Theory of

Structure I
Engr. Gabriel Gamana

1.0 Types of Structures and Loads

2.0 Analysis of Statically Determinate
Structures
3.0 Cables and Arches
Table of Contents 4.0 Influence Lines for Statically
Determinate Structures
5.0 Approximate Analysis of Statically
indeterminate Structures
6.0 Deflections

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 2.1 Equilibrium of Structures
2.0 Analysis of 2.2 External and Internal Forces
Statically 2.3 Principle of Superposition
2.4 Plane and Space Trusses
Determinate 2.5 Determinacy and Stability
2.6 Applications of Equilibrium Equation
Structures 2.7 Internal Loadings

2.1 Equilibrium of Structures

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2.1 Equilibrium of Structures
A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it
remains at rest when subjected to a system of forces and
couples. If a structure is in equilibrium, then all its members and
parts are also in equilibrium.

2.1 Equilibrium of Structures

In order for a structure to be in equilibrium, all the forces and
couples (including support reactions) acting on it must balance
each other, and there must neither be a resultant force nor a
resultant couple acting on the structure.

𝐹 =0 𝐹 =0 𝐹 =0

𝑀 =0 𝑀 =0 𝑀 =0

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2.2 External and Internal Forces
2.2.1 External Forces
• External forces are the actions of other bodies on the
structure under consideration. For the purposes of analysis, it
is usually convenient to further classify these forces as
applied forces and reaction forces.
• Applied forces, usually referred to as loads (e.g., live loads
and wind loads), have a tendency to move the structure and
are usually known in the analysis.
• Reaction forces, or reactions, are the forces exerted by
supports on the structure and have a tendency to prevent its
motion and keep it in equilibrium. The reactions are usually
among the unknowns to be determined by the analysis. The
state of equilibrium or motion of the structure as a whole is
governed solely by the external forces acting on it.
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2.2 External and Internal Forces

2.2.2 Internal Forces
• Internal forces are the forces and couples exerted on a
member or portion of the structure by the rest of the structure.
These forces develop within the structure and hold the various
portions of it together.
• The internal forces always occur in equal but opposite pairs,
because each member or portion exerts back on the rest of
the structure the same forces acting upon it but in opposite
directions, according to Newton’s third law.
• Because the internal forces cancel each other, they do not
appear in the equations of equilibrium of the entire structure.

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2.3 Principle of Superposition
The principle of superposition forms the basis for much of the
theory of structural analysis. It may be stated as follows: The
total displacement or internal loadings (stress) at a point in a
structure subjected to several external loadings can be
determined by adding together the displacements or internal
loadings (stress) caused by each of the external loads acting
separately. For this statement to be valid it is necessary that a
linear relationship exist among the loads, stresses, and
displacements

2.3 Principle of Superposition

Two requirements must be imposed for the principle of
superposition to apply:
1. The material must behave in a linear-elastic manner, so that
Hooke’s law is valid, and therefore the load will be
proportional to displacement.
2. The geometry of the structure must not undergo significant
change when the loads are applied, i.e., small displacement
theory applies. Large displacements will significantly change
the position and orientation of the loads. An example would
be a cantilevered thin rod subjected to a force at its end.

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2.4 Plane and Space Trusses
A truss is a structure composed of slender members joined
together at their end points. The members commonly used in
construction consist of wooden struts, metal bars, angles, or
channels. The joint connections are usually formed by bolting or
welding the ends of the members to a common plate, called a
gusset plate, as shown in figure, or by simply passing a large
bolt or pin through each of the members

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2.4 Plane and Space Trusses

2.4.1 Common Types of Trusses
2.4.1.1 Plane Trusses
If all the members of a truss and the applied loads lie in a single
plane, the truss is called a plane truss. Plane trusses are
commonly used for supporting decks of bridges and roofs of
buildings

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2.4 Plane and Space Trusses
2.4.1.1.1 Common Roof Trusses

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2.4 Plane and Space Trusses

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2.4 Plane and Space Trusses
2.4.1.1.2 Common Bridge Trusses

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2.4 Plane and Space Trusses

2.4.1.1.3 Coplanar Trusses
2.4.1.1.3.1 Simple Trusses
The simplest framework that is rigid or stable is a triangle.
Consequently, a simple truss is constructed by starting with a
basic triangular element, such as ABC in figure, and connecting
two members (AD and BD) to form an additional element. Thus it
is seen that as each additional element of two members is
placed on the truss, the number of joints is increased by one

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2.4 Plane and Space Trusses
2.4.1.1.3.2 Compound Trusses
A compound truss is formed by connecting two or more simple
trusses together. Quite often this type of truss is used to support
loads acting over a large span, since it is cheaper to construct a
somewhat lighter compound truss than to use a heavier single
simple truss

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2.4 Plane and Space Trusses

2.4.1.1.3.3 Complex Trusses
A complex truss is one that cannot be classified as being either
simple or compound

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2.4 Plane and Space Trusses
2.4.1.2 Space Trusses
Although a great majority of trusses can be analyzed as plane
trusses, there are some truss systems, such as transmission
towers and latticed domes, that cannot be treated as plane
trusses because of their shape, arrangement of members, or
applied loading. Such trusses, which are called space trusses,
are analyzed as three-dimensional bodies subjected to three-
dimensional force systems.

