Salindad Chapter 9

Chapter 9
Salt-affected Soils: Sources,

Genesis and Management
Muhammad Zia-ur-Rehman, Ghulam Murtaza, Muhammad

Farooq Qayyum, Saifullah, Muhammad Saqib and Javed Akhtar†
Abstract
The extent of salt-affected soils is proliferating because of different natural and
anthropogenic factors like high temperature, low rainfall, poor quality of irrigation
water etc. Different nature salts are being accumulated at the surface of soils and
make environment difficult for plants to grow on such soils due to the reduced
hydraulic conductivity and the low permeability. This leads to alter physical and
chemical properties of soils making them non-productive for general cropping.
Different management and remedial technologies are available to combat with the
problem but the most striving concern is to opt the most economical and environment
friendly technology. Different halophytic species can be used for the productive use
of saline soils. Sodic and saline-sodic soils can be reclaimed using different
amendments, which can provide soluble calcium to replace exchangeable sodium
adsorbed on clay surfaces. There are two main types of amendments: those that add
calcium directly to the soil and those that dissolve calcium from calcium carbonate
already present in the soil. Studies demonstrated that under adverse conditions tree
plantations may provide positive returns to investment and significant economic and
social benefits to land users. These findings suggest that there is an opportunity for
capital investment in afforesting abandoned salt-affected lands with multipurpose
†
Muhammad Zia-ur-Rehman*, Ghulam Murtaza, Saifullah, Muhammad Saqib and Javed Akhtar
Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
*
Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Muhammad Farooq Qayyum

Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya
University Multan, Pakistan.
Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

Editors: Muhammad Sabir, Javaid Akhtar and Khalid Rehman Hakeem
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
192 M. Zia-ur-Rehman, G. Murtaza, M.F. Qayyum, Saifullah, M. Saqib and J. Akhtar
tree species. This chapter covers the introduction of salt-affected soils, associated
aspects, management, and their reclamation.
Keywords: Salinity, Brackish Water, Root Zone Salinity, Reclamation,
Management.
9.1. Introduction
Salt-affected is a general term used for soils which contain soluble salts or
exchangeable sodium and/or both, in such amounts that can retard growth and
development of plants. Such soils cause reduction in crop yield and are required to
be managed and remediated for sustainable agriculture. Mostly salt-affected soils
exist in arid and semi-arid regions but also found in some humid to sub-humid
climatic areas, where conditions are favorable for their development. In Pakistan
6.67 × 106 ha area is under salt contamination (Khan, 1998) mainly due to
unavailability of good quality water for irrigation. Ground water may supplement
irrigation needs because of increased cropping intensity and competition from non–
agricultural sectors for fresh water. At present, in Pakistan, more than 1.07 × 106 tube
wells are pumping out 9.05 × 106 ha–m ground water (Anonymous, 2011) and 70-80
% of this water is unfit (Latif and Beg, 2004; Ghafoor et al. 2004) for agricultural
crops having high electrical conductivity (EC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and/or
residual sodium carbonate (RSC) that have negative impacts for crop growth and
development. In arid and semi-arid climatic zones use of low quality irrigation water
has become a common practice to fulfill the needs of ever increasing population
demands for food crops. (Qadir et al. 2007). Pakistan is situated in an arid to semi-
arid region. As the fresh water supplies are getting short, farmers are pumping low
quality (high EC, SAR and RSC) ground water for irrigation which is further
aggravating the soil and ground water salinity and related hazards. These soils are
adversely affecting the economic yields of crops and consequently leading to
uneconomical crop production and rural poverty. In the suburbs of Indus Basin in
Pakistan various research studies have been conducted and results reveal that almost
20-43% yield loss occur in salt affected fields as compared to normal ones. Qadir et
al. (2014) reported that 36-69% yield loss with the average of 48% for rice crop occur
due to salinity hazards. In this chapter, different aspects of salt-affected soils along
with their management and remedial measures have been discussed.
9.2. Sources of Salts

Salts may originate from various sources acting either alone or in combination.
However, the primary and major source of salts in soils and oceans is rocks and
minerals present in the Earth crust which are weathering with the passage of time.
Although the salts currently occurring in the ocean arise mainly from the weathering
process of the rocks and minerals in Earth crust, now the ocean is functioning as an
important “source” for the redistribution of salts.
Salt-affected Soils: Sources, Genesis and Management 193
9.2.1. Parent material and weathering process

As a result of in-situ weathering process, salts are released into soils and are
accumulated or removed depending on the prevailing environmental conditions.
Under humid conditions, salts leach through soils and are transported to the nearby
streams and rivers resulting in formation of inland salt-affected areas. However,
under arid to semi-arid climatic conditions, the weathering products accumulate in-
situ and result in the development of salinity and/or sodicity. This process of
formation of salt-affected soils as result of accumulation of salts released during
weathering is called primary salination/sodication. In Pakistan salt-affected soils
have been formed by: (i) deposition of physically transported salts along with parent
material (PM) such as NaCl and CaSO4 in the salt range belt of Pakistan; and (ii)
mineral weathering in-situ, i.e., transformation of soil mineral and dissolution of
sparingly soluble salts deposited along with PM as well as those formed later e.g.
gypsum, lime etc.
9.2.2. Irrigation water

All the natural waters contain dissolved salts. The expected effect (adverse or
favorable) is highly dependent upon type and amount of salts and volume of
irrigation water used. Canals of Pakistan contain best quality irrigation water as it
contains salts varying from 120 to 200 mg L-1. As an estimate, 10-cm deep irrigation
with canal water in one hectare may add 120-180 kg salts. Other common source of
irrigation and salts is ground water, which are mostly brackish in arid regions like
Pakistan but the levels of EC, SAR and RSC in ground waters are quite variable. On
an average, the ground waters in Pakistan contain up to 1250 mg salts L-1 (Ghafoor
et al. 2004). A 10-cm deep irrigation using groundwater may add 1.2 Mg salts ha-1.
Such additions of salts in the soils highly depend upon depth of ground water table,
volume of water used for irrigation, and type of salts as well as upon the evaporative
demand of the atmosphere.
9.2.3. Flood waters and waste effluent

Flood water mostly redistributes the already present salts but may become important
in some parts of the world such as during monsoon in Pakistan. Similar is the case
with untreated sewage water as a source of salts, particularly in the Third World
countries where it is used to irrigate crops, mainly vegetables, around cities or is
disposed-off into the existing irrigation channels. Such irrigation waters are of
particular concern with respect to heavy metals entry in the food chain of human
beings and because of many pathogens as well as toxic organic materials.
9.2.4. Sea water

Sea water (EC > 4 dSm-1, SAR > 50-55) intrusion as well as sea water sprays could
contribute large quantities of salts but the action is a bit localized along coastal areas.
Almost similar is the mode of inland saline seeps to contribute salts. However,
importance of playas (Lakes having input but no output of effluent) need special
consideration in some areas of the world. The soils in coastal areas are enriched with
salts coming from sea through various ways, such as:
a) Striking of sea water high-tides with nearby surface soil;
b) Entry of sea water through rivers, estuaries, etc.;
c) Ground-water inflow; and
d) Salt-enriched sprays transported up to many kilometers inland from the
sea coast and deposited as dry “fall-out” or “wash-out” by showers.
Inland deposition of NaCl at a rate of 20-100 kg ha-1 year-1 is quite
common and values of 100-200 kg ha-1 year-1 for nearby coastal areas
have been reported. Although these amounts may appear small, but
their regular deposition over long periods of time may lead to
salinization of the soils.
9.2.5. Lacustrine and marine deposits

