International Conference on Social Sciences and Humanities (ICSSH'15) May 5-6, 2015 Bali (Indonesia)

Acoustics and Building Construction

Technology in Medieval India: 14th To 17th
Centuries
Sanjay Subodh and Pooja Rhine

 „Physical history‟ [4]. The physical evidence available through

Abstract—History as a discipline studies the actions of the past fieldwork has a vital contribution for historical scholarship.
and tries to understand the formation of future courses of actions in Structures of historical age are generally seen as a form of art
society. Archaeology is one of the disciplines whose findings help the which reflects the taste of the time. However, like other
historian in establishing the co-relation of truth with the past society. creations they also carry the knowledge and become an
Many a times the structures are not complete in themselves as they evidence of the erudition of the past. Medieval archaeology
have not been able to withstand vagaries of time, weather and human takes into account the structures, which are standing on the
nature. Generally seen as a form of art reflecting the taste of time,
Structures carry the knowledge and become an evidence of the
surface and speak eloquently of the cultural movements and
erudition of the past. Medieval archaeology takes into account the integration through the ages. These structures are also
structures, standing on the surface and speak eloquently of the signified as cultural heritage and stand as physical
cultural movements and integration through the ages. The paper representatives of the past. . The importance of these artefacts
attempts to look into the architecture of structures located in the can be gauged from the fact that every era reflects its own
regional empires of Mandu, Gulbarga and Golconda and explain the distinct style and monuments stand as evidence of the past for
system of acoustics working in them by bringing out the level of future generation of historians. Since long the study of
contemporary technology incorporated in the construction. medieval structures has been limited to study of their
architectural features and have often been seen as a form of art
Keywords— Acoustics, Building construction, Medieval Indian rather than as representative of contemporary knowledge and
Regional structures, Technology technology. It would be difficult to use the word „science‟ in
the medieval context in the same sense as it is used today [5].
I. INTRODUCTION The word technology is derived from the Greek word
„technologia‟ meaning systematic treatment of art. The
H ISTORY as a discipline studies the actions of the past
and tries to understand the formation of future courses of
actions in society. Historians study actions as
modern usage of the word technology has extended the
meaning to all kinds of mechanical devices and forms of
developments in the context ofsociety. In his endeavour for practical activity, by which certain material objectives are
search of truth he is also guided by the growth of knowledge attained. It includes, but is not confined to, practical
in different relevant areas of science. Archaeology is one of applications of theoretical knowledge [6]. However, in case of
the disciplines whose findings help the historian in medieval India we would be looking into the laws of nature
establishing the co-relation of truth with the past society. It known to the people and their application in the sphere of
seeks to promote “a better understanding of past human building construction.
behaviour through the study of the physical remains associated While giving regulations on house buildings, Abul Fazl
with any such behaviour” [1]. It is no longer limited to writes that “Regulations for house building in general are
excavations only and also takes into account the structures, necessary; they are required for the comfort of the army, and
which are standing on the surface and “speak eloquently of the are a source of splendour for the government. People that are
cultural movements and integration through the ages” [2]. attached to the world will collect in towns, without which
However, many a times the structures are not complete in there would be no progress. Hence, His Majesty plans
themselves as they have not been able to withstand vagaries of splendid edifices, and dresses the work of his mind and heart
time, weather and human nature. Thus, interpretations of a in the garment of stone and clay. Thus, mighty fortresses have
culture are developed even without direct access to all parts of been raised, which protect the timid, frighten the rebellious,
that culture [3]. Nonetheless, the surviving artefacts are and please the obedient. Delightful villas and imposing towers
evidence of past technologies and are often termed as have also been built. They afford excellent protection against
cold and rain, provide for the comfort of the princesses of the
Harem, and are conducive to that dignity which is so
Sanjay Subodh, is with the Department of History,Central University of
necessary for worldly power….Many tanks and wells are
Hyderabad, Telangana, India (phone: 91-40-23133165/91984967554; e-mail:
[email protected]). being dug for the benefit of the men and the improvement of
Pooja Rhine is with the Department of History, Central University of the soil….He has passed new regulations, kindled the lamp of
Hyderabad, Telangana, India (e-mail: [email protected]). honesty, and put a stock of practical knowledge into the hands
Acknowledgement (financial Assistance) I would like to acknowledge the
financial assistance provided by the Indian Council for Historical Research
of simple and inexperienced men” [7]. Abul Fazl‟s assertion
(ICHR), Delhi, for this conference. that Akbar put practical knowledge into stone and clay gives

