Chapter 7: External Forced

Convection
Dr Ali Jawarneh
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Hashemite University
 Objectives
When you finish studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
• Distinguish between internal and external flow,
• Develop an intuitive understanding of friction drag and
pressure drag, and evaluate the average drag and
convection coefficients in external flow,
• Evaluate the drag and heat transfer associated with
flow over a flat plate for both laminar and turbulent
flow,
• Calculate the drag force exerted on cylinders during
cross flow, and the average heat transfer coefficient,
and
• Determine the pressure drop and the average heat
transfer coefficient associated with flow across a tube
bank for both in-line and staggered configurations.
 Drag and Heat Transfer in External
flow
• Fluid flow over solid bodies is responsible for numerous
physical phenomena such as
– drag force
• automobiles
• power lines
– lift force
• airplane wings
– cooling of metal or plastic sheets.
• Free-stream velocity ─ the velocity of the fluid relative to
an immersed solid body sufficiently far from the body.
• The fluid velocity ranges from zero at the surface (the no-
slip condition) to the free-stream value away from the
surface.
 Friction and Pressure Drag
• The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow
direction is called drag.
• Drag is compose of:
– pressure drag,
– friction drag (skin friction drag).
• The drag force FD depends on the
– density ρ of the fluid,
– the upstream velocity V, and
– the size, shape, and orientation of the body.
• The dimensionless drag coefficient CD is defined as
FD
CD = (7-1)
1 2 ρV 2 A
• At low Reynolds numbers, most drag is due to friction
drag.
• The friction drag is also proportional to the surface area.
• The pressure drag is proportional to the frontal area and to
the difference between the pressures acting on the front
and back of the immersed body.
• The pressure drag is usually dominant for blunt bodies
and negligible for streamlined bodies.
• When a fluid separates from a body,
it forms a separated region between
the body and the fluid stream.
• The larger the separated region, the
larger the pressure drag.
 Heat Transfer
• The phenomena that affect drag force also affect heat
transfer.
• The local drag and convection coefficients vary along
the surface as a result of the changes in the velocity
boundary layers in the flow direction.
• The average friction and convection coefficients for
the entire surface can be determined by
L
1 1
L
CD = ∫ CD , x dx (7-7) h = ∫ hx dx (7-8)
L0 L0
For Isothermal
surface:

Film
Temperature:
 Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates
• Consider the parallel flow of a fluid over a flat plate of
length L in the flow direction.
• The Reynolds number at a distance
x from the leading edge of a flat
plate is expressed as
Re x = ρVx = Vx (7-10)
μ ν
• In engineering analysis, a generally accepted value for
the critical Reynolds number is
Recr =
ρVxcr = 5 ×105 (7-11)
μ
• The actual value of the engineering critical Reynolds
number may vary somewhat from 105 to 3X106.
 Local Friction Coefficient
• The boundary layer thickness and the local friction
coefficient at location x over a flat plate
4.91x ⎫
δ v, x =
Re1/x 2 ⎪⎪
– Laminar: ⎬ Re x < 5 × 10
5
(7-12a,b)
0.664
C f , x = 1/ 2 ⎪
Re x ⎪⎭
0.38 x ⎫
δ v , x = 1/ 5 ⎪
– Turbulent: Re x ⎪
⎬ 5 × 10 5
≤ Re x ≤ 10 7

0.059 ⎪ (7-13a,b)
C f ,x =
Re1/x 5 ⎪⎭
 Average Friction Coefficient
• The average friction coefficient

1.33
– Laminar: C f = 1/ 2 Re L < 5 × 105 (7-14)
Re L
0.074 (7-15)
– Turbulent: Cf = 5 ×105 ≤ Re L ≤ 107
Re1/L 5

• When laminar and turbulent flows are significant

1 ⎛ xcr L ⎞
C f = ⎜ ∫ C f , x laminar dx + ∫ C f , x turbulent dx ⎟ (7-16)
L ⎜⎝ 0 xcr
⎟
⎠
Recr = 5 × 105
0.074 1742 (7-17)
Cf = 1/ 5
- 5 × 105 ≤ Re L ≤ 107
Re L Re L
 Heat Transfer Coefficient
• The local Nusselt number at location x over a flat plate

– Laminar: Nu x = 0.332 Re1/ 2 Pr1/ 3 Pr > 0.6 (7-19)

0.6 ≤ Pr ≤ 60
– Turbulent: Nu x = 0.0296 Re Pr
0.8 1/ 3 (7-20)
x
5 × 10 ≤ Re x ≤ 10
5 7

