

With addition and scalar multiplication, the set of complex numbers forms a
vector space of dimension 2 (where the scalars are the real numbers). You are asked to
verify this in Exercise 61.

Complex numbers have useful applications in electronics.

Linear The state of a circuit element is described by two
Algebra quantities: the voltage V across it and the current I flowing
Applied through it. So, the circuit element’s state can be described
by a single complex number z = V + li, where the
voltage and current are the coefficients of the real and
imaginary parts, respectively. A similar notation can be
used to express the circuit element’s capacitance and
inductance. When elements of a circuit change with time,
electrical engineers often analyze them using differential
equations. These can often be simpler to solve using
complex numbers.
Adrio Communications Ltd/Shutterstock.com

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 404 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

Multiplication of Complex Numbers

The operations of addition, subtraction, and scalar multiplication of complex numbers
have exact counterparts with the corresponding vector operations. However, there is no
direct vector counterpart for the multiplication of two complex numbers.

Definition of Multiplication of Complex Numbers

The product of the complex numbers a + bi and c + di is
(a + bi)(c + di) = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i.

It is not necessary to memorize the above definition. When multiplying complex

numbers, you can apply the distributive property (or use the FOIL method), as shown
below.

technology (a + bi)(c + di) = a(c + di) + bi(c + di) Distributive property

Many graphing utilities and = ac + (ad)i + (bc)i + (bd)i 2 Distributive property
software programs can = ac + (ad)i + (bc)i + (bd)(−1) Use i 2 = −1.
calculate with complex
numbers. Use such a graphing
= ac − bd + (ad)i + (bc)i Commutative property
utility or software program to = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i Distributive property
verify the result of Example 4.
If you use a graphing utility
that expresses a complex Multiplying Complex Numbers
number a + bi as an ordered
pair (a, b), then you should See LarsonLinearAlgebra.com for an interactive version of this type of example.
obtain the ordered pair (11, 2).
(2 − i)(4 + 3i) = 8 + 6i − 4i − 3i 2
= 8 + 6i − 4i − 3(−1)
= 8 + 3 + 6i − 4i
= 11 + 2i

Complex Zeros of a Polynomial

Use the Quadratic Formula to find the zeros of the polynomial p(x) = x 2 − 6x + 13
and verify that p(x) = 0 for each zero.
solution
Using the Quadratic Formula,
−b ± √b2 − 4ac 6 ± √−16 6 ± 4i
x= = = = 3 ± 2i.
2a 2 2
Substitute each value of x into the polynomial p(x) to verify that p(x) = 0.
p(3 + 2i) = (3 + 2i)2 − 6(3 + 2i) + 13
= 9 + 6i + 6i − 4 − 18 − 12i + 13
REMARK =0
A well-known result from p(3 − 2i) = (3 − 2i)2 − 6(3 − 2i) + 13
algebra states that for a = 9 − 6i − 6i − 4 − 18 + 12i + 13
polynomial with real coefficients,
any complex zeros must occur
=0
in conjugate pairs. (See Review
Exercise 81.) In Example 5, the two complex numbers 3 + 2i and 3 − 2i are complex
conjugates of each other (together they form a conjugate pair). You will study
properties of complex conjugates in Section 8.2.

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 8.1  Complex Numbers 405

Complex Matrices
Now that you are able to add, subtract, and multiply complex numbers, you can apply
these operations to complex matrices, which are matrices whose entries are complex
numbers.

Definition of a Complex Matrix

A matrix whose entries are complex numbers is a complex matrix.

All of the operations with real matrices also work with complex matrices, as
demonstrated in the next two examples.

Operations with Complex Matrices

Let A and B be the complex matrices

1+i
A= [2 − 3ii 4 ]
  and  B =
2i
[ 0
i 1 + 2i ]
and perform each operation.
a.  3A b.  (2 − i)B
c.  A + B d.  BA
solution
1+i 3i 3 + 3i
a.  3A = 3 [2 − 3ii 4
= ] [
6 − 9i 12]
2 + 4i
b.  (2 − i)B = (2 − i)
2i
[ ] [
i 1 + 2i
0
=
1 + 2i 4 + 3i ]
0

i 1+i 3i 1 + i
c.  A + B = [2 − 3i ] [
4
+
2i
i 1 + 2i ] [
0
=
2 − 2i 5 + 2i]
i 1+i
d.  BA = [ 2i 0
][
i 1 + 2i 2 − 3i ] 4
−2 + 0 2i − 2 + 0
= [ −1 + 2 − 3i + 4i + 6 i − 1 + 4 + 8i ]
−2 −2 + 2i
= [ 7+i 3 + 9i ]

Finding the Determinant of a Complex Matrix

technology
Many graphing utilities and
Find the determinant of the matrix
software programs can perform
matrix operations with complex A= [2 − 4i3 2
5 − 3i
. ]
matrices. Use such a graphing
utility or software program to solution

∣ ∣
verify the determinant found
2 − 4i 2
in Example 7. det(A) =
3 5 − 3i
See LarsonLinearAlgebra.com = (2 − 4i)(5 − 3i) − (2)(3)
for an interactive example.
= 10 − 6i − 20i − 12 − 6
= −8 − 26i

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 406 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

8.1 Exercises
Simplifying an Expression  In Exercises 1–6, simplify Finding Zeros  In Exercises 47–50, use the given zero
the expression. to find all other zeros of the polynomial function.
 1. √−2√−3   2.  √8√−8  3.  √−16√−4 47.  p(x) = x 3 − 3x 2 + 4x − 2 Zero: x = 1
 4. i
3
 5.  i  
4 6.  (−i)7 48.  p(x) = x 3 − 2x 2 − 11x + 52 Zero: x = −4
49.  p(x) = 2x3 + 3x 2 + 50x + 75 Zero: x = 5i
Equality of Complex Numbers  In Exercises 7–10,
determine x such that the two complex numbers 50.  p(x) = x 3 + x 2 + 9x + 9 Zero: x = 3i
are equal.
Operations with Complex Matrices  In Exercises
 7.  x + 3i, 6 + 3i 51–60, perform the matrix operation(s) using
 8.  (2x − 8) + (x − 1)i, −2 + 2i
 9.  (x 2 + 6) + (2x)i, 15 + 6i A= [21−+2ii −3i1] and B = [1 −−3i −i3i].
10.  (−x + 4) + (x + 1)i, x + 3i 51.  A + B 52.  B − A
53.  2A 54.  12B
Plotting a Complex Number  In Exercises 11–16, plot
the number in the complex plane. 55.  4iA 56.  14 iB
11.  z = 6 − 2i 12.  z = 3i 13.  z = −5 + 5i 57. det(A + B) 58. det(B)
14.  z = 7 15.  z = 1 + 5i 16.  z = 1 − 5i 59.  5AB 60.  BA

Adding and Subtracting Complex Numbers  In 61.  Proof  Prove that the set of complex numbers, with
Exercises 17–26, find the sum or difference of the the operations of addition and scalar multiplication
complex numbers. Use vectors to illustrate your answer. (with real scalars), is a vector space of dimension 2.
17.  (2 + 6i) + (3 − 3i) 18.  (1 + √2i) + (2 − √2i)
19.  (5 + i) − (5 − i) 20.  i − (3 + i) 62. C APSTONE  Consider the functions
p(x) = x 2 − 6x − 10 and q(x) = x 2 − 6x + 10.
21.  (2 + 3i) − (−2 + 3i) 22.  3 + (1 − 3i)
(a) Without graphing either function, determine whether
23.  6 − (−2i) 24.  (12 − 7i) − (3 + 4i) the graphs of p and q have x-intercepts. Explain.
25.  (2 + i) + (2 + i) 26.  (2 + i) + (2 − i) (b) For which of the functions is x = 3 − i a zero?
Without using the Quadratic Formula, find the other
Scalar Multiplication with Complex Numbers
zero of this function and verify your answer.
In Exercises 27 and 28, use vectors to illustrate
the operations geometrically. Be sure to graph the
original vector. 63. (a) Evaluate i n for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
27.  −u and 2u, where u = 3 − i (b)  Find a general formula for i n for any positive
integer n.
28.  3u and − 32 u, where u = 2 + i

Multiplying Complex Numbers  In Exercises 29–38, 64. Let A = [0i 0

−i].
find the product.
(a) Calculate An for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
29.  (5 − 5i)(1 + 3i) 30.  (3 + i)(23 + i)
Find a general formula for An for any positive
(b) 
31.  (√7 − i)(√7 + i) 32.  (4 + √2i)(4 − √2i)
integer n.
33.  (a + bi)2 34.  (a + bi)(a − bi)
35.  (1 + i)3 36.  (2 − i)(2 + 2i)(4 + i) True or False? In Exercises 65 and 66, determine
whether each statement is true or false. If a statement
37.  (a + bi)3 38.  (1 + i)2(1 − i)2
is true, give a reason or cite an appropriate statement
Finding Zeros  In Exercises 39–46, find all zeros of the from the text. If a statement is false, provide an example
polynomial function. that shows the statement is not true in all cases or cite an
appropriate statement from the text.
39.  p(x) = 2x 2 + 2x + 5 40.  p(x) = x 2 + x + 1
65.  √−2√2 = i√4 = 2i 66.  (√−12) = √144 = 12
2
41.  p(x) = x 2 − 5x + 7 42.  p(x) = x 2 − 4x + 5
43.  p(x) = x 4 − 16 44.  p(x) = x 4 + 10x 2 + 9 67.  Proof  Prove that if the product of two complex numbers
45.  p(x) = x 3 + 27 46.  p(x) = x3 − x + 6 is zero, then at least one of the numbers must be zero.

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 8.2  Conjugates and Division of Complex Numbers 407

8.2 Conjugates and Division of Complex Numbers

Find the conjugate of a complex number.
Find the modulus of a complex number.
Divide complex numbers, and find the inverse of a complex matrix.

Complex Conjugates
Recall that the complex zeros of a polynomial with real coefficients occur in
conjugate pairs. For instance, in Example 5 of Section 8.1, you saw that the zeros of
p(x) = x 2 − 6x + 13 are 3 + 2i and 3 − 2i.
In this section, you will examine some additional properties of complex conjugates.
You will begin with the definition of the conjugate of a complex number.

Definition of the Conjugate of a Complex Number

The conjugate of the complex number z = a + bi is
z = a − bi.

REMARK
In part (d) of Example 1, note
Finding Conjugates
that 5 is its own complex
conjugate. In general, it can Complex Number Conjugate
be shown that a number is a.  z = −2 + 3i z = −2 − 3i
its own complex conjugate if
b.  z = 4 − 5i z = 4 + 5i
and only if the number is real.
(See Exercise 41.) c.  z = −2i z = 2i
d.  z = 5 z = 5
Imaginary
axis Geometrically, two points in the complex plane are conjugates if and only if they
z = − 2 + 3i are reflections in the real (horizontal) axis, as shown in Figure 8.2. Complex conjugates
3
have many useful properties. Theorem 8.1 lists some of these properties.
2

Real
axis
THEOREM 8.1 Properties of Complex Conjugates
−4 −3 −1 1 2
For a complex number z = a + bi, the properties listed below are true.
−2 1.  zz = a2 + b2 2.  zz ≥ 0
−3 3.  zz = 0 if and only if z = 0. 4.  (z) = z
z = − 2 − 3i
Imaginary
axis proof
z = 4 + 5i
5
4
To prove the first property, let z = a + bi. Then z = a − bi and
3
2
zz = (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 − abi + abi − b2i2 = a2 + b2.
1
Real The second and third properties follow directly from the first. Finally, the fourth
axis
− 3 −2 2 3 5 6 7 property follows from the definition of the complex conjugate. That is,
−2
−3 (z) = ( a + bi ) = a − bi = a + bi = z.
−4
−5
z = 4 − 5i
Finding the Product of Complex Conjugates
Conjugate of a Complex Number
Figure 8.2 When z = 1 + 2i, you have zz = 12 + 22 = 1 + 4 = 5.

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 408 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

REMARK The Modulus of a Complex Number

The modulus of a complex A complex number can be represented by a vector in the complex plane, so it makes
number is also called the sense to talk about the length of a complex number. This length is called the modulus
absolute value of the number. of the complex number.
In fact, when z is a real
number,
Definition of the Modulus of a Complex Number
∣z∣ = √a 2 + 02 = ∣a∣.
The modulus of the complex number z = a + bi is

∣z∣ = √a2 + b2.

Finding Moduli

For z = 2 + 3i and w = 6 − i, find each modulus.