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 International Conference on Social Sciences and Humanities (ICSSH'15) May 5-6, 2015 Bali (Indonesia)

us an idea that the medieval society was aware of the laws of

nature which are known to modern society as different
theories of science. Hence, in order to understand the
functioning of the medieval structures we need to see in what
way the laws of nature were integrated in the building
construction. The paper attempts to look into the architecture
of structures located in the regional empires of Mandu,
Gulbarga and Golconda and explain the system of acoustics
working in these structures by bringing out the level of
contemporary technology incorporated in the construction.
Mandu, capital city of Hoshang Shah in the 15th century, Plate 1 Jahaz Mahal, Mandu
lies in Malwa Plateau region. It is situated at the top of
Vindhya range and acted as passage to Deccan from Delhi The ground layer is divided into fifteen aiwans and all these
during medieval period. Mandu became the capital of the aiwans have either vault shaped ceilings or concave shaped
Ghori and Khalji rulers of Malwa from the beginning of the ceilings in alternate pattern. The vault shaped ceilings have
15th century until it was annexed by the Akbar in 1564 and narrower dimension enclosures whereas concave shaped
was made a part of the Mughal empire. Malwa, a tract ceiling enclosures are of wider dimension [12]
between the Narmada and Tapti rivers, was ruled by the
Paramara dynasty during the early medieval period with Dhar
as their capital. It was during the reign of Devapala (early 13th
century), the last of the Paramara ruler, that Iltumish attacked
and plundered Malwa. But it was under Alauddin Khalji that
the conquest of Malwa was completed and it was made a
province of the Delhi Sultanate with Dhar as its capital which
remained the headquarters of the governor of Malwa until
Dilawar Khan Ghori declared independence in 1401 A.D. The construction of Jami Masjid, according to an inscription
Although, Dilawar khan frequently visited Mandu [8] Dhar carved on the doorway of the mosque, was started by Hoshang
remained the seat of the government until Hoshang Shah (Also Shah and was completed by Mahmud Khalji in 1454 A.D. A
known as Alp Khan), Dilawar Khan‟s son, shifted his capital rectangular domed porch is the entrance to this Mosque whose
to Mandu after succeeding to the throne after his father‟s death interior has a squared courtyard which is surrounded on each
[9]. The Jami Masjid and the side by arcades of eleven pointed arches. The prayer hall is
Hoshang Shah‟s tomb, were started by Hoshang Shah but divided into four bays by series of pillars of uniform height
were completed by Mahmud Khalji, who put an end to the and width. The roof of the prayer hall comprises of three
Ghori dynasty of Malwa and in 1435 ascended the throne and larger domes and cylindrical cupolas forming a symmetrical
assumed the title of Sultan Mahmud Khalji [10]. The royal pattern, one on each bay of the interior and these cupolas are
buildings of Mandu which survive to us today were given located above an arch that are constructed along the bay
fresh lease of life during Jahangir‟s period and carry the past giving the interiors a hollowness. Along the Qibla wall, there
with present in them. These buildings are distributed on North are sculpted Mihrabs made of polished black stone at regular
South axis and supported by three water bodies, Munj Talab, intervals which are divided into two by a pulpit which is
Kapoor Talab and Sagar Talab. Jahaz Mahal probably dates to eleven steps high with a canopy which supported by four
the period of Ghiyath al-Din (1469-1500) and is named so as it arches and is covered with a dome. In front of the pulpit is a
looks like a ship situated between two strips of water, Munj platform, which gives it a throne like look and further making
Talab and Kapoor Talab. Outside the Jahaz Mahal complex the area look like a court. Adjoining the western wall of Jami
situated on the southern side of the axis, there are two royal Masjid is the white marbled tomb of Hoshang Shah whose
enclosures on the east of Sagar Talab, Baz Bahadur palace and entrance is an octagonal pavilion with domed roof. Entering
Rani Rupmati pavilion. Baz Bahadur‟s palace was built by through the pavilion one gets the first glimpse of the resting
Sultan Nasir al-Din Khilji in 1508/09 with Rupmati‟s pavilion place of the founder of Mandu, Hoshang Shah Ghori, which
set above it on a hill. Standing between two water bodies, the stands on a marble basement which is to be entered after
Kapoor Talao and the Munja Talao, the palace looks like a passing through a pillared pavement which is made of red
ship, and hence gets its name Jahaz. It is about 360 ft in length sandstone. This is designated as Dharmasala or hall which is
and 40 ft in height [11] Jahaz Mahal which appears to be a supported by three sections of pillars [13] and steps from this
single layered structure is actually a three layered structure. hall lead to the court of the mausoleum.
From the front, only one layer and the terrace is visible
whereas other two layers can be seen from the backside.

