Spacecraft and Aircraft Dynamics

Matthew M. Peet
Illinois Institute of Technology

Lecture 7: Example and Directional Control

Aircraft Dynamics
Lecture 7

In this Lecture we will cover:

Numerical Example
• How to design an aircraft for steady-level flight.
• To take into account
I L=w
P
I M = CM = 0
I CM α < 0
I CM 0 > 0

Directional Stability
• CN β > 0 means stability.
• Most aircraft need a tail - CN β,wf < 0.
• How to size a tail so that CN β > 0.
• The effect of rudder on yawing moment - CN δr
• How to estimate aircraft parameters from video.

M. Peet Lecture 7: 2 / 28
Example
Scale Model Airplane
1
For a 25 scale model of an airplane, the following geometric data applies
S 1.50f t2 (.139m2 )
c̄ 6.145in (.1561m)
lt 15.29in (.3884m)
St .368f t2 (.0342m2)

Aerodynamic Data:
CLα,wf .077 deg−1 CM0,wf -.018
ε0 .72 deg CLα,t .064 deg−1
dε
η 1 dα .30
Xac
ρ 2.377E − 3slug − f t−3 c̄ .25
Now suppose we have an Actual Aircraft of mass 1552.8slugs (22, 680kg).
1. Find the limits on CG position (XCG ) and tail angle measured relative to
wing (itr = iwf − it ) to ensure static stability and nose-up.
2. For steady-level flight with δe = 0, plot the required itr vs. XCG at
v = 239knots (123m/s).
M. Peet Lecture 7: Numerical Example 3 / 28
Example
Scale Model Airplane

Solution: Note that

l t St 15.29 ∗ .368
VH = = = .6104
c̄S 6.145 ∗ 1.5
 
St d
CLα = CLα,wf + ηCLα,t 1−
S dα
.368
= .077 + 1 ∗ .064 ∗ (1 − .3) = .088 deg−1
1.5
We need CMα < 0.
   
XCG XAC dε
CMα = CLα − − ηVH CLα,t 1 −
c̄ c̄ dα
 
XCG
= .088 ∗ − .25 − .064 ∗ .6104 ∗ (1 − .3) < 0
c̄
which means
XCG
< .5607
c̄
M. Peet Lecture 7: Numerical Example 4 / 28
Example
Scale Model Airplane

For nose-up flight, we want CM0 > 0

  
CLα,t St dε
CM0 = CM0,wf + ηCLα,t VH (ε0 + iwf − it ) 1 − η 1−
CLα S dα
 
.064 .368
= −.018 + 1 ∗ .064 ∗ .6104 ∗ (.72 + itr ) ∗ 1 − 1 ∗ (1 − .3) > 0
.088 1.5
or,
itr = iwf − it > .193 deg
For Part 2, ignoring CL0 , we have from L = W ,

W
αeq =
QSCLα

Now, to go from 1/25-scale to full scale, we have m → 25m, so

Sf ull = 25 ∗ 25 ∗ .139m2 = 86.875m2

M. Peet Lecture 7: Numerical Example 5 / 28

Example
Scale Model Airplane

Meanwhile,
W = 22, 680kg ∗ 9.81m/s2 = 222.491kN,
from which we can find the desired α.
222491
α= 1 = 3.141 deg
2 1.225 ∗ 1232 ∗ 86.875 ∗ .088

Finally, for moment equilibrium, we need CM = CM0 + CMα α = 0.

Plugging in the above values and solving for itr yields
Xcg
itr = 4.33 − 8.07
c̄

M. Peet Lecture 7: Numerical Example 6 / 28

Example
Scale Model Airplane

We can draw a region with three constraints.

X
• itr = 4.33 − 8.07 c̄cg for steady-level flight.
• itr > .193 deg for nose-up.
• XCG
c̄ < .5607 for stability.
M. Peet Lecture 7: Numerical Example 7 / 28
Directional Stability
Stability of Motion in the x-y Plane

~.
First, let us recall the definition of sideslip angle using free-stream velocity V
Vy v
β∼
= =
Vx u

Yawing moment is denoted by

N = CN QbS

where
• Q is dynamic pressure.
• b is span of the aircraft (tip to tip).
• S is surface area of the wing.
CN has the form

CN = CN 0 + CN β β

Typically, CN 0 = 0. Exceptions?
M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 8 / 28
Directional Stability
Stability of Motion in the x-y Plane

As with longitudinal stability, the equations of motion are easily characterized.

CN 0
βeq = −
CN β
By definition, +β is a negative yaw rotation.

ψ(t) = −β(t)

Thus
I3
∆ψ̈(t) = −CN β ∆ψ(t).
QSb
This implies
• Stability if CN β > 0.
• Instability if CN β < 0.

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 9 / 28

Directional Stability
Moment Contributions

There are two main moment contributions to directional stability

1. wing+fuselage contribution.
2. vertical stabilizer

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 10 / 28

Directional Stability
Moment Contributions

The Wing-Fuselage contribution is difficult to characterize because it is not a

ideal lifting surface. However, an approximation can be found as
Sf s l f
CN β,wf = −kn kR
Sw b
where
• kn corresponds to geometry.
• kR corresponds to flight condition.
• Sf s is the surface area of the side view of the airplane.
• lf is the length of the plane
The key point is that all these quantities are typically positive. Hence
CN β,wf < 0.
Conclusion: The wing-fuselage by itself is usually Unstable.