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2.5 Determinacy and Stability

2.4.1 Determinacy
• The equilibrium equations provide both the necessary and
sufficient conditions for equilibrium. When all the forces in a
structure can be determined strictly from these equations, the
structure is referred to as statically determinate. Structures
having more unknown forces than available equilibrium
equations are called statically indeterminate.
• As a general rule, a structure can be identified as being either
statically determinate or statically indeterminate by drawing
free-body diagrams of all its members, or selective parts of its
members, and then comparing the total number of unknown
reactive force and moment components with the total number
of available equilibrium equations

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2.5 Determinacy and Stability
In particular, if a structure is statically indeterminate, the
additional equations needed to solve for the unknown reactions
are obtained by relating the applied loads and reactions to the
displacement or slope at different points on the structure. These
equations, which are referred to as compatibility equations,
must be equal in number to the degree of indeterminacy of the
structure. Compatibility equations involve the geometric and
physical properties of the structure

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2.5 Determinacy and Stability

2.5.1.1 Beams and Frames
The approach that can be used for determining the static
instability, determinacy, and indeterminacy of internally unstable
structures is as follows
𝒓 + 𝒇 < 𝟑𝒏 Statically unstable
𝒓 + 𝒇 = 𝟑𝒏 Statically determinate
𝒓 + 𝒇 > 𝟑𝒏 Statically indeterminate
For indeterminate structures
𝒊 = 𝒓 + 𝒇 − 𝟑𝒏
where: 𝒓 = Support reactions
𝒇 = Internal forces
𝒏 = Members or portions
𝒊 = Degree of external indeterminacy 22

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2.5 Determinacy and Stability
2.5.1.2 Truss
2.5.1.2.1 Plane Truss
The approach that can be used for determining the static
instability, determinacy, and indeterminacy of internally unstable
structures is as follows
𝒓 + 𝒃 < 𝟐𝒋 Statically unstable
𝒓 + 𝒃 = 𝟐𝒋 Statically determinate
𝒓 + 𝒃 > 𝟐𝒋 Statically indeterminate
where: 𝒓 = Support reactions
𝒃 = Truss members
𝒋 = Joints

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2.5 Determinacy and Stability

2.5.1.2.2 Space Truss
Realizing that in three dimensions there are three equations of
equilibrium available for each joint then for a space truss
𝒓 + 𝒃 < 𝟑𝒋 Statically unstable
𝒓 + 𝒃 = 𝟑𝒋 Statically determinate
𝒓 + 𝒃 > 𝟑𝒋 Statically indeterminate
where: 𝒓 = Support reactions
𝒃 = Truss members
𝒋 = Joints

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2.5 Determinacy and Stability
Problem 1-1
Classify each of the structures shown as externally unstable,
statically determinate, or statically indeterminate. If the structure
is statically indeterminate externally, then determine the degree
of external indeterminacy

Answer
a. Determinate
b. Indeterminate 2nd Degree
c. Indeterminate 1st Degree
d. Indeterminate 1st Degree 25

2.5 Determinacy and Stability

Problem 1-2
Classify each of the plane trusses shown as unstable, statically
determinate, or statically indeterminate. If the truss is statically
indeterminate, then determine the degree of static
indeterminacy.

Answer
a. Indeterminate 2nd Degree
b. Indeterminate 1st Degree
c. Determinate 26

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2.5 Determinacy and Stability
2.5.2 Stability
To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its members, it is not
only necessary to satisfy the equations of equilibrium, but the
members must also be properly held or constrained by their
supports. Two situations may occur where the conditions for
proper constraint have not been met.

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2.5 Determinacy and Stability

2.5.2.1 Partial Constraints
In some cases a structure or one of its members may have
fewer reactive forces than equations of equilibrium that must be
satisfied. The structure then becomes only partially constrained.
For example, consider the member shown in figure below with
its corresponding free-body diagram. Here the equation will not
be satisfied for the loading conditions and therefore the member
will be unstable.

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2.5 Determinacy and Stability
2.5.2.2 Improper Constraints
In some cases there may be as many unknown forces as there
are equations of equilibrium; however, instability or movement of
a structure or its members can develop because of improper
constraining by the supports. This can occur if all the support
reactions are concurrent at a point. An example of this is shown
in figure. From the free-body diagram of the beam it is seen that
the summation of moments about point O will not be equal to
zero thus rotation about point O will take place.