• hx is infinite at the leading edge

(x=0) and decreases by a factor
of x0.5 in the flow direction.
 Average Nusset Number
• The average Nusselt number

– Laminar: Nu = 0.664 Re0.5

L Pr1/ 3
Re < 5 × 105 (7-21)

0.6 ≤ Pr ≤ 60
– Turbulent: Nu = 0.037 Re Pr 0.8 1/ 3 (7-22)
L
5 × 10 ≤ Re x ≤ 10
5 7

• When laminar and turbulent flows are significant

1 ⎛ xcr L ⎞ (7-23)
h = ⎜ ∫ hx , laminar dx + ∫ hx , turbulent dx ⎟
L ⎜⎝ 0 xcr
⎟
⎠
Recr = 5 × 105

(
Nu = 0.037 Re0.8
L − 871 Pr13
) (7-24)
 Uniform Heat Flux

• When a flat plate is subjected to uniform heat flux

instead of uniform temperature, the local Nusselt
number is given by
– Laminar: Nu x = 0.453Re0.5
L Pr1/ 3 (7-31)

0.6 ≤ Pr ≤ 60
– Turbulent: Nu x = 0.0308 Re Pr
0.8 1/ 3 (7-32)
x
5 × 10 ≤ Re x ≤ 10
5 7

• These relations give values that are 36 percent higher

for laminar flow and 4 percent higher for turbulent
flow relative to the isothermal plate case.
Note:
For Ideal gases (See Table A-15 & 16): The properties k,
μ, Pr, and Cp are independent of pressure. The
properties υ, ρ, and α at a pressure P (in atm) other
than 1 atm are determined by multiplying the value of ρ
at the given temperature by P and by dividing υ and α
by P.
Ex.: Patm=83.4 kpa
P=83.4 kpa / 101.325 kpa/atm=0.823 atm

See Example 7-2

Ex.: During a cold winter day, wind at 55 km/h is blowing
parallel to a 4-m-high and 10-m-long wall of a house. If the
air outside is at 5°C and the surface temperature of the
wall is 12°C, determine the rate of heat loss from that wall
by convection. What would your answer be if the wind
velocity was doubled?
 Assumptions: 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The critical Reynolds
number is Recr = 5×105. 3 Radiation effects are negligible. 4 Air is an ideal gas
with constant properties.
Properties: The properties of air at 1 atm and the film temperature of
Tf =(Ts + T∞)/2 = (12+5)/2 = 8.5°C are (Table A-15)
k = 0.02428 W/m.°C Air
V∞ = 55 km/h
T∞ = 5°C
υ = 1.413 × 10 -5 m 2 /s
Pr = 0.7340
Ts = 12°C

Analysis:
L
V L [(55 × 1000 / 3600)m/s](10 m)
Re L = ∞ = = 1.081 × 10 7
υ 1.413 × 10 −5 m 2 /s
Thus we have combined laminar and turbulent flow
hL
Nu = = (0.037 Re L 0.8 − 871) Pr 1 / 3 = [0.037(1.081 × 10 7 ) 0.8 − 871](0.7340)1 / 3 = 1.336 × 10 4
k
k 0.02428 W/m.°C
h = Nu = (1.336 × 10 4 ) = 32.43 W/m 2 .°C
L 10 m
 As = wL = (4 m)(10 m) = 40 m 2
Q = hA (T − T ) = (32.43 W/m 2 .°C)(40 m 2 )(12 - 5)°C = 9081 W = 9.08 kW
s ∞ s

If the wind velocity is doubled:

V∞ L [(110 × 1000 / 3600)m/s](10 m) 7

Re L = = = 2 . 163 × 10
υ 1.413 × 10 −5 m 2 /s

hL
Nu = = (0.037 Re L 0.8 − 871) Pr 1 / 3 = [0.037(2.163 × 10 7 ) 0.8 − 871](0.7340)1 / 3 = 2.384 × 10 4
k
k 0.02428 W/m.°C
h = Nu = (2.384 × 10 4 ) = 57.88 W/m 2 .°C
L 10 m