Why?

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 11 / 28

Directional Stability
Vertical Stabilizer

• The Wing-Fuselage contribution is usually destabilizing because the net

force acts to the fore of the CG, creating positive moment.
• To correct, we want to add force aft of the CG.
I This is done via a lifting surface on the tail.

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 12 / 28

Directional Stability
Vertical Stabilizer

As with all lifting surfaces, we express the Lift

force as
Yv = −CL,v Qs Sv
where Qs and Sv are dynamic pressure at and
surface are of the vertical stabilizer.

CL,v = CLα,v αv

• αv is the sideslip angle of the tail,

expressed as

αv = β + σ

I σ is the downwash effect due to the wing

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 13 / 28

Directional Stability
Moment Coefficient of Vertical Stabilizer

The moment coefficient can now be found as

l v Sv Q v
Cn,v = CLα,v (β + σ)
Sb Qw
= Vv ηv CLα,v (β + σ)

where
• lv is the distance from CG to the Aerodynamic Center of the Vertical
Stabilizer.
• Vv = lv Sv /(Sb) is the volume ratio
• ηv = Qv /Qw is the efficiency factor.

Again, we assume σ = 0 at β = 0 and so we have:

 
dσ
Cn,v = Vv ηv CLα,v 1 +
dβ
= Cnβ,v β

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 14 / 28

Directional Stability
Total Moment

Combining the effects of the wing-fuselage and the tail, we have

CN = Cn0,wf + (Cnβ,v + Cnβ,wf )β

= Cn0,total + Cnβ,total β

where typically Cn0,total = Cn0,wf = 0 and

 
dσ
Cnβ,total = Cnβ,wf + Vv ηv CLα,v 1 +
dβ

For stability, we design Vv = lv Sv /(Sb) so that

Cnβ,wf
Vv > −  
dσ
ηv CLα,v 1 + dβ
S l
kn kR Sfws bf
=  
ηv CLα,v 1 + dσ dβ

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 15 / 28

Directional Stability
Example: Piper Navajo

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 16 / 28

Directional Stability
Example: Gulfstream 3

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 17 / 28

Directional Stability
Example: F/A-16

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 18 / 28

Directional Stability
Example: Flying Car

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 19 / 28

Directional Stability
Example: A-10

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 20 / 28

Directional Control
Rudder Moment

The rudder is a control surface attached to the vertical tail.

A Positive deflection produces a Negative Yawing moment.

Nr = −lv Yr

where
dCL,v dα
Yr = Qv Sv δr
dα dδr
M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 21 / 28
Directional Control
Rudder Moment

Nr
Define Cn,r := QSb . Then as for all lifting surfaces:

Q v l v Sv dα
Cn,r = − CLα,v δr
Q Sb dδr
= −ηv Vv CLα,v τ δr
= Cn,δr δr

where τ is as defined for elevator deflection

Cn,δr = −ηv Vv CLα,v τ

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 22 / 28

Directional Control
Example: Sideslip Landing

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 23 / 28

Directional Control
Example: Sideslip Landing

Question: In the movie, a rudder deflection of ∼

= 30 deg produces a stable
sideslip angle of ∼
= 50 deg. Estimate Cnβ,wf . Neglect Downwash, use ηv = 1,
CLα,v = .1 deg−1 , SSrt = .6 and Vv = .8.
Answer: The moment equation is given by

CN = CN β β + CN δr δr

where
CN δr = −ηv Vv CLα,v τ,
and
CN β = Cnβ,wf + Vv CLα,v
Now, fixing δr , the equilibrium is when CN = 0, so
βeq CN β Cnβ,wf + Vv CLα,v
=− =
δr CN δr Vv CLα,v τ

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 24 / 28

Directional Control
Example: Sideslip Landing

• In the movie, a negative rudder deflection caused a negative βe q. This

implies CN β > 0 since CN δr is always negative. Thus the aircraft is stable.
• Notice that since βeq > δr , Cnβ,wf must be almost positive, or almost
stable without the tail.
Continuing, we solve for
 
βeq
Cnβ,wf = τ − 1 Vv CLα,v
δr

Sr
Thus the wing-fuselage is stable if βeq τ > δr . In this case, have St = .6 implies
τ∼
= .7 from the plot

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 25 / 28

Directional Control
Example: Sideslip Landing

Finally, we conclude

βeq τ = 50 ∗ .7 = 35 deg and δr = 30 deg

Hence, we have the wing-fuselage is stable. Additionally, estimate VH = .8 and

CLα,v = .1. Then

Cnβ,wf = .17 ∗ .8 ∗ .1 = +.013 deg−1

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 26 / 28

Conclusion

In this Lecture, you learned:

The Design Process
• How to design an aircraft for steady-level flight.
• To take into account
I L=w
P
I M = CM = 0
I CM α < 0

I CM 0 > 0

Directional Stability
• CN β > 0 means stability.
• Most aircraft need a tail - CN β,wf < 0.
• How to size a tail so that CN β > 0.
• The effect of rudder on yawing moment - CN δr
• How to estimate aircraft parameters from video.

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 27 / 28

Next Lecture: Axial Stability and beyond

We will wrap up static stability with a discussion of axial stability

• Fuselage Contribution
• Dihedral Effect
• Aileron Control

We will then move on to

• 3-D stability
• Equations of motion in a rotating reference frame.

M. Peet Lecture 7: Directional Stability 28 / 28