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The

Supplement
Revised Edition

Improved academic performance for


University, TAFE and VCE students

compiled and edited by


Peter Lloyd
Table of Contents

Part One: How to improve your marks


#1 Ten ways to be smarter without doing extra study………………….………….……2

#2 How to improve your spoken English……………………………………………..…. 3

#3 Homework Strategies ...…………………………………………………………….….4

Part Two: Know where you are going and how you will get there
#4 How to use an IQ test and a Big 5 assessment to find a career path ………….…7

#5 Effective goal setting and scheduling………….……………..…………..…..….….19

Part Three: Essay Writing

#6 Evaluating Information……………………………………………………………...…25

#7 An introduction to academic essay writing……………………………..…….……..28

#8 Essay writing for assignments………………………………………………….….…41

#9 Boost your vocabulary………………………………………...………………..….....67

Part Four: Clear Thinking


#10 An Introduction to E- Prime………………...………………….……..……………..87

#11 Principles of Clear Thinking Part 1 : Logical Fallacies……………………..…….89

#12 Principles of Clear Thinking Part 2 : Cognitive Biases………………….....…….90

The Supplement is a free publication. Readers who wish to subscribe or donate can
do so at https://www.patreon.com/peterlloyd. This page includes a download link.
Or you can email petelloyd1@gmail.com

1
#1: Ten ways to be smarter without doing extra study

1. Get up at the same time each day and eat a big breakfast.

2. Be on time for classes


.
3. Attend all classes

4. Sit at the front.

5. Observe yourself paying attention.

The ability to focus and listen is the key to learning. You can absorb more
information when you are observing yourself paying attention. You will
inevitably lose focus as your mind wanders or you are distracted but stay cool;
just observe, register what is happening and allow your attention to return.

6. Stay hydrated.

Drink 2 litres of water spaced throughout the day.

7. Exercise.

Do at least a brisk 30 minute walk each day.

8. Never assume.

9. Prepare everything you need the night before.

Make a list of what you will need to pack on a regular basis and write it down on
a piece of cardboard. This list would include your computer, notebooks, pens,
cash, tickets, drink bottle etc. Have a check list of what you need to take for each
particular day. Lay out the clothes and shoes you will be wearing the next day.

10. Improve the quality of your sleep.

Have a small evening meal. Read some escapist literature as a break between
your daily activities and your sleep. You sleep better when you breathe through
your nose. To ensure this, you can tape your lips together by placing some
Micropore tape across your lips at a right angle.

2
#2 How to improve your spoken English
Go to the public library and borrow an audiobook. These are CDs which contain
spoken word versions of books. It may help if you also borrow a print version of the
same book. Play the CD for about 5 seconds then pause it. Repeat what was said on
the CD, keep going back over the same section until you feel you are repeating it
correctly. Then move on to the next 5 second section and do the same thing, and so
on. Do this for 5-10 minutes 2 or 3 times a day. Don’t rush. Take your time and get it
right. Be patient and stick with it. In 3 weeks you will notice an improvement, in 6 weeks
you will see an even bigger improvement. Persistent daily practice is the key

Check the library catalogue or ask the librarian to look through the catalogue to find a
book which has both audio and print versions. Choose a book which appeals to you
and will hold your interest.

As an alternative to a CD you can use You Tube


Here are some links which use a female narrator

Pronunciation Poem
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y-GDoVBlVeA

Wuthering Heights (both male and female narrators)


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zO_MjBt2OB4

Jane Eyre (pronounced; air)


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1fCgrbKI-yE

Here are some links which use a male narrator

1984
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xcykLKnyAhQ

Animal Farm
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b-ZMD1WXGXw&t=37s

The Willing Ghost


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hura5E2uJ2o

This is the BBC website for pronunciation


http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/progs/prog1.shtml

3 Contents Page
#3: Homework Strategies

Homework can be defined as any work that you do outside class time. This can include
homework that is set by the teacher, research, revision and any further reading on the
subject. There are two basic strategies for homework.

1. Work in blocks of 45 minutes


2. Chunking. This means dividing the work into small manageable sections.

Working in 45-minute blocks.


You can do 2 or 3 consecutive blocks with a 15-20-minute break between them. In this
time do some stretching or have a cup of herbal tea. Avoid your phone. You can also
do individual blocks of 45 minutes throughout the day. It is possible to do up to 5 blocks
in a day.
Chunking
Break down your study material into small sections and complete a section at a time.
If you are having difficulties, keep breaking it down into smaller and smaller sections.
Isolate the trouble spots and work on mastering a small section at a time.
If you are stuck or you can’t get started, find a small task or a couple of tasks which
you know you can do and complete them. Do at least 20 minutes before stopping.

-----------------------------------------------

Other strategies include time management; planning; preparing a work area; specific
approaches to reviewing marked homework; maths homework and doing homework
which involves revision or reading. If you are a habitual procrastinator check this out:
. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i4LrPobIcxI

Time Management
Be realistic about how much time you can commit to study. To be successful it is
necessary to do a minimum of 3 hours of homework per subject per week, or 4 blocks
of 45 minutes per subject. Students who work and/or have small children may find it
best to enrol in 2 subjects at a time, depending on the course they are doing

4
Here are some real-life examples of how students with outside commitments
planned their time. A student who completed matriculation successfully worked 8
hours a day and spent 2 hours a day travelling to and from work. After work he went
to the public library and studied there and when he got back to his accommodation
he did another session after his evening meal. He attended classes on 2 afternoons.
Because of his busy schedule he wisely decided to do 2 subjects each term to
complete the subjects he needed.

A student who was raising a small child did a 40-minute block in the morning when a
family member would take the child to the playground or to the library. In the afternoon
when the child took a nap she would complete another 40 and another in the evening
when the child had gone to bed. She followed this schedule 6 days a week. This
particular student made incredible progress because she was patient, persistent and
followed a very structured program where each block was divided into different areas
of skill development.

Plan Ahead
Know what, when and how you will be studying. This will take some time to refine.
Keeping a diary of what you have been doing is key to this. It is important not to
overload your study sessions and keeping a diary will give you a clear indication of
how much you can realistically get done. It will help you in future planning and will
show you what worked for you and what did not.

Preparation and environment


Find a regular place to study that is well lit and quiet. Clear the area of things you
don’t you need and have your study material ready to go. Ensure that all the things
like pens, paper, laptop etc. are at hand. Play some Mozart in the background.

Focus
Some students have found it a good idea to set up their study area then take a short
break to have a coffee and clear their mind. If your attention wanders when you are
doing your homework, STOP. Take a short break then resume. Over time this exercise
will develop your attention span.

5 Contents Page
Review marked homework
When a homework assignment or in class test is returned to you, select the parts
where you scored low marks and try them again. Ask the teacher if it would be possible
to resubmit the assignment. This particularly applies to written work.

Special technique for Maths homework


This technique works for Maths homework where students are given a specific number
of problems to solve. Do the problems immediately that night and do them again the
night after. In the week prior to the next test or exam do them again. This will require
scheduling. You can adapt this method to work for other subjects where you are
set several questions for homework.

Doing revision or reading for homework

You can’t remember what you don’t understand. So instead of memorisation, focus on
understanding.

1. Read a small section of the study material.


2. Close the book, then try to express in your own way what you think the idea is.
You can speak it out loud or write it down.
3. Open the book and see how much you got correct. If you are not happy, cut
down the length of the section by 50% and try again.

Keep going through these three steps until you get the gist of it, then move on to the
next section. Highlighting or underlining are a waste of time.

This is also a fruitful way to take notes for a written assignment or revise for an exam.
It’s quite intense, so keep a relaxed frame of mind and don’t tackle too much at once.
Read the section on “ Focus” above.

6
#4: How to use an IQ test and a Big 5 assessment
to find a career path that suits you

(i) Introduction to IQ testing

(ii) Comparative IQ Scores

(iii) Introduction to the Big 5 Personality Traits

(iv) Trait Modification

(v) Jobs, College Courses and the Big 5

(vi) The Theory of Multiple Intelligences

(i) Introduction to IQ testing

IQ (intelligence quotient) can be defined as an indication of an individual’s


processing speed, verbal ability, working memory, and problem-solving capacity.

The Stanford-Binet Test is accepted world-wide as the best and is free on line.

https://www.stanfordbinet.net/
This test includes 60 questions and it is scored automatically after 40 minutes

The verbal component of an IQ test examines your vocabulary, your capacity to


learn verbal material and your ability to employ verbal skills in logical reasoning and
problem solving.

The mathematical reasoning component tests your ability to perform elementary


arithmetic computations, understand geometric shapes and manipulate equations.

The spatial reasoning component assesses your ability to visualise how you would
to manipulate 3D objects in space.
7 Contents Page
The visual perception component measures the ability to process visual materials
and derive information from them.

The classification skills component measures your ability to group items based on
some criteria.

The logical reasoning component assesses your ability to make deductions from
supplied information and to think laterally.

The pattern recognition component tests your ability to see order in a complex
and/or confusing environment.

Other Tests

The Wonderlic Cognitive Ability Test


This test (an IQ test by another name) is sometimes used by employers and colleges
looking to gauge the relative intelligence of applicants. The test contains 50 questions
to be answered in 12 minutes. It will give you a percentage score which you can
compare with an average score. It will not give you an IQ score. Free sample tests are
available on line

http://wonderlictestsample.com/50-question-wonderlic-test/

The Wechsler Individual Achievement Test


This test has four basic scales: Reading, Math, Writing, and Oral Language. Within
these scales there is a total of 9 sub-test scores. The test takes 45–90 minutes to
administer depending on the age of the participant.
There is a substantial fee for this test and its purpose is to identify very specific areas
of relative strength and weakness. It has proved to be very effective in helping students
with learning problems.

https://www.pearsonclinical.com.au/products/view/588
https://www.melbournechildpsychology.com.au/blog/wiat-iii-assessments-for-
improving-your-childs-learning-potential-part-2/

8
Some more on IQ

 There is no evidence that you can increase IQ.

 There is no evidence that practicing will help you score more highly.

 IQ is not a measure of your worth as a person.

 To combine success at work and personal well-being (i.e. mental and physical
health) it is best to find a job where your work performance puts you in the top
25% of your peer group. Knowing your IQ will help you to find this optimal
spot. Please see the tables overleaf.

A very useful site for all things IQ including sample tests is


http://www.iqtestexperts.com/

These two books will acquaint you with the type of questions you will find in IQ tests
Ultimate IQ Tests by Philip Carter and Ken Russell
Test and Assess Your IQ by Philip Carter and Ken Russell

9 Contents Page
(ii) Comparative IQ Scores

IQ is the best predictor of performance in complex, ever changing environments.


Check out the tables below for the average IQs found in a range of occupations and
also in graduate students at colleges in the US. Use these tables as a guide, they are
not meant to be definitive or statistically rigorous.

Jobs and IQ

IQ range Occupation

Over 130 Doctors and surgeons, College professors, Scientists (e.g.


Superior Theoretical physicist, Geologist, Meteorologist), Materials and
Intelligence design engineers,

130-116 Mathematician, Lawyer, Research Analyst, Editor, Advertising


Highly Manager, Chemist, Engineer, Auditor, Successful Writers and
Intelligent Artists, Physician,

115-110 Officer in the armed services, Copywriter, Accountant, General


Above Manager, Teacher, Purchasing Agent, Registered nurse, Analyst,
Average Sales Account Executive, Librarian, Psychologist, Author, Computer
high end Systems Analyst, Actor, Pharmacist, Dentist, Biologist,

109-103 Administrative assistant, Store manager, Bookkeeper, Credit Clerk,


Above Draftsman/woman, Designer, Lab technician, Assistant Manager,
Average Sales, Secretary, Accounts Clerk, Pharmacist, Civil, Electrical and
middle Mechanical engineers, Stockbroker, Fine artist, Computer
Programmer, Real Estate Agent, Architect, Social worker, Physical
therapist, Veterinarian

102-100 Police officer, Fashion designer, Photographer, Communications


Above technician, Receptionist, Machine tool operation and repair,
Average
Compositor/typesetter, Debt collector, Sales representative,
low end
Photographic process worker, Veterinarian nurse, Armed services

10
99-95 Data Entry, Barber, Enlisted Personnel in the armed services, Admin
assistant, Machinist, Quality Control Checker, Claims Clerk, Security

Average Guard, Driver, Maintenance Worker, Machine Operator, Arc Welder,

High end Die Setter, Mechanic, Medical or Dental Assistant, Glazier, Postal
Worker, Retail Sales, Dressmaker, Teller, Plumber, Maid, Hospitality
Worker, Waiter/Waitress, Licensed practical nurse, Electrician

94-87 Farmer, Messenger, Assembly Worker, Food Service Worker,

Average Insulation installer, Cashier, Furniture upholsterer, , Taxi driver,

Low End Bookbinder, Welder, Automobile mechanic, Carpenter, Dietitian,


Truck driver, Sailor, Bricklayer, Cook, Construction worker, Roofer,
Sheet metal worker, Nursing Aide, Storeman-Packer, Janitor, Bus
driver, Firefighter, Unskilled labourer

Below 87 Forklift operator, Butcher, Concrete worker, Shoe maker/cobbler

Low Lumberjack, and work that is simple, repetitive and closely


Intelligence supervised.

College Courses and IQ

IQ can also play a part in your choice of what path you take in Tertiary education. It is
very useful to place yourself in a peer group where you are in the top 25% but not right
at the top. You will learn the most when you are being extended but not overwhelmed.
The following table comes from the U.S. based Educational Training Services site.

Average IQ Subjects
Of Graduates
133 + Physics and Astronomy

130 Mathematical Science

129 Philosophy, Materials Engineering

128 Economics, Chemical Engineering

11 Contents Page
126 Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering

125 Physical Sciences, Banking and Finance

124 Art and Humanities, Chemistry, Civil Engineering


Computer and Information Science,

123 Industrial Engineering

121 Religion and Theory, Earth, Atmosphere and Marine Sciences,


Biological Science

120 English language and Literature, Humanities and Arts,


Art History, Critical Theory, Political Science

119 Foreign Languages and Literature, Archeology, Anthropology, History

118 Architecture

117 Library and Archive Sciences, Other Natural Sciences

115 Social Sciences, Agriculture

114 Life Sciences, Arts Performance and Studio, Sociology, Business

113 Psychology

111 Communications, Curriculum and Instruction, Business Admin and


Management, Health and Medical Sciences

110 Social Science, Education, Accounting

109 Evaluation and Research, Public Administration

108 Elementary Education

107 Administration

106 Home Economics

105 Student Counselling

104 Early Childhood Education

103 Social Work

12
(iii) Introduction to The Big 5 Personality Traits

 Agreeableness: friendly/compassionate vs. challenging/detached

A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and


antagonistic towards others. It is also a measure of one's trusting and helpful
nature, and whether a person is generally well-tempered or not. High
agreeableness is often seen as naive or submissive. Low agreeableness
personalities are often competitive or challenging people and may seem to be
argumentative or untrustworthy.

The two aspects of agreeableness are compassion and politeness

Compassion is the tendency to empathically experience the emotion of others and


politeness is the proclivity to abide by interpersonal norms.

 Conscientiousness: efficient/organized vs. easy-going/careless

A tendency to be organized and dependable, show self-discipline, act dutifully, aim


for achievement and prefer planned rather than spontaneous behavior. High
conscientiousness is often perceived as stubbornness and obsession. Low
conscientiousness is associated with flexibility and spontaneity but can also
appear as sloppiness and lack of reliability.

The two aspects of conscientiousness are orderliness and industriousness

Industriousness is the ability to engage in sustained, goal-directed effort and


orderliness is the tendency to schedule, organize and systematize.

 Neuroticism: sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident.

The tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety,


depression, and vulnerability. Neuroticism also refers to the degree of emotional
stability and impulse control. A high need for stability manifests itself as a stable
and calm personality which can also be perceived as uninspiring and unconcerned.
A low need for stability causes a reactive and excitable personality. They are often
very dynamic individuals, but they can be perceived as unstable or insecure.

The two aspects of neuroticism are withdrawal and volatility (over-sensitiveness)

Withdrawal is the tendency to avoid in the face of uncertainty and volatility is the
tendency to become irritable and upset when things go wrong.