∣∣ ∣ ∣
a.  z   b.  w   c.  zw ∣ ∣
solution
∣∣
a.  z = √22 + 32 = √13
∣ ∣
b.  w = √62 + (−1)2 = √37
∣ ∣
c.  zw = (2 + 3i)(6 − i) = 15 + 16i, so zw = √152 + 162 = √481.

∣ ∣ ∣ ∣∣ ∣
Verify that in Example 3, zw = z w . In Exercise 43(a), you are asked to prove
that this multiplicative property of the modulus always holds. Theorem 8.2 states that
the modulus of a complex number is related to its conjugate.

THEOREM 8.2 The Modulus of a Complex Number

∣∣
For a complex number z, z 2 = zz.

proof
Let z = a + bi, then z = a − bi and zz = (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 + b2 = z 2. ∣∣
A fractal is an object that has similar patterns or structures.
Linear Fractals have a wide variety of applications in fields
Algebra such as medicine, astronomy, computer science, and
Applied telecommunications. The most famous fractal is the
Mandelbrot Set, named after the Polish-born mathematician
Benoit Mandelbrot (1924–2010). The Mandelbrot Set is
based on the sequence of complex numbers

zn = (zn−1)2 + c,  z1 = c.

The behavior of this sequence depends on the value of

the complex number c. For some values of c, the modulus
of each term zn in the sequence is less than some fixed
number N, and the sequence is bounded. This means that
c is in the Mandelbrot Set. In the diagram at the left, such
points are colored black. For other values of c, the moduli
of the terms of the sequence become infinitely large, and
the sequence is unbounded. This means that c is not in the
Mandelbrot Set. In the diagram, such points are assigned a
color based on “how quickly” the sequence diverges. You
will study the Mandelbrot Set in more detail in Project 2.
bluecrayola/Shutterstock.com

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 8.2  Conjugates and Division of Complex Numbers 409

Division of Complex Numbers

One of the most important uses of the conjugate of a complex number is in performing
division in the complex number system. To define division of complex numbers,
consider z = a + bi and w = c + di and assume that c and d are not both 0. For
the quotient
z
= x + yi
w
to make sense, it has to be true that
z = w(x + yi) = (c + di)(x + yi) = (cx − dy) + (dx + cy)i.
But z = a + bi, so you can form the linear system below.
cx − dy = a
dx + cy = b
Solving this system of linear equations for x and y yields
ac + bd bc − ad
x=  and y = .
ww ww
Now, zw = (a + bi)(c − di) = (ac + bd) + (bc − ad)i, so you obtain the definition
below.

Definition of Division of Complex Numbers

The quotient of the complex numbers z = a + bi and w = c + di is
z a + bi
=
REMARK w c + di
If c 2 + d 2 = 0, then c = d = 0, ac + bd bc − ad
= + 2 i
and w = 0. In other words, as c2 + d 2 c + d2
is the case with real numbers, 1
= (zw)
division of complex numbers
by zero is not defined. ∣ ∣
w2
provided c2 + d 2 ≠ 0.

In practice, the quotient of two complex numbers can be found by multiplying the
numerator and the denominator by the conjugate of the denominator, as shown below.
a + bi a + bi c − di
c + di
= (
c + di c − di )
(ac + bd) + (bc − ad)i
=
c2 + d 2
ac + bd bc − ad
= 2 + 2 i
c + d2 c + d2

Dividing Complex Numbers

See LarsonLinearAlgebra.com for an interactive version of this type of example.

1 1−i 1−i 1−i 1 1

a. 
1
=
1+i 1+i 1−i
= 2 (
1 − i2
=
2)= − i
2 2
2−i 2 − i 3 − 4i 2 − 11i
b.  =
3 + 4i 3 + 4i 3 − 4i(= )
9 + 16
=
2 11
− i
25 25

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 410 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

Now that you are able to divide complex numbers, you can find the inverse of a
complex matrix, as demonstrated in Example 5.

Finding the Inverse of a Complex Matrix

Find the inverse of the matrix

A= [23 −− ii −5 + 2i
−6 + 2i ]
and verify that AA−1 = I2.
solution
Using the formula for the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix from Section 2.3,
1 −6 + 2i 5 − 2i
∣ ∣[ ]
A−1 =
A −3 + i 2 − i
where

∣A∣ = (2 − i)(−6 + 2i) − (−5 + 2i)(3 − i)

= (−12 + 4i + 6i + 2) − (−15 + 5i + 6i + 2)
= 3 − i.
So, it follows that
technology 1 −6 + 2i 5 − 2i
Many graphing utilities and A−1 = [
3 − i −3 + i 2 − i ]
software programs can find
(−6 + 2i)(3 + i) (5 − 2i)(3 + i)
the inverse of a complex
matrix. Use such a graphing
=
1
3−i 3+i
1
( )[
(−3 + i)(3 + i) ]
(2 − i)(3 + i)
utility or software program to 1 −20 17 − i
verify the result of Example 5. = [
10 −10 7 − i
. ]
See LarsonLinearAlgebra.com
for an interactive example. Finally, verify that AA−1 = I2, as shown below.

AA−1 = [23 −− ii −5 + 2i 1 −20 17 − i

] [
−6 + 2i 10 −10 7 − i
= ]
1 10 0
10 0 10
= [
1
0 ] [ 0
1]

The next theorem summarizes more properties of complex conjugates, which you
may find useful.

THEOREM 8.3 More Properties of Complex Conjugates

For the complex numbers z and w, the properties listed below are true.
1.  z + w = z + w 2.  z−w=z−w
3.  zw = z w 4.  zw = zw

proof
To prove the first property, let z = a + bi and w = c + di. Then
z + w = (a + c) + (b + d)i
= (a + c) − (b + d)i
= (a − bi) + (c − di)
= z + w.
The proof of the second property is similar. The proofs of the other two properties are
left to you.

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 8.2 Exercises 411

8.2 Exercises
Complex Conjugates and Their Product  In Exercises Finding the Inverse of a Complex Matrix  In Exercises
1–6, find the complex conjugate z and geometrically 33–38, determine whether the complex matrix A is
represent both z and z. Then find the product zz. invertible. If so, find its inverse and verify that AA−1 = I.
 1.  z = 6 − 3i  2.  z = 2 + 5i 2i −2 − i
 3.  z = −8i  4.  z = 6i
33.  A = [3 − 5i 2i
i
] 34.  A =
3 3i [ ]
  5.  z = 4   6.  z = −3 1−i 1−i
35.  A = [ ] [ ]
2 2
36.  A =
1 1+i 0 1+i
Finding the Modulus  In Exercises 7–14, find the

[ ] [ ]
modulus, where z = 2 + i, w = −3 + 2i, and v = −5i. i 0 0 1 0 0
37.  A = 0 38.  A = 0 1−i
∣∣
 7.  z  8.  z2 ∣∣ 0
i
0
0
i 0 0
0
1+i
∣ ∣
 9.  zw 10.  wz ∣ ∣
∣∣
11.  v 12.  zv 2 ∣ ∣ Singular Matrices  In Exercises 39 and 40, determine
∣ ∣
13.  zv 14.  w3 ∣ ∣ the value of the complex number z (in standard form)
for which A is singular.
15.  Verify that ∣wz∣ = ∣w∣∣z∣ = ∣zw∣, where z = 1 + i and

[ ]
2 2i 1 − i
w = −1 + 2i. 39.  A = [ 4 z
5i 5 − i ]
40.  A = 1 − i 1 + i z
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣∣ ∣ ∣ ∣∣ ∣
16.  Verify that zv 2 = z v 2 = z v 2, where z = 1 + 2i 1 0 0
and v = −2 − 3i.
41.  Proof  Prove that z = z if and only if z is real.
Dividing Complex Numbers  In Exercises 17–22,

perform the operation(s). 1+i
2+i 1 42. CAPSTONE  Consider the quotient .
17.  18.  6 − 2i
i 6 + 3i (a) Without performing any calculations, describe how
3 − √2i 4+i to find the quotient.
19.  20. 
3 + √2i 5+i (b) Explain why the process described in part (a)
(2 + i)(3 − i) 3−i results in a complex number of the form a + bi.
21.  22. 
4 − 2i (2 − i)(5 + 2i) (c)  Find the quotient.

Operations with Complex Rational Expressions    In

43. Proof  Prove that for any two complex numbers z and
Exercises 23 –26, perform the operation and write the
w, each statement below is true.
result in standard form.
3 4 2i 5
(a)  ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣∣ ∣
zw = z w
23.  −
1+i 1−i
24.  +
2+i 2−i ∣ ∣ ∣∣∣ ∣
(b) If w ≠ 0, then zw = z  w .
i 2i 1+i 3 44.  G
 raphical Interpretation  Describe the set of
25.  + 26.  − points in the complex plane that satisfies each of the
3−i 3+i i 4−i
statements below.
Finding Zeros  In Exercises 27–30, use the given zero to (a)  ∣∣ z = 3 (b)  z−1+i =5 ∣ ∣
find all other zeros of the polynomial function. (c)  ∣ ∣z − i ≤ 2 (d)  2 ≤ z ≤ 5 ∣∣
27.  p(x) = 3x 3 − 4x 2 + 8x + 8 Zero: 1 − √3i 45. (a) Evaluate (1i)n for n = 1, 2, 3, 4,and 5.
28.  p(x) = 4x 3 + 23x 2 + 34x − 10 Zero: −3 + i (b) Find a general formula for (1i)n for any positive
29.  p(x) = x 4 + 3x 3 − 5x 2 − 21x + 22 Zero: −3 + √2i integer n.
30.  p(x) = x 3 + 4x 2 + 14x + 20 Zero: −1 − 3i (c) Use the result of part (b) to evaluate (1i)2000 and
(1i)2010. Use a graphing calculator to check your
Powers of a Complex Number  In Exercises 31 and answers.
32, find each power of the complex number z.
(1√+2 i)
2
(a)  z2  (b) z3  (c) z−1  (d) z−2 46. (a) Verify that = i.
31.  z = 2 − i (b)  Find the two square roots of i.
32.  z = 1 + i (c)  Find all zeros of the polynomial x 4 + 1.

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 412 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

8.3 Polar Form and DeMoivre’s Theorem

Determine the polar form of a complex number, convert between
the polar form and standard form of a complex number, and
multiply and divide complex numbers in polar form.
Use DeMoivre’s Theorem to find powers and roots of complex
numbers in polar form.

Polar Form of a Complex Number

Imaginary At this point you are able to add, subtract, multiply, and divide complex numbers.
axis
However, there is still one basic procedure that is missing from the algebra of complex
numbers. To see this, consider the problem of finding the square root of a complex
(a, b) number such as i. When you use the four basic operations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division), there seems to be no reason to guess that
r
b 1+i
√i = .
θ √2
Real But it is true that
a 0 axis

(1√+2 i)
2
=i
Standard Form: a + bi
Polar Form: r(cos θ + i sin θ ) as you verified in Exercise 46 of Section 8.2. To work effectively with powers and roots
Figure 8.3 of complex numbers, it is helpful to use a polar representation for complex numbers, as
shown in Figure 8.3. Specifically, if a + bi is a nonzero complex number, then let θ be
the angle from the positive real axis to the radial line passing through the point (a, b)
and let r be the modulus of a + bi. This leads to
a = r cos θ
b = r sin θ
r = √a2 + b2.
So, a + bi = (r cos θ ) + (r sin θ )i, from which you obtain the polar form of a complex
number.
REMARK
The polar form of z = 0
is expressed as Definition of the Polar Form of a Complex Number
z = 0(cos θ + i sin θ ), where
The polar form of the nonzero complex number z = a + bi is
θ is any angle.
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ )
where a = r cos θ, b = r sin θ, r = √a2 + b2, and tan θ = ba. The number r
is the modulus of z and θ is the argument of z.

There are infinitely many choices for the argument, so the polar form of a complex
number is not unique. Normally, the values of θ that lie between −π and π are used,
although on occasion it is convenient to use other values. The value of θ that satisfies
the inequality
−π < θ ≤ π Principal argument

is called the principal argument and is denoted by Arg(z). Two nonzero complex
numbers in polar form are equal if and only if they have the same modulus and the
same principal argument.

