'~

t' f
'
/
'i
NEW EDITION

I I

,,
.•
I\·

!
J
I

~! ~
l
., v J

1
;l I
,I
i
' J
"
PUBLISHED BY
f 1
,,
~, t ,
J ELECTRICAL
CONSTQWCTION
. 1 ANO MAINTENANCE
t I

,.
10-3
SUCCESSFUL
ELECTRICAL
MAINTENANCE

Practical maintenance principles and methods

for industrial electrical distribution, lighting,
industrial controls, and electric motors.

PUBL/SHED BY
McGRAW-HILL, Inc.
ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE
1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, New York 10020

10.3 Printed in U.S.A. PRICE $4 .00

SUCCESSFUL ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE
New Editio n

Compiled from recent articles in, and copyrighted by,

ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION and MAINTENANCE

1221 Avenue of the A me ricas, New York, New York 10020

CONTENTS

PART I-Modern Electrical Maintenance Techniques in Industry

Modern Electrical Preventive Maintenance Program 7
Power Factor Correction . . . . . . . . ...... II
Effective Large-Plant Maintenance . 12
Electrical Techniques in a Metalworking Pl ant .. ...... . 15
Record Card Guides Motor Preventive Maintenance ....... 20
Tools and Techniques for Effective Maintenance 21
Electrical Maintenance At Republic Aviation 25
Specialized Service For Plant Electronics 30
Effective Motor Bearing Maintenance 34
El ectrical Maintenance for Stee lmaking 37
Se lective Manpower For Organize d Maintenance 42
Cont ract Maintenance A ids Production Re liability 46
Design For Simplified Maintenance 50
PART II-Equipment Testing, Troubleshooting and Maintenance
A Practical Approach to Motor Maintenance 56
Maintenance of Large Moto rs and M-G Set s 61
Trouble-Remedy Chart For Induction Motors . 65
Solving Commutation Probl e ms of DC Rotating Machin es 66
How to Maint ain Oil-Ring Sleeve Bearings 70
Reliable Operation of Fire Alarm System . . ........ 74
Troubl es hooting AC Motor Control C ircu its 79
Effective Motor Control Troubl eshooting 83
How to Maintain Motor Controls . ... ... . .. . 86
Troubleshooting Solid-State Speed Controls . . . . 90
Testing a nd Maintenance of Protective Relays and Circuit Breakers 95
DC Ove rpotentia l Testing of Electrical Equipme nt 98
Power Transformer Preventive Maintenance 0I
Electrical Testing With Portable Ind icating Instruments 02
Know Bearing Types and Functions for Proper Replacement . 06
Do's and Don'ts for Ball-Bearing Maintenance 07
Pump Motor Troubleshooting Chart 08
Capacitors for PF Correction at Motor Terminals 09
Powe r Control With Silicon Controll ed Rectifiers I0
NEMA Configurations for Receptacl es and Plug Caps 14
Checklist On Hazardous Location Equipment 16
Troubleshooting Fluorescent Fau lts 19
Troubleshooting Mercury Bal lasts . ....... 21
Relay Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . 23
Troubl e-Remedy Chart For Industrial Controls ....... . 24
Trouble-Remedy Chart For DC Motors and Generators . . . . . . . . 25
Modern Scaffolding and El evating Platforms . ......... 26
Part I

Modern Electrical

Maintenance

Techniques

In Industry

5
Here are key steps to aid organization LANT operating executives are

and operation of an electrical niaintenance

P well aware of the value of a
successful maintenance program
that minimizes electrical outages
program, designed to promote and keeps production on schedule.
In modern plant operations, un-
continuous production,. scheduled stoppage of .production or
long repair shutdowns are intoler -
able because of the resul tant hi g h
cost of downtime that eats deeply
Oy JOSEPH LONGO, into profits.
J. R. Longo & Sons, :\'lorristown, N. J. Although management realizes
the need for good maintenance, they
sometimes resist the investment in
proper tools, techniques or technical
assistance that provides assurance
of effective equipment performance.
Therefore it is up to the plant elec-
t rical man to show management
how a properly planned electrical
7
ELECTRICAL PREVENTIVE MA INTEN AN CE prog rams should
incorporate inspection of high-voltage equipment in outdoor
substations. Safety of inspectors is o primary consideration.
Procedures include check of superstructure nuts and bolts for
t ightness, air switches for proper operation and signs of cor-
ros•on, cleaning of insulators, and testing of transformer oil.
Service company is equipped to pion, organize ond perform
e lec trical preventive maintenance program for industrial cus-
tomers. Firm uses two-way radio-equipped trucks (right, top)
to speed service.

RECORD ING AMM ETER provides o permanent record of run-

ning current of o c;.riticol motor. Recordings, token perodi-
colly, con be compared to evaluate reliability of required con-
tinuous operation. Clomp-on probe is attached to motor circuit
in motor controller.

preventive maintenance program ALI GNMENT of motor end driven load

can be justi fled. (and mg-sets) should be checked at time
S tep I -Show management that of installation and periodically thereafte r.
preventive maintenance pays divi- In A, the dial indicator reveals angular
dends. Illustrate the advantages to misalignment of shafts. Angular align -
ment is the relationship of the shaft's
be gained through a well-planned oxes in the horizontal plane-the angle
PM: program. You can do this by formed by the shaft's oxes as they inter-
collecting case histories of equ ip- sect (angle Al. The ideal condit ion exists
ment or system breakdowns and by when the shaft oxes of the d riving unit
tabu lating the cost of resultant lost o nd the driven lood o re pa ra llel a nd a ngle
product ion. Then show how t he cost A is zero. In B, horizontal pa rallelism,
o r run-out, is checked by dia l indicator.
of budgeted preventive maintenance This check reveals offset at couplings.
is s ignificantly less t han the cost of A method for checking belted drives with
lost production. Finally, you must o straight edge is also shown.
provide concrete evidence t hat the
program that you r ecommend wi11,
in fact, minimize electrical outages.
S tep 2-Start organizing the pro-
gram. It will be a relatively sim-
ple matter to gather data showing

8
 KEY POINTS to check ot brushes o nd commu to tors on de motors ond
genorolo rs o re: 1. Condition of commutato r-look for undesirable
a tmosphe ric film ond streaking ond threading of commuta tor; 2.
MAI NTE NAN CE OF SOLID-STATE components, such Brush contoct-wotch for excessive sparki ng, check for prope r seat-
os these static light dimmers for stage light ing in o ing of brush to assure intimate con tac t with commutato r; 3. Brush
high school, consists primarily of keeping the equip- holders-bP. sure brushes ore free to move in brush holders, ch eck
ment clean ond cool, inspec tion of components for that brush holders ore or proper distance from commutator; 4 . Brush
loose connections or signs of overheating, check of shunts-look for frayed wires, be sure connections ore tight; 5. Brush
monitoring devices ond recording of readings of am- holder springs--check that uniform pressure is applied to oll brushes.
meters, voltmeters, etc. Keep spore units on hand Generally, proper brush pressure is 2 to 2 !12 lbs per sq in. of cross·
for lost replacem ent m the event of trouble. sectional oreo of the brush.

the cost of iost production. How- "selective maintenance" or "relia- maintenance specialists who know
ever, it is usually a di llicu lt chore bility indexing," r equires an eva l- latest technical developments und
to set u p the budget fo1· t he elec- uation of the equipment accor ding use effective maintenance methods.
trical maintenance program and to to its age, history, environment, and They are equipped with a wide va-
plan its organization a nd operation. duty cycle. riety of modern test equipment, a nd
The program must be effeclh·e and, Step -I-Select the best mainte- car. work in close coordination with
al the same time. its cost must be nance techniques. For each type of plant electrical men to set up or op-
kept to a practical minimum. Do not equipment or system. a variety of erate an effective electrical mainte-
underestimate the importance of maintenance methods may be se- nance program.
t his initial planning. It is through lected. Choose the best methods for The data listed below presents
this planning that you'll be able to your ty.pe of equipment. and deter- basic procedures recommended for
obtain an accurate guide lo cost of mine to what exte nt they should be maintena nce of electrical equip-
the electrical PM program, and will applied. As a n example, it may be ment. This data is presented as
obtain the neces~a ry data lo s how sufficient to check for possible bear- gu idelines to aid in setting up you r
thnt the program will wor k. ing t r ouble on a motor s imply by electrical preventive maintenance
Step 3 - Determine elect rical feeling the beari ng housing for ex- progrnm. In most fostan ces, these
ma intenance priority. Du ring early cessive temper ature, and listening proci>dures must be tailored accord-
planning, determine whether you for unusual sounds. On the other ing to ci rcumstances pert inent to
have proper test equ ipment, tools. hand, it may be better to install each type of equipment.
and tra ined men to apply them. Es- temperatu re monitoring devices and
timate time r equired to perform make inspections using a transis- BASIC ELECTRIC
tests, inspections a nd keep records. torized stethoscope or a vibration MA INTENANCE
Review all plan t equipment and sys- analyzer. Careful t hought a nd eval- PROCEDURE
tems and list all -eq u ipmcn t t hat is uation mu st be applied to each such
cri tica l to ·pr oduction. Then set up s imilar mnintona nce operati on in Mot.ors
an electrical ma intenant:e priority order to an ivc nt Lhe most effective 1. Lubricate regularly according
program designating the most im- ye t practical mainte na nce techn ique. to manufactu rer's instruct ions . I n
portant equipment or circuits at t he Step 5 - Obtain exper ienced poor environments, change oil once
top of the list and the least impor- guidan ce. To s implify th is complex a month. Never over-lubricate; ex-
tant at the bottom. planning, obtai n t he guidance of a cess grease or oil gets into windings
Next, each motor, circuit or senice organization that specializes and deteriorates insulation.
equ ipment should be further classi- in electrical maintenance. Many 2. On essential or heavily used
fied according to its characteristics, electrical apparatus service firms motors, check bearings daily us ing
fu:1ction and inst allation factors . and some electrical contractors offer stethoscope, t hermometer or vibra-
This comparatively new mainte- such services. For example, our tion a na lyzer. Check oi l rings.
nunce concept, sometimes called company is staffed with electrical Wutch for excessive end-play.