13 Contents Page
 Extraversion: outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved

A tendency to be energetic, assertive, talkative and display positive emotions, to


be highly sociable and to seek stimulation in the company of others. High
extraversion is often perceived as attention-seeking, and domineering. Low
extraversion causes a reserved, reflective personality, which can be perceived as
aloof or self-absorbed.

The two aspects of extraversion are enthusiasm and assertiveness

Enthusiasm is expressed as spontaneous joy and engagement and assertiveness is


the expression of social dominance and is often verbal in nature.

 Openness to experience: inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious

Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of
experience. Openness reflects the degree of intellectual curiosity, creativity and a
preference for novelty and variety a person has. It is also described as the extent
to which a person is imaginative or independent and depicts a personal preference
for a variety of activities over a strict routine. High openness can be perceived as
unpredictability or lack of focus. Moreover, individuals with high openness are said
to pursue self-actualization specifically by seeking out intense, euphoric
experiences. Conversely, those with low openness seek to gain fulfillment through
perseverance and are characterized as pragmatic and data-driven—sometimes
even perceived to be dogmatic and closed-minded.

The two aspects of openness are creativity and intellect.

Creativity denotes aesthetic sensitivity and an interest in beauty, creativity and art.
Intellect denotes an interest in and ability to work with abstract concepts. It is not the
same thing as IQ. People who score highly for intellect demonstrate the ability to
adapt well to new experience and situations. They have a need to learn new things
and generate novel, creative concepts.
Some disagreement remains about how to interpret and contextualize the openness
factor.

People who don't exhibit a clear tendency towards specific characteristics chosen from
the above-mentioned related pairs in all five dimensions are [considered] adaptable,
moderate and reasonable personalities, but can be perceived as unprincipled,
inscrutable and calculating.

14
(iv) Trait Modification

The five personality traits are rooted in each person’s own biological inheritance, but
a degree of modification is possible and sometimes necessary for the individual to
flourish in the work place or at college. There is also a case for doing things you find
challenging simply to expand your personality. The two keys to modifying your traits
are (i) to focus on small improvements at a time and (ii) finding an expert trainer or
counsellor.

People who are too agreeable and find it difficult to say “no” will need some
assertiveness training if they are not to be taken advantage of. Those people who are
too disagreeable will make too many enemies and could benefit from developing their
interpersonal skills and the ability to see the other person’ point of view.

People who are low in conscientiousness will benefit from learning how to schedule
and set goals for themselves Those who are very high in conscientiousness may need
to curb their workaholic tendencies and learn how to relax before they burn out or drive
others away.

People who are high in trait neuroticism (the tendency to hold on to and express
negative emotion) crave stability to such a degree that they may seem boring and
unadventurous. They can benefit from learning how to step out a bit more. Those who
are very low in neuroticism can benefit from gaining control over their tendency to be
reckless.

Extraverts may benefit from learning how to listen to other people and develop
empathy. Introverts may need to overcome a tendency to be shy and learn the skills
necessary to engage with the people with whom they will be cooperating and
competing.

15 Contents Page
(V) Jobs, College Courses and the Big 5

Match your choice of career you to your temperament, not the other way around.

Agreeable people make better carers and helpers. They flourish in a cooperative
environment. Disagreeable people are most suited to a competitive environment or
where there is a demand for hard bargaining and tough negotiation. They tend to be
sceptical.

Conscientiousness is the best predictor of the Big 5 with regard to work performance.
Particularly in the armed services, in education and in conservative businesses.
Managerial and admin roles suit those high in conscientiousness. People very high in
conscientiousness and who can’t stand not being busy are suited to jobs which require
a commitment to working long hours. If they also have a high IQ and high stress
tolerance (low in trait neuroticism) they are the kind of people who thrive at the top of
complex organisations. People low in conscientiousness won’t be happy in a job that
demands long hours.

Extraverts are good socially. They like to make lots of friends. They make good
entertainers and salespeople and work well in jobs that require high levels of
communication and/or interaction with groups. Introverts work well in isolation.

People high in trait neuroticism need to seek out a relatively low stress, highly stable
work environment. They may respond negatively to stress. Those who are low in trait
neuroticism have higher levels of tolerance for stress. They are suited to work where
it is important to remain calm. They worry less and maintain a more proportionate
perspective on events. They are often suited to jobs which require a high degree of
eye to hand co-ordination.

Those who are high in Openness to new experience are artistic, creative and
entrepreneurial. Many scientists also score highly for this trait. People who are low in
openness are suited to jobs which involve set routines and schedules, they prefer
predictability and structure.

16
The problem most creative people face is how to make any money from their talents.
One of the dilemmas faced by creatives is that if they do not pursue their talent there
is a real possibility that they will be very unhappy, and that if they do pursue their
talent, they probably face a prolonged period of having a low income.

In the creative and performing arts all the material rewards go to the few at the top
with not much left for anyone else. The chances of breaking into the charmed circle
are about the same as making the Olympic team for an athlete. Many are called but
few are chosen. The alternative is to find a job that will keep body and soul together
while you practice your craft.

__________________________________________________________

Please note that the words agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion,


neuroticism and openness have specific meanings in a Big 5 context. It is good
practice to refer to them as trait agreeableness, trait conscientiousness etc.

The best on line Big 5 Assessment is at

https://understandmyself.com/

There is a fee of around 15 AUD

17 Contents Page
(vi) The theory of multiple intelligences

This theory challenges the idea of a single IQ, where human beings have one central
"computer" where intelligence is housed. Howard Gardner, the Harvard professor who
originally proposed the theory, says that there are multiple types of human intelligence,
each representing different ways of processing information.

Verbal-linguistic intelligence refers to an individual's ability to analyze information


and produce work that involves oral and written language, such as speeches, books,
and emails.

Logical-mathematical intelligence describes the ability to develop equations and


proofs, make calculations, and solve abstract problems.

Visual-spatial intelligence allows people to comprehend maps and other types of


graphical information.

Musical intelligence enables individuals to produce and make meaning of different


types of sound.

Naturalistic intelligence refers to the ability to identify and distinguish among


different types of plants, animals, and weather formations found in the natural world.

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails using one's own body to create products or


solve problems.

Interpersonal intelligence reflects an ability to recognize and understand other


people's moods, desires, motivations, and intentions.

Intrapersonal intelligence refers to people's ability to recognize and assess those


same characteristics within themselves.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iYgO8jZTFuQ

Intelligence Reframed by Howard Gardner

18
#5: Effective goal setting and scheduling
(i) Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Related, Time-phased

(ii) Mental approach and practical advice

(iii) Scheduling

(i) A goal can be defined as an objective which meets the S.M.A.R.T. criteria

Specific Measurable Attainable Related Time-phased

Specific
The more clearly defined the goal the greater the chances of success. As a general
rule you should be able to specify your goal in one sentence using one action verb.
Short term goals can be much more specific than long-term goals.

Measurable
Establish clear criteria for measuring progress toward the attainment of each goal you
set. When you can measure your progress, you stay on track, and experience the buzz
of achievement that spurs you on to make the efforts required to reach your goal. If
the goal does not contain an obvious numerical component you can always judge your
effort out of 10.

Attainable
Achievable goals motivate; impossible goals demotivate. Ask yourself honestly “Is this
too demanding?”. The correct answer is “Maybe”.

Assess where you are starting from. Do you possess the basic knowledge and skills
needed to achieve the goal? If not, enrol in a course at a lower level which will help
you to attain that knowledge and those skills.

Do you have the right level of natural aptitude and the correct temperament to succeed
in the subjects you have chosen, or should you focus on other goals? Do you have
45 – 48 hours a week to devote to study or should you cut back on the number of
subjects you are doing?

19 Contents Page
Related

When you are establishing a realistic plan for your future, which includes a meaningful
job, you will need to attend to the different aspects of your life which include:

 Your educational pathway


 Your mental and physical health
 Your serious personal interest
 Your family life and domestic set up
 Your social life including close friends
 Your economic resources possibly including a part-time job

You may have several goals which you are aiming for at the same time. You don’t
want goals which are contradictory or taking you in different directions. Select the
goals which are harmonious and get rid of goals which are irrelevant. Prioritising goals
is a dynamic process, as different goals may take priority at different times.

Time Phased
Goal setting should include a time frame indicating when your degree of achievement
will be measured against the goal that is set. The time frames in the table below have
proved to the most practical to work with. Note how shorter-term goals can be nested
inside longer-term goals.

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3


Long-term goals one year two years three years
Mid-term goals three weeks six weeks three months
Short -term goals one hour and under one day one week

Long-term goals are fine as they provide a guiding light, but they are outcome goals
and as such, far less specific (and effective) than process goals. An example of an
outcome goal would be “ I want to get a science degree ”. An example of a process
goal would be “Tonight, I’m going to do 2 x 45 minute sessions on my physics
assignment”. Make nearly all your goals process goals and focus on them.

20
(iii) Mental approach and practical advice

Three qualities: patience, persistence and resilience

I should stress here that goal setting takes time and a lot of thought to get right, so
be willing to be flexible and make adjustments where necessary. When you are certain
you are on the right track, be patient and persistent. Outside factors always play a part
(stuff happens) and you will need to cultivate resilience so you get back on track.

Three principles: Sacrifice, discipline and incremental improvement

Your life is complete as it is, even if it consists of attending college then spending
the rest of your time playing video games and eating Cheezels. To progress beyond
that situation requires that you sacrifice some of that time so that you can create a
future for yourself. If you don’t, all that will happen is that you improve your video
gaming skills and get fat. Small steps is the way to go. Give up twenty minutes gaming
time to tidy your room and prepare the things you need for college the following day .
When you do that for a week you are demonstrating your capacity for discipline.

Whatever your level of commitment, small increases in time/workload is what leads


to improvement over time.

Be a one-percenter, look for marginal gains. These are small details that will, over
time, add up to decisive improvements in academic performance. Look at all the
aspects of your life and see where you can make a 1% improvement. They can be
one-time marginal gains like improving the lighting in your home study area; or
repeated marginal gains like washing your hands correctly and using a brush to clean
your fingernails to prevent you becoming sick and missing classes?

The opposite is also true, if you allow a lot of small things to go wrong each day, you
can accrue a lot of marginal losses which, over time, will cause problems that cause
you to fall behind in your studies.

21 Contents Page
The willingness to fail

"I learned pretty soon that it was essential to fail and be foolish."
Daniel Day-Lewis, only three-time winner of the Academy Award for Best Actor

You will often encounter individuals who don’t try anything because they are afraid
to be seen to fail. They wait and wait for fortune to smile on them and before they know
it they are forty and still living at home (still covered in Cheezel dust) playing video
games. High achievers nearly always start off “badly”. They understand that to be a
master you must first be a fool, and they are willing to take that on

A failure will show you where your limits are, and that gives you a place to start from
and set attainable goals for yourself. The sweet spot is just under your limit. Don’t
identify with the mistakes. Identify with the “I” which pays attention and learns.

For example, a music student who is learning a piece will select a short excerpt (this
can be as small as the movement between two notes) and slow the tempo down to a
point where they are not making any mistakes. The student then does a number of
repetitions at this tempo before lifting the tempo a small amount. They keep doing
this until the mistakes start to happen. They stop at that point because that is the
signal that more repetitions are required at the previous tempo; otherwise they will be
practising mistakes. Please note that the number of repetitions required to improve
increases the closer the student gets to the tempo required to play the piece correctly.
Sometimes, life’s not fair, is it?

A rule of thumb for skill development that requires repetition :


30 repetitions a day, 6 days a week for 6 weeks
or https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JAnNUhWJQI8

A mathematics student who is having problems keeping up can improve by going back
and finding the level at which their skill set breaks down. Have a look at this site:
https://www.gotoquiz.com/which_math_grade_are_you_in
When the student is scoring 60%- 80% for the tests, then that is the level they should
work at by learning theory and doing 20 maths practice problems a day until they start
to score 85% or above for three days in a row. They can then move on to the next
level. If they can’t score 60% then the level is too high and needs to be reduced.

22
What to do if you don't have any goals

Get started by setting some Level 1 short-term goals. These should be small things
in your immediate environment that you can fix right now. Aim at doing five, if you only
manage three, then try and do four tomorrow. As you progress with this, a vision for
your future will start to emerge. Then, in rough notes, describe the best place you can
be in three years; then describe the worst place you can be in three years. Take your
time, think deeply about this, disregard other people’s expectations, be sincere. Aim
high, aim at something that will bring the greatest good into your life, the life of your
family and the life of your community (in that order). When you are ready, write it all
out in a dedicated journal. Gauge your progress not by comparing yourself with
anybody else but with where you were last week.

(iii) Scheduling
Google Calendar is a very useful tool https://calendar.google.com/calendar/r

Once you have established some goals for yourself, the next step is to work out how
you will develop the skills and knowledge necessary to reach these goals. This is
achieved by breaking the workload down into a number of smaller jobs and planning
your time accordingly. You do this by scheduling, which can be defined as allocating
your time between tasks, activities and study.

Tasks are things that you are obliged to do such as:

domestic tasks logistical tasks administrative tasks


cooking, cleaning, transport, travel time banking, paying bills
washing, shopping maintenance(car/bike), enrollments, fee payment
storage, planning Centrelink
Part-time employment including travel time

For tasks you do on a regular basis, establishing routines allows you to eliminate the
need to make small decisions each time, and releases time and energy for other
things. Tasks are actually a big part of your life and you can benefit greatly by choosing
to adopt a positive, creative attitude to doing them; rather than being resentful and
grumpy.

23 Contents Page
Activities are things that you choose to do in your own time such as

Sports and Fitness Social Life Family activities


Serious personal Interest Spiritual Interests Other active recreation

Activities are essential for physical and mental health. Some activities may involve
setting goals, but it is important to have time when you are under no pressure.

Study hours per week during terms/semesters

VCE student 30 hours class time 15 hours self-directed study


(10 -12 subjects) or 16 x 45 minute sessions
University students 16 hours class time 32 hours self-directed study
(full time) or 40 x 45 minute sessions

To be a successful student, study hours should take priority in your schedule with
time for tasks and activities arranged around them. VCE students are expected to do
one hour of self-directed study (i.e. homework) for every two hours of class time.
University students are expected to do two hours of self-directed study for every hour
of class time. With TAFE students, it varies depending on the course but, as a rule of
thumb it would be 1.5 hours of self-directed study for every hour of class time.

 You are almost certain to make a mess of your first efforts at scheduling by
trying to cram in too much. Make the appropriate changes and use this as an
opportunity to appreciate the realities of time management.

 Things always take longer than you think. Add 50% to your original estimate.

 The time limit for detailed scheduling is about three weeks ahead.
Daily schedules can be very detailed. Weekly schedules slightly less so.

 When you have a major assessment due and you need to do a substantial
amount of work which requires a lot of concentration with a minimum amount
of errors; schedule a morning session preceded by a big breakfast. Do 2 x 45
minute sessions separated by a 15 minute break. Take a 20 minute break and
then do another 2 x 45 minute sessions separated by a 15 minute break.

24
#6: Evaluating Information

As a student, you will frequently be asked to decide whether to accept, deny or


challenge written or verbal information which is presented as “factual”. The aim is to
arrive at an objective opinion which is not based on emotion or intuition. To accomplish
this, you can apply the principles of critical thinking. A frequently used system for
critical thinking is known by the acronym B.A.R.R.I.E.R.S., which uses specific
questions under eight headings.

Biases

What perspective does the writer have?


Is this objective or does it affect their objectivity?
Does the writer have an ideology, a prejudice, or a cultural viewpoint?
Is there any motivation for the writer’s argument which is not based on fact?

Assumptions

Has the writer expressed something that is true without any evidence?
Has the writer failed to consider other factors?

Reasoning

Are the ideas logical?


Has the writer shown reasons for the ideas presented?
Has the writer given examples or evidence?
Has the writer omitted equally important facts?
Does the idea accord with known probabilities?

Relevance

Are the ideas related to your work?


Can the ideas be applied to what you are writing about?
Are the ideas out of date, have they been disproved?

25 Contents Page
Implications

What conclusions does this work indicate?