Plate 2 Dharmshala within Hoshang Shah‟s tomb enclosure

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Baz Bahadur Palace located on the southern axis is adjacent number of arches on all directions. The mosque has 15
to Rewa Kund. A fleet of forty broad steps lead to the entrance numbers of small sized domes at the centre and semi
of the palace where one could see a Persian inscription which cylindrical domes on the extreme sides of central dome.
reads that this was built by Nasir ud-Din in 1508 A.D. This Bidar flourished as a provincial town during the reigns of
must have been taken up by Baz Bahadur for its close the early Bahmani kings and is listed by Ferishta amongst
proximity to Rewa Kund. The main entrance comprises of a great towns of the Deccan where schools for orphans were
covered passage with a vaulted roof and on either sides of the established during the reign of Mahmood Shah Bahmani I
passage there are rooms for the guards which are rectangular [15]. Ahmad Shah Bahmani, after a campaign against the
in plan and their ceiling are vaulted [14]. Sultan of Malwa in 1426, arrived at Bidar on his return from
the campaign. He took to the amusement of hunting and
coming to a beautiful spot, resolved to found a city to be
called Ahmudabad Bidar. A stone citadel of great extent and
strength was erected on the site of Bidar [16].The fort of Bidar
was completed in the year 1432 [17] and the capital city of
Bahmanis was also shifted from Gulbarga to Bidar. Bidar
continued to be the centre of power till 1619 when the
Plate3 Baz Bahadur Palace Barid kingdom was absorbed by Adil Shahis of Bijapur.
Bidar fort, which stands today, has material evidence of both
The royal buildings of Mandu which survive to us today Bahmanis as well as Barid sultans. The construction is of
were given fresh lease of life during Jahangir‟s period and stone using lime mortar and the style is influenced by Iranian
carry the past with present in them. and Central Asian patterns [18].
In the medieval structures of Mandu, system of acoustics
seems to be functional in three monuments, Jahaz Mahal,
Dharmshala within Hoshang Shah‟s tomb enclosure and Baz
Bahadur Palace. The ground floor of Jahaz Mahal which was
a part of the royal palace had acoustics working to meet the
requirement of the royalty. Similar kind of requirement in Baz
Bahadur Palace too was met where the enclosure in the palace
probably served as Music room of the complex. However, the Plate 4
system of acoustics working in the Dharmshala leads one to
conjecture that Jami Masjid could have served as court in the
beginning and later on converted into a mosque. Except for the
Dharmshala all the structures have concave shaped ceiling,
whereas Dharmshala has vault shaped ceiling. Before
venturing into the explanation of the system in these
structures, authors would like to discuss the other site and
explain the system accordingly. The paper also attempts to Plate 5
look into the architecture of two covered Mosques in Gulbarga
and Bidar and residential enclosures in Golconda fort and The palace fort area of Bidar too has a covered mosque
understand the functional part of it. The structures chosen known as Solah Khamba Mosque. The principle of
belong to the period between 14th and 17th century which reverberation of sound in Bidar mosque is same as that of
covers both Pre and Post Akbar period. The Golconda fort has Gulbarga mosque.
mechanism of sound working in an open area whereas in In order to under the system of acoustics functioning in the
Gulbarga and Bidar the resonance of sound is within a closed medieval structure, one needs to understand the basic
enclosure. The paper would be looking into the system of principles of sound on which the system of acoustic works.
acoustics and make an attempt to explain them through The acoustics within a room depend on the key issues of
modern principles of science. reverberation, room shape and interior noise control.
The Bahmanis built Gulbarga as their capital in the 14th Reverberation is a result of repeated reflections of sound
century and the mosque under study is located within the fort waves off all room surfaces. Reverberation in a room is
palace area. It is a covered mosque measuring 430‟ x 271‟ affected by absorptive and reflective or diffusive materials.
and has a system of acoustics working within it. Both the Whenever sound strikes a surface, some of it is absorbed,
mosques in Gulbarga and Bidar have been chosen because some of it is reflected and transmitted through the surface.
they happen to be a closed structure mosque and likes of them Dense surfaces isolate sound well and reflect sound back into
are not to be easily found in India. Medieval India had the room. Sound also bounces back and forth between hard
generally followed the concept of open mosque with western and parallel surfaces. It generally follows line of sight and
side of the mosque being closed leaving a large area in the tends to travel in a straight line. Sound waves travel out from
middle known as „Sahn‟ open and used for offering prayer. their source and impinge on to a surface where they are
The masque has nave of 40‟x40‟ with a dome of diameter 40‟ absorbed or reflected or both. Sound waves travel in straight
and total height of the dome is around 80‟. The main central lines and when they encounter a new medium, such as the wall
hall which was also used for public address and prayer has of a room or any substance whose density or elasticity differs

