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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Evolution of Low-Rate Wireless Personal Area Network (LR-WPAN)
Standardization

The cellular network was a natural extension of the wired telephony network that became
persistent during the mid-20th century. As the need for mobility and the cost of laying new
wires increased, the motivation for a personal connection independent of location to that
network also increased. Coverage of large area is provided through (1-2km) cells that
co-operate with their neighbours to create a seamless network. Cellular standards basically
aimed at facilitating voice communications throughout a metropolitan area. During the
mid-1980s, it turned out that an even smaller coverage area is needed for higher user
densities and the emergent data traffic.

The IEEE 802.11 working group for Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is formed, to
create a wireless local area network standard. Whereas IEEE 802.11 was concerned with
features such as Ethernet matching speed, long range(100m), complexity to handle seamless
roaming, message forwarding, and data throughput of 2-11Mbps.

Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) are used to convey information over relatively
short distances. WPANs are focused on a space around a person or object that typically
extends up to 10m in all directions. The focus of WPANs is low-cost, low power, short range
and very small size.

The IEEE 802.15 working group is formed to create WPAN standard. This group has
currently defined three classes of WPANs that are differentiated by data rate, battery drain
and quality of service (QoS).

• The high data rate WPAN (IEEE 802.15.3) is suitable for multi-media
applications that require very high quality of services.

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• Medium rate WPANs (IEEE 802.15.1/Bluetooth) will handle a variety of tasks

ranging from cell phones to PDA communications and have QoS suitable for voice
communications.
• The low rate WPANs (IEEE 802.15.4/LR-WPAN) is intended to serve a set of
industrial, residential and medical applications with very low power consumption,
with relaxed needs for data rate and QoS. The low data rate enables the LR-WPAN
to consume very little power. This feature allows small, power-efficient, inexpensive
solutions to be implemented for a wide range of devices.

1.2 Zigbee and IEEE 802.15.4

The IEEE 802.15.4 standard is a simple packet data protocol for lightweight wireless
networks and specifies the Physical (PHY) and Medium Access Control (MAC) layers for
Multiple Radio Frequency (RF) bands, including 868 MHz, 915 MHz, and 2.4 GHz.

The IEEE 802.15.4 standard is designed to provide reliable data transmission of modest
amounts of data up to 100 meters or more while consuming very little power. IEEE 802.15.4
is typically less than 32 kb in size, featuring a 64-bit address space, source and destination
addressing, error detection, and advanced power management.

ZigBee technology takes full advantage of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard and extends the
capabilities of this new radio standard by defining a flexible and secure network layer that
supports a variety of architectures to provide highly reliable wireless communication.

ZigBee technology also offers simplicity and a cost-effective approach to building,

construction and remodeling with wireless technology. ZigBee is all set to provide the
consumers with ultimate flexibility, mobility, and ease of use by building wireless
intelligence and capabilities into every day devices.

ZigBee is expected to provide low cost and low power connectivity for equipment that needs
battery life as long as several months to several years but does not require data transfer rates
as high as those enabled by Bluetooth. This kind of network eliminates use of physical data

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buses like USB and Ethernet cables. The devices could include telephones, hand-held digital
assistants, sensors and controls located within a few meters of each other.

Thus, ZigBee technology is a low data rate, low power consumption, low cost; wireless
networking protocol targeted towards automation and remote control applications.

1.2.1 ZigBee Alliance

The ZigBee Alliance is an association of companies working together to enable reliable,

cost-effective, low-power, wirelessly networked, monitoring and control products based on
an open global standard.

The goal of the ZigBee Alliance is to provide the consumer with ultimate flexibility,
mobility, and ease of use by building wireless intelligence and capabilities into every day
devices. ZigBee technology will be embedded in a wide range of products and applications
across consumer, commercial, industrial and government markets worldwide. For the first
time, companies will have a standards-based wireless platform optimized for the unique
needs of remote monitoring and control applications, including simplicity, reliability,
low-cost and low-power.