Do they affect or contradict other writers or arguments you wish to use?
What does it mean to your work?
How can you explain this in your own work?
Can you use it in your own work?

Evidence

Has the writer given any proof for what they have stated?
Is the proof valid?
How has the research been done?
Are there any gaps in the research?
If there is a sample, is it representative? Is the sample large enough?
Has it been tested against anything?

Response

How has the writer’s idea been received in the wider academic community?
Have the ideas been mainly criticised or supported? Are the criticisms valid?

Situation

Which contexts does this apply to?


Can this idea work in all situations?
Was the writer writing at a time or in a situation which may affect the conclusions?

Critical thinking has been defined as:

1. The art of thinking about your thinking while you are thinking in order to make your
thinking clearer, more accurate, or more defensible

2. Thinking that displays mastery of intellectual skills and abilities.

3. Disciplined, self-directed thinking which exemplifies the perfections of thinking


appropriate to a particular mode or domain of thinking.

26
Critical thinking is one of those skills that seems strange at first, but with practice you
can quickly become adept. It will help you when you need

 to evaluate as well as describe information


 to inform your opinion whether it is supportive or critical of an idea
 to identify bias and assumptions, and if they will be allowed to stand.
 to assess whether an author’s conclusions are justified
 to explain the significance of particular information

Evaluating competing points of view

You may be asked to evaluate the quality of two differing viewpoints; one of which
is critical of an idea and the other is supportive. Firstly, you need to find sources which
agree with the idea, apply critical thinking to them. When you have done that find
sources which put forth a counter-argument and apply critical thinking to those.

Evaluate both ideas and decide which has a stronger argument.


 Is there more evidence for one viewpoint?
 Does one discredit the other?
 Has one been disproven?
 Do both arguments contain valid points?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I used these texts when preparing this lesson.
Fiona Aish and Jo Tomlinson Lectures: Learn listening and note-taking skills
(Harper Collins, 2013). Highly recommended.

Colin Swatridge Oxford guide to effective argument & critical thinking


(Oxford University Press, 2013)

Stella Cottrell Critical Thinking Skills (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017)


When you need to find or check vocabulary for argument & critical thinking
see Lesson #9

These links are very useful.


http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/glossary-of-critical-thinking-terms/496
How to be open minded without being empty headed https://openmindplatform.org/

27 Contents Page
#7: Introduction to academic essay writing

Part 1: Foundations

(i) Appreciate the purpose of academic writing.

(ii) Understand the terms argument, academic essay, analysis, critical thinking

(iii) Be familiar with the structure of academic essays.

(iv) Consider form, style, and tone

(v) Know what will cause you to lose marks in academic essays.

Part 2: Be clear about how to answer the question

(i) Essay questions which use instruction words

(ii) Essay questions which use implied instructions

(iii) Assignments which use a direct question

(iv) Topics without a question

Part 3: Bibliography and referencing

(i) Creating bibliographies

(ii) Referencing: Using quotes, paraphrasing and summarising

Part 4: Brief descriptions of other types of writing for students

Exam questions; Report writing; Business writing: Research Writing


Writing about literature, poetry and drama

28
Part 1: Foundations

(i) Appreciate the purpose of academic writing.

(ii) Understand the terms argument, academic essay, analysis, critical thinking

(iii) Be familiar with the structure of academic essays.

(iv) Consider form, style, and tone

(v) Know what will cause you to lose marks in academic essays.

(i) Appreciate the purpose of academic writing.

When asked for an opinion, the vast majority of people respond emotionally or
intuitively and then look for reasons to back up their assertion. This approach can be
riddled with error and perceptual biases. To avoid this, the academic approach
stresses objectivity, clear thinking and precision. The ideas expressed need to be
relevant, complete and accurate. The person who is marking your essay is interested
in your opinion of the source material based on objective evaluation and the way
you present your argument. Your own personal experience or viewpoint on the topic
may or may not be of interest.

(ii) Understand the terms: argument; academic essay; analysis; critical review

Argument
In academic terms this doesn’t mean a squabble but indicates a set of reasoned
propositions which prove a point or persuade the reader or listener to a point of view.
Argumentation is the process of developing or presenting an argument in other
words, the reasoning involved.

Academic essay
An academic essay is a particular form of writing which presents an argument by
developing a point, or a set of closely related points, with reasoning and evidence.
The supporting points are linked together in a logical sequence. Formal language is
used and relevant examples and supporting evidence from academic texts or credible
sources are included.

29 Contents Page
Analysis
The act of separating the concepts and contents of a text to explain how these
interrelate, connect and possibly influence each other.

Critical review
In academic writing, to critically review does not necessarily mean to comment in a
negative manner. In an academic context, it means to evaluate the strengths
weaknesses, applications and limitations of an argument.

(ii) Be familiar with the structure of academic essays.

An academic essay contains three separate sections.

 An introduction: In which you indicate what you understand the question to be;
what your objectives are; which aspects of the subject you will deal with and
what you will explain or argue.

 A body: Where you build up your explanation/argument with ideas, opinions


and facts, and support key points with examples, evidence and statements from
authorities on the subject.

 A conclusion: Which sums up your argument and show that you have answered
the question.

600 words is a commonly proscribed word count for short essays and reports.
Allowing a paragraph each for the intro and the conclusion this would leave four
paragraphs in the body. In a 11-point font with double spacing, that would take up
about two pages A4 pages. See http://wordstopages.com/ for page/word counts.

Each paragraph should present a single idea which supports the thesis statement. As
a rule of thumb, a paragraph would consist of approximately 100 words divided into
approximately 6-8 sentences averaging about 15 words each. The first sentence,
called the topic sentence, should introduce the main idea and the other sentences
support that idea with evidence and examples. Sentence length can vary but a
sentence over two lines long is probably too long.

30
The paragraphs should be organised in an order which demonstrates sound
reasoning. Regard each paragraph as a stepping stone to the conclusion of your
essay. The connections between the paragraphs need to make sense.

Ask your tutor to suggest examples of well written essays and analyse them in terms
of what we have discussed here. Use them as a template for your own.

(iv) Consider form, style, and tone. This will gain you marks.

The aim is to create a piece of work that is coherent, sticks to the point and has a
logical structure. Stylistically your essay should sound like you write with facility and
elegance, even if it actually cost you “blood, tears, toil and sweat” You should aim for
a concise and economic style. Avoid words that you would hesitate to use in
conversation. Don’t be afraid to demonstrate your command of vocabulary or specialist
words, but mainly use plain English. It should sound natural to you. Address the reader
as if they are an intelligent person.

(v) Know what will cause you to lose marks in academic essays.

The tone should be appropriate for an academic essay. Avoid anything in this list:
slang; abbreviations; anecdotes; jokey remarks; pop culture references; colloquialisms
and vernacular; chattiness; exclamation marks; overuse of adjectives; almost any use
of adverbs; overlong sentences; needless words; clichés; terms which can be
construed as sexist e.g. actress for actor; workman for worker; policeman for police
officer etc. Save all these devices for your Creative Writing class.

You will lose marks for poor spelling, poor punctuation, poor grammar and badly
designed presentation and layout. You will be penalized for quoting texts without
acknowledgement. You will be disqualified for plagiarism and passing off another
person’s work as your own.

For more on academic essay writing check this site


https://www.dartmouth.edu/~engl5vr/guidelines.htm

31 Contents Page
Part 2: Be clear about how to answer the question.

Please note that the term “the question” refers to the title of the essay. It may be stated
in terms of a question or an instruction; “the topic” refers to the subject of the essay.
The thesis statement is your answer to the question”.

(i) Essay questions which use instruction words

An instruction word will often be used in the question to describe the task that you
are expected to undertake and which you will be assessed on. The most important
thing in essay writing is to answer the question. Make sure you understand the
instruction word which here is shown in the left-hand column.

Analyse Take things apart to show how the parts make up the whole.
Assess Make a value judgement about the matter discussed. Address
both positive and negative aspects. Cite the judgements of
known authorities. If invited, give you own opinion.
Classify Sort items into correct classes.
Comment on Analyse and assess
Compare and Show what is similar (compare) and what is different (contrast)
Contrast about the matter for discussion.
Critically Spell out your judgement as to the value or truth of something.
discuss or, explain what your criteria are and demonstrate how the criteria
Criticise
apply in this case
Define State the meaning or interpretation of something
Specify the limits within which something must fall to be that sort
of thing.
Detail Provide a description emphasizing the component parts.
Discuss Engage critically with the subject. Give reasons for and against.
Draw a conclusion
Evaluate Assess the worth of an idea providing justification for your
conclusion.
Examine Present in depth and investigate the implications.
Illustrate Provide examples or instances that illuminate the points under
discussion. Possibly using graphics.

32
Interpret Clarify or explain. Give an account of the data, drawing
conclusions from the evidence given or showing how things
relate
Justify Provide the evidence and the arguments which support the
conclusion given. Argue the case
Outline Give a clear summary without going into too much detail.
Prove Provide irrefutable evidence for a proposal
Refute Provide the evidence and the arguments against the position
given and show how a different conclusion follows
Relate Show the connection between.
Review Summarise and assess
Sketch Give a clear overview of the main features without going into too
much detail
State Spell out the main points
Summarise Select the main features and describe them in your own words
To what extent Discuss how true a statement is, or in what ways it is true
Trace Show how a particular idea or event was caused by or evolved
from earlier ones

(ii) Questions which use implied instructions

Some assignments may not use an instruction word in the title. It may just be implied
as in the following examples:

How did ... and … differ in their…………….….?


implies “contrast “

What were the key events of …………………..?


implies “outline” or ‘describe”

33 Contents Page
(iii) Assignments which use a direct question

Direct questions are concerned with taking a position and backing it up with cogent
argument. They can be seen as essay questions where you are expected to give a
yes or no answer as in the following examples:

Does the…achieve………? Should …..ever be……because …?


Are all ……. equally…… ? Is…….…an important piece of work?

Or you may be asked to spell out clearly what something is or how something is
done as in the following examples:

What are the critical elements of ……? How should………………….?


What is the function of ……………….? How do you write a critical essay?

Give a direct answer to a direct question. You should quickly have an idea how the
introduction and conclusion will be written. Strive for relevance and eliminate
whatever distracts from the question and your response.
https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/can-title-be-question-does-it-need-
punctuation-268410

(iv) Topics without a question

Occasionally you may be asked to write a given number of words on a particular


topic with no other direction. Formulate 8-10 questions you would ask about the
subject and select the question that interests you the most as the title for your essay.
If possible consult the person who will be marking your assignment for their opinion
on the suitability of your choice.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

34
Part 3: Bibliography and Referencing
(i) Creating a bibliography

At the end of your essay, attach a list of all material which you have consulted in
preparing your work. The list may contain items which you have chosen not to quote
from or which you have decided were not helpful. Nevertheless, these items have
formed part of your preparation and should be included. The list thus produced forms
your bibliography. It is possible that your bibliography may contain just one item, the
primary text, if that is honestly all you have used.

The bibliography is organised according to the authors' last names which are arranged
in alphabetical order. In a bibliography each component of an individual entry is
punctuated by a full stop. Bibliographical entries may vary in complexity. In general,
use the following ordering systems as your guide in presenting material. Please note
that the punctuation counts.

Books are listed like this


 Name of author/s, editor/s or institution responsible for the book.
 Full Title of the Book : Including Sub-title.
 Volume number or total number of volumes in a multi-volume work.
 Edition, if not the first.
 City of publication :
 Publisher,
 Date of publication.
as in the following examples:

Levine, Joseph M. The Battle of the Books : History and Literature in the Augustan
Age. Ithaca : Cornell University Press, 1991.

Boswell, James. The Life of Samuel Johnson. Edited by George Birkbeck Hill and
L.F. Powell. 2 vols. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1934.

Soltes, Ori Z., ed. Georgia: Art and Civilization through the Ages. London: Philip
Wilson, 1999.
35 Contents Page
Serials include magazines, newspapers, annuals (such as reports, yearbooks, and
directories), journals, memoirs, proceedings, transactions of societies, and
monographic series. They are listed like this

 Name of author/s.
 "Title of the article."
 Title of Serial
 Volume number,
 No. issue number
 (date):
 page range of whole article.
as in the following examples:

Gold, Ann Godzins. "Grains of Truth : Shifting Hierarchies of Food and Grace in Three
Rajasthani Tales." History of Religions 38, no. 2 (1998): 150-171.

Masterton, Mark. Review of The Sleep of Reason: Erotic Experience and Sexual
Ethics in Ancient Rome, edited by Martha C. Nussbaum and Juha Sihvola. American
Journal of Philology 124, no. 3 (2003): 477-81.

Chapters from edited books


 Name of author
 "Title of the chapter."
 Full Title of the Book : Including Sub-title.
 Name of editor
 page range of whole article
 City of publication
 Publisher
 Date of publication
as in the following example:

Holloway, John. "Dickens and the Symbol," in Dickens 1970, edited by Michael
Slater, 50-63. London : Chapman Hall, 1970.

36
The information above was culled from The University of Tasmania library website:
https://utas.libguides.com/c.php?g=498348&p=3412899

They also showed how to enter the following into a bibliography:


 Web sites
 Journal article from electronic source
 Statute accessed from a web site
 Legislation-Statutes:
 Reprint Editions and Modern Editions
 Theses

You can download a PDF from the Swinburne library at:


www.swinburne.edu.au/library/referencing/harvard-style-guide/
This document will show you how to enter following into a bibliography

 Translations
 E Books (with numbered pages)
 E Books (with no page numbers)
 Newspaper, magazine and journal articles without an author
 Industry and market reports from a library database
 Streamed TV program accessed through the EDU TV database
 Australian Standards Online
 Learning material in Blackboard or Canvas
 DVD – feature film
 Webpage with an author
 Webpage without an author
 Conference paper available on the conference’s publicly accessible website
 YouTube video.
 Tables, graphs and images from a webpage.
 Article from a newspaper’s official website
 Article from an open access online journal
 Blog entry
 Books with multiple authors

37 Contents Page
(ii) Referencing: Using quotes, paraphrasing and summarising

In academic writing you will find that you have to include parts of another person’s
work in your essay. This is called referencing. Quoting is when you take a word for
word copy of that work and place it in your own. Paraphrasing is interpreting the text
in one’s own words without changing the meaning. The original text and the
paraphrase are about the same length. It is usually done for the sake of simplicity.
Summarising is done when only the main ideas of the writer are to be identified, or
when only an overview of the whole work is required so it is shorter than the original
text. The correct way to punctuate a quote using the Harvard referencing system can
be found on p.39. Paraphrases and summaries are punctuated differently to quotes,
this is also detailed on p.39.

When you reference other people's work in your writing, you should include correct
citations to avoid committing plagiarism, avoid breaking copyright law and allow your
readers to find and read your sources of information.

Citation Styles
To make the references consistent and easy to read across different papers there
are predefined styles stating how to set them out - these are called citation styles.
Regardless of what subject you're writing for, you should use the style your college
and tutor recommend, and you must not mix-and-match. Different subjects prefer to
each use different styles. These are the most popular:

 APA. APA is an author/date-based style. This means emphasis is placed on


the author and the date of a piece of work to uniquely identify it.
 MLA. MLA is most often applied by the arts and humanities, particularly in the
USA. It is arguably the most well used of all of the citation styles.
 Harvard. Harvard is very similar to APA. Where APA is primarily used in the
USA, Harvard referencing is the most well used referencing style in the UK and
Australia and is encouraged for use with the humanities.
 Cambridge for Art History
 Vancouver. This system is mainly used in medical and scientific papers.
 Chicago and Turabian. These are two separate styles but are very similar,
just like Harvard and APA. These are widely used for history and economics.

38
Examples of Harvard Referencing

Example 1.

This quote “Most of an octopus' neurons are not in a brain but in its arms, and these
limbs can act semi-autonomously” was from an article on the website of The Age.

This is how the article was listed in the bibliography:

Strom, M 2017, ‘Do octopuses dream of electric squid? One philosopher's love of the
cephalopods’, The Age, 1 April, viewed 9 August 2017,
<http://www.theage.com.au/technology/sci-tech/do-octopuses-dream-of-electric-
squid-one-philosophers-love-of-the-cephalopods-20170329-gv8r9l.html>.