9
 ~.R. LONGO .... eoN& 7. Check settings of overload re-
lays and size of protective heater
.. .......,.,
,
coils. Have service organization
make load tests on circuit breakers
on rtST DATA SltEtT and motor overload relays every
r or: Sart~ lc No: three to four years.
Te Jt J\o:
Cu1toucu· · 1 Order >:o :
APPARATUS:
D:ite o( Tu t:
Transform ers
Transfonncr - Sparo
1. Test insulating oil annually.
lbnufacturt:T :
Serl1 l No :
(VA :
i1 ZlS69
JJJ
Tests should include dielectric
C!i l Ions:. 2SO strength, acidity, and color. For
l'At\'JOUS Tl!~TS :
highest degree of reliability, addi-
DIELCCTRIC STRtliCTH (l\'):
ht Tut:
lnll feu:
16
IS
tional tests should include inter-
3rd TH::
Cth Tes t :
facial tens ion and flash point of
5 t h Tut :
Dhlec: trl c A\·~:a so : 17
oil, power factor, high-potential and
ACI DITY (ai,::/a) : . 30 gas analysis tests (see accompany-
JXTt:RFAC tAl. TtNSION: 19.6 ing oil test report).
(dynu/c1tl
DtNSITY ("API): 28.3
2. Make regular inspection of
COLOR: l XH
tank for rust or corrosion. Check
JllASll J>O'INT: tank, fittings, manholes, and gas-
POUR POINT: kets for oil leaks. Inspect pressure-
VISUAL (OSO lTION:
TYPICAL REPORT sub- relief devices, bushings, ground
Clur
mitted to customer by
St:DIMFNT:

CONDITI ON' OF OIL: ...

Heavy

AtCOW>ttNOtD 'fRl!ATMENT: Re - Re!i.n~

service firm shows condi-
tion of tronsformer insu-
connections and protective devices.

Circui t Conductors
lating oil. Tests include
CONJ<E.'ITS :
dielectric st rength, acid- 1. Perform insulation resistance
ity, color of oil, etc. tests annually; on important cir-
cuits perform tests semiannually.
Be sure to record humidity and am-
bient temperature readings for
3. Check air gap between rotor Control Equipmen t (motor con- meaningful test read ings.
and stat or with feeler gages semi- trollers, magnetic contactors, re- 2. Keep conductors free of dirt,
annually. Differences in readings lays, switches, air circuit break- oil and other contamination, par-
indicate bearing wear. Take read- ers, etc.) ticulal'ly at terminals. Provide good
ings in four locations, 90 degrees 1. Keep control equipment clean. mechanical protection. Check tight-
apart, around perimeter of rotor. In poor environments, blow out dirt ness of connections particularly on
4. Check belt tension. Belt should weekly, otherwise clean out quar- equipmen t subject to vibration.
have play of about 1 in. Check drive- terly or semiannually in accordance Consider high~voltage t ests on top-
to-load alignment (see accompany- with degree of contaminalion. priority circuits.
ing diagram). 2. Check for excessive tempera-
5. In sp~t brushes and commu- tures, rust and corrosion, mechan- Fuses
tator for excessive wear. Call serv- ical damage a nd worn gaskets, if 1. Check for proper fuse ratings.
ice company to solve recurring any exist. Annu ally, inspect all fuses to make
problems of brush chatter, exces- 3. Keep contacts smooth. Never sure that circuits are not overfused.
sive brush wear or sparking, streak- lubricate contact surfaces. (This 2. Keep fu se clips clean and tight
ing or lhreading of the commutator. causes dirt or other contamination to prevent overheating and needless
Check spring pressure of brush to collect on contacts resulting in blown fuses.
holders. Pressure should be about poor contact and undesirable burn- 3. Be sure renewable fuse links
2 to 21 lbs per sq in. of brush cross- ing. ) Do not file silver contacts. are of proper s ize. Make sure re-
sectional area. Be sure brush shun ts Check coil and arc chutes for signs newable fu::;es are assembled prop-
are in good condition and that of burning or overheating. erly.
brushes are seated properly. 4. Check for freedom of move- 4. Keep fuse enclosures tightly
6. Keep the motor clean. In poor ment of mechanical parts. Watch closed and secured to prevent pos-
environments, blow out dirt fre- for frayed flexible leads. Do not oil sible sparks from escaping when
quently with dry compressed a ir contactor or relay bearings. fuses blow.
( not more than 50 lbs pressure) . 5. Check contact pressure with
Pull important motors during sum- spring scale. Pressure should be the Capacitors
mer shutdowns or during other same on all contacts. If variation 1. Check for blown protective
down periods for thorough cleaning in pressure is found, replace fuses, circuit overvoltage, and ex-
or reconditioning. springs. On important controls, con- cessh·e dirt or dust which can cause
7. Perform insulation resistance tactors and circuit breakers, check overheating. Dust on bushings can
tests annually. Correlate with hu- contact resistance with low-resist- also cause leakage and possible
midity and temperature readings ance tester (see opening photo). flash over.
to obtain indication of insulation 6. Make sure all electrical con- 2. Check for proper ventilation.
condition. Check that equipment nections are tight, especially on If ventilation is inadequate, relo-
ground connections are tight. equipment s ubject to vibration.

10
cate capacitors, or provide cooling ule, make thorough inspection from sive heat s hortens component life.
baffies or cooling fans. a safe distance using binoculars. 2. Make a regular check of mon-
3. Inspect automatic switching 2. lnspect oil - circuit breaker itoring devices such as ammeters,
equipment if provided. pneumatic operating mechanism voltmeters, pilot lights, etc. Keep a
4. Be sure to discharge capac- weekly. Check gaskets and oil vah'es record of readings, so thnl unusual
itors through a resistance before for leakage. Annually, perform oil readings can be noted and equip-
handling. tests and clean and inspect bush- ment investigated before lrouble
ings. occurs.
High-Voltage Equipment (Work to 3. Inspect switchgear for sign:i 3. I nspect terminals and connec-
be done after proper station shut- of rust, dampness, arcing or burn- tions for looseness or discoloration
down.) ing. Check breaker operation and at least semiannually. Loose C(Jnnec-
l. Inspect ~uperstructure and air perform load tests periodicully. tions or terminals are a common
switches annually. Inspect super- Every 18 months to two ycar!l, in- source of trouble in electronic
stru cture for rust and check nuts spect, calibrate a nd test all protec- equipment. Also inspect. resistors,
and bolts fot· tightness. Check air tive relays. cnpacito1·s, coils, etc., for discolora-
switches for conosion, ease of op- tion or other signs of burning.
eration and proper lubrication. In- Electronic and Solid-State
spect and clean bushings. :\lake sure Equipmen t
conductor connections are tight. 1. Keep electronic and solid-state
Check ground connections and re- equipment clean. Dust out or blow
sistance of ground grid. When sta- out monthly. Be sure equipment re-
tion cannot be shutdown on sched- ceives plenty of ventilation. Exces-

necessary if this arises. l~ eep in tem:;."

Power factor mind. the higher the \'Oltage. the General Electric Co.. Publication
correction lower the current, and consequently GEA-7198B, "Power Capacitors for
the lower the PR losses in your dis- Industrial Applications" and Pub-
QUESTION Q48 - In the ?>lant tribution lines. Normally this is not lication GEA-5632G, "How to Use
w h ere I am employed, we ltauc a noticeable in your electric bill, but Capacitors ."- P.D.
problem with keeping a good power wi!l contribute to lower power out-
factor. put from motors, etc., due to the
Th e system which I am most cm1- voltage drop through the lines. ANSWER TO Q48-The best volt-
eerned with is our 440-volt, 9-phai;c, <'.ge level to operate your motors at
The best, and most economical,
GO-cycle vowe'· systern. W e have ad- approach to improving your power is at na meplate voltage. At voltages
justable trans/ ormer taps so wr can factor is through the use of capac- about 10% above nameplate the
chan.qe our voltage in stevs of 2~% . characteristics generally will rnry
itors. The power company penal-
Whrre is it best to set the 11olta!!c as follows:
izes you for a low powe1· factor be-
for greatest 011erall economics? Is it cause of the "wasted" reactive The .efficiency will increaHe ap-
best to keep nameplate voltage at power furnished to you. Often, lhe proximately .5 to 1 '1; al full load.
the 111ot<Jr. or is it more economical power company wiJI help you in and will drop l to 2<; al one-half
lo be al a slightly higher voltage advising the amount of correction load.
than nameplate? since they must provide extn1 gen- The power factor will decrease
The clause in our power contract erating capacity for this reactive about 3 % at full load and 5 to G<;;.
gives irn creclit if we have higher at half load.
power. Power factor correction
than 80% pf. When speaking for thrnugh the use of capacitors oftc11 Torque and maximum overload
rost (vower· bill), cloes 11wtor effi- creates substantial savings and the capacity will be incr eased about
ciency hclJJ us more than higher pf, 20 1Y, .
investment cost is usually recov-
r>r which tioltaae l evel is /J est for ered quickly. Your best bet is to mid capaci-
011erall 1>crformance?- M.D. Se\•eral manufacturers offer in- tors to bring the power factor up
formation on this subject and pre- nearer to unity. These capacitors
ANSWER TO Q48-First of all, sent clear examples. Rather than can be switched with the molcm; or
the transformer taps have no bear- answer your question specificall.\·, added to the secondary bus.
ing on your power factor. However, 1 suggest you request one or 111ore Capacitors often pny for them-
lo answer your question pertaining of the following publication!\: selves in a very short time because
lo t.he voltage setting, it is cus- Sprague Electric Co.. i\fanual of the savings in demand charges.
tomary to set the voltage al the PF-1000, ·'A Guide to Power Fac- Literature on industrial plant
transformer nameplate rating at tor Correction for the Plant Engi- power factor improvemenl is a,·ail-
the normal running load. I know of neer." able from the major manufacturers
instances where the voltage is ex- Cornell-Dubilier, Bulletin Fl:I- of capacitors.-D.J.L.
cessive on weekends, when the load 81GO, "Power Factor Correclion Ca-
is removed, and a compromise i!:l pncit.ors on Industrial l'owcr Sys-
11
 Effective Large-Plant
Maintenance
Central maintenance operations plus an area maintenance plan keep
dow ntime to a minimum-efficiency to a max imum at GE's Radio Receiver
plant in Utica, N. Y. Here, preventive electrical maintenance and
standardization of equipment are combined m a highly practical,
smoothly operating maintenance program.