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from that in which the sound originated, the waves are speed, frequency and wavelength can be understood by the
reflected and transmitted. The reverberation also depends on following equation:
the absorptive material present in the room. The absorbers can
be people, carpet, upholstery, furniture, plants, flags etc. They
Using the symbols v, and f, the equation can also be
absorb sound and allow less diffusion of sound. Walls, ceiling
etc. reflect the sound and help in reverberation. However, written as v = f.
these are not the only prerequisite for the reverberation of the The concave shape in the ceiling helps the reflected sound
sound. The shape of the ceiling or wall also determines the to converge at a focal point. The concave catches the sound
reverberation of the sound. Apart from this, the frequency at and distributes it in the shape of an umbrella. Similar kind of
which sound is produced also determines the quality of sound interface with the similar kind of ceiling would be capable of
and the distance to which it can travel. The speed of any wave receiving and reflecting the sound to a distance as per the
depends upon the properties of the medium through which the above given equation [19]. The sounds waves are longitudinal
wave travels. Typically there are two essential types of in nature and are treated as a mechanical waves. Due to wave
properties which affect wave speed inertial properties and nature it also follows many laws of physics and some of the
elastic properties. Elastic properties are those properties properties of the sound waves are as similar to the optical
related to the tendency of a material to maintain its shape and waves. As a result it gets reflected from the smooth surface
do not deform whenever a force or stress is applied to it. (law of reflection), focused from the curved parabolic surfaces
Inertial properties are those properties related to the material‟s and get attenuated due to obstacle in the path of propagation.
tendency to be sluggish to changes in its state of motion. The The amount of energy carried by sound is measured in terms
density of a medium is an example of an inertial property. The of intensity and most commonly it is measured in terms of
greater the inertia (ie. mass density) of individual particles of Decibels (dB). Therefore, the intensity of the reflected sound
the medium, the less responsive they will be to the interactions depends on the quality of the surface. In addition, the sound
between neighboring particles and the slower that wave will waves restricted between two plane surfaces also form
be. The inertial property of density tends to be the property standing wave pattern and the waves have maxima and
which has greatest impact upon the speed of sound. The speed minima points at regular intervals which are known as nodes
of a sound wave in air depends upon the properties of the air, (Point of Maximum Disturbance) and anti-nodes (Minimum
namely the temperature and the pressure. The pressure of air Disturbance). The distance between two nodes or antinodes
affects the mass density of the air and the temperature affects are measured in terms of wavelength (ƛ). The human being
the strength of the particle interactions. Since the speed of a can hear sound between 20- 20,000 Hz frequency range [20].
wave is defined as the distance which a point on a wave In my study I have measured the diameter of size of the
travels per unit of time, it is often expressed in units of bigger dome in Gulbarga mosque, which is around 40‟ in
meters/second (m/s). At normal atmospheric pressure, the diameter and the depth of the dome is admeasured around 10‟.
temperature dependence of the speed of a sound wave through Therefore, the focal point (F) of the dome is located around
air is approximated by the following equation: 10‟ from the top [21].