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 8.3  Polar Form and DeMoivre’s Theorem 413

Finding Polar Forms of Complex Numbers

Find the polar form of each complex number. (Use the principal argument.)
a.  z = 1 − i  b.  z = 2 + 3i  c.  z = i
solution
a. a = 1 and b = −1, so r 2 = 12 + (−1)2 = 2, which implies that r = √2. From
a = r cos θ and b = r sin θ,
a 1 √2 b 1 √2
cos θ = = =  and sin θ = = − =− .
r √2 2 r √2 2
So, θ = −π4 and

z = √2 cos − [ ( π4 ) + i sin(− π4 )].

b.  a = 2 and b = 3, so r2 = 22 + 32 = 13, which implies that r = √13. This means
that
a 2 b 3
cos θ = =  and sin θ = =
r √13 r √13
and it follows that θ ≈ 0.98. The polar form is

z ≈ √13 [cos(0.98) + i sin(0.98)].

c.  a = 0 and b = 1, so it follows that r = 1, θ = π2, and
π π
z = 1 cos ( 2
+ i sin .
2 )
The polar forms found in Example 1 are represented graphically below.

Imaginary Imaginary
axis axis

2 4
z = 2 + 3i
1 3
Real 2
θ axis
−2 −1 2
−1 1
z=1− i θ
Real
−2 axis
1 2

a.  z = √2 cos − [ ( π4 ) + i sin(− π4 )] b.  z ≈ √13 [cos(0.98) + i sin(0.98)]

Imaginary
axis

z=i
1

θ
Real
axis
1

π π
c.  z = 1 cos( 2
+ i sin
2 )

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 414 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

Converting from Polar to Standard Form

Express the complex number in standard form.

[ ( π3 ) + i sin(− π3 )]
z = 8 cos −

solution
cos(−π3) = 12 and sin(−π3) = − √32, so the standard form is

[ ( π3 ) + i sin(− π3 )] = 8[ 12 − i√23] = 4 − 4√3i.

z = 8 cos −

The polar form adapts nicely to multiplication and division of complex numbers.
For two complex numbers in polar form
z1 = r1(cos θ 1 + i sin θ 1) and z2 = r2(cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 )
the product of z1 and z2 is
z1z2 = r1r2(cos θ 1 + i sin θ 1)(cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 )
= r1r2 [(cos θ 1 cos θ 2 − sin θ 1 sin θ 2 ) + i(cos θ 1 sin θ 2 + sin θ 1 cos θ 2 )].
Using the trigonometric identities cos(θ 1 + θ 2) = cos θ 1 cos θ 2 − sin θ 1 sin θ 2 and
sin(θ 1 + θ 2) = sin θ 1 cos θ 2 + cos θ 1 sin θ 2, you have
z1z2 = r1r2 [cos(θ 1 + θ 2 ) + i sin(θ 1 + θ 2 )].
This establishes the first part of the theorem below. The proof of the second part is left
to you. (See Exercise 85.)

THEOREM 8.4  Product and Quotient of Two Complex Numbers

For two complex numbers in polar form
z1 = r1(cos θ 1 + i sin θ 1) and z2 = r2(cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 )
the product and quotient of the numbers are as shown below.
z1z2 = r1r2 [cos(θ 1 + θ 2 ) + i sin(θ 1 + θ 2 )] Product
z1 r1
z2 = r2 [cos(θ 1 − θ 2 ) + i sin(θ 1 − θ 2 )],  z2 ≠ 0 Quotient

Elliptic curves are the foundation for elliptic curve

Linear cryptography (ECC), a type of public key cryptography for
Algebra secure communications over the Internet. ECC has gained
Applied popularity due to its computational and bandwidth
advantages over traditional public key algorithms.
One specific variety of elliptic curve is formed using
Eisenstein integers, named after German mathematician
Ferdinand Gotthold Max Eisenstein (1823–1852). These
integers are complex numbers of the form

z = a + bω
1 √3
where a and b are integers and ω = − + i, an nth root
2 2
of unity (discussed later in this section). Eisenstein integers
can be graphed as intersection points of a triangular lattice
in the complex plane. Dividing the complex plane by the
lattice of all Eisenstein integers results in an elliptic curve.
thumb/Shutterstock.com

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 8.3  Polar Form and DeMoivre’s Theorem 415

Theorem 8.4 states that to multiply two complex numbers in polar form, multiply
moduli and add arguments. Theorem 8.4 also states that to divide two complex numbers
in polar form, divide moduli and subtract arguments. (See below.)

Imaginary    Imaginary
axis axis

z1z2 z2 z1 z2
θ1 + θ 2 r r2 r1 z1
2
z1 z2
r1r2 θ 2 r1 r1 θ2 r2
θ1
θ1 θ1 − θ 2
Real Real
axis axis

To multiply z1 and z2 : To divide z1 and z2 :

Multiply moduli and add arguments. Divide moduli and subtract arguments.

Multiplying and Dividing in Polar Form

Find z1z2 and z1z2 for the complex numbers

π π π π
z1 = 5 cos( 4 ) 1
+ i sin  and z2 = cos + i sin .
4 3 6 6 ( )
solution
z1 and z2 are in polar form, so apply Theorem 8.4, as shown below.
multiply

z1z2 = (5) (13)[cos(π4 + π6 ) + i sin(π4 + π6 )] = 53 (cos 5π
12
+ i sin )
5π
12

add add
divide

π π π π
z1
=
5
z2 13
cos −
4 6 [ (
+ i sin −
4 6 ) ( )] = 15 (cos 12π + i sin 12π )


subtract subtract

Use the standard forms of z1 and z2 to check the multiplication in Example 3.

z1 z2 = (5√2 2 + 5√2 2 i)(√63 + 16 i)

5√6 5√2 5√6 5√2 2
= + i+ i+ i
12 12 12 12
5√6 − 5√2 5√2 + 5√6
= + i
12 12
5 √6 − √2 √2 + √6
=
3 (
4
+
4
i . )
REMARK To verify that this answer is equivalent to the result in Example 3, use the formulas for
It is left to you to check the cos(u + v) and sin(u + v) to obtain
division in Example 3.
π π √6 − √2 π π √2 + √6
cos
5π
12
= cos +
6 4
=( 4 )
 and sin
5π
12
= sin +
6 4
=
4
. ( )

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 416 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

DeMoivre’s Theorem
The final topic in this section involves procedures for finding powers and roots of
complex numbers. Repeated use of multiplication in the polar form yields
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ )
z2 = r(cos θ + i sin θ )r (cos θ + i sin θ )
= r 2(cos 2θ + i sin 2θ )
and
z3 = r(cos θ + i sin θ )r 2(cos 2θ + i sin 2θ )
= r 3(cos 3θ + i sin 3θ ).
Similarly,
z 4 = r 4(cos 4θ + i sin 4θ )
and
z5 = r 5(cos 5θ + i sin 5θ ).
This pattern leads to the next important theorem, named after French mathematician
Abraham DeMoivre (1667–1754). You are asked to prove this theorem in Review
Exercise 85.

THEOREM 8.5  DeMoivre’s Theorem

If z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) and n is any positive integer, then
z n = r n(cos nθ + i sin nθ ).

Raising a Complex Number to a Power

Find
(−1 + √3i)12
and write the result in standard form.
solution
First convert to polar form. For −1 + √3i,
√3
r = √(−1)2 + (√3 ) = 2 and tan θ =
2
= − √3
−1
which implies that θ = 2π3. So,

−1 + √3i = 2 cos ( 2π
3
+ i sin
2π
3
.)
By DeMoivre’s Theorem,

(−1 + √3i)12 = [ 2(cos 2π + i sin )]

2π 12

3 3
12(2π ) 12(2π )
[
= 212 cos
3
+ i sin
3 ]
= 4096(cos 8π + i sin 8π )
= 4096 [1 + i(0)]
= 4096.

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 8.3  Polar Form and DeMoivre’s Theorem 417

Recall that a consequence of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra is that a

polynomial of degree n has n zeros in the complex number system. So, a polynomial
such as p(x) = x 6 − 1 has six zeros, and in this case you can find the six zeros by
factoring and using the Quadratic Formula.
x 6 − 1 = (x 3 − 1)(x 3 + 1)
= (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1)(x + 1)(x2 − x + 1)
Consequently, the zeros are
−1 ± √3i 1 ± √3i
x = ± 1,  x = , and x = .
2 2
Each of these numbers is a sixth root of 1. In general, the nth root of a complex number
is defined below.

Definition of the nth Root of a Complex Number

The complex number w = a + bi is an nth root of the complex number z when
z = w n = (a + bi)n.

DeMoivre’s Theorem is useful in determining roots of complex numbers. To see

how this is done, let w be an nth root of z, where
w = s(cos β + i sin β)
and
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ).
Then, by DeMoivre’s Theorem
w n = sn(cos nβ + i sin nβ)
and using w n = z,
s n(cos nβ + i sin nβ) = r(cos θ + i sin θ ).
Now, the right and left sides of this equation represent equal complex numbers, so
equate moduli to obtain s n = r, which implies that s = √ n r, and equate principal

arguments to conclude that θ and nβ must differ by a multiple of 2π. Note that r is a
positive real number and so s = √n r is also a positive real number. Consequently, for

some integer k, nβ = θ + 2πk, which implies that

θ + 2πk
β= .
n
REMARK Finally, substituting this value of β and s = √
n r into the polar form of w produces the
Note that when k exceeds result stated in the next theorem.
n − 1, the roots begin to
repeat. For example, when
k = n, the angle is THEOREM 8.6 The nth Roots of a Complex Number
θ + 2πn θ For any positive integer n, the complex number z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) has
= + 2π
n n exactly n distinct roots. These n roots are of the form
which yields the same values
for the sine and cosine as zk = √
n
[ (θ +n2πk) + i sin(θ +n2πk)]
r cos
k = 0.
where k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.

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 418 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

Imaginary The formula for the nth roots of a complex Imaginary

axis axis
number has a nice geometric interpretation, as
−1 + 3i 1+ 3
i
shown in Figure 8.4. The nth roots all have 2 2 2 2
the same modulus (length) √ n r, so they lie on
2π
n a circle of radius √n r with center at the origin.
n
r 2π Furthermore, the n roots are equally spaced −1 1
n Real Real
axis around the circle, because successive nth roots axis
have arguments that differ by 2πn.
You have already found the sixth roots of 1
by factoring and the Quadratic Formula. Verify
your results by using Theorem 8.6 to find the −1 − 3i 1− 3
i
2 2 2 2
The nth Roots of a
sixth roots of 1. The nth roots of 1 are also called The Sixth Roots of Unity
Complex Number the nth roots of unity. Figure 8.5 shows the sixth
Figure 8.5
roots of unity.
Figure 8.4

Finding the nth Roots of a Complex Number

See LarsonLinearAlgebra.com for an interactive version of this type of example.

Find the fourth roots of i.

solution
In polar form,
π π
(
i = 1 cos
2
+ i sin
2 )
so r = 1 and θ = π2. Then, by applying Theorem 8.6,

i14 = √ [ (π2 +4 2kπ ) + i sin(π2 +4 2kπ )]

4 1 cos

π π
= cos( + ) + i sin( + ).
kπ kπ
8 2 8 2
Setting k = 0, 1, 2, and 3,
π π
z0 = cos + i sin
8 8
5π 5π
z1 = cos + i sin
8 8
9π 9π
z2 = cos + i sin
8 8
13π 13π
z3 = cos + i sin
8 8
as shown below.