This is how the quoted passage would appear in the text of the essay. The direct
quote appears in quotation marks followed by the author’s name in brackets.

Octopi are physiologically very different to humans and especially in regard to its
senses: “Most of an octopus' neurons are not in a brain but in its arms, and these limbs
can act semi-autonomously” (Strom 2017).

Even when the direct quote is paraphrased, it requires a citation.

The nervous system of an octopus is very different, with most of its neurons in its eight
tentacles (Strom 2017); this suggests its sense of perception – and thus, self – must
be very different to our own.

Example 2.

This quote “The universe has no mind, no feelings and no personality, so it doesn’t
do things in order to hurt or please you” appears in a book by Richard Dawkins.

This is how the book was listed in the bibliography:

Dawkins, R 2012, The magic of reality, Black Swan, London.

Below you will see how the quoted passage would appear in the essay. The direct
quote appears in quotation marks followed by the author’s name in brackets,
publication date and page number

“The universe has no mind, no feelings and no personality, so it doesn’t do things in ,


order to hurt or please you” (Dawkins 2012, p. 226), which leaves us having to
examine other reasons for why events happen.

This is how the paraphrased version appears in the text of the essay.

The universe cannot do good or bad things to humans because it is not a sentient
force (Dawkins 2012, p. 226),

39 Contents Page
Part 4: Other types of writing for students
In this chapter we deal specifically with academic writing for assignments. Here is a
brief introduction to other types of writing that students will encounter.

 Exam Essays
Download and print out the last two years exam papers for each subject you are doing.
These will serve you like a good and faithful servant. Make a list of all the essay
questions, work out if are they direct questions, or do they use or imply instruction
words, and if so, which ones. Use the exams as practice, particularly in the six weeks
before the exam. Past papers for students sitting VCAA exams can be downloaded
from here:
https://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Pages/vce/exams/examsassessreports.aspx#H2N1042B

 Report Writing
A similar set of skills to academic writing but with some different requirements
I recommend Report Writing by Michelle Reid (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012)

 Business Writing
So much learning material is available on writing memorandums, reports, proposals,
emails, and plans. Consult your teachers about the best sources for your purpose.

 Writing about literature, poetry and drama


Bloom’s how to write about literature series, published by Chelsea House includes
volumes on many major writers. Find a full list here.
http://www.infobasepublishing.com/eBookSeries.aspx?PrintISBN=0791099814

 Research Writing
You will need to access the past research reports and essays of your specialist
association to learn the concepts, conventions and strict guidelines applied to research
papers. This site explains some sound general principals.
https://ctl.yale.edu/teaching/ideas-teaching/teaching-students-write-good-papers
.

40
#8: Essay writing for assignments

Part 1: A 14-step essay writing plan

Part 2: Writing Better Sentences


(i) Sentence Starters
(iii) Signal words
(iv) Reporting verbs
(iv) Coherence

Part 3: How to improve your essay


(i) Use the active voice
(ii) Using quotations
(iii) Rewriting the Introduction
(iv) Rewriting the Conclusion

Part 4: Sources and further reading

41 Contents Page
Part 1: A 14-step writing plan for an assignment
Please note that to write requires that you think more deeply and about more complex
matters than you normally would. A clear sign that you are on the right track with your
writing is that your viewpoint on the topic changes. That is because you are structuring
an argument instead of defending a perceptual bias. In other words, writing and doing
the associated reading will make you smarter.

1 Clearly understand the question and what the criteria are for assessment.

2 Start a project notebook. Write out the provisional outline.

3 Search for and select research material

4 Start research and taking notes

5 Draft the revised outline

6 Write out the first draft.

7 Rewrite the first draft

8 Get some feedback

9 Complete the second draft. Use the checklist.

10 Complete references and citations

11 Complete the bibliography

12 Complete your third and final draft.

13 Do a final edit and proofread so you have a completed essay

14 Hand it in.

Step 1: Clearly understand what the question and the assessment criteria are.

It is most important to know exactly what the question is and what the criteria are for
assessment. This will keep you focused on what you need to know from your research
material and will enable you to eliminate what you don’t need.

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Step 2: Starting a project notebook. Writing out the provisional outline

Before you charge off to the library, buy a new A4 notebook for this project. Use only
one side of the paper when writing in this notebook. Keep it neat, you can write drafts
on rough paper. Practising your handwriting will pay off when you do a written exam.
In your project notebook, write out a provisional outline (sometimes called an essay
plan). This consists of your thesis statement which should be one or two sentences;
a list of possible main points; some questions you have formulated and an indication
of what research you will be doing. You will then have some direction.

See p.32 for the definition of “thesis statement “.

Step 3: Searching for and selecting research material

You may have a list of recommended reading, but also scour the catalogues at your
college and public libraries. Introductory books and specialist dictionaries for particular
subjects are very useful. You will also require some sources that contradict your thesis
statement, so you can comment on them in your essay.
Citing Wikipedia is usually not accepted, but it is a good source of references for further
reading such as academic journal articles, books and academic websites. These may
in turn provide you with a list of other resources relevant to your assignment. Become
adept at skimming pages and using indexes to find the information you are seeking
You will be required to use reliable, authoritative sources to back up your arguments.
When using information from websites, check its reliability. To review your ability to
evaluate the reliability of sources, watch this video (youtu.be/TTIz_00-xww), or go to
(www.monash.edu/rlo/quick-study-guides/scholarly-sources-checklist).
You will probably need ten books or articles per thousand words of essay. Write your
list of reference sources on the back page of your notebook. This list can be added to
as you progress with your research and note taking and can form the basis of your
bibliography.

43 Contents Page
Step 4: Start researching and taking notes in your project notebook.

Before you start taking notes, assign the next four pages in your note book to write the
Revised Outline. You can do this revision as you are doing your research and note
taking. Head the first blank page “Revised Outline page1”. Skip a page, remember we
use only one side of the paper, and head the next page “Revised Outline page 2”.

Skip a page then head the next page “Notes on (essay topic)”. You are now ready to
start research and taking notes. For an essay of 600 words you would need about
eight to ten pages of written notes.

Don’t highlight or underline parts of a text. There is no evidence that these


techniques are effective. What does work is to read for understanding. Read a
paragraph. Look away. Then say to yourself what the paragraph meant. Pay attention
to what you say, and then write down in your notebook what you have learned, or any
questions that have arisen in your mind. Read the paragraph again and make any
changes you deem necessary to your notes. The aim is to extract the gist of what is
written. Take more notes than you will need for your essay. You can, include material
for the sake of “context”, but don’t get distracted.

You will need to quote or paraphrase sections of your research to support your
arguments, so note down any statements that you wish to quote or that you may
forget or overlook. List the source and page number.

Using a style manual


Style manuals are essential to check spelling, grammar, punctuation,
syntax and word usage. The following manuals are recommended.
Style Manual for authors, editors and printers
Published by John Wiley and Sons. Prepared by Snooks and Co for the
Australian Department of Finance and Administration
https://www.wiley.com/.../Style+Manual%3A+For+Authors%2C+Editors+and+Printers.

The Chicago Manual of Style Published by The University of Chicago Press


http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/home.html

Bryan A. Garner: The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation


http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo23196803.html

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Step 5: Drafting the revised outline in your project notebook

This should use the structure of the essay but in the form of lists and jottings as well
as formal sentences. At this point just get as much relevant information as you can
under the most appropriate headings. Be as certain as you can that your material is
from credible sources, but don’t worry about crafting your essay just yet.

 The introduction

Rewrite both what you understand the question to be and your thesis
statement. Indicate how you intend to support the thesis statement.
List any words in the essay that may need to be defined. There has to be
some fundamental agreement about what words actually mean at the
beginning of any conversation.

 Paragraph # 1

First supporting argument

List the relevant examples, supporting evidence and information

 Paragraph # 2

Second supporting argument

List the relevant examples, supporting evidence and information

 Paragraph # 3
Third supporting argument

List the relevant examples, supporting evidence and information

 . Paragraph # 4

Opposing argument(s)

List the relevant examples, supporting evidence and information

 . The conclusion

Sum up your main argument and supporting arguments. Show that you
have answered the question or arrived at a point of view. The first
sentences should restate the thesis. The middle sentences summarize the
essay’s subpoints. The final sentences leave the reader with an interesting
thought. Do not make the last sentence of your essay a question. That is
just too lame.

45 Contents Page
Step 6: Writing out the first draft in Word basing it on the revised outline

The first draft should be written in Word and be double spaced. Now is the time to
check out the requirements for formatting re: font size, margins etc. The first draft
should have more 25% more words than the final draft. The introduction and
conclusion should take up about a quarter of your word count and the introduction
should be longer than the conclusion.

First Draft of 600 word essay. Word counts are approximate.


Introduction : 90 words
Paragraph # 1 : 125 words
Paragraph # 2 : 125 words
Paragraph # 3 : 125 words
Paragraph # 4; 125 words
Conclusion : 60 words

6a Paragraph construction

If you can’t think up 100 words to say about your idea, it’s not a very good idea, or
you need to think more about it and/or do more reading. If your paragraph rambles on
for 300 words or more, it has more than one idea in it and should be broken up.

A paragraph should present a single idea. This is expressed in the first sentence which
is called the topic sentence. The middle sentences contain the evidence, examples
and information. The final sentence of the paragraph should summarise the topic and
lead smoothly into the next section.

6b Sentence construction

Each sentence should have a noun, a verb and a main idea. Avoid presenting these
elements in the same order in every sentence (vary your syntax) and mix up shorter
and longer sentences. This will help you to avoid a “plodding style”.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Set the draft aside for a day or two and come back to it with a fresh mind

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Step 7: Rewriting the first draft. Reduce the paragraph length to around 100 words

7a Rewrite the sentences in Paragraph #1

Copy the first sentence and then underneath compose three alternative versions so
you have four versions. Like this:

Paragraph #1 original first sentence

Paragraph #1 first sentence alternative version 1

Paragraph #1 first sentence alternative version 2:

Paragraph #1 first sentence alternative version 3:

Repeat this process with each of the sentences in Paragraph #1.


When rewriting the sentences use sentence starters for these purposes.

To introduce To compare and contrast To add ideas


To present uncommon To present common or To present inconclusive
ideas widespread ideas ideas
To give examples To conclude To present others’ ideas
To show relationship or Hedging. Use when not -
outcome totally certain of the facts
See pp.52 - 55 for sentence starters

Also use signal words to indicate

More to come A change of direction A sequence


Time Illustration Emphasis
Cause, condition, result Where Comparison & contrast
Conclusion Inexact ideas -

See p.56-59 for signal words. See p.61 For signal words and punctuation.

47 Contents Page
Also use reporting verbs when you quote or paraphrase and you wish to find words
that mean the following.

accuse allege blame, criticise add agree


believe conclude disagree discuss emphasise
examine explain guess include persuade
see show state suggest think
See p.60 for reporting words and for correct punctuation

Then select the best version of each sentence. Copy and paste these to form a new
paragraph. Check that the sentences are in the best order or if that can be improved.
Then rewrite the paragraph.

7b Repeat the process with paragraphs #2, #3 and #4. Are the paragraphs in the
correct order, or does your essay make more sense when you rearrange them?

7c Rewrite the introduction and conclusion.

Start the introduction with a short sentence. The first sentences should introduce the
topic of the essay, create interest, and provide any necessary background information.
The next part Indicates what you understand the question to be and which aspects of
the topic you will be dealing with. Then introduce your thesis statement and the
supporting arguments. First impressions count, so keep the introduction “crisp” and
to the point. List any words in the essay that may need to be defined. It is important to
have a strong conclusion, since this is the last chance you have to make an impression
on your reader. The goal of your conclusion is to sum up everything you’ve written.
Specifically, your conclusion should accomplish three major goals: Restate your thesis
statement, summarize the subpoints of your essay, and leave the reader with an
interesting final impression. Do not include any new material.
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/2/2/58/
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/2/2/60/
Use the websites listed above to find sample introductions and conclusions which
you can use as a template for your own.

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Step 8: Getting some feedback . Ask a friend/parent/colleague to read the rewrite
of the first draft and comment. Make any suggested changes you think appropriate.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Step 9: Completing the second draft.


Check your essay against these lists and correct where necessary.

9a Check the paragraphs

 Does each paragraph have a topic sentence and one main idea?
 Do all paragraphs maintain a clear focus on the topic?
 Is each paragraph cohesive?.
 Are the transitions between paragraphs smooth and clear?

9b Check the sentences

 Have you employed sentence starters? See p.52


 Have you employed signal words?. See p.56
 Have you employed hedging? See p.55
 Have you employed reporting verbs? See p.60
 Have you employed nominalisations? See p.65
 Is there a mix of sentence lengths and structures?
 Does each sentence contain a noun, a verb and a complete idea?
 Have you varied the syntax?
 Have you used repetition of a key term or phrase; or repeated or parallel
sentence patterns? See p.63

9c Check the words


 Have you used vocabulary suitable for argument & critical thinking?
See p.80
 Have pronouns and synonyms been used for variety?
See p. 63
 Is the use of tenses appropriate and consistent?
 Do you use verbs, adjectives and nouns which are specific to the topic?

49 Contents Page
9d Have you applied critical thinking? See p.25 for the B.A.R.R.I.E.R.S. system.
In other words, have you analysed as well as described?

9e Check the essay. Schedule each of these checks at a separate time so you can
give each one your full attention. This pays dividends

 Are all main ideas supported? Does this supporting evidence come from the
ideas of other authors, factual information, statistics, logical argumentation?
 Have you used direct quotes and referenced them?. See p 38
 Has paraphrasing/summarising been used and is this referenced? See p.38
 Does the conclusion flow logically from the introduction and body?
 Have you mainly used the active voice? See p.64
 Have you used any quotations? See p.65
 Is the tone and style appropriate? See p.31
 Is there anything in your essay that will cause you to lose marks? See p.31

9e Rewrite the essay to complete your second draft.

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Step 10: Check references and citations. See page 38

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Step 11: Write the bibliography. See page 35

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Step 12: Completing your third and final draft.


Rewrite the sentences and paragraphs as in Step 7. See p.47

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Step 13: Doing the final edit and proofread

This is an important part of the writing process and you should make sure that you
allow enough time for it. Schedule it in two or three days before submission.

13a Final edit: Check these elements one at a time.


 Argument and content
 Structure
 Agreement between introduction and conclusion
 Cohesion (The ideas tie together smoothly and clearly)
 Style and clarity of expression.
 References
 Formatting and layout. Make sure this conforms to what is specified.

13b Final proofread: For a link to online Style Manuals see p. 44

Go through your essay; first check the spelling and grammar, then the word choice
and syntax, and finally the punctuation. Make any corrections necessary.

Please note, if English is not your first language, focus on the following grammatical
points: Subject /verb agreement, word form, singular/plural and articles.
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Step 14: Handing in your essay

It’s better to do it badly than not at all. So, even if your essay is not finished or not
very good; hand it in anyway. It will at least get you a mark instead of a zero. When
your assignment is marked and returned to you, rewrite the parts that need it. If you
are marked low, rewrite the essay as per the teacher’s advice and ask if you can
resubmit it and have it remarked.

For some reason, students are particularly sensitive about how their essays are
marked, so try to take the emotionalism out of it. Stay objective (and awesome); you
are a student and you are here to learn the skills.

51 Contents Page
Part 2: Writing better sentences

(i) Using sentence starters


(ii) Using signal words
(iv) Using reporting words
(iv) Composing coherent sentences

(iii) Using sentence starters

Use the sentence starters in the list below. Your vocabulary will sound correct and the
movement between sentences and between paragraphs will be smoother. Of course,
you don’t have to start every sentence with one of the phrases suggested here. Your
essay would probably start to sound stilted if you did. But use them judiciously.