According to geological information, once whole of the Indian sub-continent was
under sea. Gradually, sediments from Himalayas produced up-lands which were later
developed for agriculture. Hence, some of the salts could be considered as fossil salts.
Irrigation with low quality water reveals that salts already present in the soil profile
are transported to the soil surfaces with irrigation which are left behind after
evaporation. Thus, after a longer period of time salts that were previously evenly
distributed in the whole profile may selectively accumulate on the soil surface and
give rise to saline soils. Accumulation of salt-laden runoff water and its subsequent
evaporation in the un-drained basin is also a cause of salinity in many low-laying
areas.
9.2.6. Fossil salts

Salts accumulation in the arid regions often involves “fossil-salts” which are a
consequence of earlier deposits or entrapped solutions in former marine or lacustrine
deposits. Salt release may occur through natural as well as anthropogenic activities.
An example of the former situation is the rise of salt bearing ground water through
an originally impervious cap (which became permeable as a result of weathering
process) overlaying saline strata. Examples of latter scenario are assembly of canals
along with water works within the saline strata and use of ground water for
irrigational purposes. In Rajasthan, India, a canal built on an underlying gypsum
layer has resulted in development of salinity in the area within only a few years of
its construction. This has been due to perched water table and contribution of salts
from the underground gypsum layer.
9.2.7. Chemical fertilizers and waste materials

Utility of inorganic fertilizers is increasing and that of organic manures is decreasing
in agricultural fields but their contribution to overall salt build-up in soils is
insignificant. However, certain situations, such as dumping of cow’s dung slurry,
sewage sludge or industrial by products such as press mud or pyrites, can contribute
to excessive accumulation of certain ions those could limit soil productivity.
9.3. Genesis of Salt-affected Soils

The mode of soils-origin and/or the processes and factors involving in soil formation
from un-consolidated parent material is defined as soil genesis, i.e., it is a process of
developing soils from parent material. Genesis is a continuous but slow process that
includes decreasing the particle size of the parent material, reordering of mineral
particles, addition of certain materials such as organic matter and salts, changing the
kinds of minerals, creating horizons, and producing clays.
9.3.1. Genesis of primary salt-affected soils

The following factors mostly contributed towards the genesis of salt-affected soils in
Pakistan.
9.3.1.1. Salty parent material
Presence of primary minerals as the special constituent of parent material is the most
important factor for genesis of salt-affected soils. Arid to semi-arid climatic zones
of the world including Pakistan have more common soil salinity concerns due to low
precipitation which is inadequate for leaching of salts below root zones. Under these
circumstances soluble salts coupled with exchangeable Na+ have accumulated over
thousands of years during the process of soil formation. This is the case of
primary/old/ancient salt-affected soils. These soils existed before the advent of the
canal irrigation system in the Indus Plains of Pakistan.
9.3.1.2. Aridity and uneven distribution of rainfall
Most of the soils of Pakistan exist in arid to semi-arid climatic regions. Most of the
rainfall occurs during monsoon (July-August) while during major part of the year the
salts present in the soil tend to move upward with water through capillary action. The
rainfall that is received (mostly < 500 mm annually) is not sufficient to leach down
the salts away from the root zone. Moreover, the net upward movement of water in
the soil along with evaporation at the surface provokes the accumulation of mineral
salts in the surface soil.
9.3.1.3. Physiographic unevenness
Micro unevenness of the soil surface is generally not observable. This situation can
be visualized from different depths of the standing water after a heavy rainfall. The
rainwater flows from the convex parts over the sloping parts and is accumulated on
concave parts. In parts where there is low effective leaching (convex and sloping
parts), accumulation of salts takes place. Hence, patches of salts develop in an uneven
soil. In Pakistan, the natural drainage is poor due to lower slope of 30 cm per 1609
m which promotes the salinization and sodication processes.
9.3.2. Genesis of secondary salt-affected soils

Introduction of canal water irrigation system in Pakistan is the major cause of
evolution of secondary or man-made salt-affected soils. However, the extent of
secondary salt-affected areas is very small than the primary salt-affected areas.
Several factors act alone or in combination to form secondary salt-affected soils.

Insufficient or unequal application of irrigation water, imperfect soil drainage,
waterlogging, brackish ground water, improper soil and water management, seepage
from canals and water courses or combination of these factors are the principal causes
for the formation of secondary salt-affected lands.
9.3.2.1. Sodication
Sodication can be defined as process of accumulation of exchangeable Na+ content
in the soil that results in the formation of poor soil structure along with unavailability
of essential nutrients (Qadir et al. 2004). The salts of Na+ Ca2+ and Mg2+ as well as
Cl- and SO42- are present in excess under salt-affected soils while those present in
smaller amounts are cations like K+ and NH4+ and anions like CO32-, HCO3- and NO3-.
When salt concentration in soil is very high, a part of Ca2+ and Mg2+ precipitates as
CaCO3, MgCO3, CaSO4 and MgSiO3. The precipitation of these salts results in the
increased proportion of Na+ in soil solution as well as on the exchange complex. In
this way, saline soils can be regarded as responsible for genesis of sodic soils. For
this reason, most of the moderately to strongly saline soils in Pakistan are generally
saline-sodic/sodic as well. Sodication generally leads to deflocculation (dispersion),
poor drainage and poor aeration in soil (Shainberg and Letey, 1984). In addition,
severe nutrient imbalance results in these soils which may be in the form of
deficiency as well as toxicity of certain vital elements. Such physical and chemical
impairments lead towards low yield and production due to negative impacts on root
growth activity coupled with soil micro-organisms. The color of sodic soils is most
often dark that is due to deposition of discrete and suspended organic matter
prevailing in soil solution at the soil surface. In such soils, after evaporation,
darkening of the soil color is increased which may extend up to blackish in.
9.4. Classification of Salt-affected Soils

Salt-affected soils are usually characterized into three main groups 1) saline, 2) sodic
and 3) saline-sodic.
9.4.1. Saline soil

Saline soil is referred as a soil that contains plenty of soluble salts that have adverse
effects on plant growth but does not contain excessive exchangeable Na+. Most of
the soluble salts in saline soils are composed of cations Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ and of
anions Cl-, SO42-, and HCO3-While in minute concentrations other cations such as K+
and NH4+ along with anions including NO3-, CO32- and BO42- also occur in these soils.
Saline soils have ECe ≥ 4 dS m-1, SAR < 13 (mmol L-1)1/2, ESP < 15and pHs < 8.5.
9.4.2. Sodic Soil

Sodic soil can be defined as a soil that restrains adequate concentrations of
exchangeable Na+ that have serious impacts on plant growth and development but
not having excessive concentration of soluble salts. Soil structure, aeration, and
hydraulic conductivity are deteriorated by the excessive amount of exchangeable
Na+. Sodic soils have ECe < 4 dS m-1, SAR > 13 (mmol L-1)1/2, ESP > 15 and pHs >
8.5.
9.4.3. Saline-sodic soil