Where T is the temperature of the air in degree Celsius (C),

the speed of a sound wave in air at a temperature of 20 degrees
Celsius can yield the following solution.

Plate 6
As the total height of the building is 80‟, the sound thus
produced in the central hall or nave, follows upward path and
gets reflected and passes through the focal point (F) and
This equation can be used to determine reasonably accurate
moves another 70‟ distance to reach up to the floor of the
speed values for temperatures between 0 and 100 Celsius.
mosque. Fig.1 shows the focal point which forms a cusp of
Hence, one can safely presume that in the Hyderabad climate,
reflected sound waves and is treated as a point of high
where evening temperature could be around 20 Celsius, under
intensity. These waves further move away from the focal point
given circumstances, sound could travel at the speed of
and get diverged and strike to the smooth flooring. The entire
343m/s. There are several frequencies or harmonics produced
reflected rays from the dome form another circle of rays
at the lips. The fundamental frequency (FO) is the number of
.These reflected rays get another reflection from the flooring
times per second that the vocal folds vibrate (in Hertz).
at certain angle (45 degree) and move once again in all the
Females usually have higher pitched voices than males. The
directions. I have measured the intensity of sound using
fundamental frequency (FO) of male voices typically ranges
decimeter. The intensity of the direct sound was found around
from 100 to 150 Hz while it ranges from 170 to 220 Hz in
65 dB while intensity of the reflected sound from the dome
females. The conversational fundamental frequency is
was around 60 dB. This confirms the small absorption and
approximately 200 Hz for adult women and 125 Hz for adult
reflection losses of sound waves from the dome surface.
men. The frequency and the wavelength determine the speed
However, sound wave of intensity also confirms the good
of the sound wave. The mathematical relationship between
quality of external surface as well as perfectness of the

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 International Conference on Social Sciences and Humanities (ICSSH'15) May 5-6, 2015 Bali (Indonesia)