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1.2.2 Why is it called Zigbee?

It has been suggested that the name evokes the haphazard paths that bees follow as they
harvest pollen, similar to the way packets would move through a mesh network.

Using communication system, whereby the bee dances in a zig-zag pattern, worker bee is
able to share information such as the location, distance, And direction of a newly discovered
food source to her fellow colony members. Instinctively implementing the ZigBee Principle,
bees around the world actively sustain productive itchiness and promote future generations of
Colony members.

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CHAPTER-2
IEEE 802.15.4 WPAN

2.1 General description

A LR-WPAN is a simple, low-cost communication network that allows wireless
connectivity in applications with limited power and relaxed throughput requirements.
The main objectives of an LR-WPAN are ease of installation, reliable data transfer,
shortrange operation, extremely low cost, and a reasonable battery life, while
maintaining a simple and flexible protocol.

The three license-free frequencies of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard include sixteen
channels at 2.4 GHz, ten channels at 915 MHz, and one channel at 868 MHz, to
support global or regional deployment. The maximum data rates for each band are 250
kbps, 40 kbps and 20 kbps, respectively. The air interface is direct sequence spread

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spectrum (DSSS) using binary phase shift keying (BPSK) for 868 MHz and 915 MHz
and offset-quadrature phase shift keying (OQPSK) for 2.4 GHz.

Other features of the IEEE 802.15.4 PHY include receiver energy detection, link
quality indication and clear channel assessment. Both contention-based and
contention-free channel access methods are supported. Maximum packet size is 128
bytes, including a variable payload of up to 104 bytes. IEEE 802.15.4 employs 64-bit
IEEE and 16-bit short addresses, which supports over 65,000 nodes per network.

The IEEE 802.15.4 MAC also enables network association and disassociation, has an
optional super frame structure with beacons for time synchronization, and a guaranteed time
slot (GTS) mechanism for high priority communications. The access method is carrier sense
multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA-CA). Network routing schemes are
designed to ensure power conservation, and low latency through guaranteed time slots. A
unique feature of ZigBee network layer is communication redundancy ​eliminating “single
point of failure” in mesh networks.

IEEE and ZigBee Alliance have been working closely to specify the entire protocol
stack. IEEE 802.15.4 focuses on the specification of the lower two layers of the
protocol (physical and data link layer). On the other hand, ZigBee Alliance aims to
provide the upper layers of the protocol stack (from network to the application layer)
for interoperable data networking, security services and a range of wireless home and
building control solutions.

2.2 Zigbee characteristics

The focus of network applications under the IEEE 802.15.4 / ZigBee standard include
the features of low power consumption, needed for only two major modes (Tx/Rx or
Sleep), high density of nodes per network, low costs and simple implementation.

These features are enabled by the following characteristics

• 2.4GHz and 868/915 MHz dual PHY modes.

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• This represents three license-free bands: 2.4-2.4835 GHz, 868-870 MHz and
902928MHz. The number of channels allotted to each frequency band is fixed
at 16 channels in the 2.45 GHz band, 10 channels in the 915 MHz band, and 1
channel in the 868 MHz band
• Maximum data rates allowed for each of these frequency bands are fixed as 250
kbps @2.4 GHz, 40 kbps @ 915 MHz, and 20 kbps @868MHz.
• Allocated 16 bit short or 64 bit extended addresses.
• Allocation of guaranteed time slots (GTSs)
• Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA-CA) channel
access Yields high throughput and low latency for low duty cycle devices like
sensors and controls.
• Fully “hand-shake” acknowledged protocol for transfer reliability.
• Low power consumption with battery life ranging from months to years.
• Energy detection (ED).
• Link quality indication (LQI).