Saline-sodic soil refers to a soil having both soluble salts as well as exchangeable
Na+ in sufficient amounts that cause harmful impacts on all type of crop plants
Saline-sodic soils are characterized as the soils that have: ECe > 4 dS m-1, pHs > 8.5,
SAR > 13 (mmol L-1)1/2 and ESP > 15.
In some literature, the term "alkali" is used in place of "sodic", i.e., for soils having
excess exchangeable Na+. Hence, the terms "saline-alkali" in place of "saline-sodic"
and "alkali" in place of "sodic" are used. However, the use of the term "alkali" is
being discouraged because of its ambiguity with the term "alkaline" which refers to
the soils having pH > 7.0. According to an estimate (Khan 1998), the salt-affected
soils of Pakistan cover on area of about 6.67 × 106 ha.
On global basis, the salt-affected soils exist mostly under arid and semi-arid climates
in more than 100 countries covering about 9.55 × 106. These soils cover about 25%
and 60 % of the world’s irrigated and cultivated land, respectively. Overall, about
62% of the salt-affected soils of the world are saline-sodic/sodic while 38% are saline
(Tanji 1990).
Table 9.1 Extent of soil salinity/sodicity problem in Pakistan

Province Area (Million ha)
Punjab 1.234
Sindh 3.04
Balochistan 0.12
KPK 0.11
Pakistan 4.50
Source: WAPDA (2003)
Table 9.2 Salt-Affected Area (m ha) of Punjab, Pakistan

Year Area Salt Affected
Survyed Uncultivted Cultivated Total %age
1945-46 4.84 0.42 0.49 0.91 18.80
1955-56 5.96 0.05 0.69 1.20 20.64
1965-66 6.88 0.44 0.68 1.12 16.28
1975-76 7.34 0.37 0.61 0.98 13.35
1985-86 7.57 0.30 0.58 0.88 11.62
2000-01 7.92 1.16 1.51 2.67 33.71
Source: Ahmad and Chaudhry (1997)
9.5. Chemistry of Soil Solution in Salt-affected Soils

9.5.1. Soil solution
The soil system is composed of three phases of matter; 1) solid, 2) liquid and 3) gas.
The solid part is comprised of a mixture of mineral and organic material and provides
the skeletal frame work of the soil. In this frame work, a system of pores exists which
is shared jointly by the liquid and gaseous phases. The gaseous phase, or soil air, is
a mixture of gases. The liquid portion of soil matrix also known as soil solution, is
comprising of water, small quantities of dissolved gases and dissolved solutes. Soil
solution is the medium in which most soil chemical reactions occur. It bathes the
plant roots and forms the source from which the roots of plants and other organisms
obtain their required, nutrients and water.
Table 9.3 Saline area (in 000’ ha) in different districts of southern Punjab
Sr. No District Area surveyed Salt affected area
1 Bahawalnagar 623.7 130.4 20.9
2 Bahawalpur 468.5 23.3 5.0
3 RahimYar Khan 720.8 119.8 16.6
4 Dera Ghazi Khan 150.7 24.6 16.3
5 Muzafar Garh 474.8 92.9 19.6
6 Layah 246.4 0.9 0.4
7 Rajan Pur 237.2 25.9 10.9
8 Vehari 431.4 28.4 6.6
9 Khanewal 377.5 61.2 16.2
10 Multan 361.0 59.8 16.6
11 Lodhran 173.2 25.3 14.6
12 Sahiwal 258.7 28.7 11.1
13 Okara 439.4 44.1 10.0
14 Pak Pattan 235.3 14.4 6.1
15 Faisalabad 544.3 90.3 16.6
16 Toba Tek Singh 308.5 38.1 12.4
17 Jhang 482.9 109.0 22.5
18 Kasur 280.9 46.0 16.4
19 Shiekhupura 523.6 70.6 13.5
20 Gujranwala 416.5 52.1 12.5
21 Hafiza Abad 60.7 20.4 33.6
22 Mandi Bahudin 182.2 4.0 2.1
23 Sargodha 497.1 59.5 12.0
24 Khushab 181.1 0.8 0.4
25 Bakhar 314.8 1.5 0.5
Source: Punjab Development Statistics (2006)
9.6. Soil Salinity Evaluation

9.6.1. Root zone
The area of the soil matrix from which plant roots uptake water and other essential
nutrients is known as root zone or rhizosphere. Plants absorb water from the soil by
applying immense absorptive force more than that with which it is held with soil.
When plants fail to apply enough absorptive force for the uptake of sufficient water
from the soil, they face water stress. This situation prevails when soil becomes too
dry or the osmotic potential of the soil solution decreases significantly. Mainly salts
decrease the free energy of the water molecules which ultimately decrease the water
potential of soil solution consequently plant suffers with water deficiency. If we take
two soils having similar physicochemical properties except that one is normal and
the other is salt affected soil, plants have to exert more force for the absorption of
water from salt affected soils compared to that with the normal soil. Salts have more
affinity for water due to its polarity and plants require higher absorptive force to take
in water from the salt affected soil as compared to the normal land having same
amount of water.
9.6.2. Evaluation of average root zone salinity

The average of five points in the root depth can be helpful in the evaluation of average
root zone salinity in the soils. These points can be assumed as:
1) The soil surface (ECsw0)
2) Bottom of the upper quarter of the root zone (ECsw1)
3) Bottom of the second quarter depth (ECsw2)
4) Bottom of the third quarter depth (ECsw3)
5) Bottom of the fourth quarter or the soil water draining from the root zone
(ECsw4)
The following assumptions are used to estimate the average root zone salinity to
which crop responds.
1) Salinity of the applied irrigation water = 1 dS m-1
2) Crop water demand (ET) = 1000 mm per season
3) The crop water use pattern is 40-30-20-10. This means that the crop will get
40 % of its ET demand from the upper quarter of the root zone, 30 % from
the next quarter, 20 % from the next, and 10 % from the lowest quarter.
4) Crop water use will increase the concentration of the soil-water which
drains into the next quarter, i.e., ECsw0 < ECsw1 < ECsw2 < ECsw3 < ECsw4
5) Desired leaching fraction (LF) = 0.15. The leaching fraction of 0.15 means
that 15 % of the applied irrigation water entering the surface percolates
below the root zone and 85 % is used by the crop to meet its ET demand
and water lost by surface evaporation.
9.6.3. Salinity control in the root zone