By Robert J . Lawrie

REA maintenance and standard- A personal interview with Jim iar with the equipment. In addi-
A ization of equipment greatly
simplify electrical maintenance
at General Electric Co.'s Radio Re-
Wiese, manager of Manufacturing
Engineering at Radio Receiver. is
presented here, giving details of his
tion, standardization helps to keep
our spare parts inventory down.
What type of equipment must
ceiver plant in Utica, N. Y. With electrical maintenance program plus
nearly 200,000 sq ft of manufac- you maintain?
some of his problems and how he
turin"g space in one building and Mostly motor s and controls. We
solved them.
100,000 sq ft in another, distances have a great number of machines
What is mos t s ig nificant about
to be traveled from a central main- e lectrical maintenance a t Radio that wind coils or form parts.
tenance area would be understand- Receiver? And we have several assembly lines
ably great. In addition, centralized Most significant, I would say, is with motorized conveyors. Certain
paper work, s pare parts control and that we have very little unsched- parts of these lines require accu-
other functions required for proper uled downtime. We can't afford rate speed cont rol, such as the sec-
maintenance of this large high- downtime. We manufacture the en- tion where printed boards are sent
production plant would be over- through a dip soldering process. In
tire stock of GE's radios, consist-
whelming. But, with each uni t our plastic-forming area, we have
ing of table models, clock-radio
manager responsible for mainte- models, transistor types, portable several large plastic-forming ma-
nance in his own area, downtime is intercoms, and the soon to be re- chines that form the radio shells.
practically non-existent and efficient leased educational projects. Fin- This equipment has high-wattage
maintenance is easily obtained. Be- ished models come off the Jines at electric heaters and extensive heat
sides area maintenance, Radio Re- an extremely high rate-a down- and speed control.
ceiver has a central maintenance time of 10 to 15 minutes puts us How is your e lectrical mainte-
group to maintain plant utilities way behind. n ance department organized?
and to handle large jobs. How do you keep downtime to Electrical ma intenance is not a
Standardization of electrical a minimum ? separate department. It comes un-
equipment, particularly in produc- Area maintenance and standard- der Plant Engineering, which con-
tion areas, s ignificantly reduces ization of equipment are the major sists of one electrical engineer and
downtime. Hundreds of motors, factors. We originally had central two high-level technicians. These
controls1 and electrical parts used maintenance, but when trouble oc- men are the core of plant mainte-
on various machines and assembly curred, we'd lose too much time nance. They perform all plant plan-
lines are of the same design. This getting to it. Now we have a main- ning and engineering. Under them
facilitates rapid replacement in tenance man in nearly every impor- are two maintenance groups, each
case of electrical failure and allows tant manufacturing area. And, be- consisting of a leader and four men.
a minimum spare parts inventory. cause he associates with the same These two groups maintain the
In addition, because maintenance equipment every day, he can usually plant utilities and handle any large
men have Jess varied types of equip- make repairs quite rapidly. jobs. In addition, there are the
ment to service, they become fa- By standardizing our motors, area maintenance people who serv-
miliar with the selected standard controls, etc., maintenance men can ice and troubleshoot equipment in
type of equipment and maintain it be shifted to other departments, their respective areas. All main-
more efficiently. when necessary, and still be famil- tenance men are carefully selected.

12
 as part of the daily routine. In the
manufacturing areas, maintenance
~ MANAGER OF MANUFACTURING people inspect each motor and con-

l MAN~FACTURING
trol daily. We call it t he "Iook-feel-
smell" test. This test doesn't take
MANAGER OF ENGINEERING long, yet we have caught many po-
tential trouble spots by t his partic-
UNIT MANAGERS ·--------------PLANT FACILITIES ula r method.
Central maintenance people also
(I) Electrical Engineer
perform the "look-feel-smell" test
(2) Technicians during much of t heir daily mainte-

t nance. But on special equ ipment,

we have check lists that must be
t t completed.
Exactly what PM do you per-
AREA CENTRAL CENTRAL form to keep your motors runn ing ?
MAINTENANCE MAINTENANCE MAIN TENANCE
Group I Group 2
If, during the "look-feel-smell"
inspection, a maintenance man finds
Electrical Leeder Mechonicol Leader dirt or grease around t he motor,
plus plus he'll immediately clean a nd blow
(4) Men (4) Men down the motor with an a ir hose
and check for bearing or seal fail-
ure. Once a year, running current
and voltage at each lar ge mot or
ELECT RICAL MAINTENANCE is o port of the general mointenonce program. The (10 hp or over) is checked a nd re-
plant engineering group forms the core of the maintenance program. An electrical corded. Insulation resistance tests
engineer and his assistant direct electrical maintenance. Two central maintenance are performed and r ecorded yearly.
groups perform buildi ng and utility maintenance. One group, heavier with electrical If a motor winding burns out,
men, concentrates on electrical maintenance. In manufacturing areas, each de port- we send it to be repaired. Replace-
ment performs its own maintenance as recommended by Plant Engineering.
ment of worn bearings is t he only
motor-repair work we perform by
ourselves.
They must be alert individuals able Protected by air cir cu it breakers, How do you ma intain your elec-
to handle electr ical maintenance, secondary feeder circu its car r y t ronic s peed-control pane ls ?
mechanical maintenance, or any 480Y /277 volts to various parts of We find them quite reliable. Fail-
other miscellaneous maintenance the plant. And dry-type distribu- ure of these panels, though infre-
jobs that might occur. tion transformers supply 208Y /120 quent, is usually due to a bad t ube.
Do you have a ny electric ians in volts for lighting and miscellaneous We keep spare tubes handy inside
t hese g roups ? loads. or near t he control panel for rapid
The area maintenance people are Do your maintenance people replacement. And about ever y t hree
not licensed electricians. But, after service t he high-voltage appar a- months, area maintenance will blow
receiving t ra ining from our plant tus? out any dust or dirt.
engineering g roup and a fter work- No. I have a service contract S uppose a s peed control fa iled
ing with t he equipment day after with an outside contractor who an d, after replacing t he t ubes, it
day, t hey become quite efficient in maintains all high-voltage equip- s till doesn' t ope rate-what do you
electrical maintenance. ment. Besides performing r egular do?
We have one electrician heading maintenance, t he contractor main- If this happens, and the area
one of the central maintenance tains a stock of spare pa r ts for this man can't find the trouble in five
g roups. Under his leadership, his equipment and he has a t rouble- minutes, he calls electronic tech-
group ha ndles a heavy share of our shooter available if t he need ever nicians from the production test
electrical ma intenance. arises. area. Between t hemselves, they will
Do t hey ha ndle any large elec- Do you have an electrica l pre- decide whether to replace the unit
tricu I ins t a lla tions ? ve ntive ma intenance prog ram? or repair it, whichever is quicker.
No. I've found it cheaper and Yes. Central maintenance carries How do you ma intain switches,
faster to have contractors install out an EPM program, which covers feeders and bus ways?
la r ger electrical jobs. building utilities and special equip- Every month, 440-volt safety
What kind of power distribution ment. Area maintenance people switches ar e blown-out with air.
an d eq uipment do you have? perform EPM as directed by the At the same time, a visual inspec-
The utility company supplies 13.8 unit manager. Electrical preventive tion of the :>witch is made. The
kv on an overhead line. An over- maintenance for each area was 440-volt feeders and all busways
head metered bus runs the length planned and recommended by our are Meggered once a year. These
of the building. From this high plant engineer ing depar tment. Since insulation-r esistance readings are
voltage bus run, feeders extend to each manager is responsible for the recorded fo r future r eference.
five strategically located unit sub- operation and cost of ma intenance Do you ever check electrical
stations. Each substation has either in his own department, he decides connect ions ?
a fu sed ai r switch or oil switch. which maintenance procedur es will On special or important equip-
Transformers step down the pri- be carried out. ment, we'll check connections about
mary voltage to 480Y/ 277 volts. Generally s peaking, EPM occurs once a year. On equipment subject

13
ELECT RON IC TEST equipment, used to AREA MA INT ENANCE MAN checks wir- ELECTRONIC SPEED-CONTRO L UNIT,
check toble-model rodio receivers, is ing ot control panel. On special equip- mounted on column beneath disconnect
mointoined by on electronic technicion ment, connections ore checked once o switch, controls conveyor speed. Radio
ossigned to this oreo. This sensitive equip- year; o visual inspection is made week ly. Receive r finds these units qu ite reliable;
ment not only tests receivers, but, os o Each important areo hos its own main - occasional failure of the speed control is
side effect, olso detects loose connections tenance man. Area maintenance men be· usually due to o faulty tube. Note that
in the buildin g wiring. Becouse o loose come efficient in electrical maintenance spore tubes ore kept close to unit for
connec tion often ores, the resultant high. because they work with the some equip- rapid replacement. And, as on additional
frequency hormonics ore picked-up by the ment doily. And area maintenance sig- time-saver, o spo re fuse of the proper
instruments. Since test technicians connot nificantly reduces centralized paper work size, is kept inside the safety switch. This
:olerote this interference, maintenance and spore-ports control because this quite often soves a trip bock to the stock
must locote and eliminate the trouble. method was adopted. room.

to vibration, we check connections a nd maintenance and testing pro- special rules for electrical safety
every three to six months. We don't cedures. Classes are held once a include: ( 1) No one but a qualified
have much trouble with loose con- week, for two hours. "A" man can troubleshoot or repair
nections. If a loose connection does Do you have an e lectrical s afety 440-volt equipment. (2) Mainte-
occu r , we'll find out about it because program? nance men must work in pairs on
the resultant arcing produces fre- Electrical safety comes under our 440-volt equipment. (3) All 440-volt
quency harmonics which are picked regular safety program. Our main- circuit breakers have interlock
up by the radios and test equipment tenance groups attend a safety keys; maintenance men must lock
in our test area. Because tech- meeting once every three weeks. the breaker off when working on
nicians can't tolerate this interfer- Electrical safety as well as other the line. ( 4) All electrical installa-
ence, they immediately request that accident-prevention rules are dis- tions have a'n equ ipment ground
the interference (usually a loose cussed at these meetings. My own wire installed in the same raceway
connection) be found and elimi- with the power legs. This continu-
nated. A portable radio is a handy ous ground wire insu res a good
instrument for locating electrical ground without depending on the
disturbances. raceway as a conductor.
What electrical spare parts do
you keep? Conclusion
Each area maintains a spare
parts inventory for its own equip- Electrical maintenance at Gen-
ment. Central maintenance inven- eral Electric's Radio Receiver plant
tories parts for building utilities accomplishes its major purpose-
and special equipment. Each area downtime is at a minimum result-
will inventory items such as fuses, ing in maximum production. But
relay contacts and motor bearings. choosing the most effective main-
Items such as busway switches, tenance system was not a quick de-
bu ilding wire and cable, and the like c1s1on. For a number of years,
are inventoried by central mainte- Radio Receiver engineers have been
nance. In addition, we keep one studying and revamping their elec-
spare fuse (of the proper size) in trical maintenance to ultimately
each safety switch. This quite often THREE BUSWAYS, two roted at 480 volts obtain optimum results in their
saves a trip back to the stockroom. and one roted at 208 volts, extend over plant. Comparable industries may
Do you provide your men with the plating oreo. Central maintenance find Radio Receiver's system help-
electrical training courses? performs insulation-resistance tests an - ful in planning their own mainte-
nua lly. Readings ore recorded and com.
Yes. Once a year we program a pored with previous readings; o continu- nance, but each company must make
course covering basic electricity, ing downward trend of resistance readings allowances for their own particular
electrical-equipment fundamental s, indicates foiling insulotion. circumstances.