To introduce
This essay discusses … … is explored … … is defined …
The definition of … will be … is briefly outlined … … is explored …
given …
The issue focused on … … is demonstrated … … is included …
In this essay … … is explained … … are identified …
The key aspect discussed … are presented … … is justified …
Views on … range from… … is evaluated … … is examined …
The central theme … … is described … … is analysed …
Emphasised are … … is explained and illustrated with examples

To compare and contrast


Similarly, … In the same way … Likewise, …
In comparison … Complementary to this … Then again, …
However, … This is in contrast to … In contrast, …
And yet … Nevertheless, … Conversely, …
On the contrary, … On the other hand, … Notwithstanding …
Whereas … In contrast to … That aside, . . .
While this is the case … . . . disputes … Despite this, . . .

52
To add ideas
Also, … Equally important . . . Subsequently, …
Furthermore, … Moreover, … As well as . . .
Next … Another essential point … Additionally, . . .
More importantly, … In the same way … Another . . .
Then, … In addition, … Besides . . .
Then again, … Firstly, ... secondly, ... To elaborate, . . .
thirdly, ... finally, ...

To present uncommon ideas


Seldom . . . Few . . . Not many . . .
A few . . . . . . is uncommon . . . is scarce . . .
Rarely . . . . . . is rare . . . . . . is unusual

To present common or widespread ideas


Numerous . . . Many . . . More than . . .
Several . . . Almost all . . . The majority . . .
Most . . . Commonly . . . Significant . . .
. . . is prevalent . . . . . . is usual . . . Usually . . .

To present inconclusive ideas


Perhaps . . . . . . may be . . . . . . might be . . .
There is limited evidence . . . is debated . . . . . . is possibly . . .
for . . .
. . . could . . . . .. may include . . .

To give examples
For example, . . . . . . as can be seen in . . . . . . supports . . .
An illustration of . . . . . . as demonstrated by . . . . . is observed . . .
Specifically, . . . . . . is shown . . . . . . exemplifies . . .
Such as . . . As an example, . . . To illustrate, . . .

53 Contents Page
To show relationship or outcome
Therefore . . . As a result . . . For that reason . . .
Hence, . . . Otherwise, . . . Consequently, . . .
The evidence It can be seen that . . . With regard to . . .
suggests/shows .
After examining . . . These factors contribute to It is apparent that . . .
Considering ... it can be Subsequently, . . . The effect is . . .
concluded that ...
The outcome is . . . The result . . . The correlation . . .
The relationship . . . The link . . . the convergence . . .
The connection . . . . . . interacts with . . . Both . . .
. . . affects . . . Thus it is . . . . . . causes . . .
. . . influences . . . . . . predicts . . . . . . leads to . . .
. . . informs . . . . . . presupposes . . . emphasises
. . . demonstrates . . . . . . impacts on . . . . . . supports . . .

To present others’ ideas


According to . . . Based on the findings of … proposed that …
... it can be argued . . .
However, ... stated that … … states that … … claims that …
Similarly, … stated that … ... suggested … … concluded that …
Based on the ideas of … … for example, … … agreed that …
As identified by … As explained by … … relates …
With regard to … argued.. … disputed that … … contrasts …
. . . argues … … concluded that … … confirmed that …
… found that … … highlights … … demonstrates …
… demonstrated … … identifies … . . . wrote that …
… pointed out that … … also … … reported …
… challenges the idea … … goes on to state … emphasises
defined … as … … showed that … … explored the idea …
… expressed the opinion … maintained that … … hypothesised that …
… identified … . . . also mentioned … . . . asserts that …

54
To present prior or background ideas
In the past, . . . Historically, . . . Traditionally, . . .
Customarily, . . . Beforehand, . . . Originally, . . .
Prior to this, . . . Earlier, . . . Formerly, . . .
Previously, . . . Over time, . . . At the time of . . .
Conventionally, . . . Foundational to this is . . . In earlier . . .
Initially, . . . At first, . . . Recently . . .
Until now, . . The traditional interpretation . . .

To conclude
In summary, To review, … In conclusion
In brief To summarise To sum up
To conclude Thus, Hence,
It has been shown that… In short, -

Manalo, E., Wont-Toi, G., & Bartlett-Trafford, J. (2009).


The business of writing: Written communication skills for business students
(3rd ed.). Auckland: Pearson Education New Zealand. Updated

Hedging. Use when not totally certain of the facts


Generally speaking, In general, While most of us…
It is believed that…. In principle, Also, …… may not…
Seemingly, It is widely accepted that……….

Keep a file or notebook in which you record any phrases which you think are effective,
coherent and elegant.

55 Contents Page
(ii) Using signal words

Signal words and phrases connect two words, phrases or clauses together and
make the text easier to read and more coherent. They are sometimes called “ linking
words “ or transition words

Continuation Signals (Warning-there are more ideas to come.)


besides also another
again and finally first of all
a final reason furthermore In addition,
moreover likewise more
other secondly one reason
too similarly what is more

Change-of-Direction Signals (Watch out-we're doubling back.)


although but conversely
despite different from even though
however in contrast instead of
In spite of nevertheless otherwise
the opposite on the contrary on the other hand
rather still yet
while though -

Sequence Signals (There is an order to these ideas.)


First, second, third since while
In the first place later until
then A, B, C, during
before For one thing always
after next on time
last now previously

56
Time Signals (When is it happening?)
once immediately now
lately already little by little
at the same time final After a while
when during once

Illustration Signals (Here's what that principle means in reality.)


for example such as much like
for instance in the same way as similar to
specifically to illustrate to clarify
in this case proof of this to demonstrate

Emphasis Signals (This is important.)


a major development especially important of course
a significant factor especially relevant pay particular attention to
a primary concern especially valuable remember that
a key feature important to note should be noted
a major event relevant substantial issue
a vital force valuable the main value
a central issue it all boils down to the basic concept
a distinctive quality most of all the crux of the matter
above all most noteworthy the chief outcome
by the way more than anything else the principal
obviously importantly indeed
undoubtedly absolutely It should be noted
clearly definitely never
especially Without a doubt In particular
57 Contents Page
Cause, Condition, or Result Signals (Condition or modification is coming up.)
because if of
for from so
while then but
that until since
as whether in order that
so that therefore unless
yet thus due to
resulting from consequently without

Spatial Signals (This answers the "where" question.)


between in under
below into out
about beside behind
left middle across
alongside next to adjacent
here beyond above
outside north south
around east west
close to on toward
right opposite by
over over upon
away there elsewhere
side inside closer
near in front of farther
58
Comparison-Contrast Signals (We will now compare idea A with idea B.)
though same better however
and even although
or then opposite
too also rather
best much as while
most like in the same way
either analogous to compared with
less but different from notwithstanding
less than still it may be the case that
more than yet conversely
similarly just as unlike
similar to just like on the other hand
equally likewise alternatively

Conclusion Signals (This ends the discussion and may have special importance.)
as a result consequently finally
from this we see in conclusion in summary
hence last of all therefore

Fuzz Signals (Idea is not exact, or the author wishes to qualify a statement.)
almost some except reputed
if should seems like
looks like alleged was reported
maybe nearly purported
could might sort of
probably
59 Contents Page
Signal words and punctuation.

When you use a signal word or phrase at the start of a sentence, follow it with comma.

When you use a signal word or phrase in the middle of a sentence, both precede and
follow it with comma.

When you join two shorter sentences, place a semi colon before the signal word and
a comma after it.

Words like but, for, or, so and yet are preceded by a comma.
For the words and and or , this is only necessary in long sentences

For more detailed advice on punctuation and signal words, see:-


http://www.englishessaywritingtips.com/2012/08/transition-words-punctuation/

(iii) Using reporting Verbs

Reporting verbs are verbs which indicate that a text is being quoted or paraphrased
They are needed to connect the in-text citation to the information which you are
citing. As in these three examples where the reporting verb is “argue”.

1. Jones (1999) argues, in his study of thermodynamics, that….


2. As Jones (1999) argues in his study of thermodynamics,……
3. In his study of thermodynamics, Jones (1999) argues that.....

For more detailed advice on reporting verbs, see:-

https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/al/globalpad/openhouse/academicenglishskills/gramma
r/reportingverbs/

Reporting General meaning Strength


verb
accuse strong
accuse
allege strong

blame, criticise strong


60
develop weak
add
contribute strong
admit, concede weak
echo neutral
accept, acknowledge, confirm, recognise neutral
agree
endorse, support strong
agree strong
concur strong
assume weak
subscribe to neutral
believe
feel, hold, profess neutral
argue, believe, claim, insist, maintain strong
discover, find, infer, discern neutral
conclude
conclude strong
question, query weak
doubt neutral
disapprove strong
challenge strong
disagree cast doubt on, contradict, discount, dismiss, disprove,
strong
dispute, oppose, refute, reject, object to
deny strong
disagree strong
counter, rebuff strong
discuss discuss neutral
highlight, underscore strong
emphasise
emphasise, stress strong
inquire weak
analyse, assess, evaluate, examine, investigate, study neutral
examine compare neutral
contrast neutral
scrutinise strong
61 Contents Page
explain identify, illustrate, articulate, clarify, explain, define neutral
guess speculate, suppose, suspect weak
include take into consideration weak
persuade strong
persuade
convince strong
require stipulate strong
view weak
notice weak
see
see weak
observe neutral
calculate weak
establish neutral
demonstrate neutral
show
prove, reveal strong
show strong
determine strong
comment, note, remark weak
describe, express, outline, present neutral
state add, declare, inform, mention, point out, remind, report,
neutral
state
assert strong
put forward weak
imply, intimate, suggest weak
hypothesise, posit, postulate, propose, theorise neutral
suggest
warn strong
exhort strong
advise, advocate, affirm, recommend, urge strong
consider neutral
think reflect neutral
contend, reason strong

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(iv) Composing coherent sentences

Writing is considered coherent when sentences, ideas, and details fit together
smoothly and the reasoning is clear. You can use the methods listed here to construct
coherent sentences. Note that good writers use a combination of these methods.
Avoid overusing any single method including signal words.

Repetition of a Key Term or Phrase


This helps to focus your ideas and to keep your reader on track.
Example:
The problem with contemporary art is that it is not easily understood by most
people. Contemporary art is deliberately abstract, and that means it leaves the
viewer wondering what she is looking

Synonyms
Synonyms are words that have essentially the same meaning, and they provide some
variety in your word choices, helping the reader to stay focused on the idea being
discussed. On pp.60-62, you will find synonyms for reporting verbs.
Example:
Myths narrate sacred histories and explain sacred origins. These traditional
narratives are, in short, a set of beliefs that are a very real force in the lives of the
people who tell them.

Pronouns
This, that, these, those, he, she, it, they, and we are useful pronouns for referring
back to something previously mentioned. Be sure, however, that what you are
referring to is clear.
Example:
When scientific experiments do not work out as expected, they are often
considered failures until some other scientist tries them again. Those that work out
better the second time around are the ones that promise the most rewards.

63 Contents Page
Sentence Patterns

Sometimes, repeated or parallel sentence patterns can help the reader follow along
and keep ideas tied together.

Example: And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you--
ask what you can do for your country.
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Part 3: How to improve your essay

(i) Using the active voice


(ii) Using quotations
(iii) Using nominalisations

(i) Using the Active voice


The active voice is preferable because it is more direct and concise. For example:

Active voice The dispatcher is notifying police that three prisoners have
escaped.
Passive voice Police are being notified that three prisoners have escaped

Active voice Surgeons successfully performed a new experimental liver-


transplant operation yesterday

Passive voice A new experimental liver-transplant operation was performed


successfully yesterday

Use active voice most of the time. Passive voice is most often used in scientific essays

Passive voice The liquid was heated to boiling point . (Preferred)

Active voice I heated the liquid to boiling point

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(ii) Using quotations

A quote is when you include some of another person’s work. This is not to be confused
with a quotation, which is a phrase or short piece of writing taken from a work of
literature, poetry, drama or a historical context. For instance:

“You must have a cigarette. A cigarette is the perfect type of a perfect pleasure. It is
exquisite, and it leaves one unsatisfied. What more can one want?”
― Oscar Wilde, The Picture of Dorian Gray

A maximum of two quotations in essays under a thousand words is recommended.


Find good examples of how other writers have used them and learn from them.

(iii) Using Nominalisations


Nominalisations are verbs turned into nouns. They sound more formal and are suited
to academic writing. as in the following examples.

Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned.

The rapid increase in crime caused concern among the police

.Germany invaded Poland in 1939. This was the immediate cause of the Second
World War breaking out.

Germany's invasion of Poland in 1939 caused the immediate outbreak of the


Second World War.

https://unilearning.uow.edu.au/academic/3b.html

65 Contents Page
Part 4: Sources and further reading

For Lessons 5 and 6, I made extensive use of the following books and websites.

Writing

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/685/01/ recommended

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/1/6/ for punctuation

https://airport.unimelb.edu.au/gate2/writing/

https://student.unsw.edu.au/glossary-task-words

Essay Writing Guide by Jordan B Peterson

https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fjordanbpeterson.com%2Fwp-
content%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F02%2FEssay_Writing_Guide.docx

Brendan Hennesy (2008). Writing an Essay (5th ed.) Oxford: How to Books

Nigel Warburton (2007) The Basics of Essay Writing Routledge

Alice Oshima and Ann Hogue Introduction to Academic Writing(3rd ed.)Longman

Checking reliability of sources

(youtu.be/TTIz_00-xww), or go to (www.monash.edu/rlo/quick-study-guides/scholarly-
sources-checklist

Bibliography

https://utas.libguides.com/c.php?g=498348&p=3412899

www.swinburne.edu.au/library/referencing/harvard-style-guide/

Style Guides
https://www.wiley.com/.../Style+Manual%3A+For+Authors%2C+Editors+and+Printers...

www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/

Past Exam Papers


https://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Pages/vce/exams/examsassessreports.aspx#H2N1042B

66
#9 Boost your vocabulary

(i) Vocabulary for argument and critical thinking

(ii) Weasel words

(iii) Symbols, similes and synonyms explained

(iv) Contemporary vocabulary


Words in every day usage which are often
misused or misunderstood.

(v) Statistical analysis vocabulary

(vi) Research vocabulary

67 Contents Page
(i) Vocabulary for Argument and Critical Thinking

A priori Based on theoretical deduction rather than empirical


observation.” an a priori ideological presupposition”

Absolute values An absolute value can be described as independent of


individual and cultural views,

Abstract terms A term which expresses an abstract idea such as beauty,


whiteness, or roundness without regarding any object in
which they exist.
Aesthetic values Aesthetic value is the value that something possesses
by virtue of its capacity to elicit pleasure or displeasure
when appreciated aesthetically.

Ambiguity The quality of being open to more than one


interpretation.
Anecdotal Evidence Anecdotal evidence is based on isolated examples of
someone's personal experience. It is different from
scientific evidence, or proof based on findings from
systematic observation, measurement,
Antecedent A thing that existed before or logically precedes another.
Appeals To make a serious, urgent, or heartfelt request,
Argument A set of propositions aimed to persuade by reasoning.
Argument Indicators Conclusion and premise indicators are words that are
used to make clear which statements are premises and
which statements are conclusions in arguments.
Assertion A confident and forceful statement of fact or belief.
Assumption Something that is accepted as true or as certain to
happen, without proof.

Axiom A statement or proposition which is regarded as being


established, accepted, or self-evidently true

Belief An acceptance that something exists or is true,


especially one without proof.

68 Back to #10 Heading


Bias An inclination or prejudice for or against one person or
group, especially in a way considered to be unfair

Bibliography A list of the books referred to in a scholarly work, typically


printed as an appendix.

Bivalence The existence of only two states (e.g. true and false)

Cause and effect Cause and effect is a relationship between events or


things, where one is the result of the other or others.

Certainty The firm conviction that something is the case.

Charity, principle of The principle of charity tells you to treat other people as
intelligent people. If you treat people as being intelligent,
you will do a better job at evaluating their arguments.

Claim An assertion that something is true.

Clarity The quality of being coherent and intelligible.

Cognition The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and


understanding through thought, experience, and the
senses.

Coherence The situation when the parts of something fit together in


a logical and consistent way.

Conclusion A judgement or decision reached by reasoning.

Conflation To combine two or more separate things, especially


pieces of text, to form a whole

Consequent The second part of a conditional proposition

Consistency The quality of always behaving or performing in


a similar way, or of always happening in a similar way.

Continuum Something that changes in character gradually or in


very slight stages without any clear dividing points

Contradiction The fact of something being the complete opposite of


something else or very different from something else, so
that one of them must be wrong.