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2.5 Determinacy and Stability

Another way in which improper constraining leads to instability
occurs when the reactive forces are all parallel. An example of
this case is shown in figure. Here when an inclined force P is
applied, the summation of forces in the horizontal direction will
not equal zero.

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2.5 Determinacy and Stability
Problem 1-3
Classify each of the structures as statically determinate,
statically indeterminate, or unstable. If indeterminate, specify the
degree of indeterminacy

Answer
a. Unstable
b. Unstable 31

2.6 Applications of Equilibrium Equation

The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine
the reactions of plane statically determinate structures subjected
to coplanar loads.
1. Draw a free-body diagram (FBD) of the structure
2. Check for static determinacy. If the structure is either
statically or geometrically unstable or indeterminate
externally, end the analysis at this stage.
3. Determine the unknown reactions by applying the equations
of equilibrium and condition (if any) to the entire structure.
4. Apply an alternative equilibrium equation that has not been
used before to the entire structure to check the computations.

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2.6 Applications of Equilibrium Equation
Problem 1-4
Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown in
figure.

Answer
𝑹𝑨𝒚 = −𝟓𝟎𝟕. 𝟔𝟗 𝒌𝑵
𝑹𝑬𝒚 = 𝟒, 𝟎𝟖𝟕. 𝟒𝟕 𝒌𝑵 33

2.6 Applications of Equilibrium Equation

Problem 1-5
Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown in
figure.

Answer
𝑹𝑩𝒚 = 𝟒𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑵
𝑴𝑪 = −𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑵 𝒎 34

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2.6 Applications of Equilibrium Equation
Problem 1-6
A gable frame is subjected to a wind loading, as shown in figure.
Determine the reactions at its supports due to the loading.

Answer
𝑹𝑩𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐. 𝟗𝟑 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔
𝑹𝑨𝒚 = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟎𝟕 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔 35

2.6 Applications of Equilibrium Equation

Problem 1-7
Determine the reactions at the supports for the truss shown in
figure.

Answer
𝑹𝑩 = 𝟓𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔
𝑹𝑨𝒚 = 𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔 36

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2.6 Applications of Equilibrium Equation
Problem 1-8
The distributed load acts on the beam as shown. Determine the
magnitude of the equivalent resultant force and specify the
location, measured from point A.

Answer
𝑭𝑹 = 𝟓𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒍𝒃𝒔
𝒙 = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟖𝟏 𝒇𝒕 37

2.6 Applications of Equilibrium Equation

Problem 1-9
Determine the member forces at DC, DE, EF, HB, GA, and
indicate if tension or compression. If P = 100 kN

Answer
𝑭=𝟎 38

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2.6 Applications of Equilibrium Equation
Problem 1-10
Determine the member force at FC and indicate if tension or
compression.

Answer
𝑭𝑭𝑪 = 𝟔. 𝟕𝟑𝟏 𝑲𝒊𝒑𝒔 39

2.6 Applications of Equilibrium Equation

Problem 1-11
Determine the force in each member of the space truss shown.

Answer
𝑭𝑩𝑫 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑲𝒊𝒑𝒔 40

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2.7 Internal Loadings
Internal load at a specified point in a member can be determined
by using the method of sections. In general, this loading for a
coplanar structure will consist of a normal force N, shear force V,
and bending moment M.

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2.7 Internal Loadings

2.7.1 Sign Convention
An easy way to remember sign convention is to isolate a small
segment of the member and note that positive normal force
tends to elongate the segment, positive shear tends to rotate
the segment clockwise, and positive bending moment tends to
bend the segment concave upward,

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2.7 Internal Loadings
2.7.2 Shear and Moment Functions
• The design of a beam requires a detailed knowledge of the
variations of the internal shear force V and moment M acting
at each point along the axis of the beam.
• The variations of V and M as a function of the position x of an
arbitrary point along the beam’s axis can be obtained by using
the method of sections. Here, however, it is necessary to
locate the imaginary section or cut at an arbitrary distance x
from one end of the beam rather than at a specific point.

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2.7 Internal Loadings

2.7.3 Shear and Moment Diagrams
If the variations of V and M as functions of x obtained are
plotted, the graphs are termed the shear diagram and moment
diagram, respectively.

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2.6 Applications of Equilibrium Equation
Problem 1-12
Draw the shear and bending moment diagram of the beam
shown in the figure.

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2.6 Applications of Equilibrium Equation

Problem 1-13
Draw the shear and bending moment diagram of the frame
shown in the figure.

Answer
𝑹𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟗𝟎 𝒌𝑵
𝑹𝑫 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟎 𝒌𝑵 46

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