14
 ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT RESPONSIBILITIES

Design & layout Flexible organization Field supervision

Specification Work-incentive plan Tailor-made job schedules
Equipment selection Data processing Work progress cost reports
Estimating Training of specialists Training of electricians
Maintenance design Electrical PM Proper construction
considerations tools & equipment
Use of outside contractors

Special installations Standard production Special installations

Prod. elec. systems machine tools Prod. elec. systems
Modernizations Nu merically controlled Modernizations
Relighting machine tools Relighting
New construction for Electronic control systems New construction
o ther divisions DC motors & generators,
rectifiers, cranes
Power system components
Lighting

ELECTRICAL DEPAR TMENT OPERATIONS in meta lworking con be grouped into three main categories-design, construc-
plont ore highly diversif ied. Diogrom obove illustrates scope ti on and moint enoncc. Father-son team of chief electricians
of opero t ions ond mojor electrical deportm ent functions, which supervise oil electrical deportment opera tions.

Flexible organization is key to success/ul .••

Electrical Department Operations

In a Metalworking Plant

A comprehensive case study illustrating how a LECTRICAL department opera-

plant electrical department designs, constructs and E tions at the De Laval Turbine
Inc. plant in Trenton, ~- J.,
cover a broad range of responsibili-
maintains a wide variety of electrical systems and ties. Here, the electrical department
not only maintains and repairs elec-
equipnient. trical equipment and systems but
also designs and constructs plant
electrical facilities.
BY ROB ERT J. LA\\' JUE, Associllte E<iitor Plant electrical personnel select,
specify, layout and design or over-
see design of all new electrical in-
stallations. During the design stage,
maintenance aspects of electrical
systems are given careful consid-
eration. As a result, equipment re-
15
ELECTRICAL MODERNIZATION and conversion of a large HIGH-LEVEL LIGHTING in expansive production ond wa re-
foundry to o production machine area included instollot1on house area is provided by very-high-output fluorescent lamps
of modern I 000-wott mercury vapor luminoires in o 60- by powered at 277 volts. Lamps ore group-replaced every two
250-ft high-boy oreo. Ligh ting layout wos designed by chief years. Lamps which appear to be in to p condition ore saved
electrician; installation wos by plant construction e lect ricions. fo r spo t replacement during the int eri m. Cost studies hove
shown that group replac em ent of lamps is more eff icien t than
random replacement.

SILICON-RECTIFIER substation consists of incoming high-vol tage swi tch at CONTROL PANEL for testing moto rized
right, 750-kvo tran sformer, silicon-rectifie r section ot center, ond 250-volt va lves is checked by electrician. Designed
de distribution section o ut of sight ot left. Annual maintenance includes by the chief electrician, panel features
cleaning of air filte rs and re moval of dust from rectifier-cell coo ling fins. wire troughs which aid neat interior
Annunciator in rectifie r sec tion indicates when a silicon cell foil s. wiring arrangement.

liability is increased and mainte- F or example, typical installations Within the 12 main plant build-
nance is simplified. Installat ions in- range fr om a modern, high-capacity ings , a wide variety of manufactur-
clude not only minor changes but s ilicon rectifier de substation and ing processes can be found. Major
also maj or modernizati ons and new complex numerically controlled ma- manufactu ring equipment include;;
bui lding construction. And, in most chine tools to large de generators hundreds of machine tools- includ-
in:;tances, plant electricians per- and nickel-alkaline batteries in- ing g iant lathes, planers and drills
form the required electrical con- stalled over 20 years ago. as well as numerically controlled
stniction. Encompassing approximately machines a nd a variety of de pow-
An effective electri cal mainte- 700,000 sq ft of fl oor space, this ered. electronically controlled ma-
nance program is guided by data mult i-building plant employs over chine tools. Also, scores of de pow-
process ing and optimized by an in- 2000 people. Major products include ered cranes, up to 30-ton capacity,
centive plan. This program incor- steam turbines, centrifugal a nd ro- are installed. Other major proce:;ses
porates practical techniques to tary pumps of many different types, relate to heat treating of metal
maintain modern apparatus and a complete line of compressors and parts, automatic welding, assembly,
systems as well as equ ipment that blowers, marine propuls ion unit3 and to cxterrnive testing, quality-
has been installed for many years. and power transmission products. control, and r esearch.
16
 -~-=
==
.

RELIGHTING of production area was UNIT SUBSTATION serving a production area steps down 4160 volts to
achieved by instollotion of 400-wott 480 volts, 3-wire, ungrounded. Ground Indicators ore ot top of low-
mercury vapor lamps powered at 208 voltoge distribution section. Other substations provide a secondary vol tage
volts. To simplify relocation or removal ot 480/277 vo lts, grounded. Note thot each feeder breaker ponel is
for maintenance, the chief electrician furnished with on ammeter. Annually, CBs ore inspected, cleaned, operated
selected units with integral ballasts. ond lubricated.

As head of the plant engineeriny starts with this unusual combina- have received special training and
department, Richard Hart is re- tion of chief electricians. The elder have become proficient in their spe-
sponsible for costs, planning and Probst is responsible p1·imarily for cially. Within the electrical depart-
overall operati ons related to new electrical maintenance; however, he ment are specialists in instrumen-
construction, modernizations, and is often called upon to supervise tation, electronics, cranes and
maintenance of all plant facilities. electrical construction, or to help hoists, refrigeration, troubleshoot-
Under him is an assistant plant en- select new equipment. The younger ing, and construction. Each man is
gineer who supervises maintenance Probst designs and supervises in- 1·csponsible for work in his partic-
operations; a project engineer re- stallation of the various electrical ular field; however, the electricians
sponsible for design and specifi- construction projects. In addition, arc often assigned to other elec-
cation (except electrical ) , of con- he assists in training of electricians trical work when the need arises.
struction, modernizations or special and is called upon from time to For example, because there is not
projects; and the various depart- time to iron out a particularly diffi- always enough work to keep the
ment foremen. cult troubleshooting or maintenance electronic specialist busy, he may be
Heading up the electrical depart- problem. assigned to instrumentation or con-
ment is a father-son team, Dave Flexibility in the 18-man elec- trol maintenance. Or when there is
and Art Probst. Flexibility of trical crew is particularly signif- a great deal of construction work in
electrical depa1·tment organization icant. Many of the plant electricians progress, troubleshooter s or other
specialists may be assigned to elec-
ELECTRICAL PREV ENTIVE MAINTENANCE trical construction.
CHECKLIST-ALL ENGINE & TURRET LATHES Effectiveness of this type of or-
ganization depends on t he skill and
St eps Check the following: versatility of the electricians. To
develop these skills, the chief elec-
1 Power circuit insula tion resistance tricians spend considerable time in-
2 Motor bearings for wear structing electricians in an on-the-
3 Cleanliness of motors job training program. In addition,
4 Motor temperature the electricians broaden their
5 Air gap on ac motors- 100 hp & up knowledge and gain experience in
6 Brushes, shunts & holders, on de motors other a r eas by assisting other spe-
7 Commutator, riser conn. & mica on de motors cialists on the job. Also, a number
8 Field hot spots- de of the electricians have taken spe-
9 Controls-contacts (burned, pitted, worn) cial courses at nearby schools or
10 Controls-shunts (broken, frayed) colleges.
11 Controls-pins & springs Electrical design performed by
12 Controls-doshpot when used (clean ins.ide, check oil level) chief electrician Art Probst in-
13 Controls-rheostat contacts cludes not only minor alterations
14 Pushbuttons but also major moderni;;ations and
15 Rubber cords for damage or fraying new structures. One project re-
16 Flexible or rigid conduit for damage or looseness cently completed involved a com-
plete modernization of several floo rs

17
NUM ERIC ALLY CONTROLLED lathe fea tures a "dial -in" PLUG-IN PRINTED-CIRCUIT board is inspected by Chief
i npu t rath er t han the conventional tope i npu t . M ai n tenance El ectr ician Art Probst. Panel shown cont rols fu nctions of o
is respon sibi l ity o f on elec tron ic speci alist, o plan t electrician numericall y controlled drill. Component s on c ircuit boards ore
w i th on extensive background in electronics. Maintenance soli d -sta te, consist ing primarily of t ransi stors, silicon con -
inspec1ions ore per formed between production ru ns and during lrolled rectifiers and othl'r semiconductors. Defective boa rds
annual vocation shut down. con be quick ly loca ted through voltag e checks.

of office and engineering space to structed production area. Because accomplished by each electrician is
proYide hi gh er lighting levels, m od- of its inherent reliabili ty and min- r ecorded each day. Each week this
ern commu nication and other ser v- imum maintenance requirements, information is tall ied and compared
ices. In another project, a busway the solid-state rectifier was chosen to progress schedules and budgets
system consisting o f nearly 500 li n- over other types of conversion assigned to that portion of the
ear ft of plug-in bu sway was se- equipment. The de substaLion was work. In this manner. bottlenecks
lected to provide flexible 480-volt sized at 750 kw to provide fo r both a r e located and excessive costs a r c
power take off. ln addition, he de- present and futu r e needs. pinpointed.
signs electrical systems a nd pro- Standardization of br ands and [n addition, these repor ts arc sen t
vides electrical ma in te nance guid- design of electrical equ ipmenL are to Lhe plant engineer and to t he
ance for other Oe Laval divisions. important selection facto rs . This plant data-process ing faci lity so
Electrical systems des ig n, equip- practice of standar dization facili- t hat a con tinu ing overall report of
ment s pecificat ion, etc., a re based tates r apid repla cem ent in case of the project may be maintained. T he
on good desig n practice-safety, re- equ ipment fa ilu r e and minim izes infor mation is also us ed in the op-
liability , eflicienl performance, and spare parts inventory. Another s ig- eration of a work-incentive plan,
the like. :Mor eover, cons ider able em- nificant selection factor is t he ava il- which is discussed below.
phasis is placed on providing fo r ability of spare parts. When two or
simpl ified electrical maintenance at more compara ble apparat us a r e be- M ainte nance Te chniques
the design stage. For example, plug- ing considered for a particular ap-
i n busway is used extensively in plication, the availability of spare Chief Electrician Da,·e Probst iii
production a reas not only because it parts is often a major deciding r esponsible for electrical mainte-
offers economies when relocating factor . nance operations. Because much of
mach ines but a lso because it is After designing a system, Probst the production equipment operates
highly reliable. super\'ises the electrical construc- on job-lot or on varying schedule:;,
In a r ecent installation, 26 1000- tion project. On most j obs, con- electrical in spections or mainte-
watt mercury vapor lamps were in- stn1ction plant electricians perform nance procedures are performed be-
s talled in a high-bay area. The the work. On major pi-ojccts, out- tween production r uns. H owever,
1000-watt un its were selected to side electrical contract or s are called equipment operating in a poor en-
provide the required lighting level in. H owever, to maintain a constant vironment or on a sever e applica-
with the least number of luminaires employment level, in-plant electri- tion is inspected regularly. A typ-
to maintain. Lamps a re plug-con- cians are a ssigned to these projects ical machine-tool E PM (electrical
nected to a 480-volt sou rce and have when regular work loads a re low. preventive maintnance) inspection
ballasts integral with the fixture. After much experience, the elec- procedure is shown in accompany-
T hen, if either a ballast or a lamp t r ical construction crew has devel- ing illus tration.
fails, the entire fixture can be easily oped considerable skill in their Work-incentive plan - An out-
removed for repair or be replaced work, and the electrical department standing program at De Laval is a
with a s pare unit. has accumulated a variety of con- plant - w ide work - incent ive plan
In another instance, a s ilicon rec- struction tools and equipment to in- which increases productivity of em-
tifier de substation was selected to cr ease work efficiency. ployees. When a worker exceeds es-
provide de power for m achine tools To maint ain cost control and stay tablished production standards, he
and test equipment in a newly con- within t he assigned budget, work is rewarded accor dingly. The plan