• Multiple topologies: star, peer-to-peer, mesh topologies

2.3 Device Types

ZigBee devices are required to conform to the IEEE 802.15.4-2003 Low-Rate Wireless
Personal Area Network (WPAN) standard. ZigBee wireless devices are expected to
transmit 10-75 meters, depending on the RF environment and the power output
consumption required for a given application, and will operate in the unlicensed RF
worldwide (2.4GHz global, 915MHz Americas or 868 MHz Europe). The data rate is
250kbps at 2.4GHz, 40kbps at 915MHz and 20kbps at 868MHz.

There are three different ZigBee device types that operate on these layers in any self
organizing application network. These devices have 64-bit IEEE addresses, with option
to enable shorter addresses to reduce packet size, and work in either of two addressing
modes – star and peer-to-peer.

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• The ZigBee (PAN) coordinator node: The most capable device, the coordinator
forms the root of the network tree and might bridge to other networks. It is able to store
information about the network. There is one, and only one, ZigBee coordinator in each
network to act as the router to other network. It also acts as the repository for security
keys.

• The Full Function Device (FFD):The FFD is an intermediary router

transmitting data from other devices. It needs lesser memory than the ZigBee
coordinator node, and entails lesser manufacturing costs. It can operate in all
topologies and can act as a coordinator.

• The Reduced Function Device (RFD) : This device is just capable of talking in
the network; it cannot relay data from other devices. Requiring even less memory, (no
flash, very little ROM and RAM), an RFD will thus be cheaper than an FFD. This
device talks only to a network coordinator and can be implemented very simply in star
topology.

• An FFD can talk to RFDs or other FFDs, while an RFD can talk only to an
FFD. An RFD is intended for applications that are extremely simple, such as a light
switch or a passive infrared sensor; they do not have the need to send large amounts of
data and may only associate with a single FFD at a time. Consequently, the RFD can
be implemented using minimal resources and memory capacity.

2.4 Network Topologies

• Figure 2.1 shows 3 types of topologies that ZigBee supports: star topology,
peer-to-peer topology and cluster tree.

2.4.1 Star Topology

• In the star topology, the communication is established between devices and a
single central controller, called the PAN coordinator. The PAN coordinator may be

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mains powered while the devices will most likely be battery powered. Applications
that benefit from this topology include home automation, personal computer (PC)
peripherals, toys and games. After an FFD is activated for the first time, it may
establish /its own network and become the PAN coordinator. Each start network
chooses a PAN identifier, which is not currently used by any other network within the
radio sphere of influence. This allows each star network to operate independently.

Figure 2.1

2.4.2 Peer-to-peer Topology

In peer-to-peer topology, there is also one PAN coordinator. In contrast to star
topology, any device can communicate with any other device as long as they are in
range of one another. A peer-to-peer network can be ad hoc, self-organizing and
self-healing. Applications such as industrial control and monitoring, wireless sensor
networks, asset and inventory tracking would benefit from such a topology. It also

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allows multiple hops to route messages from any device to any other device in the
network. It can provide reliability by multipath routing.

Figure 2.2

2.4.3 Cluster-tree Topology

Cluster-tree network is a special case of a peer-to-peer network in which most devices
are FFDs and an RFD may connect to a cluster-tree network as a leave node at the end
of a branch. Any of the FFD can act as a coordinator and provide synchronization
services to other devices and coordinators.

Only one of these coordinators however is the PAN coordinator. The PAN coordinator
forms the first cluster by establishing itself as the cluster head (CLH) with a cluster

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identifier (CID) of zero, choosing an unused PAN identifier, and broadcasting beacon
frames to neighbouring devices. A candidate device receiving a beacon frame may
request to join the network at the CLH. If the PAN coordinator permits the device to
join, it will add this new device as a child device in its neighbour list. The newly joined
device will add the CLH as its parent in its neighbour list and begin transmitting
periodic beacons such that other candidate devices may then join the network at that
device. Once application or network requirements are met, the PAN coordinator may
instruct a device to become the CLH of a new cluster adjacent to the first one. The
advantage of this clustered structure is the increased coverage area at the cost of
increased message latency.