Imaginary
axis
cos 5π + i sin 5π
8 8

cos π + i sin π
8 8
Real
axis

cos 9π + i sin 9π
8 8
cos 13π + i sin 13π
8 8

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 8.3 Exercises 419

8.3 Exercises
Finding the Polar Form of a Complex Number  Multiplying and Dividing in Polar Form  In Exercises
In Exercises 1–4, find the polar form of the complex 29–38, perform the operation and leave the result in
number. (Use the principal argument.) polar form.
 1.  Imaginary  2. Imaginary
axis
Real
axis
1 + 3i
[ ( π3 + i sin π3 )][4(cos π6 + i sin π6 )]
29.  3 cos
3
axis π π π π
30.  [ (cos + i sin )][ 6(cos + i sin )]
1 2 3
2 4 2 2 4 4
−1
1 31.  [0.5(cos π + i sin π )][0.5(cos[−π ] + i sin[−π ])]
−2 Real 32.  [0.1(cos[−π ] + i sin[−π ])][20(cos π + i sin π )]
2 − 2i axis
−1
[ 52(cos 3π4 + i sin 3π4 )][ 256 (cos 5π6 + i sin 5π6 )]
1 2
33. 
 3.  Imaginary 4. Imaginary
axis axis
π π
34.  [ 3(cos + i sin )][ (cos
3 )]
1 2π 2π
3
3
3i + i sin
2 3 3 3 3
−6 1 2 2[cos(2π3) + i sin(2π3)]
Real 35. 
− 6 −5 − 4 − 3 − 2
axis 1 4[cos(5π6) + i sin(5π6)]
−2 Real cos(5π3) + i sin(5π3)
−1 1
axis 36. 
−3 cos π + i sin π
12[cos(π3) + i sin(π3)]
Graphing and Finding the Polar Form  In Exercises 37. 
3[cos(π6) + i sin(π6)]
5–18, represent the complex number graphically, and
find the polar form of the number. (Use the principal 9[cos(3π4) + i sin(3π4)]
38. 
argument.) 5[cos(−π4) + i sin(−π4)]
 5.  −2 − 2i  6.  2 + 2i
Raising a Complex Number to a Power  In Exercises
 7.  −2(1 + √3i)  8.  2(√3 − i)
5
39–50, use DeMoivre’s Theorem to find the power of
 9.  9 − 3√3i 10.  − √3 + i the complex number. Write the result in standard form.
11.  6i 12.  −2i π π π π
[( )] [( )]
5 3
39.  2 cos + i sin 40.  5 cos + i sin
13. 7 14. 4 4 4 9 9
15.  3 + √3i 16.  2√2 − i
[( )] 42.  (cos 5π4 + i sin 5π4 )
4 10
5π 5π
41.  3 cos + i sin
17.  −1 − 2i 18.  5 + 2i 6 6

[( )] 44.  [2(cos π2 + i sin π2 )]

4
Graphing and Converting to Standard Form In 3π 3π 8
43.  5 cos + i sin
Exercises 19–28, represent the complex number 2 2
graphically, and find the standard form of the number. 45.  (1 + i) 4 46.  (2 + 2i)6
19.  7(cos 0 + i sin 0) 20.  9(cos π + i sin π ) 48.  (√3 + i)
7
47.  (−1 + i)10
49.  (1 − √3i)3 50.  (2 + √2 + √2i)
4
π π
(
21.  2 cos
2
+ i sin
2 ) (
22.  4 cos
3π
2
+ i sin
3π
2 )
Finding Square Roots of a Complex Number In
π π π π
(
23.  8 cos + i sin
6 6 ) 24. 
15
4 (
cos + i sin
4 4 ) Exercises 51–60, find the square roots of the complex
number.
51.  2i 52.  5i
(
25.  5 cos
3π
4
+ i sin
3π
4
) (
26.  6 cos
5π
6
+ i sin
5π
6 ) 53.  −3i 54.  −6i
55.  2 − 2i 56.  2 + 2i
27. 
3
2(cos
5π
3
+ i sin
5π
3 ) 57.  1 + √3i 58.  1 − √3i
59.  √3 − i 60.  √3 + i
28. 
3
4(cos
7π
4
+ i sin
7π
4 )

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 420 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

Finding and Graphing n th Roots  In Exercises 61–72, 85.  Proof  For two complex numbers
(a) use Theorem 8.6 to find the roots, (b) represent each z1 = r1(cos θ1 + i sin θ1) and z2 = r2(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
of the roots graphically, and (c) express each of the roots
where z2 ≠ 0, prove that
in standard form.
z1 r1
π π = [cos(θ 1 − θ 2) + i sin(θ 1 − θ 2)].
61.  Square roots: 16 cos ( 3
+ i sin
3 ) z2 r2
86. Proof Show that the complex conjugate of
(
62.  Square roots: 9 cos
2π
3
+ i sin
2π
3 ) z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) is
z = r [cos(−θ ) + i sin(−θ )].
63.  Fourth roots: 16(cos
3)
4π 4π
+ i sin 87. Use the polar forms of z and z in Exercise 86 to find the
3 product and quotient below.
64.  Fifth roots: 32 cos ( 5π
6
+ i sin
5π
6 ) (a) 
88. 
zz  (b) zz, z ≠ 0
Show that the negative of z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) is
65.  Square roots: −25i −z = r [cos(θ + π ) + i sin(θ + π )].
66.  Fourth roots: 625i 89.  Writing
2 (1 + √3i)
67.  Cube roots: − 125 π π
68.  Cube roots: −4√2(1 − i)
6 (
(a) Let z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) = 2 cos
+ i sin .
6 )
69.  Cube roots: 8 Sketch z, iz, and zi in the complex plane.
70.  Fourth roots: 81i (b)  What is the geometric effect of multiplying a
71.  Fourth roots: 1 complex number z by i? What is the geometric
effect of dividing z by i?
72.  Cube roots: 1000
90.  Calculus  Recall that the Maclaurin series for e x,
Finding and Graphing Solutions  In Exercises 73–82, sin x, and cos x are
find all the solutions of the equation and represent your x2 x3 x4
solutions graphically. ex = 1 + x + + + + . . .
2! 3! 4!
73.  x 3 + 1 = 0 74.  x 3 − 27 = 0 x 3 x5 x7
75.  x − 125i = 0
3 76.  x 3 + 64i = 0 sin x = x − + − + . . .
3! 5! 7!
77.  x 4 − 81 = 0 78.  x 4 − 256i = 0 x2 x 4 x 6
cos x = 1 − + − + . . ..
79.  x 4 + 16i = 0 80.  x 4 + i = 0 2! 4! 6!
81.  x 5 + 243 = 0 82.  x 5 − 32i = 0 (a) Substitute x = iθ in the series for e x and show that
e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ.
83.  Electrical Engineering  In an electric circuit, the
(b) Show that any complex number z = a + bi can be
formula V = I ∙ Z relates voltage drop V, current I, and
expressed in polar form as z = re iθ.
impedance Z, where complex numbers can represent
each of these quantities. Find the impedance when (a) (c)  Prove that if z = re iθ, then z = re−iθ.
V = 5 + 5i and I = 2 + 4i and (b) when V = 2 + 4i (d)  Prove the formula eiπ = −1.
and I = 5 + 5i.
True or False?  In Exercises 91–94, determine whether
each statement is true or false. If a statement is true, give
84. C APSTONE  Use the graph of the roots of a a reason or cite an appropriate statement from the text.
complex number. If a statement is false, provide an example that shows the
(a)  Write each of the roots in trigonometric form. statement is not true in all cases or cite an appropriate
statement from the text.
(b) Identify the complex number whose roots are
shown. Use a graphing utility to verify your results. 91.  12(1 − √3i) is a ninth root of −1.
(i) Imaginary (ii) Imaginary 92.  √3 + i is a solution of the equation x 2 − 8i = 0.
axis axis
93.  Although the square of the complex number bi is
(bi)2 = −b 2, the absolute value of the complex
2 2 45°
3 3
45°
∣ ∣
number z = a + bi is a + bi = √a2 + b2.
30° 30° Real Real
94. Geometrically, the nth roots of any complex number z
axis axis
−1 2 1 45° 45°
−1 3 3 are all equally spaced around the unit circle centered at
the origin.

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 8.4  Complex Vector Spaces and Inner Products 421

8.4 Complex Vector Spaces and Inner Products

Recognize and perform vector operations in complex vector spaces
C n, represent a vector in C n by a basis, and find the Euclidean
inner product, Euclidean norm, and Euclidean distance in C n.
Recognize complex inner product spaces.

Complex Vector Spaces

All the vector spaces studied so far in the text have been real vector spaces because the
scalars have been real numbers. A complex vector space is one in which the scalars are
complex numbers. So, if v1, v2 , . . . , vm are vectors in a complex vector space, then a
linear combination is of the form
c1v1 + c2v2 + . . . + cmvm
where the scalars c1, c2, . . . , cm are complex numbers. The complex version of R n is
the complex vector space C n consisting of ordered n-tuples of complex numbers. So,
a vector in C n has the form
v = (a1 + b1i, a2 + b2i, . . . , an + bni).
It is also convenient to represent vectors in C n by column matrices of the form

[ ]
a1 + b1i
a2 + b2i
v= .
⋮
an + bni
As with R n, you perform the operations of addition and scalar multiplication in C n
component by component.

Vector Operations in C n

Let
v = (1 + 2i, 3 − i) and u = (−2 + i, 4)
be vectors in the complex vector space C 2. Perform the operation(s).
a.  v + u
b.  (2 + i)v
c.  3v − (5 − i)u
solution
a.  In column matrix form, the sum v + u is

v+u= [13+−2ii] + [−2 + 4i] = [−17+−3ii].

b.  (2 + i)(1 + 2i) = 5i and (2 + i)(3 − i) = 7 + i, so
(2 + i)v = (2 + i)(1 + 2i, 3 − i)
= (5i, 7 + i).
c.  3v − (5 − i)u = 3(1 + 2i, 3 − i) − (5 − i)(−2 + i, 4)
= (3 + 6i, 9 − 3i) − (−9 + 7i, 20 − 4i)
= (12 − i, −11 + i)

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 422 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

Many of the properties of R n are shared by C n. For example, the scalar multiplicative
identity in C n is the scalar 1 and the additive identity in C n is 0 = (0, 0, 0, . . . , 0). The
standard basis for C n is
e1 = (1, 0, 0, . . . , 0)
e2 = (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)
⋮
en = (0, 0, 0, . . . , 1)
which, as you recall, is also the standard basis for R n. This basis contains n vectors,
so it follows that the dimension of C n is n. Other bases exist; in fact, any linearly
independent set of n vectors in C n is a basis for C n. Example 2 verifies a basis for C 3.

Verifying a Basis

Show that S = { v1, v2, v3 } = {(i, 0, 0), (i, i, 0), (0, 0, i)} is a basis for C 3.
solution
The dimension of C 3 is 3, so the set { v1, v2, v3 } is a basis for C 3 when it is linearly
independent. To check for linear independence, set a linear combination of the vectors
in S equal to 0, as shown below.
c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3 = (0, 0, 0)
(c1i, 0, 0) + (c2i, c2i, 0) + (0, 0, c3i) = (0, 0, 0)
((c1 + c2)i, c2i, c3i) = (0, 0, 0)
This implies that
(c1 + c2 )i = 0
c2i = 0
c3i = 0.
So, c1 = c2 = c3 = 0, and { v1, v2, v3 } is linearly independent.

Representing a Vector in C n by a Basis

Use the basis S in Example 2 to represent the vector v = (2, i, 2 − i).

solution
By writing
v = c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3
= ((c1 + c2 )i, c2i, c3i)
= (2, i, 2 − i)
you obtain
(c1 + c2 )i = 2
c2i = i
c3i = 2 − i
REMARK which implies that
Verify that this linear c2 = 1 and c1 = c3 = −1 − 2i.
combination yields (2, i, 2 − i ).
So, v = (−1 − 2i)v1 + v2 + (−1 − 2i)v3.

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 8.4  Complex Vector Spaces and Inner Products 423

Other than C n, there are several additional examples of complex vector spaces.
For instance, the set of m × n complex matrices with matrix addition and scalar
multiplication forms a complex vector space. Example 4 describes a complex vector
space in which the vectors are functions.

The Space of Complex-Valued Functions

Consider the set S of complex-valued functions of the form

f(x) = f1(x) + if2(x)
where f1 and f2 are real-valued functions of a real variable. Let the set of complex
numbers be the scalars for S. Vector addition is
f(x) + g(x) = [f1(x) + if2(x)] + [ g1(x) + ig 2(x)]
= [f1(x) + g1(x)] + i [f2(x) + g2(x)].
It can be shown that S, scalar multiplication, and vector addition form a complex vector
space. For example, to show that S is closed under scalar multiplication, let c = a + bi
be a complex number. Then
cf (x) = (a + bi)[f1(x) + if2(x)]
= [af1(x) − bf2(x)] + i [bf1(x) + af2(x)]
is in S.

The definition of the Euclidean inner product in C n is similar to the standard dot
product in R n, except the second factor in each product is a complex conjugate.
REMARK
Note that if u and v have
real components, then this Definition of the Euclidean Inner Product in C n
definition agrees with the dot Let u and v be vectors in C n. The Euclidean inner product of u and v is
product in R n.
u ∙ v = u1v1 + u2v2 + . . . + unvn.

Finding the Euclidean Inner Product in C n

Find the Euclidean inner product of the vectors

u = (2 + i, 0, 4 − 5i) and v = (1 + i, 2 + i, 0).

solution
u ∙ v = u1v1 + u2v2 + u3v3
= (2 + i)(1 − i) + 0(2 − i) + (4 − 5i)(0)
=3−i

The theorem below states several properties of the Euclidean inner product C n.