18
DC GENERATORS instolled for mony yeors ore driven by NICKEL-ALKALI NE batteries afford standby de power for
steom turbines. Four units roted 400, 600, 750 and 1250 kw essential product ion mochinery. Twin rocks conta in nearly
supply de power ot 250 volts for production machinery, 200 batteries. Battery charging motor-generator set on floor
crones, hoists and controls. Brushes, brushholders, shunts, in background maintains trickle charge on battery. Automatic
commutators, etc., ore regularly inspected by powerhouse transfer controls ore ot left. Maintenance consists primarily of
electrician. Annually, insulot1on-resistonce tests ore per- keeping battery terminals clean and mainta ining proper bat-
formed and the commutotor turned down if required. tery woter level.

covers electl'ical depar t ment em- similar inspection with the addi- distribution circuit breakers. Main-
ployees and has been quite suc- tional inspection of bn1shes, brush- t enance consists primarily of clean-
cessful. holders, shunts, commutators, mica ing the air filters in the rectifier
To initiate the program, De Laval and riser connections. cooling system, removal of any dust
hired a cons ulting firm to make Annually, ins ulation - resistance from rectifier-cell cooling fins, in-
detailed time s tudies of all work tests are performed on large or es- spection and test of control anti
performed by hou rly employees. sential motor s. One megohm is the annunciator systems. The annunci-
Electrical construction and mainte- minimum accepted reading. All ator system will indicate when a
nance work elements were deter- readings are recorded to provide an silicon rectifier cell fa ils. The in-
mined and ti me required to accom- indication, over a period of time, of coming ac switch and the de dis-
plish each was established. t he condition of the motor. A con- tribution circu it breakers are
As the elect1·ician performs a tinuing downward trend of read- checked for s igns of corr os ion or
maintenance p1·oceclure, he records ings indicates failing insulation. dirt; are cleaned, lubricated anc
time applied to each work element Main distribut ion feeders, both operated.
on the pertinent EPM check s heet. primary and low voltage, receive Maintenance of the numericaJly
All work performed is accounted for annual insulation-resistance t ests. controJled machine tools and other
in this manner. Weekly, the EPM Oil circuit breakers, of which there electronic controls is the responsi-
check sheets are sent to the plant are many, receive an annual inspec- bility of the electronic specialist.
data-processing facility for compu- tion; oil is drained, checked for Both tube-type and solid-state con-
tation and determination of the sludge and contamination and the trol systems are instaJled. In ad-
electrician's performance. If he has contacts are inspected. dition to maintenance check-ups
exceeded standard performance, he Maintenance of a large bank of during machine downtime, these
receives a bonus; if not, he receives nickel-iron alkaline batteries, which control systems receive a thorough
his normal salary. The work-incen- provide a standby de su pply for es- EPM inspection each year. This in-
t ive program is well planned to pro- sential de-powered machine tools, is cludes removal of dust, inspection
vide just rewards and recognition comparatively s imple. The installa- for rust or corrosion, inspection of
for effi cient workmanship. As a re- t ion, which has been in use for 20 contacts, relays or other moving
sul t, not only do the plant electri- years, cons ists of nearly 200 cells parts, inspection of electronic com-
cians heartily approve of t he system (each cell is rated 1.3 volts) , a ponents and circu it boards for over-
but also work effi ciency is greatly motor-generator set and related heated parts or loose connections.
increased. controls for battery charging, and Although t he electronic system
Preven tive maint enance-Regu- automati c t ransfer equipment. have been quite reliable, trouble-
larly scheduled EPM is performed Maintenance of the batter y consists shooting is a major concern because
on essential or expensive equipment primarily of keeping the current- downtime on the highly produc-
or on a pparatus that appears to be carrying t erminals clean, and main- tive numerically controlled machine
in need of attention. Production mo- taining the proper water level in tools is costly. To speed trouble-
tors are lu bricated on a n annual each cell. Water level in a pilot cell shooting, t he electronic specialist,
basis. After lubricating n motor, is checked weekly. Annually, the who has extens ive background in
the electrician wipes dcwn the mo- motor-generator set, transfer equip- electronics, has spent considerable
tor, inspects for unusual build-up ment and controls receive a thor- time studying t he circuit diagram~
of dirt, checks to see if the motor ough preventive maintenance in- and becoming familiar with the
is running hot ( if he cannot keep spection. machine functions. The solid-state
his hand on the motor, it may be The silicon rectifier substation control systems are modular wiU-
overheated) , and listens for any receives an EP:M: inspection each components mounted on plug-ir
unusual sounds. Any anomalies year. The substation consists of printed-circuit cards. This feature
which cannot be rectified on the 5-kv incoming switchgear, a 750- often reduces troubleshooting tc
spot are recorded on a motor record kva, askarel - fiJled transformer, locating the defective card through
card for future attention. banks of silicon rectifier cells, pro- voltage-check test points and re-
Direct-cunent motors recei\'e a tective devices and controls, and de placing it with a spare card.
19
 ELECTRIC •DTOll CONTROLLED llAlllTEllAllCE MOHTitl. Y IHSPECTIOH
CMOMO. OAT! CHeOKl!tl

VOLTS Ttlil'. MTillC llUJllllGS

-~o. PttAS1: CYCW
!XCUS llOl1t
1!'.IUAL HO. IHUAU.ATIOH DATE
EXCeSSHUT
SPUD
llEARIHGS
MAIHTEMAKCI! RECORD VOl.'ll
0SLUV£ QllAU. Ql!OlW

·=:::;o,
GlttASl!TY~
~

Cl~

C:ltWfCYCL.t IN!ULA1ION
COUPLINQ TYPf llllUIHQ
llllUSHltO.
DATI! Of PIJRCHMf. I C<MlllTATOlt
OIJlt OllDfR HO, re~cmv111.
"LUS-CHAUIERS AU'!llORl?EQ SERVICE SllOP AllQl;MeHT
l.UB"ICATf
~ --·- ·- ·-

Record card guides

motor preventive maintenance
At a luxury apa1·tment complex in Philadelphia,
a standard record-card system simplifies motor
maintenance planning, scheduling and record-keeping.

HE key to successful motor The back of the card serves as a

T maintenance at the Park Towne
Place apartments in Philadelphia is
check list for maintenance inspec-
tion. Although the card lists 13 in-
a simple record-card system. Here, spection points, emphasis is placed
motor maintenance procedures and on "excess noise," "excess heat,"
paperwork are reduced to a prac- "clean" (cleanliness of motor and
tical minimum yet dependable mo- nearby area), "excess vibration"
tor performance is achieved. and "lubrication." In general, fhp
The system uses cards obtained motors are not inspeeted; however,
from a major electrical . manufac- large or important motors receive
turer. A card for each motor in- frequent inspection.
stalled in each of the four 19-story Each month, the plant manager
apartment buildings is kept in a goes through the motor card file re-
master fi le. By referring to these moving cards of motors due for in-
cards, the plant manager sched- spection or maintenance work.
MOTOR MAINTENANCE at 4-building
ules motor inspections and plans When the maintenance crew com-
apartment complex is directed primarily any motor maintenance work re- pletes the inspection or work, ap-
at large integral-horsepower motors, such quired. The cards provide space for propriate information is marked on
as those shown above. F·roctionol horse- all pertinent information. No other the card and it is returned to the
power motors ore not regularly inspected, paper work relative to motor main- file. When unusual test results are
except for those related to important fa- tenance is required. reported or special work is re-
cilities.
Illustrated at top of page are the quired, a notation is made on a mas-
front and reverse sides of a motor ter maintenance schedule.
maintenance card. The front of the Annually, most motors receive a
card provides space for motor thorough check-out, which includes
nameplate data, location of the mo- insulation resistance tests, voltage
tor, type of bearings, etc. Under and current checks, thorough clean-
"Maintenance Record," all° repairs ing, inspection of bearings, cou-
performed, unusual variations, test plings and accessor·ies. In some in-
results and similar data are r e- stances, motors ar e dismantled for
corded. complete inspection and cleaning.
20
Tools And Technique s
For Effective
Mai ntenance
Here's how a la rge manufacturing plant achieves effective electrical maintenance
through skillful organization and planned preventive maintenance using proper tools
and modern methods.