As = wL = (10 m)(4 m) = 40 m 2
Q = hA (T − T ) = (57.88 W/m 2 .°C)(40 m 2 )(12 - 5)°C = 16,206 W = 16.21 kW
s ∞ s
Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres
• Flow across cylinders and spheres is frequently
encountered in many heat transfer systems
– shell-and-tube heat exchanger,
– Pin fin heat sinks for electronic cooling.
• The characteristic length for a circular cylinder or
sphere is taken to be the external diameter D.
• The critical Reynolds number for flow across a circular
cylinder or sphere is about
Recr=2X105.
• Cross-flow over a
cylinder exhibits complex
flow patterns depending on the Reynolds number.
• At very low upstream velocities (Re≤1), the fluid
completely wraps around the cylinder.
• At higher velocities the boundary layer detaches from
the surface, forming a separation region behind the
cylinder.
• Flow in the wake region is characterized by periodic
vortex formation and low pressures.
• The nature of the flow across a cylinder or sphere
strongly affects the total drag coefficient CD.
• At low Reynolds numbers (Re<10) ─ friction drag
dominate.
• At high Reynolds numbers (Re>5000) ─ pressure
drag dominate.
• At intermediate Reynolds numbers ─ both pressure
and friction drag are significant.
 Average CD for circular cylinder and
sphere
• Re≤1 ─ creeping flow • 103<Re<105
• Re≈10 ─ separation starts – in the boundary
layer flow
• Re≈90 ─ vortex shedding
is laminar
starts.
– in the separated
region flow is
highly turbulent
• 105<Re<106 ─
turbulent flow
 Effect of Surface Roughness
• Surface roughness, in general, increases the drag coefficient in
turbulent flow.
• This is especially the case for streamlined bodies.
• For blunt bodies such as a circular cylinder or sphere, however,
an increase in the surface roughness may actually decrease the
drag coefficient.
• This is done by tripping the
boundary layer into
turbulence at a lower Reynolds
number, causing the fluid to close
in behind the body, narrowing the
wake and reducing pressure drag considerably.
A: Frontal Area
A= LD for a cylinder of length L
A = πD2/4 for a sphere
 Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Flows across cylinders and spheres, in general, involve flow
separation, which is difficult to handle analytically.
• The local Nusselt number Nuθ around the periphery of a cylinder
subjected to cross flow varies considerably.
Small θ ─ Nuθ decreases with increasing θ as a
result of the thickening of the laminar boundary
layer.
80º<θ <90º ─ Nuθ reaches a minimum
– low Reynolds numbers ─ due to separation in laminar flow
– high Reynolds numbers ─ transition to turbulent flow.
θ >90º laminar flow ─ Nuθ increases with increasing
θ due to intense mixing in the separation zone.
90º<θ <140º turbulent flow ─ Nuθ decreases due to
the thickening of the boundary layer.
θ ≈140º turbulent flow ─ Nuθ reaches a second minimum due to
flow separation point in turbulent flow.
 Average Heat Transfer Coefficient
• For flow over a cylinder (Churchill and Bernstein):
45
hD 0.62 Re Pr12 1/ 3 ⎡ ⎛ Re ⎞ 58
⎤
Nucyl = = 0.3 + ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (7-35)
k 2/3 1 4 282, 000
⎡1 + ( 0.4 Pr ) ⎤ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦

Re·Pr>0.2
• The fluid properties are evaluated at the film
temperature [Tf=(T∞+Ts)/2].
• Flow over a sphere (Whitaker):
14
hD 0.4 ⎛ μ∞ ⎞ (7-36)
Nusph = = 2 + ⎡⎣0.4 Re + 0.06 Re ⎤⎦ Pr ⎜
12 23
⎟
k μ
⎝ s⎠
3.5 ≤ Re ≤ 80, 000
0.7 ≤ Pr ≤ 380

The fluid properties in this case are evaluated at the

free-stream temperature TB except for μs, which is
evaluated at the surface temperature Ts
• A more compact correlation
for flow across cylinders
hD
Nucyl = = C Re m Pr n (7-37)
k
where n=1/3 and the
experimentally
determined constants C and
m are given in Table 7-1.
• Eq. 7–35 is more accurate,
and thus should be preferred
in calculations whenever
possible.
Ex.: An average person generates heat at a rate
of 84 W while resting. Assuming one-quarter of
this heat is lost from the head and disregarding
radiation, determine the average surfaceTemp. of
the head when it is not covered and is subjected
to winds at 10°C and 35 km/h. The head can be
approximated as a 30-cm-diameter sphere.