parabolic shape of the dome. In the second step, the reflected outside the fort area. The ceiling of the portico is concave
sound from the smooth floor reflected at 45 degree moved in shaped dome which helps in concentration and reverberation
forward direction and got reflected from the small size domes of the sound. The aerial distance between the portico and the
of small focal lengths [Fig1]. Baradwari in the fort is approximately 500 to 600 meters.
The similar process of reflection, focusing and defocusing Hence, if we take the distance sound would travel in 20ºc to be
would get repeated in the subsequent domes .It is matter of 343m/sec. then probably one interface was required to
fact that the sound waves moving in the forward direction and reverberate the sound from the portico to the Baradwari. This
going through multiple reflection from different small mechanism was probably used to warn the ruler about the
chambers of domes suffer reflection, absorption and scattering impeding danger as the Bala Hisar gate was the last point of
losses. We once again measured the intensity of the sound at
defence and marked entry to the fort palace area. The aerial
the end of the building and found direct intensity of the sound
distance between Taramati Baradwari and the fort Baradwari
was of the order of 55dB while the intensity of the reflected
is approximately one km. At the present there are no existing
sound was of the order of 45dB only. The loss in the sound
measured could be probably because of the less smooth physical evidences of Interfaces in between. However, if the
surface at the present. At present the original smoothness of resonance of the sound had to take place, the concave dome of
the surface has weathered away and only small remains of it Taramati Baradwari [23] would have concentrated and
can be seen. The gypsum coating on the walls, pillars and distributed the sound to be again concentrated and distributed
floor would have certainly helped in transmission of sound by the Interface having same properties.
without any loss or negligible loss. The extreme corners of the
mosque do not have circular but cylindrical domes to prevent
the escaping of sound through open arches. The cylindrical
domes on the sides allow sound to travel in straight line only
unlike concave shaped domes where sound gets distributed in
all directions. The cylindrical kind of dome was required on
the sides as there are large arches as openings adjoining it. If
the sound was not allowed to travel in straight line, it would
have escaped through the openings and got lost. Hence, the
cylindrical domes on the sides allowed sound to maintain Plate 8
intensity and travel to the furthest corner of the mosque. The mechanism would have allowed sound to travel in relay
Monuments in Mandu and Solah Khamba mosque in Bidar too to the top of the Golconda fort, in the Baradwari with the help
worked on the same principle and the „namazis‟ could listen to of three or four interfaces in between. One of the enclosures in
the „muazzin‟ in any corner of the mosque without any the residential part of the fort has chambers where
„modern gadget‟. reverberation of sound takes place but not in the same manner
Qutb Shahi rulers inherited Golconda fort from the as in the earlier discussed structures. It is in the south west of
Bahmanis, which they had got from Rajas of Warangal. It was the fort or right side of the Taramati mosque. The structure has
an earthen fort in the beginning and was known as Mangal. It three layers. The first two layers are double storied while the
was ceded to Bahmanis by the Rajas of Warangal and fixed as third one is single storied. The middle one is the cooling
the boundary between two kingdoms. It remained as an chamber while the third one has the system of acoustics
important outpost of the Bahmanid kingdom till 1512 A.D. working in it. The enclosure is in square form with each side
when Quli Qutb Shah, the governor of the fort, declared of the square measuring 28‟4”. The distance between two
independence and made it his capital. The fort was corners of the square is 40‟16”. In this enclosure, sound
strengthened during the reign of Ibrahim Qutb Shah, who travels diagonally from one corner to the opposite corner and
rebuilt it extensively with stone and mortar [22]. is not audible in the other two corners. Reflection of sound
waves is also affected by the shape of the surface. Curved
surfaces with a parabolic shape have the habit of focusing
sound waves to a point. The sound thus reflected gets
concentrated and focus at one focal point. Hence, because of
the parabolic shape of the corners the sound emitted at one
corner got concentrated and focused at the other corner
resulting in the reverberation in that corner without getting
reverberated in other two corners. This kind of reverberation
can also be seen in the enclosure of Taramati Baradwari. The
purpose of acoustics in both the cases was not of uniform
Plate 7 nature and was determined by the exigencies. The portico
In the Golconda fort there are evidences of system of would be resonating sound related to security and
acoustics working near the Bala Hisar gate entrance, in the administrative matters whereas Taramati Baradwari and the
portico. The portico is connected to the Baradwari situated at other enclosure in the palace would be fulfilling the
the top of the fort area and the Baradwari is also connected to entertainment and pleasure aspect.
another Baradwari known as Taramati Baradwari located