In the root zone the salinity control depends on adequate leaching of excess salts
that is directly proportional to the heavy irrigation and rain fall which reduces the
soil infiltration capacity. High rainfall receiving areas also known as humid regions
have sufficient water to flush out the salts from the rhizosphere or root zone.
Controversial to this phenomenon in arid to semi arid climatic zones where rain fall
is very low while temperature is very high soil salinity problem prevails. Water
balance of the crop root zone provides the calculations for the amount of irrigation
water required for the proper growth and development of the plants. Water flows
through the root zone of crops in the following forms:
1) Irrigation water (Di)
2) Rainfall (Dr)
3) Upward movement of the ground water (Dg)
Water flows out of the root zone due to:
1) Evaporation (De)
2) Transpiration (Dt)
3) Drainage (Dd)
Variation between water flowing into the root zone and out of the root zone is equal
to The change in water storage can be calculated by subtracting the water flowing
out of the root zone from the water flowing into the root zone. Therefore, water
balance equation for change in storage (Ds) may be written as:
Ds = (Di + Dr + Dg) - (De + Dt + Dd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
While change in salt storage (root zone salinity), i.e. Ss can be explained by the
following equation:
Ss = (DiCi + DrCr + DgCg + Sm + Sf) - (DdDd + Sp + Sc) . . . (2)
Where
C = Salt concentration
Sm = Salt dissolved from minerals in soils
Sf = Salt concentration contributed as the fertilizers or a constitute of amendment
Sp = Salt in the form of precipitations
Sc = Salt removed due to crop harvesting
If Di + Dr + Dg in equation (1) are less than De + Dt, the water deficit in soil is
compensated by the absorption of water from the soil storage along with lowering
the drainage process. With the passage of time the deficiency is completely fulfilled
and thus become zero. When Ds become less, soil becomes dry that leads to reduction
in De and crops face water stress that causes the Dt reduction. In the beginning due
to these processes water loss occur in the root zone that remains equal to the water
supplied at the zero drainage. Nevertheless, in the absence of drainage water higher
salt concentration in the root zone results in the saline stored water. As salinity
increases, the osmotic stress of the plant increases, which further reduces
transpiration and thus plant dies when salts increase continuously.
In the presence of shallow water tables, deficiencies in Di + Dr may be offset by Dg.
If movement of ground water is upward drainage becomes zero. This situation cannot
continue forever. Under the dynamic field conditions, upward water movement
coupled with drainage remain continue alternately throughout the year especially in
the cultivated areas. If upward flow continues while leaching remains insufficient,
soil salinity will retard the plant growth and development and ultimately plants die.
That is why if salinity problem prevails there is the need of net downward water
movement for the sustainability of the crop production. The conditions that control
the inward water flow as well as outward from the root zone are not true for the
steady-state conditions permanently. Due to these processes salt concentration in the
soil solution varies over time. The primary objective of water management is the
maintenance of this variation that controls the excess drainage as well as reduction
of plant growth and development.
9.6.4. Salt precipitation

The equation (2) shows that the salt balance of a root zone is influenced by the
precipitation of soluble salts. As a result, concentration of salts that leach down may
be less than the applied quantity. At low leaching fractions (LF=0.1), almost ≥ 20%
salts become precipitated from the irrigational water and thus not present into the
drainage water. Therefore, salt precipitation component is an important factor for the
calculation of salt balance especially under less leaching fraction.
9.7. Reclamation of Salt-affected Soils

Several techniques are adapted to reclaim salt-affected soils. The fitness of each
technique depends upon a number of factors, e.g., 1) Physical, chemical and
mineralogical characteristics of the soil; 2) Internal soil drainage; 3) Presence of pans
in the subsoil; 4) Climatic conditions; 5) Content and types of salts present; 6) Quality
and quantity of water available for leaching; 7) Quality and depth of ground water;
8) Desired rate of replacement of excessive exchangeable Na+, if present; 9)
Presence of lime or gypsum in the soil; 10) Availability and cost of the amendments;
11) Availability of the equipment for soil tillage, if needed; 12) Crops grown in the
region; 13) Topographic features of the land; and 14) Time available for reclamation.
Good internal soil drainage, land leveling, and deep ground water (preferably below
3 m) are considered essential prerequisites for successful reclamation. From
reclamation point of view, the salt-affected soils may be divided into two categories;
1) saline and 2) sodic/saline-sodic.
9.7.1. Reclamation of saline, sodic/saline-sodic soils

Saline soils restrain only higher concentration of soluble salts and their reclamation
is done by leaching with excess of good quality irrigation water that carries salts into
the deeper soil layers. Amount of water to be applied is important and it depends on
several factors such as initial soil salinity and moisture levels, techniques of water
application, and soil type etc. Good quality irrigation water is normally required for
soil reclamation.
For reclamation of sodic/saline-sodic soils, a soluble source of Ca2+ such as gypsum
is added in the soil followed by flooding with good quality irrigation water. The Na+
ions on exchange complex are replaced by Ca2+, and removed from root zone along
with dissolved salts in leaching water. Thus reclamation of both soils (saline and
sodic/saline-sodic) requires flow of water through the profile.
Overall, the methods of reclamation of saline-sodic/sodic soils may be grouped into:
1) Physical methods; 2) Chemical methods; 3) Biological methods; 4) Hydro-
technical method; 5) Electro-reclamation method; and 6) Synergistic approach. Apart
from decrease in salinity/sodicity hazard, the method used at a particular site must be
able to perk up the physical soil conditions by minimizing exchangeable Na+ that
deteriorates the physical properties of sodic soils. Soil aggregates in sodic soils slake
and disperse and hence reduce porosity (Qadir and Schubert 2004). An effective
amendment/method improves porosity, hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rate
and decreases bulk density (Murtaza et al. 2009). physical properties of sodic soils
maybe refined by the reclamation processes due to the incorporation of high amount
of Ca2+ as compared to Na+ in soil solution as well as on exchange sites. This
flocculates the dispersed soil thereby improving water conducting soil properties.
9.7.1.1. Physical methods
Several methods, viz. deep ploughing, subsoiling, hauling, sanding, and horizon
mixing are used to improve salt-affected soils by physical/mechanical treatments:
i. Deep ploughing
Deep ploughing involves ploughing to a depth from about 40 cm to 150 cm.
This is a beneficial method on stratified soils having impermeable layers.
After a series of experiments, it was found that a single deep ploughing
having 40 to 75 cm depth economically improved the calcareous sodic soils
both physically and chemically. Under conditions where the subsoil is more
sodic than the surface soil, then deep ploughing should be avoided.
However, this method is very helpful to speed up soil reclamation if the
subsoil is gypsiferous, i.e. the subsoil contains a good quantity of gypsum.
ii. Subsoiling
Sub-soiler is comprised of erect steel/iron strips also known as knives/tines
that are almost 60 to 90 cm apart and are pulled by the use of high power
tractor through the soil. In this way soil channels are opened and
permeability is increased. Significance of sub-soiling lies in the fact that the
favorable impacts of sub-soiling remain continue till many years due to
break down of lime layer. Even if breakdown of lime layer does not occur
it is beneficial for one season.
iii. Sanding
In this practice, sand is mixed with a fine-texture soil that does not contain
high clay content to make it more porous for accelerating the permeability
process. By sanding the soil texture of the surface soil is changed
permanently. Moreover, it improves root penetration, water and air
permeability that facilitate the leach down of salts from root zone. For better
results, sand should be mixed with at least 10 cm of surface soil.
iv. Hauling
In this technique, surface of the salt affected soil is removed and a layer of
good quality soil is applied there. Hauling is absolutely useful but it might
not be applicable everywhere because this method is considered expensive.
v. Horizon mixing
This method is used when the soil profile has good surface horizon but
lower horizon has undesirable characteristics. Such characteristics are found
in saline-sodic/sodic soils which have a favorable surface soil underlain by
a slowly permeable, sodium-affected B horizon which is underlain by a
more permeable gypsum-horizon. Benefit of the profile mixing is that it
preserves the surface soil but upturn the subsoil along with substratum. This
process is done by removal of upper surface, deep mixing of underlining
subsoil coupled with substratum and at last again substituting the upper soil
surface.
Profile of a virgin soil Profile of an amended soil
____________ ____________
A _______ A
____________ ____________
B1 B2
____________ ____________
B2 B1
____________ ____________
9.7.1.2. Chemical methods
Chemical methods employ use of chemical amendments to improve soil properties
and crop growth. Chemical amendment at any place is chosen depending upon
various factors such as its availability, cost, handling and application difficulties, and
the time required to react within the soil profile and to reinstate the adsorbed Na+.
Various amendments reveal different levels of effectiveness for the reclamation of
sodic as well as saline-sodic soils of varying characteristics. Chemical amendments
generally used for renovation of saline-sodic/sodic soils can be categorized into two
basic groups:
i. Inorganic amendments
These can be further subdivided into three types.
a) Soluble calcium salts, such as CaCl2, gypsum (mined gypsum) and
phosphor-gypsum that results from the assemblage of high analysis
phosphatic fertilizers.
b) Slowly soluble calcium salts, like ground limestone (CaCO3).
c) Acidifying materials. These amendments mobilize Ca2+ in calcareous
soils by enhancing the conversion of CaCO3 to more soluble CaSO4,
Ca(HCO3)2, Ca(NO3)2 or CaCl2. These amendments include H2SO4,
HCl, HNO3, sulphur, pyrite (FeS2), lime sulphur (CaS5), FeSO4, and
Al2(SO4)3.
Inorganic fertilizers may furnish soluble Ca2+ directly like calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2
and single superphosphate (SSP) and/or indirectly by the addition of ammonium
sulphate [(NH4)2SO4] and urea that enhance the physiological acidity (pH < 7) in the
vicinity of their application. However large scale application of such fertilizers to
reclaim the soil sodicity problem is not an economical approach.
Among various inorganic amendments gypsum has declared as the most efficient,
cheap, environment friendly and easily available amendment that is the rich source
of Ca+2 (Ghafoor et al. 2004). It is a proximal approach to reclaim the calcareous as
well as non-calcareous sodic and/or saline-sodic soils. The gypsum required for
reclamation, in Mega-gram per hectare (Mg ha-1, 1Mg = 1000 kg = 1 ton), of sodic
and saline-sodic soils is called gypsum requirement (GR) of the soils. A laboratory
method (Schoonover's method) is generally used to determine the GR of the sodic
and saline-sodic soils. Other inorganic amendments used for soil reclamation can be
applied under suitable conditions. Equivalent quantities of chemically pure
amendments relative to one Mg of gypsum are given in the following Table.
Table 9.4 Amount of amendments is equivalent to one mega gram of gypsum