Figure 2.3

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2.5 Architecture

The LR-WPAN architecture is defined in terms of a number of blocks in order to

simplify the standard. These blocks are called layers. Each layer is responsible for one
part of the standard and offers services to the higher layers. The layout of the blocks is
based on the open systems interconnection (OSI) seven-layer model. The interfaces
between the layers serve to define the logical links between layers. The LR-WPAN
architecture can be implemented either as embedded devices or as devices requiring the
support of an external device such as a PC.

An LR-WPAN device comprises a PHY, which contains the radio frequency (RF)
transceiver along with its low-level control mechanism, and a MAC sub layer that
provides access to the physical channel for all types of transfer.

Figure 2.4 802.15.4 / ZIGBEE ARCHITECTURE

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2.5.1 Network and Application Support layer

The network layer permits growth of network sans high power transmitters. This layer
can handle huge numbers of nodes.

This level in the ZigBee architecture includes

• The ZigBee Device Object (ZDO)

• User-Defined Application Profile(s)
• The Application Support (APS) Sub-layer.

The APS sub-layer's responsibilities include maintenance of tables that enable

matching between two devices and communication among them, and also discovery,
the aspect that identifies other devices that operate in the operating space of any device.

The responsibility of determining the nature of the device (Coordinator / FFD or RFD)
in the network, commencing and replying to binding requests and ensuring a secure
relationship between devices rests with the ZDO (Zigbee Define Object). The
userdefined application refers to the end device that conforms to the ZigBee Standard.

2.5.2 Physical (PHY) layer

The PHY service enables the transmission and reception of PHY protocol data units
(PPDU) across the physical radio channel.

The features of the IEEE 802.15.4 PHY physical layer are Activation and deactivation
of the radio transceiver, energy detection (ED), Link quality indication (LQI), channel
selection, clear channel assessment (CCA) and transmitting as well as receiving
packets across the physical medium.

2.5.3 Media access control (MAC) layer

The MAC service enables the transmission and reception of MAC protocol data units
(MPDU) across the PHY data service. The features of MAC sub layer are beacon

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management, channel access, GTS management, frame validation, acknowledged

frame delivery, association and disassociation.

CHAPTER-3

IEEE 802.15.4 PHY

The PHY provides an interface between the MAC sub layer and the physical radio
channel, via the RF firmware and RF hardware. The PHY conceptually includes a
management entity called the PLME. This entity provides the layer management
service interfaces through which layer management functions may be invoked. The
PLME is also responsible for maintaining a database of managed objects pertaining to
the PHY. This database is referred to as the PHY PAN Information base (PIB).

Figure 3.1 phy layer reference model

The PHY provides two services, accessed through two SAPs

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The PHY data service accessed through the PHY Data SAP (PD-SAP). The PHY data
service enables the transmission and reception of PHY protocol data units (PPDUs)
across the physical radio channel

The PHY management service accessed through the PLME’s SAP (PLMESAP). The
features of the PHY are activation and deactivation of the radio transceiver, energy
detection(ED), link quality indication (LQI), channel selection, clear channel
assessment (CCA) and transmitting as well as receiving packets across the physical
medium.

The standard offers two PHY options based on the frequency band. Both are based on
direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS). The data rate is 250kbps at 2.4GHz, 40kbps
at 915MHz and 20kbps at 868MHz. The higher data rate at 2.4GHz is attributed to a
higher order modulation scheme. Lower frequency provides longer range due to lower
propagation losses. Low rate can be translated into better sensitivity and larger
coverage area. Higher rate means higher throughput, lower latency or lower duty cycle.
This information is summarized in Figure 3.2.