THEOREM 8.7 Properties of the Euclidean Inner Product

Let u, v, and w be vectors in C n and let k be a complex number. Then the
properties listed below are true.
1.  u ∙ v = v ∙ u 2.  (u + v) ∙ w = u ∙ w + v ∙ w
3.  (ku) ∙ v = k(u ∙ v) 4.  u ∙ (kv) = k(u ∙ v)
5.  u ∙ u ≥ 0 6.  u ∙ u = 0 if and only if u = 0.

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 424 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

proof
The proof of the first property is shown below, and the proofs of the remaining
properties are left to you (see Exercises 61–65). Let
u = (u1, u2, . . . , un ) and v = (v1, v2, . . . , vn ).
Then
v ∙ u = v1u1 + v2 u2 + . . . + vn un
= v1u1 + v2u2 + . . . + vnun
= v1u1 + v2u2 + . . . + vnun
= u1v1 + u2v2 + . . . + unvn
= u ∙ v.

The Euclidean inner product in C n is used to define the Euclidean norm (or length)
of a vector in C n and the Euclidean distance between two vectors in C n.

Definitions of the Euclidean Norm and Distance in C n

The Euclidean norm (or length) of u in C n is denoted by u and is
u = (u ∙ u)12.
The Euclidean distance between u and v is
d(u, v) = u − v.

The Euclidean norm and distance may be expressed in terms of components, as

shown below (see Exercise 69).

∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
u = ( u1 2 + u2 2 + . . . + un 2)12 ∣ ∣
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
d(u, v) = ( u1 − v1 2 + u2 − v2 2 + . . . + un − vn 2)12 ∣
Finding Euclidean Norms and Distance in C n

See LarsonLinearAlgebra.com for an interactive version of this type of example.

Let u = (2 + i, 0, 4 − 5i) and v = (1 + i, 2 + i, 0).

a.  Find the norms of u and v.  b.  Find the distance between u and v.
solution
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
a.  u = ( u1 2 + u2 2 + u3 2)12
= [(22 + 12) + (02 + 02) + (42 + (−5)2)]12
= (5 + 0 + 41)12
= √46

∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
v = ( v1 2 + v2 2 + v3 2)12
= [(12 + 12) + (22 + 12) + (02 + 02)]12
= √7

b.  d(u, v) = u − v
= (1, −2 − i, 4 − 5i)
= [(12 + 02) + ((−2)2 + (−1)2) + (42 + (−5)2)]12
= √47

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 8.4  Complex Vector Spaces and Inner Products 425

Complex Inner Product Spaces

The Euclidean inner product is the most commonly used inner product in C n. On occasion,
however, it is useful to consider other inner products. To generalize the notion of an
inner product, use the properties listed in Theorem 8.7.

Definition of a Complex Inner Product

Let u and v be vectors in a complex vector space. A function that associates u and
v with the complex number 〈u, v〉 is a complex inner product when it satisfies
the properties listed below.
1.  〈u, v〉 = 〈v, u〉
2.  〈u + v, w〉 = 〈u, w〉 + 〈v, w〉
3.  〈ku, v〉 = k〈u, v〉
4.  〈u, u〉 ≥ 0 and 〈u, u〉 = 0 if and only if u = 0.

A complex vector space with a complex inner product is a complex inner product
space or unitary space.

A Complex Inner Product Space

Let u = (u1, u2 ) and v = (v1, v2 ) be vectors in the complex space C 2. Show that the
function
〈u, v〉 = u1v1 + 2u2v2
is a complex inner product.
solution
Verify the four properties of a complex inner product, as shown below.
1.  〈v, u〉 = v1u1 + 2v2u2 = u1v1 + 2u2v2 = 〈u, v〉
2.  〈u + v, w〉 = (u1 + v1)w1 + 2(u2 + v2 )w2
= (u1w1 + 2u2w2 ) + (v1w1 + 2v2w2 )
= 〈u, w〉 + 〈v, w〉
3.  〈ku, v〉 = (ku1 )v1 + 2(ku2 )v2 = k(u1v1 + 2u2v2 ) = k〈u, v〉
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
4.  〈u, u〉 = u1u1 + 2u2u2 = u1 2 + 2 u2 2 ≥ 0
Moreover, 〈u, u〉 = 0 if and only if u1 = u2 = 0.
All the properties hold, so 〈u, v〉 is a complex inner product.

Complex vector spaces and inner products have an important

Linear application called the Fourier transform. Like Fourier
Algebra coefficients and Fourier approximations studied in Chapter 5,
Applied the Fourier transform is named after French mathematician
Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier. Such transforms decompose
a function into a sum of orthogonal basis functions. The
function is projected onto the basis functions of varying
frequencies to find the amplitude for each frequency. The
Fourier transform is integral to the study of signal processing.
To understand the basic premise of this transform, imagine
striking two piano keys simultaneously. Your ear receives
only one signal, the mixed sound of the two notes, and
yet your brain is able to separate the notes. The Fourier
transform gives a mathematical way to separate the
frequency components of a signal.
Eliks/Shutterstock.com

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 426 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

8.4 Exercises
Vector Operations in C n  In Exercises 1–8, perform the Finding the Euclidean Norm in C n  In Exercises 31–38,
operation(s) using find the Euclidean norm of v.
u = (i, 3 − i),  v = (2 + i, 3 + i), and w = (4i, 6). 31.  v = (i, −i) 32.  v = (1, 0)
 1. 3u  2. 4iw 33.  v = 3(6 + i, 2 − i) 34.  v = (2 + 3i, 2 − 3i)
 3. (1 + 2i)w  4. iv + 3w 35.  v = (1, 2 + i, −i) 36.  v = (0, 0, 0)
 5. u − (2 − i)v  6. (6 + 3i)v − (2 + 2i)w 37.  v = (1 − 2i, i, 3i, 1 + i)
 7. u + iv + 2iw  8. 2iv − (3 − i)w + u 38.  v = (2, −1 + i, 2 − i, 4i)
Linear Dependence or Independence  In Exercises Finding the Euclidean Distance in C n  In Exercises
9–12, determine whether the set of vectors is linearly 39–44, find the Euclidean distance between u and v.
independent or linearly dependent.
39.  u = (1, 0), v = (i, i)
 9. {(1, i), (i, −1)}
40.  u = (2 + i, 4, −i), v = (2 + i, 4, −i)
10.  {(1 + i, 1 − i, 1), (i, 0, 1), (−2, −1 + i, 0)}
11.  {(1, i, 1 + i), (0, i, −i), (0, 0, 1)} 41.  u = (i, 2i, 3i), v = (0, 1, 0)
12.  {(1 + i, 1 − i, 0), (1 − i, 0, 0), (0, 1, 1)} 42.  u = (√2, 2i, −i), v = (i, i, i)
43.  u = (1, 0), v = (0, 1)
Verifying a Basis for C n  In Exercises 13–18, determine
44.  u = (1, 2, 1, −2i), v = (i, 2i, i, 2)
whether S is a basis for C n.
13.  S = {(1, −i), (i, 1)} 14.  S = {(1, i), (i, 1)} Complex Inner Products  In Exercises 45–50, determine
15.  S = {(i, 0, 0), (0, i, i), (0, 0, 1)} whether the function is a complex inner product, where
u = (u1, u2) and v = (v1, v2).
16.  S = {(1 − i, 0, 1), (2, i, 1 + i), (1 − i, 1, 1)}
45.  〈u, v〉 = u1 + u2v2
17.  S = {(i, −1, −i, 1), (0, i, −1, −i), (0, 0, i, −1),
(0, 0, 0, i)} 46.  〈u, v〉 = (u1 + v1) + 2(u2 + v2)
18.  S = {(i, −1, −i, 1), (−1, i, 1, i), (−i, 1, i, −1), 47.  〈u, v〉 = 4u1v1 + 6u2v2
(1, i, −1, −i)} 48.  〈u, v〉 = 6u1 v1 − 4u2 v2
Representing a Vector in C n by a Basis  In Exercises 49.  〈u, v〉 = u1v1 − u2v2
19–22, express v as a linear combination of each of the 50.  〈u, v〉 = u1 v1 + u2 v2
basis vectors below.
Finding a Complex Inner Product  In Exercises 51–54,
(a)  {(i, 0, 0), (i, i, 0), (i, i, i)}
use the inner product 〈u, v〉 = u1v1 + 2u2v2 to find
(b)  {(1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1 + i)} 〈u, v〉.
19.  v = (1, 2, 0) 20.  v = (1 − i, 1 + i, −3) 51.  u = (2i, −i) and v = (i, 4i)
21.  v = (−i, 2 + i, −1) 22.  v = (i, i, i) 52.  u = (3 + i, i) and v = (2 − i, 2i)
Finding a Euclidean Inner Product in C n  In Exercises 53.  u = (2 − i, 2 + i) and v = (3 − i, 3 + 2i)
23–26, find the Euclidean inner product u ∙ v. 54.  u = (4 + 2i, 3) and v = (2 − 3i, −2)
23.  u = (4 + 3i, 1 + i) 24.  u = (−12, 3 − i)
v = (−6i, 1 − 2i) v = (2 − 5i, −1 + 4i) Finding a Complex Inner Product  In Exercises 55 and
25.  u = (−i, 2i, 1 − i) 26.  u = (4 + i, i, 0) 56, use the inner product
v = (3i, 0, 1 + 2i) v = (1 + 3i, 2, 1 + i) 〈u, v〉 = u11v11 + u12v12 + u21v21 + u22v22
Properties of Euclidean Inner Products  In Exercises where
27–30, let u = (1 − i, 3i), v = (2i, 2 + i), w = (1 + i, 0),
and k = −i. Evaluate the expressions in parts (a) and (b) [
u
u = 11
u21 ]
u12
u22
v
 and v = 11
v21 [ v12
v22 ]
to verify that they are equal. to find 〈u, v〉.
27. (a) u ∙ v 28. (a) (u + v) ∙ w
1 − 2i
(b)  v ∙ u (b) 
29. (a) (ku) ∙ v
u∙w+v∙w
30. (a) u ∙ (kv)
55.  u = [01 i
−2i ]
  v=
1
0 [ ]
i
(b)  k( u ∙ v) (b)  k(u ∙ v)
56.  u = [1 + 1i ]
2i
0
  v=
i −2i
[
3i −1 ]

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 8.4 Exercises 427

Properties of Complex Inner Products  In Exercises Finding an Image and a Preimage  In Exercises 75–80,
57–60, verify the statement using the properties of a the linear transformation T: C m → C n is represented by
complex inner product. T(v) = Av. Find the image of v and the preimage of w.
57.  〈u, kv + w〉 = k〈u, v〉 + 〈u, w〉 Then find the kernel of the linear transformation.
58.  〈u, 0〉 = 0
59.  〈u, v〉 + 〈u, v〉 = 〈v, 2u〉
75.  A = [1i 0i],  v = [11 +− ii],  w = [00]
60.  〈u, kv〉 = k〈u, v〉 1 + i −1 + i −i
76.  A = [
1 − i −1 − i]
,  v = [ ],  w = [ ]
i
−i i
Proof  In Exercises 61–65, prove the property, where
−3i
77.  A = [
i −i]
,  v = [ ],  w = [
−2 + i]
u, v, and w are vectors in C n and k is a complex number. i i 1
61.  (u + v) ∙ w = u ∙ w + v ∙ w 2i

[ ]
62.  (ku) ∙ v = k(u ∙ v) i
63.  u ∙ (kv) = k(u ∙ v)
78.  A = [ 0
i
i
0
1
0],  v = 0 ,  w =
1
1[]
1+i
64.  u ∙u ≥ 0

[ ] [ ] []
1 0 2
65.  u ∙ u = 0 if and only if u = 0. 79.  A = i 0 ,  v =
2−i
,  w = 2i
3 + 2i
66. Let 〈u, v〉 be a complex inner product and let k be a i i 3i
complex number. How are 〈u, v〉 and 〈u, kv〉 related?