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The indigenous technology used in the building construction craftsmanship of the Tughluq architecture had been considerably
modified by Persian forms and ideals on the one hand, and by the skill of
speaks of the level of technology available during that period
the local mason, who was an adept in the art of carving, on the other. As
of time. We do not get any detailed reference of these kinds of a result of these influences the architecture of Deccan at this period was
technologies in the contemporary sources. Hence, it becomes relieved of the heaviness of the Tughluq style and developed a certain
more difficult to corroborate such kind of knowledge and one beauty of outline and elegance of detail”. G. Yazdani, Bidar: Its History
and Monuments, London, 1944, P. 23. Also see, Bianca Maria Alfieri,
is totally dependent on the field work alone to reconstruct the
Islamic Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, London, 2000;
knowledge of that time. It would not be out of the place to Mehrdad Shokoohy, „Sasanian Royal Emblems and their Re-emergence
mention here that the medieval age too had its share of in the Fourteenth century Deccan‟, Muqarnas, Vol. 11, 1994; George
knowledge which was scientific and logical in nature. These Michell and Mark Zebrowski, The New Cambridge History of India:
Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates, Cambridge, Reprint
structures stand as evidence of the past and help the present in
2006; John Burton Page, Indian Islamic Architecture: Forms and
reconstructing past society for the future. The society which Typologies, Sites and Monuments, ed. By George Michell, Leiden,
met its requirement of modern times without having access to 2008; For reasons for shift to Persian style see, Richard Eaton, „From
„modern gadgets‟ showed how the laws of nature could be Bidar to Timbuktu: View from the Edge of the 15th century Muslim
World‟, The Medieval History Journal, vol. 14, no.1, 2011. See Plates 4
used in fulfilling its need and some of those get reflected in
& 5 showing Interior of Gulbarga Mosque and Solah Khamba Mosque at
the technology of building construction. Bidar.
[19] See M. David Egan, Architectural Acoustics, J.Ross Publishing, USA,
REFERENCES 2007. (First Published by McGrew Hill, New York, 1988). Also see,
Robert G. Arns& Bret E. Crawford, „Resonant Cavities in the History of
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Responsibilities‟ , Bulletin of the Association for Preservation 1995), pp. 104-135.
Technology, vol. 17 No.3/4, 1985, p.57 [20] For general understanding of properties of sound also see class XI & XII
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[2] A. Sundara , „Archaeology and National Integration‟, Proceedings of [21] Calculating a parabolic Dish‟s focal point,
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[3] Peter J. Priess, op. cit. [22] See Mahomed Kasim Ferishta, Tarikh I Ferishta, Eng. Tr. By John
[4] See R. A. Buchanan, „History of Technology in the Teaching of History‟ Briggs, History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India, vol. iii,
in A. Rupert Hall & Norman Smith ed; History of Technology, London, Delhi, Reprint 1981. (First Published in 1829). Also see S.A.A.
Bilgrami, Landmarks of the Deccan, New Delhi, Reprint 1992. (First
1978. Published in 1927). See Plate 7.
[5] Science is derived from the latin word „scientia‟ meaning knowledge. It [23] See, Sanjay Subodh & Shatarupa Bhattacharya, „Acoustic in Medieval
is an enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of Buildings: A Case Study of Golconda‟, Proceedings of Indian History
testable explanations and predictions about the world. The scientific Congress, 70th Session, 2009-10. See Plate 8.
revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries marked a new way of studying
the natural world, by methodical experimentation aimed at defining
„laws of nature‟.
[6] Irfan Habib, Technology in Medieval India, Tulika Books, Delhi, 2008,
Preface, p.ix.‟
[7] Abul Fazl, Ain I Akbari, vol. 1, Eng. Tr. By H. Blochman, Asiatic
Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 1873, p.224.
[8] Mahmoed Kasim Ferishta, Tarikh-i Ferishta, Eng.Tr by John Briggs in
History of Rise of The Mahomedan Power in India Vol IV, Oriental
Books Reprint Corporation, New Delhi, 1829, pp 101-102.
[9] Khwaja Nizammuddin Ahmad, Tabaqat-i Akbari Vol III, Eng.Tr by
Brajendranath De, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 1939, p
472.
[10] Upendra Nath Day, Medieval Malwa: A Political and Cultural History
(1401-1562), Munshi Ram Manohar Lal, Delhi, 1965, pp 77-85.Also see
Sir Wolseley Haig, The Cambridge History of India VolIII,Cambridge
University Press, 1928, pp 352-353. Also see Briggs, Vol IV, pp 115-
117.
[11] Percy Brown, Indian Architecture (Islamic Period), D.B. Taraporevala
sons & Co. Pvt. Ltd, Bombay, 1981, p 64. Also see James Fergusson,
History of Indian And Eastern ArchitectureVol II, London, 1910, p 250.
See Plate 1.
[12] See Figure 1.
[13] James Fergusson, History of Indian And Eastern ArchitectureVol II,
London, 1910, p 250. See Plate 2 which shows the Pillared courtyard.
[14] G.Yazdani, Mandu: The City of Joy, University Press, Oxford, 1929,p
93. See Plate 3.
[15] Ferishta, Tarikh I Ferishta, Eng. Tr. By John Briggs, History of the Rise
of the Mahomedan Power in India, vol.ii, P.216. Four vols. Bound in
two, Delhi, Reprint 2006.
[16] Ferishta, vol.ii, P. 254.
[17] Ferishta, vol.ii, P. 257.
[18] “Bidar was made the capital of the Bahmani kingdom in A.D.1429,
when nearly a century and a quarter had passed since the establishment
of the dynasty in the Deccan. In this fairly long period the traditions and

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