Table 3.1 Frequency Bands and Data Rates

PHY Frequency Spreading Parameters Data Parameters
(MHz) Band(MHz)
Chip rate Modulation Bit rate Symbol rate Symbols
(kchip/s)
(kb/s) (ksymbol/s)

868/915 868-868.6 300 BPSK 20 20 Binary

902-928 600 BPSK 40 40 Binary

2450 2400-2483.5 2000 O-QPSK 250 62.5 16-ary

Orthogonal

There is a single channel between 868 and 868.6MHz, 10 channels between 902.0 and
928.0MHz, and 16 channels between 2.4 and 2.4835GHz as shown in Figure 3.3.

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Several channels in different frequency bands enable the ability to relocate within
spectrum. The standard also allows dynamic channel selection, a scan function that
steps through a list of supported channels in search of beacon, receiver energy
detection, link quality indication, channel switching.

3.1 Receiver Energy Detection (ED)

The receiver energy detection (ED) measurement is intended for use by a network layer
as part of channel selection algorithm. It is an estimate of the received signal power
within the bandwidth of an IEEE 802.15.4 channel. No attempt is made to identify or
decode signals on the channel. The ED time should be equal to 8 symbol periods.

The ED result shall be reported as an 8-bit integer ranging from 0x00 to 0xff. The
minimum ED value (0) shall indicate received power less than 10dB above the
specified receiver sensitivity. The range of received power spanned by the ED values
shall be at least 40dB. Within this range, the mapping from the received power in
decibels to ED values shall be linear with an accuracy of + or − 6dB.

3.2 Link Quality Indication (LQI)

Upon reception of a packet, the PHY sends the PSDU length, PSDU itself and link
quality (LQ) in the PD-DATA Indication primitive. The LQI measurement is a

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characterization of the strength and/or quality of a received packet. The measurement

may be implemented using receiver ED, a signal-to-noise estimation or a combination
of these methods. The use of LQI result is up to the network or application layers.

The LQI result should be reported as an integer ranging from 0x00 to 0xff. The
minimum and maximum LQI values should be associated with the lowest and highest
quality IEEE 802.15.4 signals detectable by the receiver and LQ values should be
uniformly distributed between these two limits.

​3.3 Clear Channel Assessment (CCA)

The clear channel assessment (CCA) is performed according to at least one of the
following three methods:

• Energy above threshold. CCA shall report a busy medium upon detecting any
energy above the ED threshold.
• Carrier sense only. CCA shall report a busy medium only upon the detection
of a signal with the modulation and spreading characteristics of IEEE 802.15.4.
This signal may be above or below the ED threshold.
• Carrier sense with energy above threshold. CCA shall report a busy medium
only upon the detection of a signal with the modulation and spreading characteristics
of IEEE 802.15.4 with energy above the ED threshold.

3.4 PPDU Format

The PPDU packet structure is illustrated in Figure 3.4. Each PPDU packet consists of
the following basic components:

• SHR, which allows a receiving device to synchronize and lock into the bit
stream
• PHR, which contains frame length information
• A variable length payload, which carries the MAC sublayer frame

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cc

Figure 3.4 Format of the PPDU

CHAPTER-4
IEEE 802.15.4 MAC

Figure 4.1 MAC sublayer reference model

Figure 4.1 depicts the components and interfaces of the MAC sub layer.

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The MAC sub layer provides an interface between the SSCS and the PHY. The MAC
sub layer conceptually includes a management entity called the MLME. This entity
provides the service interfaces through which layer management functions may be
invoked. The MLME is also responsible for maintaining a database of managed objects
pertaining to the MAC sub layer. This database is referred to as the MAC sub layer
PIB.

The MAC sub layer provides two services:

The MAC data service and The MAC management service interfacing to the MAC sub
layer management entity (MLME) service access point (SAP) (MLMESAP).

The MAC data service enables the transmission and reception of MAC protocol data
units (MPDU) across the PHY data service.

The features of MAC sub layer are beacon management, channel access, GTS
management, frame validation, acknowledged frame delivery, association and
disassociation.