69 Contents Page
Correlation A connection or relationship between two or more facts.

Corroboration Evidence which confirms or supports a statement,


theory, or finding.

Counter-argument An argument or set of reasons put forward to oppose an


idea or theory developed in another argument.

Counter-claim A claim made to rebut a previous claim


Counter-example A counterexample proves that a logical form is invalid
because it can have true premises and a false conclusion
at the same time.

Credibility The quality of being convincing or believable.


Criterion A principle or standard by which something may be
judged or decided.

Critical thinking The process of evaluation which uses logic to separate


truth from falsehood, reasonable from unreasonable
beliefs.

Criticism In a logical criticism, an objection is raised about an idea,


argument, action or situation if it does not make sense.

Dichotomy A cutting in two


Dogmatism Laying down principles as undeniably true, without
consideration of evidence or the opinions of others.

Emotive language Emotive language describes words and phrases meant


to evoke an emotional response to a subject.

Empiricism The theory that all knowledge is based on experience


derived from the senses.

End Notes End notes are located at the end of a complete


document, or sometimes at the end of a chapter or
section.

70 Back to #10 Heading


Essentialism The view that every entity has a set of attributes that are
necessary to its identity and function.

Ethical values The set of principles governing virtuous behaviour


Etiology The study of causes in philosophy or science
Evidence The available body of facts or information indicating
whether a belief or proposition is true or valid.

Examples A thing which is characteristic of its kind or something


that illustrates a general rule.

Explanation A statement or account that makes something clear or


a reason or justification given for an action or belief.
Explicit Fully and clearly expressed; leaving nothing implied.

Extension of meaning Extension is the set of objects in the world to which the
word corresponds. For example, The extension of the
phrase "Wikipedia reader" includes each person who has
ever read Wikipedia, including you.

Fact A thing that is known or proved to be true.


Factual claims Statements that refer to measurable effects that can be
proved right or wrong.

Generalisation A general statement or concept obtained by inference


from specific cases.

History, appeals to "This is right because we've always done it this way."
Hypothesis A proposed explanation made on the basis of limited
evidence as a starting point for further investigation.

Hypothetical claims “ Let’s suppose….. “

71 Contents Page
I

Ideological Based on or relating to a system of ideas and ideals,


especially concerning economic or political theory and
policy. For instance, "the ideological struggle that
underpinned the cold war"
Implication The conclusion that can be drawn from something
although it is not explicitly stated.

Implicitness Contained in the nature of something though not readily


apparent.

Inconsistent Not compatible or in keeping with


Inference A conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and
reasoning
Intermediate conclusion A conclusion drawn on the way to the main conclusion.

Joint reasons Two reasons from which one conclusion can be drawn.
It would not be possible to draw a conclusion from one of
the reasons on its own.

Judgement The ability to make considered decisions or come to


sensible conclusions.

Justification The action of showing something to be right or


reasonable.

L, M and N

Logic Logic is the science of how to evaluate arguments and


reasoning.
Moot point A debatable question, an issue open to argument; also,
an irrelevant question, a matter of no importance.
Necessary condition A condition that must be present for an event to occur.
Necessity The state or fact of being required.
Neutrality The absence of decided views or strong feeling.

72 Back to #10 Heading


O

Objectivity A lack of bias, judgment, or prejudice.


Opinion A belief or attitude about something that isn't necessarily
based on facts.

Overstatement Stating something too strongly

Parallel case An argument that the circumstances in the situation


being considered are similar to those in another case.

Patriotism, appeals to The argument attempts to persuade by calling on one’s


community spirit, specifically on ones love of country.
Alternatively, the argument may attempt to refute a
position by calling it treasonous or unpatriotic.

Perception 1. 1.The ability be aware of something via the senses

2. 2.How something is regarded, understood or interpreted.

Plagiarism The practice of taking someone else's work or ideas and


passing them off as one's own.

Plausibility The quality of seeming reasonable or probable.


Point of view A particular attitude or way of considering a matter.
Polemic A strong verbal or written attack on someone or something.

Population statistics In statistics, population refers to the total set of


observations that can be made. For example, if we are
studying the weight of adult women, the population is the
set of weights of all the women in the world.

Precision The quality, condition, or fact of being exact and accurate


Prejudice A preconceived opinion that is not based on reason
Premises An idea or theory on which a statement or action is based
Presupposition A thing tacitly assumed beforehand at the beginning of a
line of argument or course of action.

Probability The extent to which something is likely to happen or be


the case.

73 Contents Page
Q

Quantifier An expression (e.g. all, some, both) that indicates the scope
of a term to which it is attached.

Quotation A group of words taken from a text or speech and repeated


by someone other than the original author or speaker.

Reason Indicators Words that introduce or appear in an argument premise


or conclusion.
Reasoning The action of thinking about something in a logical way.

Reasons A cause, explanation, or justification for an action or event.


References As a noun: The use of a source of information in order to
ascertain something.
As a verb: provides (a book or article) with citations of
sources of information.

Relative values An asset's value that takes into account the value of similar
assets.

Relevance The quality of being closely connected or appropriate.


Reliability of sources A source is regarded as reliable, where the material has
been published in reputable peer-reviewed sources or by
well-regarded academic presses.

Representativeness A representative sample is a small quantity of something


of sample that accurately reflects the larger entity..

Resources http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/index-of-
articles/1021/

Review of literature A literature review is an evaluative report of information


found in the literature.

Rhetoric Language designed to have a persuasive or impressive


effect.

Rhetorical question A question asked in order to create a dramatic effect or to


make a point rather than to get an answer.

74 Back to #10 Heading


S
Scope of argument The extent of the area or subject matter that something
deals with or to which it is relevant.

Selection of Sources Source Selection generally refers to the process of


evaluating a competitive bid or proposal to enter into a
Government procurement contract

Specific Clearly defined or identified.


Statement A definite or clear expression of something in speech or
writing.

Subjectivity The quality of being based on or influenced by personal


feelings, tastes, or opinions.

Sufficient conditions A set of conditions that will produce the event


Syllogism A process of logic in which two general statements lead
to one particular statement. See p.67

Thinking critically Is a way of thinking in which you don't simply accept all
arguments and conclusions you are exposed to, but
rather have an attitude involving questioning such
arguments and conclusions and make reasoned
judgments that are logical and well-thought out.

Thinking, flawed Cognitive biases. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-


is-a-cognitive-bias-2794963

Trust Firm belief in the reliability, truth, or ability of someone or


something.

Truth That which is true or in accordance with fact or reality.

Vagueness Lack of preciseness in thought or communication. In


analytic philosophy and linguistics, a concept may be
considered vague if its extension is lacking in clarity,

Vested interest A personal reason for involvement in an undertaking or


situation, especially an expectation of financial gain.

75 Contents Page
(ii) Weasel words

Weasel words or phrases will weaken your argument. Be straightforward. When you
include any of these words or phrases it makes you sound unsure of yourself. It can
also sound like you are giving yourself an easy way out.

A bit May
Almost Might
As much as Moderately
Basically Most

Believe Often

Can Possibly

Clearly Probably

Could Quite
Could be Rather

Critics say.. Relatively

Every Some argue that…

Experts say or Research shows Somehow


( unless you can quote the source)
Somewhat
Fairly Suddenly

I would say that../ It has been said that.. That being said……

In a sense The user or The person


Just Usually

Leading or cutting edge Very

Like or Likely Virtually

Many Well, ….

Recommended text: Watson's Dictionary of Weasel Words, Contemporary Clichés,


Cant & Management Jargon, Bendable Learnings and Worst Words by Don Watson

76 Back to #10 Heading


(iii) Symbolism, similes and synonyms explained

Symbolism The practice of representing things by symbols, or of investing things


with a symbolic meaning or character.

Simile A simile is a comparison between two different things using the word
“like” or “as” to make the comparison. It is used to make a description
more emphatic or vivid.
 She’s as sweet as Tupelo Honey
 He’s as nutty as fruitcake
Metaphor A metaphor is an implicit simile. Simply defined, it is a thing
regarded as representative or symbolic of something else.
Metaphors directly state a comparison.
 Chaos is a friend of mine.
 A skyscraper is a boast in glass and steel

Analogy An analogy is an explicit simile. It explains one thing in terms of another


to highlight the ways in which they are alike., An analogy is more of a
logical argument than a figure of speech as is a simile or a metaphor.
 What garlic is to salad, insanity is to art
 The structure of an atom is like a solar system. The nucleus is
the sun, and electrons are planets revolving around their sun.
Allegory An allegory is an extended metaphor in which the principal characters
or places represent things that are not explicitly stated.
 The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe by C.S. Lewis is a
religious allegory with Aslan as Christ and Edmund as Judas.
 Animal Farm by George Orwell is a political allegory. Animalism
is really communism. Manor Farm is allegorical of Russia..

Synonym Synonyms are words that are similar, or have a related meaning, to
another word. Use them to avoid repeating the same word or to find a
more appropriate word.
http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-synonyms.html##
Antonym An antonym is a word that is the opposite meaning of another..
http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-antonyms.html

77 Contents Page
(iv) Contemporary Vocabulary

Words which are sometimes misused or misunderstood

Affective Related to attitudes, interests, values, feelings, preferences,


likes/dislikes, and satisfaction.
Argumentation The action or process of reasoning systematically in support of
an idea, action, or theory.
Axiom A statement or proposition which is regarded as being
established, accepted, or self-evidently true.
Cant Hypocritical and sanctimonious talk, typically of a moral,
religious, or political nature.
Confabulation A disturbance of memory, defined as the production of
fabricated, distorted, or misinterpreted memories about oneself
or the world, without the conscious intention to deceive.
Context The circumstances that form the setting for an event, statement,
or idea, and in terms of which it can be fully understood.
Cosmogony A theory regarding the origin of the universe.
Cosmology A branch of astronomy that involves the origins, evolution and
structure of the universe.

Deterministic The philosophical doctrine that all events, including human


action, are ultimately determined by causes regarded as
external to the will.

Dopaminergic Releasing or involving dopamine as a neurotransmitter.


Dopamine is involved in reward, motivation, memory, attention
and even regulating body movements.
Dualism and Dualism is the concept that our mind is more than just our brain.
Materialism This concept entails that our mind has a non-material, spiritual
dimension that includes consciousness.
Materialism holds that everything in our universe is made from
physical materials including the human mind or brain and that
spiritual attributes do not exist in the universe.
Empirical Empirical evidence, also known as sensory experience, is the
information received by means of the senses, particularly by
observation and documentation of patterns and behaviour
through experimentation.

78 Back to #10 Heading


Epigenetics Epigenetics is the study of biological mechanisms. The study of
heritable changes in gene expression (how biological
mechanisms switch genes on and off.) that do not involve
changes to the underlying DNA sequence.

Existential Relating to human existence and experience.

Existentialism A system of ideas made famous by Jean Paul Sartre in the 1940s
in which the world has no meaning and each person is alone and
completely responsible for their own actions, by which they make
their own character.

Fable and A fable is a brief, succinct story, in prose or verse, that illustrates
Parable a moral or religious lesson. It uses animals, plants, inanimate
objects, and forces of nature as actors while parables generally
are stories featuring human actors or agents.

Idiom 1. A characteristic mode of expression in music or art.


2. A phrase or an expression that has a figurative, or sometimes
literal, meaning. It is natural to native speakers of a language.

Implicit 1. Suggested though not directly expressed.


2. Always to be found in; essentially connected with

Ironic 1. Interesting, strange, or funny because of being very different


from what you would usually expect.

2. Showing that you really mean the opposite of what you are
saying: as in an ironic comment or reply.
Iteration The repetition of a process or utterance.
Linear and Linear growth occurs when a quantity grows by the same relative
Exponential amount, that is, by the same percentage, in each unit of time, and
growth exponential growth occurs when a quantity grows by the same
absolute amount in each unit of time.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TVX9pSPJwYA
Morality 1. A particular system of values and principles of conduct.
2. The extent to which an action is right or wrong.
The pillars of morality are considered to be:
reciprocity/fairness and empathy/compassion

79 Contents Page
Myth 1. A traditional story, especially one concerning the early history
of a people or explaining a natural or social phenomenon, and
typically involving supernatural beings or events.

2. A widely held but false belief or idea

Pareto The Pareto principle, also known as the 80/20 rule, is a theory
Distribution maintaining that 80 percent of the output from a given situation
or system is determined by 20 percent of the input.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LPgSarj9LKQ
Phenomenology An approach that concentrates on the study of consciousness
and the objects of direct experience.

Placebo A substance that has no therapeutic effect, used as a control in


testing new drugs.
Plastic Used as an adjective; it means soft enough to be changed into a
new shape.
Propaganda Information that is not objective and is used primarily
to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by
presenting facts selectively.

Pseudoscience A collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly regarded as being


based on scientific method.

Qualifier A modifier, usually an adverb, that modifies adjectives or other


adverbs and typically expresses degree or intensity, e.g. very,
somewhat, or quite.

Rationalism The idea that knowledge is obtained through reason.

Realpolitik A system of politics or principles based on practical rather than


moral or ideological considerations.

Rubric In education terminology, rubric means "a scoring guide used to


evaluate the quality of students' constructed responses".It can
also mean a set of rules or a heading on a document

Sanguine Optimistic, especially in an apparently bad or difficult situation.

Semantics Logical semantics are concerned with matters such as sense and
reference and presupposition and implication.
Lexical semantics are concerned with the analysis of word
meanings and relations between them.

80 Back to #10 Heading


Serotonergic A serotonergic or serotonergic agent is any chemical that
modifies the effects of serotonin in the body. Serotonin in the
brain is thought to regulate anxiety, happiness, and mood.

Synopsis A short description of the contents of something such as


a film or book

Taxonomy A scheme of classification.


Trope A significant or recurrent theme; a motif
Wishful thinking The formation of beliefs and making decisions according to
what might be pleasing to imagine instead of by appealing to
evidence, rationality, or reality. It is a product of resolving
conflicts between belief and desire.
x axis and A coordinate grid or graph has two lines at an angle of
y axis 90°(perpendicular). The horizontal line is called the x-axis.
The vertical line is called the y-axis.

Psychological terms people use thoughtlessly.


These diagnostic terms are often misused as casual metaphors.
Bipolar Bipolar disorder is a chronic mental health condition with
strong changes in mood and energy.
O.C.D. Obsessive compulsive disorder involves unwanted and
disturbing thoughts, images, or urges (obsessions) that intrude
into a person’s mind and cause a great deal of anxiety or
discomfort, which the person then tries to reduce by engaging
in repetitive behaviours.

Psycho Antisocial personality disorder, sometimes called sociopathy,


is a mental condition in which a person consistently shows no
regard for right and wrong and ignores the rights and feelings
of others. People with antisocial personality disorder tend to
antagonize, manipulate or treat others harshly or with callous
indifference. They show no guilt or remorse for their behaviour.

Schizophrenic Schizophrenia is a long-term mental disorder of a type


involving a breakdown in the relation between thought,
emotion, and behaviour, leading to faulty perception,
inappropriate actions and feelings, withdrawal from reality and
personal relationships into fantasy and delusion, and a sense
of mental fragmentation.

81 Contents Page
(v) Statistical Analysis Vocabulary

Part One: Collecting Data

A Study A way to answer a research question. The process by which you


gather the data needed to answer that question.

Population All members of a defined group that we are collecting information on.

Sample The sample is a particular group of people questioned during the


survey. The sample is chosen from the sampling frame, which
consists of a list of all members of the population of interest. The goal
of a survey is not to describe the sample, but the larger population.

Survey A survey is a questionnaire presented to individuals who have been


selected from a population of interest. The answers become data that
can be analysed statistically.

Data Information collected through a study.


A data set is the collection of all the data taken from the sample.

Numeric Discrete numerical data is counted.