Amendments Formula Amount equivalent
to 1 Mg of gypsum
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O 1.00
Calcium chloride CaCl2.2H2O 0.85
Sulphur S8 0.19
Ferrous sulphate FeSO4.7H2O 1.61
Ferric sulphate Fe2(SO4)3 .9H2O 1.09
Aluminium sulphate Al2(SO4)3 .18H2O 1.29
Sulphuric acid (36N) H2SO4 0.57
Hydrochloric acid (12N) HCl 1.71
Source: Qadir et al. (2001)
The solubility and relative effectiveness of gypsum depends upon its mesh size. The
suitable particle size of gypsum used is between the 8-30 mesh, such that the particles
should pass through a 2 mm sieve while 50% among them must also pass through
0.5 mm (30 mesh) sieve (Talib and Akram 2001).
ii. Organic amendments

Organic matter is needed to maintain and even to improve the physical, chemical and
fertility characteristics of normal as well as salt-affected soils. The organic
amendments include green manures, farm manures, poultry manures, slaughter house
waste, etc. The use of some organic polymers (polyvinyl alcohol, PVA) has also been
suggested for the reclamation of sodic soils. By-products of some industries, such as
pressmud and molasses meal from sugar industry may be effective for reclamation
of saline-sodic/sodic soils but their extensive use is limited because of limited
availability and slow reaction rates.
Table 9.5 Properties of loam soil as affected by ECe:SARss receiving gypsum @ 50

% soil GR.
Treatment Gyp. mesh size pHs ECe (dS m-1) SAR
ECe:SARss :: 8:8 Passed through 5 mesh 7.76 1.25 1.12
Source: Farid (2000)
9.7.1.3. Biological methods

The term "biological reclamation" is used to describe the reclamation of a salt-
affected soil by growing crops on the affected area. Sometimes, addition of organic
matter to the salt-affected soils as farm yard/green manure is also included under the
same heading. Use of manures/other organic materials to reclaim the sodic/saline-
sodic soils must be done separately rather together to avoid confusion between the
organic and the biological amendments.
Plant parts either above or below ground have great influence on soil. Plant parts that
are present below the ground through root-soil interaction have great impact on soil
conditions. For example, roots tend to change the soil pH, lower oxygen
concentration, release organic compounds and complex energy sources such as
exudates, secretions, and mucilages, produce chelating and/or reducing substances,
increase CO2 partial pressure, endow it the channels that support soil solution flow,
improve various microbial processes and reveal impact on the soil physical as well
as chemical properties. The above-ground plant parts change the microclimate by
providing soil cover, reducing the temperature of the soil, improve the soil mulching,
slow down the evaporation process and therefore resist the upward flow of salts by
reducing capillary rise. Even after the harvesting of the crops, below ground residual
plant parts incorporate the soil organic matter through root parts coupled with
rhizomes and other constituents. The possible mechanisms of biological reclamation
may be associated with long chain of various reactions. These involve: 1) release of
CO2 in the rhizosphere as a result of root and microbial respiration; 2) formation of
carbonic acid (H2CO3) via CO2 dissolution in water; 3) reaction of H2CO3 with the
native CaCO3 to form relatively more soluble Ca(HCO3)2; 4) release of Ca2+ ions
from Ca(HCO3)2; and 5) replacement of exchangeable Na+ by the Ca2+.
Plants growing in saline/sodic soils have limited biomass production. In saline soils,
crop yields are reduced by disturbing the water along with nutrient balance for plants
while in sodic soils, plant growth is affected due to deteriorated physical conditions
of soils. Moreover, in sodic soils, the excess Na+ in the root medium disturbs the
nutrition of plants. The selection of plant species to reclaim the salt affected soils
should be very careful. Plant species vary in their tolerance to soil salinity/sodicity
and irrigation requirements resulting in variable efficiency of growth. Generally, salt
dilution supports the water loving plants due to heavy irrigation whereas the salt
tolerant plants get benefits through both natural as well as adaptive modifications
when cultivated in saline water environment.
Stage of vegetative growth and kind of vegetation play a vital role in modifying the
environment of the host soil. At early stages of growth, crop roots occupy some of
the soil macropores that would otherwise be available for infiltration. The amount of
root mass, its rate of decay as well as ability to form root channels can markedly be
different among crops. Regarding kind of vegetation, plant species that are stress
tolerant especially under salt affected conditions are important for reclamation. Plant
species that are stress tolerant and grow efficiently in wide range of stresses
conditions could render them in an expanded range of adaptability and utility
compared to others. Some research workers favored the inclusion of kallar grass,
sesbania or sudan grass as the first crop to start and speed up the reclamation process
of salt affected soils. The salt tolerant plant species generally perform more
efficiently in calcareous salt affected soils than the non-calcareous soils. In
calcareous soils, their roots act as Ca2+ mobilizers via dissolution of the native
CaCO3. In some experimental studies, amount of soluble Ca2+ in calcareous sodic
soils cultivated with salt tolerant plants were observed sufficient for the marked
reduction in the salinity and sodicity levels.
Although growing of certain salt tolerant plant species for improvement of salt-
affected soils is an age old practice, yet little work has been reported to evaluate the
role of these species in terms of soil amelioration over a certain period of time and at
different growth stages. Many workers have simply correlated a good stand and
harvest of certain salt tolerant forage plants from the salt-affected areas with the
decrease in salinity/sodicity hazard without analyzing the soil characteristics. Very
few studies give the requisite information on actual changes in ECe and SAR/ESP of
saline-sodic/sodic soils during reclamation through biological means. Generally,
reclamation of saline-sodic/sodic soils through biological means is considered a
slower than the application of inorganic amendments. However, biological
reclamation can be started at a relatively low initial cost.
9.7.1.4. Hydro-technical technique
Using this technique saline water that has high concentration of electrolyte is applied
that affect the soil permeability and thus continuous addition of water for dilution
purposes leads towards the "valence dilution" effect. Eaton and Sokoloff (1935)
described the "valence dilution" effect for the very first time when they were
conducting an experiment regarding reclamation of sodic soils. In soil water system
where monovalent and divalent cations in solution as well as in absorbed form is
equal, application of further water leads the equilibrium towards the preferable
adsorption of divalent cations such as Ca2+ as compared to the monovalent cations,