4.1 Super frame Structure

LR-WPAN allows the optional use of a super frame structure. The format of the super
frame is defined by the coordinator. The super frame is bounded by network beacons
and is divided into 16 equally sized slots. The beacon frame is sent in the first slot of
each super frame. If a coordinator does not want to use the super frame structure, it
may turn off the beacon transmissions. The beacons are used to synchronize the
attached devices, to identify the PAN and to describe the structure of super frames.

The super frame can have an active and an inactive portion. During the inactive
portion, the coordinator shall not interact with its PAN and may enter a low-power
mode. The active portion consists of contention access period (CAP) and contention
free period (CFP). Any device wishing to communicate during the CAP shall compete
with other devices using a slotted CSMACA mechanism. On the other hand, the CFP
contains guaranteed time slots (GTSs). The GTSs always appear at the end of the
active super frame starting at a slot boundary immediately following the CAP. The
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PAN coordinator may allocate up to seven of these GTSs and a GTS can occupy more
than one slot period.

Figure 4.2 super frame structure

4.2 CSMA-CA Algorithm

If superframe structure is used in the PAN, then slotted CSMA-CA shall be used. If
beacons are not being used in the PAN or a beacon cannot be located in a
beacon-enabled network, unslotted CSMA-CA algorithm is used. In both cases, the
algorithm is implemented using units of time called backoff periods, which is equal to
a Unit Backoff Period symbols.

In slotted CSMA-CA channel access mechanism, the backoff period boundaries of

every device in the PAN are aligned with the superframe slot boundaries of the PAN
coordinator. In slotted CSMA-CA, each time a device wishes to transmit data frames
during the CAP, it shall locate the boundary of the next backoff period. In unslotted

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CSMA-CA, the backoff periods of one device do not need to be synchronized to the
backoff periods of another device.

4.3 Traffic Types

ZigBee/IEEE 802.15.4 addresses three typical traffic types.

IEEE 802.15.4 MAC can accommodate all the types.

• Data is periodic. The application dictates the rate, and the sensor activates
checks for data and deactivates.
• Data is intermittent. The application, or other stimulus, determines the rate, as
in the case of say smoke detectors. The device needs to connect to the network only
when communication is necessitated. This type enables optimum saving on energy.
• Data is repetitive, and the rate is fixed a priori. Depending on allotted time
slots, called GTS (guaranteed time slot), devices operate for fixed durations

ZigBee employs either of two modes, beacon or non-beacon to enable the to-and-fro
data traffic. Beacon mode is used when the coordinator runs on batteries and thus offers
maximum power savings, whereas the non-beacon mode finds favour when the
coordinator is mains-powered.

4.4 Data Transfer model

Three types of data transfer transactions exist: from a coordinator to a device, from a
device to a coordinator and between two peer devices. The mechanism for each of
these transfers depends on whether the network supports the transmission of beacons.

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The non-beacon mode will be included in a system where devices are ‘asleep' nearly
always, as in smoke detectors and burglar alarms. The devices wake up and confirm
their continued presence in the network at random intervals.

When a device wishes to transfer data in a no beacon-enabled network, it simply

transmits its data frame, using the unslotted CSMA-CA, to the coordinator. On
detection of activity, the sensors ‘spring to attention', as it were, and transmit to the
ever-waiting coordinator's receiver (since it is mains-powered). There is also an
optional acknowledgement at the end as shown in Figure 4.3.

In the beacon mode, a device watches out for the coordinator's beacon that gets
transmitted at periodically, locks on and looks for messages addressed to it. If message
transmission is complete, the coordinator dictates a schedule for the next beacon so that
the device ‘goes to sleep'; in fact, the coordinator itself switches to sleep mode. While
using the beacon mode, all the devices in a mesh network know when to communicate
with each other. In this mode, necessarily, the timing circuits have to be quite accurate,

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or wake up sooner to be sure not to miss the beacon. This in turn means an increase in
power consumption by the coordinator's receiver, entailing an optimal increase in costs.