[ ] [] [ ]
0 1 1 2 1−i
67. Let v1 = (i, 0, 0) and v2 = (i, i, 0). When v3 = (z1, z2, z3) 80.  A = i i −1 ,  v = 5 ,  w = 1 + i
and the set { v1, v2, v3 } is not a basis for C 3, what does 0 i 0 0 i
this imply about z1, z2, and z3?
Finding an Image  In Exercises 81–84, find the image
68. Let v1 = (i, i, i) and v2 = (1, 0, 1). Determine a vector
of v = [i i] T for the composition, where T1 and T2 are
v3 such that { v1, v2, v3 } is a basis for C 3.
the matrices below.
69. Let u = (a1 + b1i, a2 + b2i, . . . , an + bni).
(a) Use the definitions of Euclidean norm and Euclidean
inner product to show that
T1 = [0i 0i] and T = [−ii −ii]
2

81.  T2 ∘ T1 82.  T1 ∘ T2
u = ( u1 2 + u 2 2 + . . . + un 2)12.
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ 83.  T1 ∘ T1 84.  T2 ∘ T2
(b)  Use the results of part (a) to show that
d(u, v) = ( u1 − v1 2 + u2 − v2 2
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ 85. Determine which of the sets below are subspaces of the
+ . . . + un − vn 2)12.
∣ ∣ vector space of 2 × 2 complex matrices.
(a)  The set of 2 × 2 symmetric matrices
70. C APSTONE  The complex Euclidean inner (b)  The set of 2 × 2 matrices A satisfying (A )T = A
product of u and v is sometimes called the (c)  The set of 2 × 2 matrices in which all entries are real
complex dot product. Compare the properties of
(d)  The set of 2 × 2 diagonal matrices
the complex dot product in C n with those of the
dot product in R n. 86. Determine which of the sets below are subspaces of
the vector space of complex-valued functions (see
(a) Which properties are the same? Which properties
Example 4).
are different?
(a)  The set of all functions f satisfying f (i) = 0
(b)  Explain the reasons for the differences.
(b)  The set of all functions f satisfying f (0) = 1
(c)  The set of all functions f satisfying f (i) = f (−i)
Finding a Linear Transformation  In Exercises 71–74,
determine the linear transformation T: C n → C n that has True or False?  In Exercises 87 and 88, determine
the characteristics. whether each statement is true or false. If a statement
71.  T(1, 0) = (2 + i, 1) 72.  T(i, 0) = (2 + i, 1) is true, give a reason or cite an appropriate statement
T(0, 1) = (0, −i) T(0, i) = (0, −i) from the text. If a statement is false, provide an example
that shows the statement is not true in all cases or cite an
73.  T(1, 0, 0) = (i, 1 + i, 3 − i)
appropriate statement from the text.
T(0, 1, 0) = (1 + i, 3 − i, i)
87. Using the Euclidean inner product of u and v in C n
T(0, 0, 1) = (3 − i, i, 1 + i)
u ∙ v = u1v1 + u2v2 + . . . + unvn.
74.  T(i, 0, 0) = (2, i, −3i)
88. The Euclidean norm of u in C n denoted by u is
T(0, i, 0) = (i, −3i, 2)
T(0, 0, i) = (3, −2, i) (u ∙ u)2.

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 428 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

8.5 Unitary and Hermitian Matrices

Find the conjugate transpose A* of a complex matrix A.
Determine whether a matrix A is unitary.
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a Hermitian matrix, and
diagonalize a Hermitian matrix.

Conjugate Transpose of a Matrix

Problems involving diagonalization of complex matrices and the associated eigenvalue
problems require the concepts of unitary and Hermitian matrices. These matrices
roughly correspond to orthogonal and symmetric real matrices. In order to define
unitary and Hermitian matrices, you must first be familiar with the concept of the
conjugate transpose of a complex matrix.

Definition of the Conjugate Transpose of a Complex Matrix

The conjugate transpose of a complex matrix A, denoted by A*, is
A∗ = A T
where the entries of A are the complex conjugates of the corresponding entries
of A.

Note that if A is a matrix with real entries, then A∗ = AT. To find the conjugate
transpose of a matrix, find the complex conjugate of each entry and transpose the
matrix, as shown in the example below.


Finding the Conjugate Transpose
of a Complex Matrix
Find A∗ for the matrix

A= [3 + 7i2i 0
4−i].

solution

A= [ 3 + 7i2i 0
4−i
=
3 − 7i
] [ 0
−2i 4 + i ]
3 − 7i −2i
A∗ = A T = [ 0 4+i
]
The theorem below lists several properties of the conjugate transpose of a matrix.
The proofs of these properties are straightforward and are left to you. (See Exercises
47–50.)

THEOREM 8.8 Properties of the Conjugate Transpose

If A and B are complex matrices and k is a complex number, then the properties
listed below are true.
1.  (A∗)∗ = A 2.  (A + B)∗ = A∗ + B∗
3.  (kA)∗ = kA∗ 4.  (AB)∗ = B ∗A∗

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 8.5  Unitary and Hermitian Matrices 429

Unitary Matrices
Recall that a real matrix A is orthogonal when A−1 = AT. In the complex system,
matrices having the property that A−1 = A∗ are called unitary.

Definition of Unitary Matrix

A complex matrix A is unitary when
A−1 = A∗.

A Unitary Matrix

Show that the matrix A is unitary.

1 1+i 1−i
A= [
2 1−i 1+i ]
solution
Begin by finding the product AA∗.
1 1+i 1−i 1 1−i 1+i
AA∗ = [
2 1−i 1+i 2 1+i 1−i ][ ]
1 1 (1 + i)(1 − i) + (1 − i)(1 + i) (1 + i)2 + (1 − i)2
=
2 2( )[ (1 − i) + (1 + i) (1 − i)(1 + i) + (1 + i)(1 − i)
2 2 ]
= [
4 0 4]
1 4 0

=[
0 1]
1 0

The above shows that

AA∗ =
1 0
0 1 [
= I2. ]
So, it follows that A∗ = A−1 and A is a unitary matrix.

Recall from Section 7.3 that a real matrix is orthogonal if and only if its column
(or row) vectors form an orthonormal set. For complex matrices, this property
characterizes matrices that are unitary. Note that a set of vectors
{ v1, v2, . . . , vm }
in C n (a complex Euclidean space) is orthonormal when the statements below are true.
1.  vi  = 1, i = 1, 2, . . . , m
2.  vi ∙ vj = 0, i ≠ j
The proof of the next theorem is similar to the proof of Theorem 7.8 presented in
Section 7.3.

THEOREM 8.9 Unitary Matrices

An n × n complex matrix A is unitary if and only if its row (or column) vectors
form an orthonormal set in C n.

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 430 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

Row Vectors of a Unitary Matrix

Show that the complex matrix A is unitary by showing that its set of row vectors forms
an orthonormal set in C 3.

[ ]
1 1+i 1
−
2 2 2
i i 1
A= −
√3 √3 √3
5i 3+i 4 + 3i
2√15 2√15 2√15

solution
Let

r1 = (12, 1 +2 i, − 12), r = (− √i 3, √i 3, √13), and r = (2√5i15, 23√+15i , 42√+153i).

2 3

Begin by showing that r1, r2, and r3 are unit vectors.

1+i 1+i
[( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ] [ ]
12 12
1 1 1 1 1 2 1
r1 = + + − − = + + =1
2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4

r  = [ (− )( ) +( )( ) +(
√3 √3 ) ]
)(
12
i i i i 1 1
2 −
√3 √3 √3 √3

[ 13 + 13 + 13]
12
=

=1
3+i 3+i 4 + 3i 4 + 3i
[( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )]
12
5i 5i
r3 = + +
2√15 2√15 2√15 2√15 2√15 2√15

[ 25
60 60 60]
12
10 25
= + +

=1
Then show that all pairs of distinct vectors are orthogonal.

r1 ∙ r2 = (12)(− √i 3) + (1 +2 i)(√i 3) + (− 12)(√13)

i i 1 1
= − + −
2√3 2√3 2√3 2√3
=0

r1 ∙ r3 = (12)(2√5i15) + (1 +2 i)(23√+15i ) + (− 12)(42√+153i)

5i 4 + 2i −4 + 3i
=− + +
4√15 4√15 4√15
=0
3+i 4 + 3i
r2 ∙ r3 = − ( )(i5i
√3 2√15 ) +(
i
)(
√3 2√15 ) +(
√3 2√15 )
1
)(
REMARK −5 1 + 3i 4 − 3i
= + +
Verify that the column vectors 6√5 6√5 6√5
of A also form an orthonormal
=0
set in C 3.
So, { r1, r2, r3 } is an orthonormal set.

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 8.5  Unitary and Hermitian Matrices 431

Hermitian Matrices
A real matrix is symmetric when it is equal to its own transpose. In the complex
system, a matrix that is equal to its own conjugate transpose is called a Hermitian
matrix, after the French mathematician Charles Hermite (1822–1901).

Definition of a Hermitian Matrix

A square matrix A is Hermitian when
A = A∗.

As with symmetric matrices, you can recognize Hermitian matrices by inspection.

To see this, consider the 2 × 2 matrix
+ a2i b1 + b2i
A= [ac
1
1 + c2i d1 + d2i ]
.

The conjugate transpose of A has the form

A∗ = A T
+ a2i c1 + c2i
=[ab 1
1 + b2i d1 + d2i ]
− a2i −ci
=[
− d i]
a 1 c1 2
.
b 1 − b2i d1 2

If A is Hermitian, then A = A∗. So, A must be of the form

b1 + b2i
A= [b1
a1
− b2i d1 ]
.

Note that the main diagonal entries must be real. Similar results can be obtained for
Hermitian matrices of order n × n. In other words, a square matrix A is Hermitian if
and only if the two conditions below are met.
1.  The entries on the main diagonal of A are real.
2. The entry aij in the ith row and the jth column is the complex conjugate of the
entry aji in the jth row and the ith column.

Hermitian Matrices

Which matrices are Hermitian?

3−i 3 − 2i
a.  [3 + 1i i
] b.  [3 − 2i0 4 ]

[ ] [ ]
3 2−i −3i −1 2 3
c.  2 + i 0 1−i d.  2 0 −1
3i 1+i 0 3 −1 4
solution
a.  This matrix is not Hermitian because it has an imaginary entry on its main diagonal.
b.  This matrix is symmetric but not Hermitian because the entry in the first row and
second column is not the complex conjugate of the entry in the second row and first
column.
c.  This matrix is Hermitian.
d.  This matrix is Hermitian. All real symmetric matrices are Hermitian.

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 432 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

REMARK One of the most important characteristics of Hermitian matrices is that their
eigenvalues are real. This is formally stated in the next theorem.
Note that this theorem implies
that the eigenvalues of a real
symmetric matrix are real, as
THEOREM 8.10 The Eigenvalues of a Hermitian Matrix
stated in Theorem 7.7.
If A is a Hermitian matrix, then its eigenvalues are real numbers.

proof
Let λ be an eigenvalue of A and let

[ ]
a1 + b1i
a2 + b2i
v=
⋮
an + bni
be its corresponding eigenvector. If both sides of the equation Av = λv are multiplied
by the row vector v∗, then
v∗Av = v∗(λv) = λ(v∗v) = [λ(a21 + b12 + a22 + b22 + . . . + a2n + bn2 )].
Furthermore,
(v∗Av)∗ = v∗A∗(v∗)∗ = v∗Av
so it follows that v∗Av is a Hermitian 1 × 1 matrix. This implies that the single entry
λ(a21 + b12 + a22 + b22 + . . . + a2n + bn2 ) of v∗Av is a real number, so λ is real.

To find the eigenvalues of complex matrices, follow the same procedure as for
real matrices.

Finding Eigenvalues of a Hermitian Matrix

Find the eigenvalues of the matrix A.

[ ]
3 2−i −3i
A= 2+i 0 1−i
3i 1+i 0
solution

∣ ∣∣
The characteristic polynomial of A is
λ−3 −2 + i 3i
∣ ∣
λI − A = −2 − i λ −1 + i
−3i −1 − i λ

= (λ − 3)
∣
λ
−1 − i
−1 + i
λ
− (−2 + i)
∣
−2 − i −1 + i
−3i λ ∣
+ 3i
∣
−2 − i λ
−3i −1 − i
= (λ − 3)(λ2 − 2) − (−2 + i)[(−2 − i)λ − (3i + 3)]
∣
+ 3i [(1 + 3i) + 3λi]
= (λ3 − 3λ2 − 2λ + 6) − (5λ + 9 + 3i) + (3i − 9 − 9λ )
= λ3 − 3λ2 − 16λ − 12
= (λ + 1)(λ − 6)(λ + 2).
So, the characteristic equation is (λ + 1)(λ − 6)(λ + 2) = 0, and the eigenvalues of A
are −1, 6, and −2.