such as Na+. Reverse to this phenomenon takes place when evapotranspiration makes
the soil solution too much concentrated.
The ratio of divalent cations to the total cations (with concentrations expressed in
mmolc L-1) of the irrigation water must be ≥ 0.3 that leads towards the less use of
water for proficient reclamation process. Rarely a few natural water sources sustain
this ratio while for all other situations use of extra Ca2+ source is required that can be
incorporated by various processes including; 1) application of gypsum into the soil
after subsequent irrigation and/or 2) placement of gypsum stones into the water
channels for the sufficient addition of Ca2+ into saline water. The basic problem for
the conduction of this technique is the unavailability of primary facilities including
collection, transport and reclamation of saline water
9.7.1.5. Electro-reclamation approach
Electro-reclamation approach can be defined as the amelioration process of salt
affected soils using the principle electrodialysis technique. Numerous research
studies including laboratory as well as field experiments reveal that use of electric
current for the reclamation process speed up the reclamation mechanism manifolds
although it is not the complete substitute for the traditional reclamation processes.
This method of soil reclamation has shown some encouraging results which indicate
increased solubility of CaCO3 to supply more Ca2+ to replace the exchangeable Na+.
Moreover, this method created an environment which was effective for leaching of
soluble salts and exchangeable Na+.
It is too early to recommend this method for practical use in agriculture of Pakistan
and elsewhere in the world.
9.7.1.6. Synergistic approach (combination of reclamation methods)
Under certain conditions, reclamation can be speeded up by combining the various
reclamation methods, e.g. a saline-sodic soil having an impermeable layer of 15 cm
width at a soil depth. In this case, use of physical and chemical approaches
collectively may be much better than the use of either chemical or physical method
alone. In most of the cases, this approach is practiced for the reclamation of salt
affected soils at farmers' level.
Combined use of gypsum along with various organic amendments decreased the
salinity/sodicity problem to great extent. Gypsum application with various organic
amendments is reported like gypsum in combination with FYM (Murtaza et al.
1999); gypsum in combination with sesbania green manure (Baig and Zia, 2006);
gypsum in combination with rice husk (Chang and Sipio 2001) shown remarkable
effects in reducing salinity/sodicity problem.
As already discussed, use of gypsum for the reclamation of salt affected soils is a
wide spread approach. However, in a developing country like Pakistan, although
gypsum is available in abundance yet its prospective use is restricted because of the
bitter reality that an amount of more than Rs.28000 per hectare (considering an
average gypsum requirement of sodic soils = 14 Mg ha-1) is needed to purchase the
amendment only. This high price is not acceptable by the small farmers occupying
the greater part of the affected soils. Thus high cost of reclamation process makes it
out of reach approach for common person and there is very low progress regarding
sodic reclamation in county. It is highly recommended that Government should
provide gypsum at subsidized rates on credit to poor farmers.
9.8. Management of Salt-affected Soils

Management of salt-affected soils can be done by following certain measures. These
measures can be divided into two categories, i.e. measures for the management of
reclaimed salt-affected soils, i.e. normal soils, and measures for the management of
salt-affected soils.
9.8.1. Management of reclaimed soils

General measures for prevention of salinization in reclaimed salt-affected soils aim
to protect the soils from the development/reoccurrence of salt build up. These
measures include:
1) Maintenance of a downward balance of movement of salts and water
2) Reduction in the replenishment of the ground waters and ingress of salts
into irrigated areas
3) Reduction in ground water evaporation
9.8.1.1. Measures for maintaining a downward balance of salt and water
movement in the soils
Wherever natural drainage is available or artificial drainage has been provided,
prevention of salination can be done if the balance of moisture movement (water) is
maintained downward in the soil profile, i.e. more water is applied than the amount
of water moving upward in the soil profile under evapo-transpiration forces. This can
be achieved by the use of irrigation depth greater than the consumptive use of crops
or by including such crops in the rotations which require excess irrigation depth (high
delta water crops).
9.8.1.2. Measures for reducing the replenishment of ground waters and
ingress of salts into irrigated areas
i. Planned, rationed water utilization
Planned water utilization can be practiced in accordance with the nature of
the soil, the depth of ground waters, type of agricultural crops grown and
the type of economy in each irrigation system. This effort makes it possible
to reduce the ingress of water and easily soluble salts into the irrigated
territory by as much as 20-30 % of the head water intake. However, this
requires the equipment for water measurement and control.
ii. Water usage according to weather conditions
A study of the autumn, winter, spring and summer weather forecasts should
be done so that in the wet period of time no watering is done.
iii. Control of surplus irrigation

Surplus irrigation water must never be spread in any part of the irrigated
area and flood water has to be controlled.
iv. Control of seepage
Seepage must be kept to a minimum. The losses in areas where the canals
and water courses are not lined may be as high as 45 %. It is necessary to
line the canals and water courses to control the conveyance losses as much
as possible. Good results may be obtained in the initial stages by coating
with clay materials.
v. Remodeling of ancient irrigation systems
Many of the ancient irrigation systems have not been rebuilt. Some canals
lack the requisite hydrotechnical equipment, are meandering and too long.
Measures are needed to reconstruct these systems according to the
requirements of modern agriculture.
vi. Provision of water for domestic purposes
The use of irrigation canals for the delivery of water for domestic purpose
during the period without irrigation must be avoided to control water
seepage. For this purpose, special canals, storage ponds or wells have to be
constructed.
vii. Field leveling
The fields must be carefully leveled under conditions where surface
irrigation methods are used. This practice improves water-use efficiency.
viii. Correct planning for rice growing
Rice requires huge amount of irrigation water. If a greater part of an area is
under rice cultivation, a sharp rise in the ground water may occur. Rice
growing areas must be specially selected. They must lie at some distance
from the main areas of irrigated land, and have good artificial drainage.
Some areas, like the Indus Plains of Pakistan, are suitable only for rice
growing because of the large volume of irrigation water available only
during the summer.
9.8.1.3. Measures for reducing ground water evaporation
Ground water can move from the lower depths to the surface soil where water
evaporates and leaves behind salts. The following measures can help reduce the
ground water evaporation.
i. Plant cover over the field
To reduce ground water evaporation, it is necessary to keep a plant cover
over the field. This is especially important in irrigated farming. Plant cover
provides shade to the field, act as mulch and thus reduce surface
evaporation.
ii. Improvement of soil structure

A granular water-resistant soil structure weakens the capillary rise and thus
reduces the evaporation. Soil structure can be improved by the addition of
organic matter (green manure), stubble incorporation in soil instead of
burning, deep ploughing, cultivation in relation to irrigation schedule, and
avoid overflowing of water after which the soil forms a crust upon drying.
iii. Tree plantation along roads and canals
Strip afforestation slows down the speed of winds and increases the air
humidity thereby reducing the evaporation. On the other hand, the water
consumption of trees is very high, thus the water table is
maintained/lowered.
iv. Use of ground water for irrigation
Some ground waters having salt concentrations under permissible limits can
be used for irrigation. This practice lowers the water table and decreases
direct evaporation.
9.9. Management Strategies for Salt-affected Soils