When a device wishes to transfer data to a coordinator in a beacon-enabled network, it

first listens for the network beacon. When the beacon is found, it synchronizes to the
superframe structure. At the right time, it transmits its data frame, using slotted
CSMACA, to the coordinator. There is an optional acknowledgement at the end as
shown in Figure 4.4.

The applications transfers are completely controlled by the devices on a PAN rather
than by the coordinator. This provides the energy-conservation feature of the ZigBee
network.

When a coordinator wishes to transfer data to a device in a beacon-enabled network, it

indicates in the network beacon that the data message is pending. The device
periodically listens to the network beacon, and if a message is pending, transmits a
MAC command requesting this data, using slotted CSMA-CA . The coordinator
optionally acknowledges the successful transmission of this packet. The pending data
frame is then sent using slotted CSMA-CA. The device acknowledged the successful
reception of the data by transmitting an acknowledgement frame. Upon receiving the

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acknowledgement, the message is removed from the list of pending messages in the
beacon as shown in Figure
4.5.

When a coordinator wishes to transfer data to a device in a nonbeacon-enabled

network, it stores the data for the appropriate device to make contact and request data.
A device may make contact by transmitting a MAC command requesting the data,
using unslotted CSMA-CA, to its coordinator at an application-defined rate. The
coordinator acknowledges this packet. If data are pending, the coordinator transmits the
data frame using unslotted CSMA-CA. If data are not pending, the coordinator
transmits a data frame with a zero-length payload to indicate that no data were pending.

The device acknowledges this packet as shown in Figure 4.6.

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In a peer-to-peer network, every device can communicate with any other device in its
transmission radius. There are two options for this. In the first case, the node will listen
constantly and transmit its data using unslotted CSMA-CA. In the second case, the
nodes synchronize with each other so that they can save power.

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CHAPTER-5
ZIGBEE ROUTING LAYER

5.1 AODV​-​Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector

AODV is a pure on-demand route acquisition algorithm: nodes that do not lie on active
paths neither maintain any routing information nor participate in any periodic routing
table exchanges. Further, a node does not have to discover and maintain a route to
another node until the two needs to communicate, unless the former node is offering
services as an intermediate forwarding station to maintain connectivity between two
other nodes.

The primary objectives of the algorithm are to broadcast discovery packets only when
necessary, to distinguish between local connectivity management and general topology
maintenance and to disseminate information about changes in local connectivity to
those neighbouring mobile nodes that are likely to need the information.

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When a source node needs to communicate with another node for which it has no
routing information in its table, the Path Discovery process is initiated. Every node
maintains two separate counters: sequence number and broadcast id. The source node
initiates path discovery by broadcasting a route request (RREQ) packet to its
neighbours, which includes source addr, source sequence number, broadcast id, dest
addr, dest sequence number, hop cnt. (Source sequence number is for maintaining
freshness information about the reverse route whereas the destination sequence number
is for maintaining freshness of the route to the destination before it can be accepted by
the source.).

The pair source adder, broadcast id uniquely identifies a RREQ, where broadcast id is
incremented whenever the source issues a new RREQ. When an intermediate node
receives a RREQ, if it has already received a RREQ with the same broadcast id and
source address, it drops the redundant RREQ and does not rebroadcast it. Otherwise, it
rebroadcasts it to its own neighbours after increasing hop cnt. Each node keeps the
following information: destination IP address, source IP address, broadcast id,
expiration time for reverse path route entry and source node’s sequence number.

As the RREQ travels from a source to destinations, it automatically sets up the reverse
path from all nodes back to the source. To set up a reverse path, a node records the
address of the neighbour from which it received the first copy of RREQ. These reverse
path route entries are maintained for at least enough time for the RREQ to traverse the
network and produce a reply to the sender.