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 8.5  Unitary and Hermitian Matrices 433

To find the eigenvectors of a complex matrix, use a procedure similar to that used
for a real matrix. For instance, in Example 5, to find eigenvectors corresponding to the
eigenvalue λ1 = −1, substitute λ = −1 into the equation

[ ][ ] [ ]
λ−3 −2 + i 3i v1 0
−2 − i λ −1 + i v2 = 0
−3i −1 − i λ v3 0
to obtain

[ ][ ] [ ]
technology −4 −2 + i 3i v1 0
Many graphing utilities and −2 − i −1 −1 + i v2 = 0 .
software programs can find −3i −1 − i −1 v3 0
eigenvalues and eigenvectors
of a complex matrix. Use Solve this equation to verify that
such a graphing utility or

[ ]
−1
software program to find the
v1 = 1 + 2i
eigenvalues and eigenvectors
of the matrix in Example 5. 1
See LarsonLinearAlgebra.com is an eigenvector. In a similar manner, verify that
for an interactive example.

[ ] [ ]
1 − 21i 1 + 3i
v2 = 6 − 9i  and v3 = −2 − i
13 5
are eigenvectors corresponding to λ2 = 6 and λ3 = −2, respectively.

Quantum mechanics had its start in the early twentieth

Linear century as scientists began to study subatomic particles
Algebra and light. Collecting data on energy levels of atoms, and
Applied the rates of transition between levels, they found that
atoms could be induced to more excited states by the
absorption of light. German physicist Werner Heisenberg
(1901–1976) laid a mathematical foundation for quantum
mechanics using matrices. Studying the dispersion of light,
he used vectors to represent energy levels of states and
Hermitian matrices to represent “observables” such as
momentum, position, spin, and energy. A measurement
yields precisely one real value and leaves the system in
precisely one of a set of mutually exclusive (orthogonal)
states. So, the eigenvalues are the possible values that
can result from a measurement of an observable, and
the eigenvectors are the corresponding states of the
system after the measurement. Let matrix A be a diagonal
Hermitian matrix that represents an observable. Then
consider a physical system whose state is represented
by the column vector u. To measure the value of the
observable A in the system of state u, find the product

[ ][ ]
a11 0 0 u1
u∗Au = [u1 u2 u3 ] 0 a22 0 u2
0 0 a33 u3
= [(u1u1)a11 + (u2u2)a22 + (u3u3)a33 ].

A is Hermitian and its values along the diagonal are real,

so u∗Au is real. It represents the weighted average
of the values found by measuring the observable A on a
system in the state u a large number of times.
Jezper/Shutterstock.com

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 434 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

Just as real symmetric matrices are orthogonally diagonalizable, Hermitian

matrices are unitarily diagonalizable. A square matrix A is unitarily diagonalizable
when there exists a unitary matrix P such that
P−1AP
is a diagonal matrix. P is unitary, so P −1 = P ∗, and an equivalent statement is that A is
unitarily diagonalizable when there exists a unitary matrix P such that
P ∗AP
is a diagonal matrix. The next theorem states that Hermitian matrices are unitarily
diagonalizable.

THEOREM 8.11  Hermitian Matrices and Diagonalization

If A is an n × n Hermitian matrix, then
1.  eigenvectors corresponding to distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal.
2.  A is unitarily diagonalizable.

proof
To prove part 1, let v1 and v2 be two eigenvectors corresponding to the distinct (and
real) eigenvalues λ1 and λ2. You know that Av1 = λ1v1 and Av2 = λ2v2, so you have
the equations shown below for the matrix product (Av1 )∗v2.
(Av1 )∗v2 = v1∗A∗v2 = v1∗Av2 = v1∗λ2v2 = λ2v1∗v2
(Av1 )∗v2 = (λ1v1)∗v2 = v1∗λ1v2 = λ1v1∗v2
REMARK So,
Recall that in Chapter 7 you
studied the Real Spectral λ2v1∗v2 − λ1v1∗v2 = 0
Theorem (Theorem 7.7), (λ2 − λ1 )v1∗v2 = 0
which is the analogous form v1∗ v2 = 0 because λ1 ≠ λ2
of the Spectral Theorem for
real symmetric matrices. and this shows that v1 and v2 are orthogonal. Part 2 of Theorem 8.11 is often called the
Spectral Theorem, and its proof is left to you. (See Exercise 55.)

Eigenvectors of a Hermitian Matrix

The eigenvectors of the Hermitian matrix shown in Example 5 are mutually orthogonal
because the eigenvalues are distinct. Verify this by calculating the Euclidean inner
products v1 ∙ v2, v1 ∙ v3, and v2 ∙ v3. (The eigenvectors v1, v2, and v3 are shown after
Example 5.) For example,
v1 ∙ v2 = (−1)(1 − 21i) + (1 + 2i)(6 − 9i) + (1)(13)
= (−1)(1 + 21i) + (1 + 2i)(6 + 9i) + 13
= −1 − 21i + 6 + 9i + 12i − 18 + 13
= 0.
The other two inner products v1 ∙ v3 and v2 ∙ v3 can be shown to equal zero in a similar
manner.

The three eigenvectors in Example 6 are mutually orthogonal because they

correspond to distinct eigenvalues of the Hermitian matrix A. Two or more eigenvectors
corresponding to the same eigenvalue may not be orthogonal. Once any set of linearly
independent eigenvectors is obtained for an eigenvalue, however, the Gram-Schmidt
orthonormalization process can be used to find an orthogonal set.

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 8.5  Unitary and Hermitian Matrices 435

Diagonalization of a Hermitian Matrix

See LarsonLinearAlgebra.com for an interactive version of this type of example.

Find a unitary matrix P such that P∗AP is a diagonal matrix where

[ ]
3 2−i −3i
A= 2+i 0 1−i .
3i 1 + i 0
solution
The eigenvectors v1, v2, and v3 of A are shown after Example 5. Form the matrix P by
normalizing these three eigenvectors and using the results to create the columns of P.
v1 = (−1, 1 + 2i, 1) = √1 + 5 + 1 = √7
v2 = (1 − 21i, 6 − 9i, 13) = √442 + 117 + 169 = √728
v3 = (1 + 3i, −2 − i, 5) = √10 + 5 + 25 = √40
So,

[ ]
1 1 − 21i 1 + 3i
−
√7 √728 √40
1 + 2i 6 − 9i −2 − i
P= .
√7 √728 √40
1 13 5
√7 √728 √40

Find the product P∗AP for the matrices A and P in Example 7 to see that

[ ]
−1 0 0
P∗AP = 0 6 0
0 0 −2
where −1, 6, and −2 are the eigenvalues of A.
You have seen that Hermitian matrices are unitarily diagonalizable. There is a
larger class of matrices, called normal matrices, that are also unitarily diagonalizable.
A square complex matrix A is normal when it commutes with its conjugate transpose:
AA∗ = A∗A. The main theorem of normal matrices states that a complex matrix A is
normal if and only if it is unitarily diagonalizable. You are asked to explore normal
matrices further in Exercise 58.
The properties of complex matrices described in this section are comparable to
the properties of real matrices discussed in Chapter 7. The summary below shows the
correspondence between unitary and Hermitian complex matrices when compared with
orthogonal and symmetric real matrices.

Comparison of Symmetric and Hermitian Matrices

A is a symmetric matrix (real) A is a Hermitian matrix (complex)
1.  Eigenvalues of A are real. 1.  Eigenvalues of A are real.
2. Eigenvectors corresponding to 2.  Eigenvectors corresponding to
distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal.     distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal.
3. There exists an orthogonal 3.  There exists a unitary matrix P
matrix P such that     such that
P TAP P ∗AP
is diagonal.     is diagonal.

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 436 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

8.5 Exercises
Finding the Conjugate Transpose  In Exercises 1–4, Row Vectors of a Unitary Matrix  In Exercises 17–20,
find the conjugate transpose of the matrix. (a) verify that A is unitary by showing that its rows are
orthonormal, and (b) determine the inverse of A.
 1.  [−i3 i
]  2.  [1 + 2i1 2−i
]
[ ] [ ]
2i 1 4 3 1+i 1+i
− i −
5 5 2 2

[ ] [ ]
0 5+i √2i 4 −i 17.  A = 18.  A =
 3.  5−i 6 4  4.  3 −2i 3 4 1 1
i
− √2i 4 3 0 7+i 5 5 √2 √2

Finding the Conjugate Transpose  In Exercises 5 and

6, use a software program or graphing utility to find the
19.  A =
√3 − i
1
2√2 √3 + i [ 1 + √3i
1 − √3i ]
conjugate transpose of the matrix.

[ ]
0 1 0

[ ]
1+i 0 1 −i
−1 + i 1−i
2+i 1 0 2i 20.  A = 0
 5.  √6 √3
1−i i 2 4i
2 1
i 2+i −1 0 0
√6 √3

[ ]
2+i 1 −1 2i
0 2−i 2i 1−i Identifying Hermitian Matrices  In Exercises 21–26,
 6.  determine whether the matrix is Hermitian.
i 2+i −i 1
1 + 2i 4 0 −2i 21.  [−i0 0i] 22.  [0i 0
−i ]
Non-Unitary Matrices  In Exercises 7–10, explain why

[ ] [ ]
0 2+i 1 0 i 1
the matrix is not unitary.
23.  2 − i i 0 24.  2 + i i 0
 7.  A = [0i 0
0
]  8.  A = [1i i
−1 ] 1 0 1 0 1 0
2+i 3−i
[2 − 1i ]
[ ] [ ]
1+i i i 1 i 25. 
0 − 2 3+i
 9.  A = √2 √2 10.  A = 0 1 + i 0

[ ]
1 √2 + i 5
0 1 0 1 i 1
26.  √2 − i 2 3+i
Identifying Unitary Matrices  In Exercises 11–16, 5 3−i 6
determine whether the matrix is unitary.
Finding Eigenvalues of a Hermitian Matrix In
1+i 1+i 1+i 1−i
11.  A = [
1−i 1−i
] 12.  A = [ 1−i 1+i ] Exercises 27–32, determine the eigenvalues and find
corresponding eigenvectors of the matrix A.
−i
13.  A =
0
0
i[ ] 27.  A = [−i0 0i] 28.  A = [−i3 3i]

[ ] [ ]
i i 4 3 3 1−i 0 2+i
29.  A = [
2]
30.  A = [
4]
−
√2 √2 5 5 1+i 2−i
14.  A = 15.  A =
i i 3 4

[ ]
− i i 1 4 1−i
√2 √2 5 5 31.  A = 0 i 3i
2+i

[ ]
0 0
i i i

[ ]
−
√2 √3 √6 i i
2 −
i i i √2 √2
16.  A =
√2 √3 √6 i
32.  A = 2 0
i i √2
0 −
√3 √6 i
− 0 2
√2

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 8.5 Exercises 437

Diagonalization of a Hermitian Matrix  In Exercises Determinants  In Exercises 53 and 54, assume that the
33–42, find a unitary matrix P that diagonalizes the result of Exercise 52 is true for matrices of any size.
matrix A. 53.  Show that det(A∗) = det(A).
33.  A = [−i0 0i] 34.  A = [1i −i1] ∣ ∣
54.  Prove that if A is unitary, then det(A) = 1.

1 1−i 0 2+i 55. Proof  Prove that if A is an n × n Hermitian matrix,

35.  A = [
0]
36.  A = [
4]
then A is unitarily diagonalizable.
1+i 2−i
2 1+i 4 2 + 2i
37.  A = [
1]
38.  A = [
6]
56.  CAPSTONE  Consider the matrix
1−i 2 − 2i

[ ]
−2 3−i 4−i

[ ]
3 0 0
39.  A = 0 0 −2i A= 3+i 1 1+i .
0 2i 3 4+i 1−i 3

[ ]
−1 0 0 (a) Is A unitary? Explain.
40.  A = 0 −1 −1 + i (b) Is A Hermitian? Explain.
0 −1 − i 0
(c)  Are the row vectors of A orthonormal? Explain.

[ ]
i i (d) The eigenvalues of A are distinct. Is it possible
2 −
√2 √2 to determine the inner products of the pairs of
i eigenvectors by inspection? If so, state the value(s).
41.  A = 2 0
√2 If not, explain why not.
i (e) Is A unitarily diagonalizable? Explain.
− 0 2
√2

[ ]
57.  (a) Prove that every Hermitian matrix A can be written
3i 3i
3 − as the sum A = B + iC, where B is a real symmetric
√2 √2 matrix and C is real and skew-symmetric.
3i
42.  A = − 3 0 (b)  Use part (a) to write the matrix
√2
1+i
3i
√2
0 3 A= [1 − 2i 3 ]
as the sum A = B + iC, where B is a real symmetric
43.  Show that A = In is unitary by computing AA*. matrix and C is real and skew-symmetric.
44. Let z be a complex number with modulus 1. Show that (c) Prove that every n × n complex matrix A can
the matrix be written as A = B + iC, where B and C are
Hermitian.
A=
1
[z
√2 iz −i z
z
] (d)  Use part (c) to write the complex matrix
is unitary.
A= [2 + ii 2
1 − 2i]
Unitary Matrices  In Exercises 45 and 46, use the result of
Exercise 44 to determine a, b, and c such that A is unitary.  as the sum A = B + iC, where B and C are
Hermitian.