By Robert J. Lawrie

UCCESSFUL electrical mainte-

S nance at the plant of The Singer

Manufacturing Co., Elizabeth,
N. J., is the result of a carefully
planned preventive maintenance
program coupled with t he capable
application of modern maintenance
methods. Here, t he electrical de-
partment maintains and repairs
highly automated systems as well
as apparatus t hat had been installed
many years ago. And to accomplish
effective maintenance of t his equ ip-
ment, plant electricia ns utilize a
complete complement of electrical
maintenance equipment and tools.
In addition to s mall por table de-
vices such as voltmeters, ammeters,
brush-spring tension testers a nd a
t ransistorized stethoscope for
checking motor bearings, mainte-
nance equipment used includes a
5 0 0 - v o 1t insulation - resistance
tester, a spark-gap oil dielectric
tester and a portable oil-filtering
unit. Proper methods of using this
equipment and interpreting test
results a re discussed later on.
Several of t he Singer Co. build-
ings, constructed more t ha n 50'
years ago, have .been modernized
SYNCH RO NOUS CONVERT ER roted 300
kw, 250 volts a nd insta lled many years
and are s till in use. In addition,
ago now acts a s spore for m ercury-ore several new buildings plus many
rectifiers. Converte r is kep t ready for use installations of modern, highly ad-
through scheduled elec trical maintenance vanced equipment have been added.
which inc ludes periodic test operation, Today the sprawling plant includes
insulation- resis tance tests, commutator MERCURY-ARC RECTIFIER BANK, 11 major buildings encotnpassing
and slip-ring inspec tion. roted 300 kw, 250 volts supplies bat- one and one-half million sq f t.
tery-charging equipment, va rious de Major equipment includes auto-
motors and field cu rrent for nearby mated conveyor-assembly lines,
large synchronous motors. Sponge-like
jackets wra pped around water-cooled
large aluminum die-casting ma-
tubes absorb condensation which occurs chines, induction and resistance-
on su rface of tubes. type electric furnaces, plating ap-

21
paratus and hundreas of metal- PRACTICAL TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR
working machines. Service equip- EFFECTIVE ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE
ment includes 18,000 kva of pri-
mary transformers, extensive Tools o r equipment Application
switchgear, several unit substa- 1. Multi-meters, voltmeters, ohm· Measure circuit voltage, resistance, current and
tions, large synchronous motors meters, damp-on amme ters, power. Useful for circuit tracing and trouble-
driving air compressors, and de wattmeters, clamp-on P.F. meter shooting.
convers ion apparatus .consisting of
modern mercury-arc rectifiers as 2. Potential and current tra ns· Increase range of test instruments to permit read·
well as a 300-kw rotary converter. formers, meter shunts ing .of high-voltage ond high-current circuits.
In the following personal inter- 3. Tachometer Checks rotating machinery speeds.
view, A. B. Young, electrical main-
tenance department manager, de- 4. Recording meters, instruments Provide permanent record of voltage, current,
scribes his maintenance program power, temperature, etc. on charts for analytic
and how modern electrical mainte- study.
nance tools and techniques are ap- 5. Insulation resistance tester, Test and monitor insulation resistance; use ther-
plied. th ermometer, psychromeler mometer and psychrometer for temperature-
humidity correction.
How is your electrical maintenance 6. Portable oil dielectric tester;
---
Test OCB, transformer oil or other insulating oils.
program organized? portable oil filter Recondition used oil.
Electrical maintenance is part of 7. Transistorized stethoscope Detect faulty rotating machinery bearings; lea ky
our over-all maintenance program. valves.
Under the plant engineer, the chief 8. Air ga p feeler gages Check motor o r genera tor air gap betwe e n rotor
maintenance engineer keeps a a nd sta tor.
broad control over electrical, me- 9. Cleaning solvent Removes grease or dirt from motor windings or
chanical and other phases of main- other electrical p a rts.
tenance. Under the chief mainte- 10. Hand stones, (rough, medium Grinding, smoothing and finishing commutators
nance engineer, the electrical de- fine); grinding rig; canvas strip or slip rings.
partment manager plans electrical 11. Spring tension sca le Checks brush pressure on de motor commu tators
maintenance procedures, controls or on ac motor slip rings; tests electrical contact
electrical preventive maintenance pressure on relays,_s!arters or contoctors.
and supervises the electrical crew. Use magnifying glass to examine brushes, com·
12. Magnifying glass,
The electrical maintenance crew binoculars mutators or small electrical contacts or parts;
consists of an electrical foreman, binoculars allow close inspection of remote or
ass istant foreman and about 40 high-voltage parts.
first-class and second-class electri-
13. Motor rotation tester Checks d irection of motor rotation before con·
cians and helpers. nection.
Preventive maintenance and -14. Oscilloscope, vacuum-tube volt- Used for electronic circuit testing.
electrical repair work is scheduled
meter, high-impedance meters
by t he foreman . Repair work orders
are submitted to the electrical de- 15. Variable autotra nsformer Allows testing of circuits at reduced voltage.
partment manager, who gives 16. low-resistance tester Checks low-resista nce paths of electrical contacts,
priority to work orders according switches, etc.
to urgency before sending them on
to the electrical foreman . Electrical 17. light meter Indicates light intensity.
preventive maintenance is sched- 18. Portable capacitance and re· Provides accurate readings of capacitance and
uled according to a file card system. sistance bridge resistance.

How does your EPM (electrical 19. Electricians standard tools Disassembly or repair of electrical equipment.
prevent ive maintenance) program (fuse-pullers, wire cutters,
oper ate? scre wdriver, e tc.)
Our EPM is part of the general 20. Safety equipment (rubber Provides for safe a nd efficient electrical mointe·
preventive maintenance program, gloves, boots, mots; grounding nonce.
which is set up on a planned and sticks)
scheduled basis. Using a file card
system, a ll s ignificant equipment
is scheduled for inspection and men, who schedule the work to be and time required to accomplish it.
maintenance procedures. Pertinent completed during the month. At the This report is sent to accounting
data such as repairs, insulation- end of the month, completed cards where cost-accountants ascertain
resistance readings or oil dielectric are returned to the file. the labor cost of each PM proced-
test results are marked on the card On some cards, daily and week1y ure. Accounting then sends the re-
providing a permanent record for inspections or procedures are in- port to the maintenance clerk who
future refere.nce. dicated. The foreman keeps dupli- checks that all daily and weekly PM
At the beginning of each month, cates of these cards to assist him work is being accomplished accord-
the maintenance clerk removes PM in planning the daily PM schedule. ing to schedule. In addition, the
cards marked for that particular At the end of each day, the fore- report serves the department man-
month from the file. These cards man makes out a time-charge re- ager as a guide to labor costs of the
are given to the various craft fore- port, listing each PM assignment various maintenance procedures.

22
What kind of power distribution Also, certain high-power process
and equipment do you have? equipment such as electric furnaces
The utility supplies 26.4 kv to our and die-casting machines receive
outdoor substation where three insulation-resistance tests annually.
4000-kva transformers and one
6000-kva transformer step-down the How do you perform these ins ula-
primary voltage to 2aoo volts. tion-resistance tests?
Connected delta-delta, these trans- Because our portable, hand-
formers feed current through 2000- driven l\1egger operates at 500
amp OCBs and disconnect switches volts, we make certain th.at the
to a main bus in the power house. equipment scheduled for tests are
From the main bus, 2300-volt feed- rated at 480 volts or more. Before
ers energize ten unit substations connecting the instrument, the elec-
which supply the 11 main build- trician makes a careful safety
ings. Oil circuit breakers, rated check. He makes certain that the
800 and 1200 amps protect the equipment scheduled for test is
2300-volt feeders. completely disconnected from all
power sources. All safety switches
What electrical maintenance MA IN CO HTACTORS for induction melt-
are opened and he makes su re that
equipment and tools do you use? ing furnace p0wcr circuit are examined motor starters or other control
Small portable devices that we by electrical engi nee r George P. Dan- equipment cannot accidentally ener-
utilize include : voltmeters, clamp- cisin. Tap contacta rs carry high power gize t he apparatus.
on ammeters, clamp-on power fac- current; lower pair is connected in re- Next, the electrician checks his
to1· meter, commutator grinding d uced power circuit. Maintenance inspec- instrument for accuracy. First, he
tion includes check of spring pressures, tests for an infinity reading by op-
stones, scale fo r checking brush electrical contact surfaces, coil voltage
spring tension, light meter, a tran- and mechanical linkages. erating the tester with the test
sistorized stethoscope fo r checking leads not connected. Second, he
motor bearings and an industrial tests for a zero read ing by short-
analyzer. motor bearing a purring sound is circuiting the test leads and turn-
Other portable equipment that heard, the bearing is usually nor- ing the instrument handle slowly.
has proven to be very useful in- mal. On t he other hand, a thump- Following these checks, the elec-
cludes an insulation-resistance ing sound or a rough grinding trician obtainn insulation-resistance
tester, spark-gap oil dielectric sound indicates a failing bearing. readings of a conductor to ground
tester, and an oil filtering unit. .Mechanical maintenance people or between two conductors, or
use the stethoscope to detect water both. Insulat ion readings from
How is a trans istorized s tetho- leaking through valves or other conductor to ground are obtained
s cope used? plumbing fixtures. by connecting the "Line" test lead
The stethoscope, equipped with a to the conductor and the "Earth"
transistor-amplifier, is used to as- What equipment receives insula- test lead to ground. For the test
certain the condition of motor bear- tion-resistance tests? between conductors, the test leads
ings. A little practice in interpret- We test ou r 2300-volt cables are connected to the two conductors
ing what is heard through it may every two months. Annually, we to be tested.
be required, but in general, it is test our 440-volt lines, large t rans- After proper connections have
relatively simple to use. If. when formers and motors and generators been made, the electrician turns the
the stethoscope is applied to a including switches or starters. inst:·ument handle at an even speed

CONT ROL CONSOLE for highly automated conveya rized line HUND REDS OF RELAYS, connected in the control circuitry
provides cen tralized control of modern se wing -machine assem- for the automated sewing-machi ne line, are inspected
bly line. Completely automated assemb ly line uti lizes various monthly. Relay panel is blown down with an air hose to re-
types of control devices including limit swi tches, proximity move dust; connections arc checked for tightness a nd con tac ts
swi tches, photo cells and hundreds of re lays. are inspected for signs of arcing or burning.

23
for about one minute. At the end
of this time. the insulation-resist-
ance value is recorded.
Because temperature and humid-
ity have profound effects on insula-
tion-resistance readings, tempera-
ture and humidity at the apparntus
a1·e 1·ecorded immediately after the
test. rn addition, pertinent consid-
erations are noted such as condition
of the immediate area-wet location
or excessive dust, whether the ap-
paratus had been in operation prior
to the test or had been at rest for a
prolonged period of time. Consider-
ing these factors, we can make a
valid interpretation of the insula- POWER SWITCHBOARD controls moin-feeder oil circuit breakers. Ponels contoin
tion-resistance readings. voltmeters, ammeters, wottmeters, and power-factor me1ers. Ponels ot right control
250-volt de power distribution.
now do you inter pret ins ulntion-
resistnnce readings?
First, the insulation-resistance
reading is corrected for tempera-
ture using a temperature-correction
chart supplied with the tester. As
a rule of thumb, we feel that our
600-volt insulation is normal if the
corrected resistance value is one
megohm or mwa Howew~ a~
ceptance of this value is not always
tangible. For example, if the ap-
paratus is subject to excessive hu-
midity or is very old, a lower read-
ing may be normal. The best check
is the trend of resistance values
over a period of months 01· years.
rf for many months an apparatus
insulation-resistance reading re-
mains constant at a low value, it
usually indicates a normal operat-
ing condition. On the other hand,
high resistance readings which
show a continuing downward trend
over a period of time indicate fail-
ing insulation.