When the RREQ arrives at a node, possibly the destination itself, that possesses a
current route to the destination, the receiving node first checks that the RREQ was
received over a bi-directional link. If this node is not destination but has route to the
destination, it determines whether the route is current by comparing the destination
sequence number in its own route entry to the destination sequence number in the
RREQ. If RREQ’s sequence number for the destination is greater than that recorded by
the intermediate node, the intermediate node must not use this route to respond to the
RREQ, instead rebroadcasts the RREQ.

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If the route has a destination sequence number that is greater than that contained in the
RREQ or equal to that contained in the RREQ but a smaller hop count, it can uncast a
route reply packet (RREP) back to its neighbour from which it received the RREQ. A
RREP contains the following information: source addr, dest addr, dest sequence
number, hop cnt and lifetime. As the RREP travels back to the source, each node along
the path sets up a forward pointer to the node from which the RREP came, updates its
timeout information for route entries to the source and destination, and records the
latest destination sequence number for the requested destination.

Nodes that are along the path determined by the RREP will timeout after route request
expiration timer and will delete the reverse pointers since they are not on the path from
source to destination as shown in Figure 5.1. The value of this timeout time depends on
the size of the ad hoc network.

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CHAPTER-6
SUMMARY
6.1 Technology Comparisons

Table 6.1

6.2 ZigBee Applications

The Zigbee Alliance targets applications "across consumer, commercial, industrial and
government markets worldwide". Unwired applications are highly sought after in
many networks that are characterized by numerous nodes consuming minimum power
and enjoying long battery lives.

ZigBee technology is designed to best suit these applications, for the reason that it
enables reduced costs of development, very fast market adoption, and rapid ROI. With
ZigBee designed to enable two-way communications, not only will the consumer be
able to monitor and keep track of domestic utilities usage, but also feed it to a computer
system for data analysis.

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A recent analyst report issued by West Technology Research Solutions estimates that
by the year 2008, "annual shipments for ZigBee chipsets into the home automation
segment alone will exceed 339 million units," and will show up in "light switches, fire
and smoke detectors, thermostats, appliances in the kitchen, video and audio remote
controls, landscaping, and security systems."

Futurists are sure to hold ZigBee up and say, "See, I told you so". The ZigBee Alliance
is nearly 200 strong and growing, with more OEM's signing up. This means that more
and more products and even later, all devices and their controls will be based on this
standard. Since Wireless personal Area Networking applies not only to household
devices, but also to individualized office automation applications, ZigBee is here to
stay. It is more than likely the basis of future home-networking solutions.

The technology is designed to be simpler and cheaper than other WPANs such as
Bluetooth. The most capable ZigBee node type is said to require only about 10% of the
software of a typical Bluetooth or Wireless Internet node, while the simplest nodes are
about 2%. ZigBee is aimed at applications with low data rates and low power
consumption.

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CHAPTER-7

CONCLUSION

The ZigBee Standard enables the broad-based deployment of reliable wireless

networks with low complexity, low cost solutions and provides the ability for a product
to run for years on inexpensive primary batteries (for a typical monitoring application).
It is also, of course, capable of inexpensively supporting robust mesh networking
technologies ZigBee is all set to provide the consumers with ultimate flexibility,
mobility, and ease of use by building wireless intelligence and capabilities into every
day devices.

The mission of the ZigBee Working Group is to bring about the existence of a broad
range of interoperable consumer devices by establishing open industry specifications
for unlicensed, untethered peripheral, control and entertainment devices requiring the
lowest cost and lowest power consumption communications between compliant
devices anywhere in and around the home.

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CHAPTER-8

REFERENCES
1. William stalling, ”wireless communication and networks”, Fourth edition
pearson publication limited,2004

2. Andrew S. Tenenbaum, “Computer Networks”, Fourth Edition Pearson

Publication, Limited, 2003

3. Behrouz A. Frouzan, “Data Communication”, Third Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill

Publishing company Limited, 2004

4. http://www.zigbee.org/en/documents/zigbeeoverview4.pdf

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