Management of salt-affected soils can be divided into different aspects including
leaching requirement (LR), selection of salt tolerant crops, irrigation practices,
balanced fertilization, and planting techniques.
9.9.1. Leaching requirement

Part of the irrigational water that has to pass through root zone for the control of soil
salinity problem at a specific level is referred as leaching requirement. It can also be
described as the ratio between equivalent depth of drainage water (Ddw) to the
equivalent depth of irrigation water (Diw). Similarly, LR can be calculated from the
knowledge of the amount of salts present into the irrigation water (ECiw) and the
permissible level of salt concentration in the drainage water (ECdw). Importance of
LR can be depicted by the following simple equation as:
LR = Ddw ∋ Diw = ECiw ∋ ECdw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
Leaching requirement may be demonstrated in fraction form as well as percentage.
The calculations for LR are made by assuming that there is always a steady-state
water flow along with uniform application of irrigation water, no removal of salts in
the harvested crop, no rainfall and no precipitation of soluble salts in the soil. By
considering such assumptions drainage conditions of soil, depth of root zone,
moisture and salt storage in soil, and cation exchange reactions remain neglected. On
the other hand, it is assumed that the soil drainage will permit the specified leaching.
Regarding field crops if ECdw = 8 dS m-1 it can be tolerated and thus formula for the
calculation of LR would be as:
LR = Ddw ∋ Diw = ECiw ∋ ECdw = ECiw ∋ 8
For irrigation waters with EC values of 1, 2, 3, and 4 dS m-1, respectively, the LR

will be 13, 25, 38, and 50%. These are the maximum values because rainfall, removal
of salts by crops, and precipitation of salts in soils are seldom zero. The predicted
value of LR may reduce if these factors are properly taken into consideration.
Equation 1 must be used with great care as the provision of steady-state and/or
longtime average in this case is assumed. In equation 1 average EC of the irrigation
water must be used over averaged longtime for the conductivities of the rain water
(ECrw) and irrigation water (ECiw) as described in the given equation:
EC (rw+iw) = (Drw ECrw + Diw ECiw)∋ (Drw + Diw) . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
Where Drw and Diw are indicating the depths of rain water along with the irrigational
water that enters into the soil respectively. In order to restrain the soil salinity to cross
a specified value, knowledge related to the consumptive use of water is an important
factor if the LR concept has to be under consideration while determining either the
depth of irrigation water that must be applied or the minimum depth of water that
must be drained. The depth of irrigation water (Diw) is related to consumptive use
(Dcw) and the depth of drainage water (Ddw) by the equation:
Diw = Dcw + Ddw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
Using equation 1 to remove Ddw from equation 3 gives:
Diw = Dcw / (1 - LR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
Expressing the LR in equation 4 in terms of conductivity ratio in equation 1 gives:
Diw = [ECdw / (ECdw - ECiw)] Dcw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5)
Thus, the depth of irrigation water (Diw) can explained using the EC of irrigation
water, consumptive use and salt tolerance of a crop. The crop salt tolerance is taken
into account by the selection of the permissible values of EC of the drainage water
or EC of the soil saturation extract.
9.9.2. Crop selection for salt-affected soils

In salt-affected soils, the wise selection of crops that can provide suitable yields (50%
lower) under saline conditions may clearly differentiate between success and failure
of any management option, particularly during early phase of colonization of such
soils. Plant’s ability to endure the hazards of soil salinity within the root zone and
provision of proficient growth is declared as the salt tolerance of the plants. salt
tolerance potential of various plants can be evaluate using the following criteria as:
1) The ability of the crop to survive on salt-affected soils.
2) The acceptable yield of the crop on salt-affected soils, mostly 50 % reduced
yield
3) The relative yield of the crop on a salt-affected soil as compared with its
yield on a normal soil under the similar growing conditions.
The salt tolerance of a plant is not an exact value. It depends on many factors, viz.
environmental and edaphic factors (soil fertility, physical condition of soil, salt
distribution in soil profile, irrigation practices, climate) and biological factors (stage
of growth, varieties and rootstocks). The salt tolerance of some plants is given in
Table 9.6.
Table 9.6 Tolerance of some crops to saline conditions. Salinity expressed as

electrical conductivity
Sensitive Moderately tolerant Tolerant Highly tolerant
(0-4 dS m-1) (4-6 dS m-1) (6-8 dS m-1) (8-12 dSm-1)
Almond Corn Figs Barley
Bean Grain Sorghum Oats Cotton
Clover Lettuce Pomegranate Olive
Onion Soybean Sunflower Rye
Potato Tomato Wheat Wheatgrass
Source: Brady and Weil (2016)
9.9.3. Balanced fertilization

Salinity, sodicity and their combination induce unfavorable nutrient ratios in soils.
Excess of Na+ and deficiency of many macro- and micro-nutrients are common in
sodic and saline-sodic soils. The predominant factors responsible for low nutrient
availability and mobility in sodic soils are high soil pH and poor soil physical
conditions due to dispersed soil matrix because of Na+ dominance. For this reason,
special fertilizer management practices are needed for optimum crop production.
Low organic matter coupled with deficiency of nitrogen is the basic feature of the
salt affected soils. Nitrogen deficiency can be met by adopting the green manuring
technique using sesbania species that also decrease the harms and hazards of
salinity/sodicity. During the reclamation of the sodic soils part of the N may also
leach down along with the other soluble salts and Na+. Some studies that were
conducting in Pakistan (Murtaza 2011) as well as in India (Yaduvanshi and Dey
2009) reveal that application of higher dose of nitrogen than the requirement for the
crops growing under saline/sodic conditions endow with more yield and production
may be due to stimulation of dilution effect coupled with enhanced salt tolerance
potential of plants (Woyema et al. 2012). Yaduvanshi and Dey (2009) and Murtaza
et al. (2014) reviewed a series of experiments and recommended that rice and wheat
crops grown in sodic soils should receive 25-30% N over and above the
recommended rates for non-saline/sodic soils.
Sodic and saline-sodic soils usually have higher available phosphorus than the
normal soils because higher concentrations of Na2CO3 results in the formation of
soluble Na3PO4. On the basis of some studies, it has been proposed that the sodic
soils after reclamation require less additional P fertilizer for some years. Similarly, it
has been suggested that a 50% reduction in the recommended dose of P may be
practiced for a rice-wheat rotation grown up to three years during reclamation
without yield loss. Increasing sodicity nearly always results in a deficiency of Ca2+
concentration in the soil. Fertilizers containing Ca2+ (calcium nitrate, single
superphosphate) or those producing physiological acidity (ammonium sulphate,
urea) perform better than the equivalent rates of Ca-free or physiologically less acidic
materials like NH4NO3 etc. Generally, it is recommended that application of

fertilizers, except P containing fertilizers, to the marginal salt-affected soils should
be done at higher rates (15-30%) compared to their counterpart normal soils in any
agro-ecological zone.
9.9.4. Planting techniques