[ ]
6 + 3i
1 −1
[ ]
a 1 a 58.  (a)  Prove that every Hermitian matrix is normal.
45.  A = 46.  A = √45
√2 b c √2
b c (b)  Prove that every unitary matrix is normal.
(c)  Find a 2 × 2 matrix that is Hermitian, but not unitary.
Proof  In Exercises 47–50, prove the formula, where A
and B are n × n complex matrices. (d) Find a 2 × 2 matrix that is unitary, but not
Hermitian.
47.  (A∗)∗ = A 48.  (A + B)∗ = A∗ + B∗
(e) Find a 2 × 2 matrix that is normal, but neither
∗
49.  (kA) = kA ∗ 50.  (AB)∗ = B∗A∗ Hermitian nor unitary.
51. Proof Let A be a matrix such that A∗ + A = O. (f ) Find the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors
Prove that iA is Hermitian. of your matrix in part (e).
52.  Show that det(A) = det(A), where A is a 2 × 2 matrix. (g) Show that the complex matrix [0
i
]
1
i
is not
diagonalizable. Is this matrix normal?

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 438 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

8  Review Exercises
Operations with Complex Numbers  In Exercises Finding the Polar Form of a Complex Number In
1–6, perform the operation. Exercises 31–36, find the polar form of the complex
 1. Find u + z: u = 2 − 4i, z = 4i number. (Use the principal argument.)
 2. Find u − z: u = 4 + 4i, z = 8 − 8i 31.  4 + 4i 32.  2 − 2i
 3. Find uz: u = 4 − 2i, z = 4 + 2i 33.  √3 + i 34.  1 + √3i
 4. Find uz: u = 2i, z = 1 − 2i 35.  5 − 9i 36.  3 + 2i
u
 5. Find : u = 6 − 2i, z = 3 − 3i Converting to Standard Form  In Exercises 37–42,
z
find the standard form of the complex number.
u
 6. Find : u = 7 + i, z = i
z
( 3π2 + i sin 3π2 )
37.  7 cos 38.  4(cos π + i sin π )

39.  3(cos + i sin ) ( )

Finding Zeros  In Exercises 7–10, use the given zero to 3π 3π 2π 2π
40.  6 cos + i sin
find all other zeros of the polynomial function. 4 4 3 3
 7. p(x) = x − 5x + 4x − 20 Zero: 
3 2
2i π π
41.  5[ cos(− ) + i sin(− )]
 8. p(x) = x − 2x − 4 Zero: 
3
−1 + i 6 6
π π
42.  2[ cos(− ) + i sin(− )]
 9. p(x) = x + x + 3x + 5x − 10 Zero: 
4 3 2 − √5i
10.  p(x) = x − x + x − 3x − 6 Zero: 
4 3 2 √3i 3 3

Operations with Complex Matrices  In Exercises Multiplying and Dividing in Polar Form  In Exercises
11–18, perform the matrix operation(s) using 43–46, perform the operation and leave the result in
polar form.
A= [4 − 3i
3+i
2
 and B = ] 1+i i
2i 2 + i
. [ ] [ ( π2 + i sin π2 )][3(cos π6 + i sin π6 )]
43.  4 cos
11.  A + B 12.  A − B
π π π π
44.  [ (cos + i sin )][ 2(cos(− ) + i sin(− ))]
1
13.  2iB 14.  −3iA
2 2 2 2 2
15. det(A − B) 16.  det(A + B)
12[cos(π2) + i sin(π2)]
17.  3BA 18.  2AB 45. 
8[cos(2π3) + i sin(2π3)]
Conjugate and Modulus  In Exercises 19–24, evaluate 4[cos(π4) + i sin(π4)]
46. 
using w = 2 − 2i, v = 3 + i, and z = −1 + 2i. 7[cos(π3) + i sin(π3)]
19.  z 20.  w 21.  v ∣∣ Raising a Complex Number to a Power  In Exercises
∣ ∣
22.  vz 23.  wv 24.  zw ∣ ∣ 47–50, use DeMoivre’s Theorem to find the power of the
complex number. Write the result in polar form.
Dividing Complex Numbers  In Exercises 25 –28,
π π π π
[ ( )] [( )]
7 4
perform the operation(s). 47.  √2 cos + i sin 48.  5 cos + i sin
6 6 3 3
2+i 4+i
25.  26. 
2−i −1 + 4i 49.  (−1 − i)4 50.  (4i)3
(1 − 2i)(1 + 2i) 5 + 2i
27.  28.  Finding Roots of a Complex Number  In Exercises
3 − 3i (−2 + 2i)(2 − 3i)
51–54, express the roots in standard form.
Finding the Inverse of a Complex Matrix  In Exercises
29 and 30, find A−1 (if it exists).
51.  Square roots: 25 cos( 2π
3
+ i sin
2π
3 )
3−i −1 − 2i
29.  A = [− 23
5 + 11
5i 2 + 3i ] (
52.  Cube roots: 27 cos
π
6
+ i sin
π
6 )
−1 + i
30.  A = [ ]
6 53.  Cube roots: i
−i 3i π π
54.  Fourth roots: 16 cos( 4
+ i sin
4 )

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 Review Exercises 439

Vector Operations in C n  In Exercises 55 and 56, Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors  In Exercises
perform the operations using u = (4i, 2 + i), v = (3, −i), 75–78, determine the eigenvalues and find corresponding
and w = (3 − i, 4 + i). eigenvectors of the matrix.
55.  iu + iv − iw 56.  (3 + 2i)u − (−2i)w 2−i
75.  [−3i1 3i
−1 ]
76.  [2 + 4i 0 ]
Finding the Euclidean Norm  In Exercises 57 and 58,

[ ]
find the Euclidean norm of v. i i
4 −
57.  v = (3 − 5i, 2i) 58.  v = (3i, −1 − 5i, 3 + 2i) √2 √2

[ ]
2 0 −i
i
Finding the Euclidean Distance  In Exercises 59 and 77.  0 3 0 78.  − 4 0
60, find the Euclidean distance between u and v. √2
i 0 2
i
59.  u = (i, 2 − i), v = (2 − i, i) 0 4
√2
60.  u = (4 − 2i, 3 + 2i, 4), v = (2 + i, −1 + 2i, 3i)
79.  Proof  Prove that if A is an invertible matrix, then A*
Finding a Complex Inner Product  In Exercises 61–64,
is also invertible.
use the inner product 〈u, v〉 = u1v1 + 2u2v2 to find 〈u, v〉.
80.  Determine all complex numbers z such that z = −z.
61.  u = (−i, 3i) and v = (2i, −2i)
81.  Proof  Prove that if the complex number z is a zero of
62.  u = (−i, 3 + i) and v = (6 − i, i)
a polynomial equation with real coefficients, then the
63.  u = (1 + i, 1 − 2i) and v = (2 + i, 1 − 2i) conjugate of z must also be a zero.
64.  u = (2 − 2i, 1) and v = (3 − 4i, 2) 82.  (a)  Find the determinant of the Hermitian matrix

[ ]
Finding the Conjugate Transpose  In Exercises 65–68, 3 2−i −3i
find the conjugate transpose of the matrix. 2 + i 0 1−i .
−1 + 4i 3+i 2+i 2−i 3i 1+i 0
65.  [ 3−i 2+i
] 66.  [
1 + 2i ]
2 − 2i (b) Prove that the determinant of any Hermitian matrix
is real.

[ ]
5 2−i 3 + 2i
67.  2 + 2i 3 − 2i i 83.  Proof Let A and B be Hermitian matrices. Prove that
3i 2+i −1 − 2i AB = BA if and only if AB is Hermitian.
84.  Proof Let u be a unit vector in C n and let

[ ]
2 1+i i
H = I − 2uu∗. Prove that H is an n × n Hermitian and
68.  −i 2 + 2i 0
unitary matrix.
1 1+i −2i
85.  Proof Use mathematical induction to prove
Identifying Unitary Matrices  In Exercises 69–72, DeMoivre’s Theorem.
determine whether the matrix is unitary. 86. Proof  Show that if z1 + z 2 and z1z2 are both nonzero

[ ] [ ]
i 1 2+i 1+i real numbers, then z1 and z2 are both real numbers.
− 87.  Proof  Prove that if z and w are complex numbers, then
√2 √2 4 4
69.  A = 70.  A =
i 1 i √2 ∣ ∣ ∣∣ ∣ ∣
z+w ≤ z + w.
√2 √2 √3 √3 88.  Proof  Prove that for all vectors u and v in a complex
inner product space,

[ ]
1 1
0 〈u, v〉 = 14[u + v2 − u − v2 + iu + iv2
√2 √2
− iu − iv2].
71.  A = [1i 0
−i] 72.  A = 0 i 0
1+i −1 − i True or False?  In Exercises 89 and 90, determine
0
2 2 whether each statement is true or false. If a statement
Identifying Hermitian Matrices  In Exercises 73 and is true, give a reason or cite an appropriate statement
74, determine whether the matrix is Hermitian. from the text. If a statement is false, provide an example
that shows the statement is not true in all cases or cite an

[ ]
1 −1 + i 2−i appropriate statement from the text.
73.  1 − i 3 i
89.  A square complex matrix A is normal when
2+i −i 4
AA∗ = A∗A.

[ ]
9 2−i 2
90.  A square matrix A is Hermitian if when
74.  2 + i 0 −1 − i
2 −1 + i 3 A = A∗.

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 440 Chapter 8  Complex Vector Spaces

8 Projects
1  The Mandelbrot Set
Recall from Section 8.2 that a fractal is a mathematical set that shows a repeating
pattern at every scale, and that a complex number c is a member of a fractal called the
Mandelbrot Set when the sequence zn = (zn−1)2 + c, z1 = c is bounded.
1. Determine whether each complex number is a member of the Mandelbrot Set.
(Use a software program or graphing utility if necessary.)
(a) 1  (b) −2    (c)  −i    (d)  i     (e)  1+i
1
(f)  2 i (g)  0.2 − 0.5i (h)  0.2 − 0.6i (i) 0.3 − 0.6i ( j)  0.3 − 0.5i
2. Verify your answers to part 1 by graphing some of the terms of each sequence
zn as vectors in the complex plane.
3. Can you determine the condition(s) under which a complex number c produces
a bounded sequence zn? If so, give a description. If not, explain why.

2  Population Growth and Dynamical Systems (II)

In the projects for Chapter 7 you were asked to model the populations of two
species using a system of differential equations of the form
y1′(t) = ay1(t) + by2(t)
y2′(t) = cy1(t) + dy2(t).
The constants a, b, c, and d depend on the species being studied. In Chapter 7, you
looked at an example of a predator-prey relationship, in which a = 0.5, b = 0.6,
c = −0.4, and d = 3.0. Now consider a slightly different model.
y1′(t) = 0.6y1(t) + 0.8y2(t), y1(0) = 36
y2′(t) = −0.8y1(t) + 0.6y2(t), y2(0) = 121
1.  Use matrix diagonalization to find the general solutions y1(t) and y2(t) at any time
t > 0. Although the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix

A = [−0.8
0.6 0.8
0.6 ]
are complex, the same principles apply, and you can obtain complex exponential
solutions.
2.  Convert the complex solutions to real solutions by observing that if λ = a + bi
is a (complex) eigenvalue of A with (complex) eigenvector v, then the real and
imaginary parts of e λtv form a linearly independent pair of (real) solutions. Use
the formula eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ.
3.  Use the initial conditions to find the explicit form of the (real) solutions of the
original equations.
4.  Use a graphing utility or software program to graph the solutions obtained in
part 3 over the domain 0 ≤ t ≤ 3. At what moment are the two populations
equal?
5.  Interpret the solution in terms of the long-term population trend for the two
species. Does one species ultimately disappear? Why or why not? Contrast this
solution to that obtained for the model in Chapter 7.
6.  Use a graphing utility or software program that can numerically solve differential
equations to graph the solutions of the original system of equations. Does this
numerical approximation appear to be accurate? Supri Suharjoto/Shutterstock.com

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