How do you perfor m a n oil dielec- ELECT RICAL EQUI PME NT located in die-costing mach ine oreo typifies diversified
t ric test? maintenance. Arrows point out equipment: ( 1) die:casting machine control panels
We have a portable spark-gap oil ore periodically cleaned, connections checked; (2) 4-in. wirewoy simplifies addition
dielectric tester that we use pri- or replacement of conductors; (3) dry-type tronr.former requires little maintenance
marily to test oil in our large trans- other than periodic cleaning; (4) industrial fluorescent fixture hos translucent cover
formers and in our oil circuit to preclude dust; (5 ) emergency lights ore tested periodically by unplugging flexible
cord; (6) buswoy receives insulation-resistance tests annually.
breakers. To test oil in the 2800-
volt OCBs, the electrician first
takes oil samples from both the top examination shows that the oil is filter effectively removes suspended
and bottom of the breaker oil tank. darkened or discolored with carbon solids and most moisture.
It is important that oil-sample bot- or sludge, it is replaced or recondi- Use of the oil filter is quite sim-
tles be clean and dry. tioned (even if it passes the dielec- ple. Circuit-breaker oil is pumped
Oil samples are poured into the tric test) . If the oil breaks down into the unit, through the filter and
test machine container. The oil before reaching the 22-25 kv level, back into the circuit breaker in one
covers two sphereoid electrodes, the circuit-breaker oil is either re- operation. After all the oil is back
which a re separated by a small gap. conditioned or replaced. in the breaker, oil samples are taken
Next, a high voltage is applied and retested for dielectric strength.
across the electrodes gradually in- How do you recondition ins ulating In addition the oil samples are
creasing up to 25,000 volts. If the oil? submitted to ou r chemical labora-
oil can withstand a 22 to 25 kv When insulating oil must be re- tory for acidity tests. If the acid
stress, it indicates that the oil is in conditioned, it is pumped through number is over 1.0 for 3 tests, the
good condition. However, if visual our portable oil-filtering unit. This oil is 1·eplaced with new oil.

24
Data-Processing Guides •••

Electrical Maintenance
At Republic Aviation

Modern. maintenance operations incorporate a well-planned electrical pre-

venti.ve m.aintenance program using data processing to schedule ?Vork and
lreep records. Latest maintenance procedures for numerically controlled
machine tools and electronic equipment are featured.

IlY ROBERT J. LA WIUE

LECTRICAL maintenance at wide variety of manufacturing

E Republic Aviation Corp., Farm-

ingdale, I.:. I., N. Y., plays a
major role in a master plan de-
processing can be found. Main
process equipment includes many
types and sizes of metalworking
signed to provide optimum mainte- machines-including 24 numeri-
nance at minimum costs. Key to cally controlled machine tools; hun-
this successful plan is a thorough dreds of electronically cont1·01led
preventive maintenance program, resistance spotwelders; large heat-
which is directed by a Maintenance treat furnaces ; both 400-cycle and
Control group. This group, gu ided de portable generators equipped
by pertinent information derived with electronic voltage regulators;
from a data processing system, effi- plating equipment; a foundry; ex-
ciently schedules maintenance in- tensive test and quality-control fa-
spections and r epair work, and cilities, and a research and develop-
maintains accurate work and cost ment center.
records. A significant portion of
the program concerns electrical Organization lor Maintenance
maintenance because of the exten-
sive production and support facili- The accompanying block diagram
ties, including a complex 50,000-kva illustrates the maintenance depart-
power distribution system. ment organization. The mainte-
Spread over 600 acres are 62 ma- nance superintendent, Nick Harris,
jor buildings which encompass is responsible for costs, planning
nearly 3 million sq ft devoted to pro- and over-all operations. Under him
duction, test, research and devel- are the departmental maintenance
opment engineering and other heads and a Maintenance Control
support facilities. The primary group.
product produced is the famed Heading up the electrical main-
F-105, a supersonic jet aircraft. To tenance operations is the chief elec- SUPERSON IC JET, the F- 105 fighter-
bomber is token through finol assembly
produce these complex aircraft, trician, Edmund Ransom. His stoges prior to pre-flight check out. Huge
which are heavily laden with elec- department, consisting of 67 indus- Republic plont encompasses over 600
tronic equipment, nearly 14,000 trial electricians, is divided into acres. Power distribution hos a capacity
workers are employed. Also, com- four groups- (1) electrical con- of 50,000 kvo; modern monufocturing
ponents and systems for other air- struction; (2) electrical service, focilities include large instollotion of com-
craft and for space applications are who perform electrical preventive plex numerical-control machine tools.
Portoble 400-cycle and de generators,
produced at Republic. maintenance and routine work; (3) which supply oircroft power during vari-
Within the sprawling plant, electronic, a group of 15 industrial ous construction phoses and testing, con
which resembles a small city, a electricians who through training be seen between rows of aircraft at left.

25
 Maintenance
Superiniendenl
I
I I I I I
Special
protects
engineer
Maintenance
control
supervisor
NC maintenance
supervisor
I Chief
eleclricion
I Mechanicol
supervisor I Transportation
supervisa

Plant
I
Secrelary j
I
Electronic
Doto processing technicians
facility. ---- -- -- ---- (trained plant
electri cians)
mechanical
I I techni cians
Analysis-estimating PM Schedulirig S Equi pment
Ana lyzes PM records. inventory.
reports, equipment Monitors PM Maintains
rec0<ds, man power program. equi pment
performance records
to meet govt
specifications
I I I
MAINTENANC E ORGAN IZATION utilizes plant data- Elect rical Electrical Electronic Doors S hoists
processing foe ility and maintenance contro l deportment construction. service. service electricians.
to schedule wo rk end keep records. Electrical deportment Performs new Performs (trained plant Service
is divided into four groups-construct ion, service, e lec- coostruction ond electrical electricians). electric doors;
Ironic and doo rs and hoists. Numerical-control deport- equipment preventive Maintains plont elevators, ooists
ment is seporo ted because of complex nature of work; changes mointeronce electronic
most NC main tenonce men ore trained plant electricians. equipment

and experience have developed con- mechanical maintenance required. electronic equipment. To set up the
siderable skill in electronic mainte- The maintenance control group, EPM program, the maintenance su-
nance ; and ( 4) the doors and using a punched-card data-process- perintendent held a series of meet-
hoists service group. ing system, plan and schedule all ings with the chief electrician, the
Maintenance of numerically con- preventive maintenance inspections electronic maintenance foreman
trolled (NC) machines is accom- and repairs. The data processing and the NC maintenance super-
plished by a separat e department system s implifies and speeds paper- visor. At these meetings, all plant
because of the highly complex work, provides for "on-time" sched- equipment and systems were an-
nature of the NC machine tools in- uling of equipment inspection, al- alyzed as to maintenance require-
stalled. Most machines have "con- lows scheduling according to ments. Factors considered included
tinuous-path" functions, which re- manpower availability, and affords (1) need for reliability; (2) past
quire more intricate circuitry t han an analysis of maintenance costs. performance records; ( 3) duty;
do "point-to-point" units. However, The electrical preventive main- (4) environment; (5) age ; and
many of the NC maintenance tech- tenance ( EPM) program covers the ( 6) accessibility or availability for
nicians are plant electricians who vast power distribution network, maintenance. From t hese studies,
have been trained to perform the production and research equipment they were able to make concrete
electrical, electronic, hydraulic and including the NC machine tools and recommendations as to what to in-

NUMERICAL-CONTROL plug-in circuit cord receives opera· 4 00-CYCLE portable generator is equipped with on electronic
tionol test on special module test panel in NC maintenance voltage regulator. Calibration and tests con be performed
shop. For testing and troubleshooting, technicians also use at the generator location with portable equipment (left). Fred
dual -trace oscilloscopes, on oscillogrophic recorder, vacuum· Miller, e lectronic maintenance foreman (standing), checks
tube voltmeters, multi-meters, and clomp-on ammeters. generator output.

26
ELECTRONIC TROUBLESHOOTING and testing of solid-state RESISTANCE SPOTWELDER is monitored by dual-trace oscil-
voltage regulators is facilitated with special test panel arrange- logrophic recorder. Instrument provides continuous oscillo-
ment. Lorge panel at left supplies on adjustable de output grophlc recording of test-point waveforms for comparison with
to precisely regulated inverter on top of test-jock output reference waveforms. Welder panels contain vacuum-tube
ponel. Panel supplies 400-cycle output at 115/200 volts, control circuits and ignltron or thyratron power circuits. Elec-
single or 3-phose; or 28 volts de. Assembly on bench ot left tro nic troubleshooting and maintenance is performed by
is o 400-cycle portable reference regulator. Plant electrician train ed plant electricians. Maintena nce inspections ore sched-
is checking o 400-cycle generator regulato r with multimeter. uled through th e punched-cord dote-processing system.