Under field conditions, it is possible through the modification of planting practices
to minimize the tendency of salts to accumulate around the seed and to improve the
stand of crops those are sensitive to salts during germination. Seeds of a crop sprout
only when they are placed so as to avoid excessive salt around them. The pattern of
salt concentration changes with the shape of beds on which seeds are sown.
9.9.5. Saline agriculture

Saline agriculture is defined as the profitable and integrated use of genetic resources
(plants, animals, fish, insects and microorganisms) and improved agricultural
practices to obtain better use from saline land and saline irrigation water on a
sustained basis. Saline agriculture presents a systematic approach for the utilization
of salt-affected lands involving a combination of salt tolerant crops, crop genotypes
and salt tolerant grasses, trees and shrubs. The components of this system are site-
specific and are changed according to the farmer needs, land capability, locality,
market availability and climatic conditions of the area. Salt-affected lands are mostly
potentially productive although with a lot of spatial variability. Therefore, the
potential of salt-affected land is evaluated and considered to select plants and other
genetic resources for its utilization. Slightly salt-affected lands are used for salt
tolerant varieties of different crops. Moderately salt-affected lands are used for salt-
tolerant trees and grasses and the highly salt-affected lands are used for salt-tolerant
shrubs and bushes.
In the world there are more than 1500 salt-tolerant plants species but in Pakistan less
than 1% of these species are present. The major crops including rice, wheat, cotton
and maize have different tolerance to salinity and associated problems. It has been
observed that these major crops have little or no growth at ECe 15 dS m-1. However,
there is genetic difference among the genotypes of each crop. Rice cultivars KS-282
and NIAB-6 are moderately salt-tolerant which produce about 30-35% more paddy
than ordinary varieties. But rice is only crop that gives best results in water logged
and sodic soil conditions. Salt-tolerant wheat varieties selected by Saline Agriculture
Research Center at the University of Agriculture Faisalabad include SARC-I, SARC-
II, SARC-III, SARC-IV, SARC-V and SARC-VI. Cotton crop is a salt tolerant crop
but problems occur with the emergence in sodic or saline-sodic soils condition.
NIAB-78 and MNH-93 are best salt tolerant cotton varieties.
Salt tolerant trees and grasses include date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), sugarbeet
(Beta vulgaris), wheat and semidwarf (Triticum aestivum), bermuda grass (Cynodon
dactylon), kallar grass (Diplachne fusca), mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) and river salt
bush (Atriplex amnicola). Many of the salt tolerant plants have the potential to rapidly
grow at electrical conductivity ECe ≥30 dS m-1. These other salt-tolerant plants which
can be used in saline agriculture include sugar beet (Beta vulgaris), fig (Ficus
carica), guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba), oats (Avena sativa), papaya (Carica

papaya), rape (Brassica napus), sorghum (Sorghum bicolar), soybean (Glycine max),
Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) and cynodon dactylon species (dela khabbal grass).
9.10. Economics of Soil Reclamation

Crop cultivation on stress soil is usually dejected because of the expensive soil
reclamation process. While the success of any technology is dependent upon its cost:
benefit ratio, economics is always considered a key factor for adoption by farmers.
In most of the studies, economic evaluation of treatments is overlooked. If it is
computed, then only on the basis of variable costs and produce only. The long term
benefits, like appreciation in land value, improved environment, farm-level
employment opportunities etc are not included in economic analysis. Multi-location
research studies that were conducted on salt affected soils of Indus Basin in Pakistan
comparing different amendments for the reclamation of saline sodic soils declare that
gypsum has proved highly cost-effective than acids or acidulents for native soils.
Acids and acid formers for the treatment of native salt-affected soils are not suitable
because of clay mineralogy concerns since considerable chlorite is present in clay
fraction. However, organic matter has no substitute regarding health of normal and
salt-affected soils. The biological reclamation approach, although is cost-effective
than the chemical amendments, but time and amount of irrigation water required to
achieve soil reclamation make it impractical for most of the farmers except landlords.
Small land holding (70% farmers own land <5 ha) is another issue to be considered
while recommending reclamation technologies.
9.11. Conclusion
Soil and water salinity/sodicity are potential threat to irrigated agriculture. Salination
and sodication of millions of hectares of land continues to severely reduce crop
production in Pakistan and rest of the world. Salt-affected soils are classified into
three major categories namely saline, saline-sodic, and sodic. Saline soils can easily
be reclaimed through simple leaching with good quality water without any
amendment even high EC water can serve the purpose during initial phase. For the
reclamation of saline-sodic/sodic soils, there is a need of some Ca-amendment and
gypsum is the most promising. Lower solubility of mined gypsum compared to other
industrial sources is an additional advantage to sustain electrolyte concentration in
these soils. Acids or acid formers can reclaim such soils relatively at a faster rate but
at a much higher cost. Another way to combat the salinity/sodicity of soils is saline
agriculture approach, i.e. cultivation of salt tolerant plants. Along with reclamation
measures, various aspects related to agronomic management like mulching, tillage,
green manuring and seed bed preparation do merit.
References
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Chapter 9

Salt-affected Soils: Sources,

Muhammad Zia-ur-Rehman, Ghulam Murtaza, Muhammad

Muhammad Farooq Qayyum

Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

9.2. Sources of Salts

9.2.1. Parent material and weathering process

9.2.2. Irrigation water

9.2.3. Flood waters and waste effluent

9.2.4. Sea water

9.2.5. Lacustrine and marine deposits

9.2.6. Fossil salts

9.2.7. Chemical fertilizers and waste materials

9.3. Genesis of Salt-affected Soils

9.3.1. Genesis of primary salt-affected soils

9.3.2. Genesis of secondary salt-affected soils

Several factors act alone or in combination to form secondary salt-affected soils.

9.4. Classification of Salt-affected Soils

9.4.1. Saline soil

9.4.2. Sodic Soil

9.4.3. Saline-sodic soil

Table 9.1 Extent of soil salinity/sodicity problem in Pakistan

Table 9.2 Salt-Affected Area (m ha) of Punjab, Pakistan

9.5. Chemistry of Soil Solution in Salt-affected Soils

9.6. Soil Salinity Evaluation

9.6.2. Evaluation of average root zone salinity

9.6.3. Salinity control in the root zone

9.6.4. Salt precipitation

9.7. Reclamation of Salt-affected Soils

9.7.1. Reclamation of saline, sodic/saline-sodic soils

Table 9.4 Amount of amendments is equivalent to one mega gram of gypsum

ii. Organic amendments

Table 9.5 Properties of loam soil as affected by ECe:SARss receiving gypsum @ 50

9.7.1.3. Biological methods

adsorption of divalent cations such as Ca2+ as compared to the monovalent cations,

9.8. Management of Salt-affected Soils

9.8.1. Management of reclaimed soils

iii. Control of surplus irrigation

ii. Improvement of soil structure

9.9. Management Strategies for Salt-affected Soils

9.9.1. Leaching requirement

For irrigation waters with EC values of 1, 2, 3, and 4 dS m-1, respectively, the LR

9.9.2. Crop selection for salt-affected soils

Table 9.6 Tolerance of some crops to saline conditions. Salinity expressed as

9.9.3. Balanced fertilization

materials like NH4NO3 etc. Generally, it is recommended that application of

9.9.4. Planting techniques

9.9.5. Saline agriculture

carica), guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba), oats (Avena sativa), papaya (Carica

9.10. Economics of Soil Reclamation

Anonymous (2011). Statistics of Pakistan. Ministry of Food, Agriculture and

Schoonover, W.R. (1952). Examination of soils for alkali. Extension Service,

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