Data. Used  e.g.. Number of students taking a class.
to measure
 e.g.. Number of people who vote for a particular candidate
mean,
median & Continuous numerical data is measured.
standard  e.g.. Graham’s height is 1.45 m
deviation  e.g.. Sam ran 100m. in 12 seconds

Categorical Categorical Data is when numbers are assigned to categories


Data. aka e.g. There are 4 blondes in a class, 10 redheads and 12 brunettes..
Qualitative e.g. 4 people said they liked mystery, 3 people like romance.
Ordinal Data mixes numerical and categorical data.
E. G. The Likert Scale
Used to
Like Like Somewhat Neutral Dislike Somewhat Dislike
measure
frequency 1 2 3 4 5
and
E. G. Rank in order of preference:
proportion
1. Surfing the net 2. Watching DVDs 3.Watching the TV
(as a %)
Nominal data simply names something without assigning it to an
order in relation to other pieces of data. For example, the results of a
test could be each classified nominally as a "pass" or "fail."

82 Back to #10 Heading


Variable Any characteristic or numerical value that is being measured which
may vary from individual to individual.

There are many types of variables. You can find out more at
http://www.statisticshowto.com/types-variables/

Bias Systematic favouritism in the collection process, either in selecting


the sample or the way the data is collected. This leads to misleading
results.

Part Two : Summarising and Analysing Data

Averages Mean The sum of a set of scores divided by the number of scores
Median The midpoint of a set of scores
Mode The score that appears most frequently in a set of scores.

Correlation, Correlation, in statistics, is when two numeric variables


Causation increase or decrease at a constant value. Causation is when
and a change in one variable causes a change in another.
Regression Regression is making a prediction about one variable based
on changes in another variable.
Percentage Is a score out of 100

Percentile Is a measurement of relative standing. If you are in the 90th


percentile, that means that out of 100 people, 10 rank higher
than you and 90 rank lower .

Standard deviation Measures how concentrated the data are around the mean;
the more concentrated, the smaller the standard deviation.

Standard score The number of standard deviations above or below the mean

Statistic Can be summarized as a percentage; a percentile; an average


or a median.

Statistical The process of using data analysis to deduce properties of an


Inference underlying probability distribution. Inferential statistical
analysis infers properties of a population, for example by
testing hypotheses and deriving estimates

Dr Nik explains https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hZxnzfnt5v8&t=157s

83 Contents Page
Normal Distribution Curve

The bell shape curve, also called the normal distribution curve, shows the distribution
of variables. In the curve shown below for IQ scores, the largest percentage of people
cluster in the middle (the mean) and the lowest percentages are at the extremes(the
outliers).

The normal distribution curve can show the distribution of variables such as height,
employee job satisfaction, turnover rates and absentee rates and nearly every
specialized field of study as well -- medicine, physics, finance, engineering. Not
everything is well modelled by the normal distribution curve. For instance, house
prices, which tend to have a very long tail to the right, daily rainfall, guest stay
lengths at a hotel and insurance claims.
Dr Nik explains normal distribution.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mtH1fmUVkfE

Central limit The idea is that if the random quantity you are trying to
theorem (CLT) understand is the result of the accumulation of a large number
of (approximately) independent random variations that are
(approximately) the same size, then that quantity will
(approximately) follow a normal distribution.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kd6ElHgAgfY

84 Back to #10 Heading


(vi) Research vocabulary

Terms from philosophy which are used in research

Paradigms A belief system or world view, guided by ontological,


epistemological and methodological assumptions which are linked
and influence each other.
Ontology Beliefs about the nature of reality which determine what can be
known about it. They drive epistemology and methodology. “Who
are we and why are we here?” are ontological questions.

Epistemology The relationship between knowledge and the researcher during


discovery or how we come to know what we know, and therefore
how objective we are.

Methodology The way we go about discovering knowledge in a systematic


fashion. Ontological and epistemological beliefs drive one’s
methodology. Methods, such as experiments and interviews, have
varying degrees of objectivity.

Axiology A branch of philosophy that studies values. Axiology questions


what is good, beautiful, worthy and worthwhile. Which values guide
the research being done, and do our personal values guide the
research are axiological questions.

Dualism and Dualism is the concept that our mind is more than just our brain.
Materialism This concept entails that our mind has a non-material, spiritual
dimension that includes consciousness
Materialism holds that everything in our universe is made from
physical materials including the human mind or brain and that
spiritual attributes do not exist in the universe.

Basic Research Terms


Concepts A concept is a description of a thing, an event, an experience or a
situation. In research, it is often necessary to define your concepts
in the introduction.

Theories Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand


phenomena and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing
knowledge.

Models Broadly speaking, there are two major models for research; the
quantitative paradigm and the qualitative paradigm

85 Contents Page
Quantitative Paradigm v.Qualitative paradigm

Quantitative paradigm
Realist Ontology: One reality exists. It can be found
Positivist
Epistemology: Researcher is independent and objective
Modernist
Empirical Methodology: Deductive. Accurate and reliable through testing

Quantitative research is numerical; deals with statistics derived from large samples;
investigates specific questions or hypotheses

Qualitative paradigm
Constructivist Ontology: Reality is subjective and multiple. Assumes that we can
Relativist only know reality from our own perspective of it.
Post-Modern Epistemology: Researcher interacts with the subject of study.
Interpretive
Methodology: Inductive. Accurate and reliable through verification
Qualitative research is word based; phenomena are described in a narrative fashion.
It employs case studies and interviews

Qualitative research methods

Ethnography In ethnography, you immerse yourself in the target participants’


environment to understand the goals, cultures, challenges,
motivations, and themes that emerge.

Narrative The narrative approach weaves together a sequence of events,


Approach usually from just one or two individuals to form a cohesive story.

Phenomenological In a phenomenological study, you use a combination of


Study methods, such as conducting interviews, reading documents,
watching videos, or visiting places and events, to understand
the meaning participants place in whatever’s being examined.

Grounded Theory Grounded theory looks to provide an explanation or theory


behind the events. You use primarily interviews and existing
documents to build a theory .

Case Study A case study involves a deep understanding through multiple


types of data sources. Case studies can be explanatory,
exploratory, or describe an event.

86
#10: An Introduction to E – Prime
E-Prime (English-Prime) does not use any form of the verb "to be". Using E-Prime can
make your writing and speaking livelier and more concise. It can sharpen your skills in
critical thinking, communication, evaluation and decision-making. E-Prime tends to
open a conversation up to further discussion rather than turn it into a confrontation. It
can prevent you from committing logical fallacies and failing to see cognitive biases.

In the examples below you will see how a proposition in Standard English compares
with the same proposition stated in E-Prime.

Standard English E-Prime

Bach is better than Mozart. With my limited knowledge of classical


music, I think that Bach rules.

An electron is a wave. An electron appears as a wave when


measured with certain instruments.

An electron is a particle. An electron appears as a particle when


measured with certain other
instruments.

The book is better than the film I liked the book more than the film

That is a sexist remark. That remark seems sexist to me.

Bridget is an intern with a corporate Bridget has an internship with a


consultancy firm. corporate consultancy firm.

I am stupid. I wasted an hour talking to a dishonest


and narcissistic person.

Anthea is a happy person. I saw Anthea on the weekend and she


seemed happy.

Anthea is a grumpy person. I saw Anthea on the way to work and


she seemed unhappy about something.

Arthur is unemployed Arthur doesn’t have a job at the


moment.

E-Prime is a fascinating and complex The implications of using E-Prime make


subject. it a subject worthy of further study.

87 Contents Page
When to use and when not to use E-prime

Using E-Prime works best with statements which involve (i) identity and (ii) attributes.
In these cases, using forms of the verb “to be” can lead to oversimplification and
confusion.

Standard English E-Prime

(i) Tony is a plumber Tony still works as a plumber, as far I


know.

(ii) Edgar is unreasonable. I tried talking to Edgar yesterday, but he


didn’t want to listen.

At other times it can seem (i) long-winded (ii) pedantic or (iii) just plain unnecessary.

Standard English E-Prime

(i) That’s a poisonous spider. I identify that as a poisonous spider by


its black colour and the red stripe on its
back.

(ii) The flats were built in 1970. The builders completed their work on
this block of flats in 1970.

(iii) I’m in the bathroom. not applicable

Sources

General Semantics (recommended)


https://trans4mind.com/personal_development/GeneralSemantics/KensEPrime.htm

Robert Anton Wilson (recommended)


https://www.nobeliefs.com/eprime.htm

E-prime: The Spirit and the Letter, by Ralph E. Kenyon Jr.


http://www.xenodochy.org/gs/e-prime.html

E-Prime and Linguistic Revision, by C. A. Hilgartner:


http://www.hilgart.org/papers_html/091S196.B07.html

To Be or Not: An E-Prime Anthology D. David Bourland


https://www.amazon.com/Be-Not-Prime-Anthology/dp/

Communicating for Success by Cheryl Hamilton and Bonnie Creel


https://www.amazon.com/Communicating-Success-Cheryl-Hamilton/dp/0205757251

88
#11: Principles of Clear Thinking Part 1
Logical Fallacies
(i) Terminology
(ii) Twenty four bad arguments and how to spot them
(iii) Sources and further reading

(i) Terminology

An argument is a set of propositions aimed to persuade by reasoning.

A proposition is a statement that is either true or false.

A premise is a proposition that supports the conclusion of an argument.

A conclusion is a proposition supported by the premises.

A bad argument is one that contains a logical fallacy.

A logical fallacy is an error in the reasoning from premise to conclusion.

A formal fallacy uses an incorrect deductive step.

An informal fallacy fails to prove anything other than what is already assumed.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Arguments can be laid out as below where P= premise and C= conclusion

P1: All dogs are mammals


P2: Rover is a dog
therefore C: Rover is a mammal

This is an example of a deductive argument where the premises are true, so the
conclusion must be true. The argument is valid because the conclusion follows
logically from the premises. It is sound because it is valid and the premises are true

In an inductive argument, when the premises are true, it is probable that the
conclusion will be true. The argument is considered strong when the premises are
true. When it is improbable that the conclusion is true; the argument is considered
weak. An argument is considered cogent when it is strong and the premises are
true. Otherwise it is considered uncogent. Inductive arguments are used mostly in
the scientific disciplines.
89 Contents Page
(ii) Twenty four bad arguments and how to spot them

1 2 3 4
Affirming the Non Sequitur Red Herring and Straw Man
Consequent Missing the point

5. 6 7 8
Ad Hominem Genetic Fallacy Appeal to
Appeal to
hypocrisy authority

9 10 11 12
Appeal to Appeal to Arguing from Guilt by
bandwagon emotion consequences association
13 14 15 16
False Dilemma/ Composition and Complex Question Causal Fallacy
False Dichotomy Division

17 18 19 20
Slippery Slope Faulty Analogy Hasty Appeal to
Generalization ignorance

21 22 23 24
Equivocation Moral Equivalency No true Scotsman Circular Argument
and Begging the
Question

 Arguments 1 and 2 are formal fallacies the rest are informal fallacies.

 Arguments 3 to 12 are fallacies of irrelevance.

 Arguments 13 to 15 are fallacies of unwarranted assumption.

 Arguments 16 and 17 are causal fallacies

 Arguments 18 to 20 are fallacies of missing data.

 Arguments 21 to 23 are fallacies of ambiguity or linguistic confusion.

 Argument 24 includes the fallacies of circular argument and


begging the question.

90
1. Affirming the Consequent.
It’s a case of putting the cart (the consequent) before the horse (the antecedent)
as in the example below.

P1: Fred, who smoked, is dead. (consequent).


P2: Cigarettes kill people who smoke. (antecedent).
C: Fred died because he smoked cigarettes which kill people.

The conclusion is not proven as many other things could have killed Fred.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m9hjWTe33Wk
Logical flaw: This happens when the premises are true but are insufficient to prove
the conclusion as there are many other ways to arrive at the conclusion.

2. Non Sequitur
Non Sequitur is Latin for “does not follow”. The expression is used to describe a
statement that does not logically follow a statement that came before it..
P1: Arthur is a commando
P2: All commandos are over 2 metres tall
C: Arthur is a non-smoker
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VRZk62QNOsM
Logical flaw: The conclusion cannot be logically deduced from the premises. It is an
invalid argument.

3. Red Herring
This refers to changing the subject mid-debate, so that we start arguing about a
tangential topic rather than the actual issue. A red herring may seem to be relevant
but isn’t really on-topic.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lG3748LYtM0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Af0STrY58i4

Logical flaw: You can’t debate an argument by discussing irrelevancies.

Missing the point is related to Red Herring. This occurs when premises that seem
to lead to one conclusion are used instead to support an incorrect conclusion.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U2V66MnwPMM
Logical flaw: The conclusion has nothing to do with the argument.

91 Contents Page
4. Straw man argument
Caricaturing a person’s argument by misquoting or misconstruing and then
attacking the misrepresentation which is usually so extreme that no one will agree.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hfil34ayaEU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aMcjxSThD54&t=1535s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1XMJTWD2mzs
Logical flaw: You can’t attack a person on the basis of something they didn’t say.

5. Ad hominem argument
Ad hominem is Latin for “to the man.” It means attacking a person’s character rather
than what they are saying in order to discredit them or distract from the topic .

5a. Abusive ad hominem arguments involve making personal attacks, damning the
source, name calling and caricaturing. It is using a disparaging remark (an insult) as
if it were an argument or evidence that a person is not worth listening to.

5b. Circumstantial ad hominem arguments involve attacking what a person said


solely on the grounds that they will benefit from what they are proposing.

5c. Ad feminam arguments attack a proposal just because a woman made it.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RdSB137pFrs
Logical flaw: A person’s viewpoint can be valid whatever their character, vested
interest or gender.

6 Genetic Fallacy
This occurs when an attempt is made to discredit a source of information. But
because a source has previously been invalid it doesn’t mean it is invalid in the
particular instance under discussion. The unreliability of a source cannot be
asserted without refuting evidence.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dKGd8OaSXY0
Logical flaw: No source, no matter how unreliable, is guaranteed to be unreliable
100% of the time. Equally, no source, no matter how reliable, is guaranteed to be
reliable 100% of the time.

92
7. Appeal to hypocrisy. Also called the “tu quoque” or “you to” fallacy
The “tu quoque,” Latin for “you too,” is also called the “appeal to hypocrisy” because
it distracts from the argument by pointing out hypocrisy in the opponent.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=10&v=Pu57QqzNOHQ
Logical flaw: This tactic doesn’t solve the problem, or prove one’s point, because
even hypocrites can tell the truth.

8. Appeal to authority Argumentum ad verecundiam (“argument from respect”)


This fallacy happens when we misuse an authority. This misuse of authority can
occur in a number of ways. We can cite only authorities — steering conveniently
away from other testable and concrete evidence as if expert opinion is always
correct. Or we can cite irrelevant authorities, poor authorities, or false authorities.
There is also the unpleasant habit of quoting from an authority figure rather than
presenting evidence or using logic to support their argument.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=32&v=lwItkwJk6KM
Logical flaw: When citing authorities to make your case, you need to cite relevant
authorities, but you also need to represent them correctly, and make sure their
authority is legitimate. Even the authorities can be wrong sometimes.

9. Bandwagon Fallacy ad populum fallacy (Lat., “to the populous/popularity”)


Arguing that popular ideas are necessarily right. The idea is when something is
accepted because it’s popular. The concensus gentium (Lat., “consensus of the
people”) is a variation which occurs when something is accepted because the
relevant authorities or people all agree on it. The Bandwagon category also includes
the status appeal fallacy which occurs when something is considered true, right, or
good because it has the reputation of lending status, making you look “popular,”
“important,” or “successful.” The scare tactic is similar “If you don’t agree with us,
something terrible will happen to you.”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_LIs_Om7LbI

Logical flaw: The broad acceptance of some claim or action is not always a good
indication that the acceptance is justified. People can be mistaken, confused,
deceived, or even wilfully irrational. And when people act together, sometimes they
become even more foolish — i.e., “mob mentality.” People can be quite gullible, and
this fact doesn’t suddenly change when applied to large groups.

93 Contents Page
10. Appeal to emotion
10a. Appeal to fear
argumentum in terrorem argument from adverse consequences,
When fear, not based on evidence or reason, is being used as the primary motivator
to get others to accept an idea, proposition, or conclusion.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SfAxUpeVhCg

10b Appeal to pity


Argumentum ad misericordiam is Latin for “argument to compassion”.
An appeal to pity (also called argumentum ad misericordiam, the sob story, or the
Galileo argument) is a fallacy in which someone tries to win support for an argument
or idea by exploiting his or her opponent's feelings of pity or guilt. It is a specific kind
of appeal to emotion.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=4&v=RybNI0KB1bg
Logical flaws: Emotional appeals aren’t relevant to whether something is true or
false. Any attempt to persuade by using emotion rather than the quality of the
evidence or by logic is considered a fallacy.