Air Head
V∞ = 35 Q = 21 W
km/h
T∞ = 10°C
D = 0.3
m
Properties The properties of air at 1 atm pressure and the free
stream temperature of 10°C are (Table A-15)
k = 0.02439 W/m.°C
υ = 1.426 × 10 -5 m 2 /s
μ ∞ = 1.778 × 10 −5 kg/m.s
μ s , @ 15°C = 1.802 × 10 −5 kg/m.s
Pr = 0.7336
Analysis
V∞ D [(35 × 1000/3600) m/s](0.3 m) 5
Re = = = 2.045 × 10
υ 1.426 × 10 −5 m 2 /s

1/ 4
Nu =
hD
[ ] ⎛μ
= 2 + 0.4 Re 0.5 + 0.06 Re 2 / 3 Pr 0.4 ⎜⎜ ∞
⎞
⎟⎟
k ⎝ μs ⎠
1/ 4

[ ] 0. 4 ⎛ ⎞
−5
1 . 778 × 10
= 2 + 0.4(2.045 × 10 5 ) 0.5 + 0.06(2.045 × 10 4 ) 2 / 3 (0.7336) ⎜⎜ −5
⎟
⎟ = 344.7
⎝ 1.802 × 10 ⎠
 k 0.02439 W/m.°C
h= Nu = (344.7) = 28.02 W/m 2 .°C
D 0.3 m

As = πD 2 = π (0.3 m) 2 = 0.2827 m 2

 Q (84/4) W
Q = hAs (Ts − T∞ ) ⎯
⎯→ Ts = T∞ + = 10 °C + 2 2
= 12.7 °C
hAs (28.02 W/m .°C)(0.2827 m )
 Flow Across Tube Bank
• Cross-flow over tube banks is commonly encountered
in practice in heat transfer equipment such heat
exchangers.
• In such equipment, one fluid
moves through the tubes while
the other moves over the tubes
in a perpendicular direction.
• Flow through the tubes can be analyzed by considering
flow through a single tube, and multiplying the results
by the number of tubes.
• For flow over the tubes the tubes affect the flow pattern
and turbulence level downstream, and thus heat transfer
to or from them are altered.
• Typical arrangement
– in-line
– staggered
• The outer tube diameter D is the characteristic length.
• The arrangement of the tubes are characterized by the
– transverse pitch ST,
– longitudinal pitch SL , and the
– diagonal pitch SD between tube centers.
– A1=STL, AT = (ST-D)L, and AD=(SD-D)/L
In-line Staggered
• As the fluid enters the tube bank, the flow area
decreases from A1=STL to AT = (ST-D)L between the
tubes, and thus flow velocity increases.
• In tube banks, the flow characteristics are dominated
by the maximum velocity Vmax.
• The Reynolds number is defined on the basis of
maximum velocity as
ρVmax D Vmax D
Re D = = (7-39)
μ ν
• For in-line arrangement, the maximum velocity
occurs at the minimum flow area between the tubes
ST
Vmax = V (7-40)
ST − D
• In staggered arrangement,
ST
Vmax = V (7-40)
– for SD>(ST+D)/2 : ST − D

– for SD<(ST+D)/2 : ST
Vmax = V (7-41)
2 ( SD − D )
• The nature of flow around a tube in the first row
resembles flow over a single tube.
• The nature of flow around a tube in the second and
subsequent rows is very different.
• The level of turbulence, and thus the heat transfer
coefficient, increases with row number.
• there is no significant change in turbulence level after
the first few rows, and thus the heat transfer
coefficient remains constant.
• Zukauskas has proposed correlations whose general
form is hD
= C Re mD Pr n ( Pr Prs )
0.25
NuD = (7-42)
k
• where the values of the constants C, m, and n depend
on Reynolds number.
• The average Nusselt number relations in Table 7–2 are
for tube banks with 16 or more rows.
• Those relations can also be used for tube banks with NL
provided that they
are modified as

NuD , N L = F ⋅ NuD (7-43)

• The correction factor F

values are given in
Table 7–3.
Arithmetic mean temp.: Tm=(Ti+Te)/2
Note: If Te is not available we have to assume Tm, then we must
check our assumption
 As=N πDL
N: Total number of tubes
NT: # of tubes in transverse plane
NL: # of rows

N=NL x NT
Logarithmic mean temp difference:

•
m = ρVN TST L V: fluid velocity just before entering the tube bank
ρ : to be evaluated at Ti
 Pressure drop
• the pressure drop over tube banks is expressed as:
ρVmax
2
ΔP = N L f χ (7-48)
2
• f is the friction factor and χ is the correction factor.
• The correction factor (χ) given in the insert is used to
account for the effects of deviation from square
arrangement (in-line) and from equilateral
arrangement (staggered).
EX.: Exhaust gases at 1 atm and 300ºC are used to preheat water in an
industrial facility by passing them over a bank of tubes through which
water is flowing at a rate of 6 kg/s. The mean tube wall temperature is
80ºC. Exhaust gases approach the tube bank in normal direction at 4.5
m/s. The outer diameter of the tubes is 2.1 cm, and the tubes are
arranged in-line with longitudinal and transverse pitches of SL = ST = 8
cm. There are 16 rows in the flow direction with 8 tubes in each row.
Using the properties of air for exhaust gases, determine (a) the rate of
heat transfer per unit length of tubes, (b) and pressure drop across
the tube bank, and (c) the temperature rise of water flowing through
the tubes per unit length of tubes.
Ts=80°C
V=4.5 m/s SL
Ti=300°C

ST

D
Properties: The exit temperature of air, and thus the mean
temperature, is not known. We evaluate the air properties at the
assumed mean temperature of 250°C (will be checked later) and 1 atm
(Table A-15):
k = 0.04104 W/m-K ρ = 0.6746 kg/m3
Cp =1.033 kJ/kg-K Pr = 0.6946
μ = 2.76×10-5 kg/m-s Prs = Pr@Ts = 0.7154
Also, the density of air at the inlet temperature of 300°C (for use in the
mass flow rate calculation at the inlet) is ρi = 0.6158 kg/m3.

Analysis (a) It is given that D = 0.021 m, SL = ST = 0.08 m, and V = 4.5 m/s.

ST 0.08
Vmax = V= (4.5 m/s) = 6.102 m/s
ST − D 0.08 − 0.021

ρVmax D (0.6746 kg/m 3 )(6.102 m/s)(0.021 m)

Re D = = −
= 3132
μ 5
2.76 × 10 kg/m ⋅ s
 0.63 0.36 0.25
From Tabl2 7-2: Nu D = 0.27 Re D Pr (Pr/ Prs )
= 0.27(3132) 0.63 (0.6946) 0.36 (0.6946 / 0.7154) 0.25 = 37.46

Since NL =16: Nu D, N L = Nu D = 37.46

Nu D , N L k 37.46(0.04104 W/m ⋅ °C)
h= = = 73.2 W/m 2 ⋅ °C
D 0.021 m
N = NL ×NT = 16×8 = 128

As = NπDL = 128π(0.021 m)(1 m) = 8.445 m 2

m = m i = ρ i V( N T ST L) = (0.6158 kg/m 3 )(4.5 m/s)(8)(0.08 m)(1 m) = 1.773 kg/s

⎛ As h ⎞ ⎛ (8.445 m 2 )(73.2 W/m 2 ⋅ °C) ⎞

Te = Ts − (Ts − Ti ) exp⎜ − ⎟ = 80 − (80 − 300) exp⎜ − ⎟ = 237.0°C
⎜ m C p ⎟ ⎜ (1.773 kg/s)(1033 J/kg ⋅ °C) ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
(Ts − Ti ) − (Ts − Te ) (80 − 300) − (80 − 237)
ΔTln = = = 186.7°C
ln[(Ts − Ti ) /(Ts − Te )] ln[(80 − 300) /(80 − 237)]

Q = hAs ΔTln = (73.2 W/m 2 ⋅ °C)(8.445 m 2 )(186.7°C) = 115,425 W

(b) For this in-line arrangement tube bank, the friction coefficient
corresponding to ReD = 3132 and SL/D = 8/2.1 = 3.81 is, from Fig. 7-27a, f =
0.18. Also, χ = 1 for the square arrangements. Then the pressure drop across
the tube bank becomes

2
ρVmax (0.6746 kg/m 3 )(6.102 m/s) 2 ⎛ 1N ⎞
ΔP = N L fχ = 16(0.18)(1) ⎜ ⎟ = 36.2 Pa
2 2 ⎜ 1 kg ⋅ m/s 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

(c) The temperature rise of water is

Q 115.425 kW
Q = m water C p , water ΔTwater ⎯
⎯→ ΔTwater = = = 4.6°C
m water C p , water (6 kg/s)(4.18 kJ/kg ⋅ °C)

Discussion: The arithmetic mean fluid temperature is:

(Ti + Te)/2 = (300 + 237)/2 = 269°C, which is sufficiently close to the
assumed value of 250°C. Therefore, there is no need to repeat
calculations.