11. Arguing from consequences

Argumentum ad consequentiam is Latin for "argument to the consequences"


Appeal to consequences is an argument that concludes a hypothesis (typically a
belief) to be either true or false based on whether the premise leads to desirable or
undesirable consequences.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OUsZKgexi-0&t=27s
Logical flaw: The desirability of a consequence does not make it true or untrue.
This is because desirability is subjective.
NB: The argument from consequences fallacy only applies when used to support or
deny the truth of a statement. It does not apply when dealing with decisions or
polices. In other words, it only applies when deciding if something is true or untrue,
not when deciding if if something is good or bad.

94
12. Guilt by association
Is used to discredit an argument for proposing an idea that is shared by some
socially demonised individual or group.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uL8QaCKPm4Y
Logical flaw: Whether the idea is shared by some socially demonised individual or
group or not has no bearing on whether it is true or not.

13. False dilemma also known as false dichotomy and black and white fallacy
This line of reasoning operates by limiting the options to two when there are in fact
more options to choose from. This is an unwarranted assumption. A true dilemma
is a choice between two options.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=24&v=Dln3DJEcghY
Logical flaw: You can’t judge between two options if there are other possibilities.

14. Composition and Division


21a Composition.
An unwarranted assumption that because something is true about the parts of
something it is true about the whole
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8K9v3lAPP4I
21b Division. An unwarranted assumption that because something is true about the
whole of something it is true about the parts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uEhRqiSA4ko
Logical flaw: No evidence that the parts and the whole have the same qualities.

95 Contents Page
Complex Question. Watch out for these
The complex or loaded question is two questions, combined into one in such a way
that a yes-or-no answer is required. The person they are asked of has no chance to
give separate replies to each.
This type of question involves an implicit (unstated) and unproven assumption. This
assumption is usually intended to trick the respondent into acknowledging
something that he or she might otherwise not want to acknowledge. It may look like
one question but it is really two questions, as in the examples below.

 Have you stopped cheating on exams?

Implicit assumption: You always cheated (didn’t you?)

 Where did you hide the marijuana you were smoking?

Implicit assumption: You were smoking marijuana (weren’t you?)

 Don’t you believe in a safe workplace ?

Implicit assumption: You have made it unsafe (haven’t you?)

If you are asked this type of question you are perfectly entitled to challenge the
assumption behind the question or refuse to answer it because it is a trick question.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rPysoaMzznc
https://www.thoughtco.com/complex-question-fallacy-1689890

Logical flaw : A complex question contains an unjustified assumption that the


concealed question has already been answered affirmatively.

-------------------------------------------------------------

31 fallacies in 8 minutes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qf03U04rqGQ
Please pay attention to the final fallacy.

96
16. Causal Fallacy
A causal fallacy occurs when logic breaks down while trying to explain why
something happened.
8a. False cause fallacy
Also called the non causa pro causa fallacy which is Latin for
“not the cause for a cause”
It occurs when a person makes an assumption without enough evidence
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=33&v=u5xrr4RyqaE
Logical flaw: If there is not enough evidence this is a bad argument

8b. Post hoc fallacy


Also called the Post hoc ergo proctor hoc fallacy which is Latin for
“after this, therefore, because of this”.
It occurs when a person assumes that the first event caused the second event.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5A7hSaoRv0g
Logical flaw: Because x came before y doesn’t mean that x caused y

8c. Correlational fallacy


Also called the Cum ergo property hoc fallacy which is Latin for
“with this because of this”.
It occurs when a person assumes that two things found together are causally related
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8B271L3NtAw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z4h1QsqZLxc&list=PL_-5JxU-E-
S4vfYdu2sQf0tNIUj8SObWn
Logical flaw: Correlation alone doesn’t prove causation

17. Slippery Slope


The slippery slope is a type of causal fallacy which argues that a number of small
steps starting from a seemingly benign premise will inevitably lead to an improbable
extreme.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=2&v=kIv3m2gMgUU
Logical flaw: The slippery slope suggests that unlikely outcomes are inevitable when
there’s not enough evidence to think so.

97 Contents Page
18. False analogy also known as weak analogy and faulty analogy
This fallacy consists in assuming that because two things are alike in one or more
respects, they are necessarily alike in some other respect

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=60NSO9pJyVI
Logical flaw: If the two things are not really alike in the relevant respects then the
argument commits the false analogy fallacy.

19. Hasty generalisation


This is a general claim too hastily made, hence it commits some sort of illicit
assumption, stereotyping, unwarranted conclusion, overstatement, or exaggeration

A simple way to avoid hasty generalizations is to add qualifiers like “sometimes,”


“maybe,” “often,” or “it seems to be the case that . . . “..with the right qualifiers, we
can often make a hasty generalization into a responsible and credible claim.
This is such a common fallacy that I suggest you read more about it at:
https://www.thoughtco.com/hasty-generalization-fallacy-1690919

https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=10&v=KqeqTWD2Ymg
Logical flaw: The conclusion is not logically justified by sufficient or
unbiased evidence.

20. Appeal to ignorance


When a person believes something to be true because they don’t know enough
about the subject.
e.g. No-one can prove that God does not exist; therefore God does exist
When a person believes something to be untrue because they don’t know enough
about the subject.
e.g. No-one can prove that God exists; therefore God does not exist
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e2dYW1pSQy8
Logical flaw: Not knowing something cannot be the basis of an argument.
The argument is based on a non-testable hypothesis

98
21.. Equivocation
Equivocation happens when a word, phrase, or sentence is used deliberately to
confuse, deceive, or mislead by sounding like it’s saying one thing but actually
saying something else. with one meaning in one portion of the argument and then
another meaning in another portion of the argument. Obfuscation (making
something obscure, unclear, or unintelligible) and redefining language are methods
of equivocation.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bmIqWT7qMj4
Logical flaw: The equivocation fallacy has a tone of deception instead of just a
simple misunderstanding. When these replacement words are used to mislead
people they become an equivocation fallacy.

22. Moral Equivalency


Moral equivalence is the claim that two radically different ethical actors are really
doing the same thing and that they should be judged and treated the same way

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FbNblczxWqk
Logical flaw: This is a fallacy because it doesn’t actually address the morality of the
issue at hand; instead it attempts to excuse it based on the behaviour of others,
behaviour that is, in fact, not morally equal.

23. No true Scotsman argument or appeal to purity

This is an informal fallacy in which one attempts to protect a universal generalization


from counterexamples by changing the definition in an ad hoc fashion to exclude
the counterexample.

Fergus says: All Scotsmen love whiskey (universal generalization)


Angus says: Jamie from Glasgow doesn’t like Whiskey (counterexample)
Fergus says: Jamie is not a true Scotsman
https://www.youtube /www.youtube.com/watch?v=QRG9Gq-
xtr8.com/watch?v=QRG9Gq-xtr8
Logical flaw: It’s unclear what a true Scotsman is. It is not defined by Fergus, thus
creating ambiguity

99 Contents Page
24 Circular argument and begging the question
24a Circular reasoning occurs when a person’s argument is just repeating what they
already assumed beforehand, it’s not arriving at any new conclusion. the fallacy
occurs when a premise is simply reworded in the conclusion. It looks like a set of
statements seem to support each other with no clear beginning or end point

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c_fOyxk7DdU
Logical flaw: When a person’s argument is just repeating what they already
assumed beforehand, it’s not arriving at any new conclusion

24b Begging the question is a form of circular reasoning. It occurs when an


argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion, instead of supporting it;
or if one of the premises is less believable than the conclusion.
In other words, assuming as true the very propositions that one has first to prove.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OAXKc-rvMa8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IODR5mJMwOU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=krYpiQ6evD4
Logical flaw: If the premise is questionable, then the argument is invalid
NB: In modern popular usage, "begging the question" is used to mean "raising the
question" or "dodging the question.

(iii) Sources

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RdSB137pFrs&lc=z22xcjnreu3hvd1i004t1aokgpi
nliemcspgnswap4dvrk0h00410

https://www.thoughtco.com/philosophy-4133025

https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/eng207-
td/Logic%20and%20Analysis/most_common_logical_fallacies.htm

The Illustrated Book of Bad Arguments by Ali Almossawi

If you think being logical is the be all and end all, this video might change your mind.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eEeQF9QeByU

A warning: Your new-found skill with logical fallacies may not be appreciated
outside the academic environment.

100
#12: Principles of Clear Thinking Part 2
Cognitive Biases
(i) What are Cognitive Biases?
(ii) What causes cognitive biases?
(iii) 24 of the most common cognitive biases

(i) What are cognitive biases?

People sometimes confuse cognitive biases with logical fallacies. A logical fallacy
stems from an error in logic while making an argument. A cognitive bias appears as a
systematic error in thinking which may result in bad decision making.

(ii) What causes cognitive biases?

Cognitive biases often result from your brain's attempt to simplify information
processing. Think of them as rules of thumb that help us make sense of the world and
reach decisions with relative speed. Because of the sheer complexity of the world
around us, we sometimes rely on mental shortcuts that allow us to act quickly. This
can be vital if we are facing a dangerous or threatening situation. These mental
shortcuts, known as heuristics, can often be surprisingly accurate, but they can also
lead to errors in thinking. Learn to appreciate the clear difference between conscious,
deliberate thought and automated, heuristic-based processing.

Social pressures, individual motivations, emotions, wishful thinking and limits on the
ability of the mind to process information also create cognitive biases. When we
evaluate a situation or a proposition, we like to think of our decisions as objective and
logical. We may think that we take in and evaluate all the information that is available.
Unfortunately, one bias or another will frequently skew our thinking and compromise
our ability to make sound judgements and good decisions.

101 Contents Page


(iii) 24 of the Most Common Cognitive Biases

We grouped the following 24 cognitive biases under six headings:

When we are processing information (1-6)


The way we view ourselves (7-9)
The way we see the world (10-13)
When we interact with other people (14-17)
When we are in a group (18-20)
When we have to place a value on something (21-24)

Cognitive biases which occur when we process information

1. Confirmation Bias

The confirmation bias applies to how we seek, interpret, and remember information.
When we want to believe something, we tend to only seek evidence that confirms our
desired belief and ignore the rest. When we do come across disconfirming evidence,
we fail to critically evaluate it or we dismiss it entirely.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B_YkdMwEO5U

2. Belief Bias

Belief in the truth or falsity of the conclusion can affect our evaluation of the logical
strength of the argument. In other words, we fail to effectively test the propositions.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uq6DLHw8Xdo

3. Anchoring Bias

More often than not the first piece of information acquired will determine the course of
the decision-making process. You can use this bias by making sure the information
you provide is first on the table for consideration.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A0UvudRwP0w

4. Availability Heuristic

We place greater value on information that comes to mind quickly and tend to
overestimate the probability of similar things happening in the future.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vqmLIbGV568

102
5.Framing Bias

People tend to come to different conclusions based on the same data, depending on
how that data is contextualized. The way a message is received depends on how the
message is presented. We need to appreciate how propaganda and marketing
manipulate our thoughts and emotions. Familiarise yourself with the technique known
as priming and consider how much it permeates our lives.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h1NPovKgSTo

6.The Curse of Knowledge

Better-informed people can find it difficult to think about information on a particular


subject from the perspective of lesser-informed people. They forget how little they
knew when they started.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qi9_35fBVdA

Cognitive biases in the way we see ourselves

7. The Dunning-Kreuger Effect (Being Overconfident)

You think you can predict how well you would perform in any situation, but we fail to
correctly estimate our own competence and the difficulty of complex tasks.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pOLmD_WVY-E

8.Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to blame external forces when bad things happen and give yourself
credit when good things happen. When you lose at poker you put it down to forces
beyond your control. When you win, you put it down to your skill at reading the other
players and knowing the odds.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YlbPKCltTfA

9. The Spotlight Effect

When around others, we have a tendency to think that everyone notices our
appearance and behaviour. Actually, nobody pays us that much attention unless
prompted to.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lAxOi9EEvlM

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Cognitive biases in the way we see the world

10. Negativity Bias

The psychological phenomenon which causes humans to have a greater recall of


unpleasant memories compared with positive memories. We also let bad things upset
us more than we enjoy good things.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bff75BUNl5s

11.Pessimism Bias,

You can define this as the tendency for some people, especially those with a
melancholy disposition, to overestimate the likelihood of negative things happening to
them. A dash of pessimism is necessary, but habitually pessimistic people drive other
people away. There is also a real risk that that negative predictions can turn into self-
fulfilling prophecies.

https://www.virversity.com/tools/oc/courses/cognitivebiases/Rw4TIwNkmA#Pessimis
m_Bias

12. Optimism Bias

There is a difference between being optimistic, which is generally a good thing, and
having an optimism bias. Being overly optimistic can lead you to put yourself at risk or
make poor decisions about relationships, money or other important aspects of your
life. It can also make you look really stupid.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fIgEH6eo7_4

13. The Just World Hypothesis

Because we would prefer to live in a world where people get what they deserve, we
presume that that the world is actually like that. In fact, bad things happen to good
people; bad people often do not have to face the consequences of their actions; and
fortune smiles on the undeserving. People who insist on the reality of the Just World
Hypothesis will revert to denial and a re-interpretation of events which often involves
blaming the victim.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yd1JNbiZbyA (recommended)

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Cognitive biases which occur when we interact with other people

14. The Halo Effect

The tendency to allow a person's positive traits, particularly their physical


attractiveness, to "spill over" from one personality area to another. The reverse effect,
when a person is judged on the negative aspects of their appearance, is called the
Horns Effect.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rjqcq8on5Hw

15.Fundamental Attribution Error

You may think that other people’s behaviour reflects their character, whereas it results
from the situation they find themselves in.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cnI-tIoVc1Y

16.Backfire Effect

When people’s beliefs are challenged by contradictory evidence, most people


paradoxically hold to their original belief with even more conviction.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cUOPt1LWBnQ

17. Bias Blind Spot

People naturally tend to view their own beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours as correct
and as the “right” way to think or act. We have a bias blind spot in that we think our
own judgments and decisions are relatively free of cognitive bias. In contrast, we view
others, in particular, those with differing opinions, as prone to bias.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f2GgTFZFvQk

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Cognitive biases which occur in when we are in a group

18. In-Group Bias

We tend to believe that we judge people impartially but we automatically favour those
who are most like us.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ga4Zr7P25o0

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2mwOLxEWQVo

19. Groupthink

It may seem easier to solve problems when people get together to discuss solutions.
In fact, the desire to reach consensus and avoid confrontation hinders progress. This
can result in an unwillingness to evaluate alternative viewpoints; the suppression of
dissenting viewpoints and the tendency to ignore outside influences.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wWoH2J8sLP8 (We recommend turning the


sound off)

20. The Bystander Effect

We assume that when someone needs help, people will rush to their aid. But, the
greater the number of people who witness the person in distress, the less likely it is
that one person will help.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N26pYx0rgWI

106
Cognitive biases which occur when we have to place a value on something

21. Sunk Cost Fallacy

You may think that you make rational judgements about the future value of objects,
investments, relationships and jobs, but the more you invest in something the harder
it becomes to abandon it.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vpnxd31y0Fo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lg1qS2nlc5I

22. The Endowment Effect

The endowment effect refers to the fact that people often value an object more highly
once it is in their possession than when it is not. Considering the very same item,
owners tend to ask more to give that item up than nonowners are willing to pay to
acquire it. We become emotionally invested with what we already have and we will do
what is necessary to retain it.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dz6H6IEPmDI

23. Loss Aversion Bias

We usually feel the pain of loss much more strongly than we feel pleasure at an equal
gain. We value more the $5 we lose than the $5 we find.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CjBtyr2qxME

24. Scarcity Bias

This happens when we assume that when an item has limited availability it has more
value than an easily available item. We link also quality to availability.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRSBjFkbH0I

107 Contents Page

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