ELECTRONIC CONTROLS for spotwelders consist of separate SWITCHGEAR MA INTENANCE includes inspec tion of air
modu les, which con be rep laced as o unit when trouble occurs. ci,rcuit breakers for rust and signs of orcing or burning;
This allows electricians to repair unit in the electronic mointe· lubricat ion of CBs according 19 manufacturers recommenda-
nonce shop when convenient. Regularly scheduled mointen· ti ons; periodic tests of protective relays; inspection of con-
once includes blowing out dust with dry compressed air, trol wiring for loose connections; inspection of control circuit
visual inspection of control wiring, and voltage checks. CBs, fuses and fuse clips for corrosion.

spect, what to inspect for, and how puters and sent to Maintenance age check charts, special drawings
often. Control. Also, special inspections or other test instructions.
l\Iuch of this information was or repairs due are automatically se- When the inspection or other ac-
then transferred to business ma- lected. Maintenance Control then tivity is completed, the card is sent
chine cards to be used for schedul- sends the cards to the various de- back to Maintenance Control. Here,
ing and records. At the same time, partment heads. The work called work accomplished, time consumed,
detailed check lists, plus test or for by the card must be completed etc., are recorded. If any anomalies
maintenance procedures where nec- by the following week. or unusual test readings are noted,
essary, were written for each sig- The EPM cards are quite simple. these cards are set aside for further
nificant equipment within the plant. On each card, the check list to be investigation.
In operation, the electrical main- used is noted and space is available Because time required to com-
tenance data processing system to note any items in need of special plete an inspection or maintenance
works as follows: Each week, cards attention or repair. The card also function is marked on the card, to-
for weekly, monthly, semi-annual, lists any special instructions which tal time applied to various equip-
and annual inspections due are au- should be referred to when making ment can be computed. Also, total
tomatically sorted out by com- the inspection. This includes volt- manhours consumed and total costs

27
MAIN OUTDOOR SUBSTATION receives 5 0-KVA MOTOR-GENERA TOR set supplies 120/208 volts, 3-phose for
weekly, quarterly and annual inspections. large installation of data-processing machines. Ed Ransome, chief elec-
During the yearly shutdown, the super- trician inspects the isolated power source, which provides a constant-volt-
structure is checked for rust, cleaned ond age, constant-frequency supply for computers and other business machines.
pointed os required. OCBs and transform- Unit is not affected by disturbances in normal-power system.
ers receive thorough annual inspecfr:ms
including testing of oil for dielectric
strength and acidity level.

can be derived for a monthly report maintenance program for the NC operation of cabinet ventilating
to management. This data serves machines, Emil Gargani, super- fans. (2) Look for burned or dis-
to control costs by pinpointing visor of NC maintenance, first colored components. (3) Examine
trouble spots and pointing up ex- gathered pertinent maintenance and clean relay contacts. ( 4) Scan
cessive cost areas. Other benefits and troubleshooting data from the wiring for break!l or loose connec-
of the system are t hat the more ex- many operating and instruction tions. (5) I nspect motor and gen-
pensive and most critical equipment books. Next, he sifted through this erator brushes, commutators and
receives adequate maintenance, material, selecting essential pro- bearings. (6) Inspect connecting
while non-essential apparatus re- cedures and other important infor- cables and plugs for wear.
ceives less attention, and manpower mation for each machine tool. To Mont hly cleaning-(!) Clean
is more advantageously utilized. I n this, data was added from his own interior of control cabinets using
addition, recent studies show a experience. Then, he reorganized a hand vacuum cleaner. (2) Clean
definite decrease in electrical main- the maintenance procedures into photo diodes to remove dust. (3)
tenance costs since the institution three sets of books, one each for Clean or replace control cabinet air
of the data-processing system. electronic, hydraulic and mechani- f:lters.
cal preventive maintenance. Elec- Electronic adjustments and
Numerical-Control Maintenance tronic preventive maintenance pro- tests-( Frequency and extent
cedures are gathered into four vary according to complexity of
Manufacture of many of the com- books one for each inspection control system.) In general, the
plex aircraft parts is accomplished period. Books were made up for PM electronic adjustments and
automatically by 24 numerically each machine for monthly, quart- tests are quite extensive because
controlled machine tools. These in- erly, semi-annual and annual in- most of the numerical-control sys-
clude drilling and boring machines, spections. tems provide continuous-path con-
vertical and horizontal miJling ma- trol, which incorporates many feed-
chines, and lathes of various types. Typical NC Maintenance back circuits that require close
They vary in size and complexity Procedures adjustment. Also, because the
from comparatively simple point- feedback circuits affect many parts
to-point units up to giant fully Frequency and extent of preven- of the control system, trouble-
automatic multi-function continu- tive maintenance performed on the shooting sometimes can consume
ous-path machine tools. Mainte- NC systems depends on the com- considerable time. Thus, it is par-
nance of t his equipment is also plexity, duty, and reliability r e- ticularly advantageous to prevent
scheduled by Maintenance Control quired of the machine. Typical trouble before it occurs.
using the data-processing system as procedures performed are as fol- In addition, control system
previously described. lows: parameters (voltage levels, firing
I n setting up the preventive Monthly ins pection-Cl ) Check and timing circuits, etc.) tend to

28
 Power System Maintenance
WELDING MACHINE ELECTRONIC PM CHECK LIST
A comprehensive electrical pre-
1. Record operators comments re: machine performance. ventive maint enance progra m for
2. look at flexible conductors for frayed and twisted lines. t he vast 50,000-kva power system,
3. Check timing with oscilloscope. which incor porates dozens of sub-
Weekly 4. s tations a nd miles of underg round
Inspect coolant and pneumatic system for leaks, deterioration,
and proper function. feeders extending to many spread-
5. Insp ect gas system for leaks and proper operation of flow meter.
out buildings, is understandably an
6. Cleon foot swi tch and panels. immense undertaking. However,
7. lubricote conductor bar, air lines, and ram. carefu l planning, organizing, and
detailing of the preventive mainte-
1. Operate and test gos valve and timer.
na nce procedures together with the
2. look a t torch ossembly for wear.
s implified scheduling and record-
Monthly 3. Inspect and cleon movoble electrical contacts.
4. Scan wiring for breaks, damage and burned insulation.
keeping made possible through t he
5. Verify voltage readings vs. comparison chart.
data-processing system, have re-
6. Toke resistance test on ignitrons. duced t he job to practical propor-
tions. This is illustrated by the
1. Inspect fan and motor for proper operation and cleanliness. well-organized maintenance proce-
Quarterly 2. Clean and blow out entire system. clu res which are performed on the
3. Gauge test spark gop (.006 to .008). main 20,000-kva substation (system
components are shown in accom-
1. Inspect diaphragm for crocks and deterioration (remove head panying photos).
Semi-Ann ual and bolts). Superstructure a nd air switches
2. Test tubes with tube checker. - Annually, the entire supers truc-
ture is inspected for rust, cleaned
1. Inspect retraction air cylinder for wear. and painted as required. Nuts and
Annua l 2. feel and test transformer bolts for tightness. bolts are checked for tightness. In-
3. Voltage test reactors and rectifiers. sulators are inspected for cracks or
chips and cleaned if necessary. Air
s witches are inspected for corro-
s ion, operated, and lubricated when
drift from prescribed limits from maintenance follows procedures necessary. All conductor connec-
time to time. This occurs when similar to those outlined for nu- tions, including ground connec-
electron tubes are reaching end- merical control systems. In an ac- tions, are checked for tightness. In
of-life and tube emission drops off, companying table, a typical check addition, the station ground-grid
when mechanical parts wear, or list notes major electronic mainte- resistance is measured and re-
when ambient temperature varia- nance procedures performed on the corded.
tions occur. welding machines. 66-kv oil circuit breakers -
As a result, certain critical ad- The mobile generators supply Weekly, the OCB pneumatic operat-
justments and tests are made on a either 400-cycle power at 115/ 200 ing sys tem is bled to eliminate any
monthly basis. These include volts, or 28 volts de for testing the water vapor. Control-panel strip
checks of voltage and res istance aircraft electrical systems or. for heaters are checked for operation.
readings according to check charts; starting the j et engine. Units Gaskets and oil valves are checked
observation and compari~on of cir- range in size from 5 to 60 kw. Each for oil leakage.
cuit waveforms (phase sequence, generator is furnished with a solid- Annually, bushings are cleaned
firing or timing spikes, etc.) on a state voltage regulator to maintain and inspected for damage. All con-
dual-trace oscilloscope or on a re- output voltage levels to within pre- trol cable connections in the oper-
cording oscilloscope. The recording scribed limits. ating-mechanism ho us i n g are
oscilloscope provides a permanent Because the generators provide checked for tightness and for
record of the waveform. Dual-trace power for vital testing of the air- frayed cable ends. The OCB is t est
instruments are required to com- craft elect rical and electronic sys- operated to check the operating
pare the actual circuit waveforms tems, it is of paramount impor- mechanism and control circuits. Oil
with a reference waveform. tance to keep this equipment in top samples are taken from the top and
operating condition. Regular main- bottom of each tank and sent out
Electronic Maintenance tenance, including adjustments and for dielectric and acidity tests.
tests, is essential. As scheduled Every five years, the main contacts
Over 100 electronically controlled through the data processing sys- are detanked for inspection.
production spotwelders and 138 tem, adjustments and tests on the Power transformers-Two 10,-
mobile motor-generator and engine- voltage regulators can be made at 000-kva oil-filled transformers s tep
generator sets, whiclT are equipped the generator location using port- the 66-kv utility supply voltage
with solid-state regulators , re- able test equipment. When exten- down to 4160/ 2400 volts for pri-
quire electronic maintenance. As sive testing or repairs are required, mary dis tribution. Both transform-
s hown in accompanying photos, the the regulator is replaced with a Weekly, a plant electrician checks
welders are integral units equipped spare, and the malfunctioning unit and records transformer tank oil
with vacuum-tube control circuits is returned to the electronic shop level, oil temperature, winding tem-
and ignitron or thyratron power for troubleshooting at a panel de- perature, and vacuum-pressure
circuits. In general, preventive signed to test the regulator. rrage readings. ,..,_

29
 Punched Punched- Moin Digit
Multi-Topped
Poper Tope - Tope
Reader
;- Steppinq Decoding
Transformer
(Binary Code) Relays Relays

'
Transistor
Manually Set Auxiliary Amplifiers
Digit Buttons Functions for
Hydraulic
Sys tern

NUMERICAL CONTROL for a 32-spindle drill is shown in gantry. Mo vemen t of the gant ry causes the tronsducer co re
a block diagram. Brush- type tope reade r senses punched to rotate until its ou tput conforms to o preselected value
holes in tape and sends voltage impulses to corresponding which corresponds to the required drill location. Mixer and
steppi ng relays and digi t decoding relays. Digit decoding discriminator circuits combine various servo transducer out-
relays connect selected voltage levels from o multi-topped puts ond convert them to de voltages. These vol tages ore
transformer into servo transducers. These se rvo transducers amplified and applied to the co ntrol fields of on omplidyne,
hove a number of primary windings and a rotating core which in turn, supply the armatures of the posit ioning moto rs.
winding, which is mechan ically lin ked to the movable drill All auxiliary control functions ore accomplished automatically.

Specialized Service
For Plant Electronics
Solid -state switching, plasma-arc welding, ta pe-controlled processing, numer-
ically controlled robots, the automatic factory- plus hundreds of other new con-
cepts based on electronic control are being put to work in America n industry.
Here's how one plant electrical department meets the broadening ch a llenge of
troubleshooting a nd maintaining some of these com plex electronic systems.

P URRED on by demands to cut By Robert J. Lawrie best be accomplished by specially

S costs and increase both quan-

t ity and quality of product ion,
the Harrison Div., Worthington problem of providing efficient and
trained in-plant electricians. Be-
cause troubleshooting a nd mainte-
nance of most automated apparatus
Corp., Harrison, N. J . is but one of effective electronic maintenance. require ·an understanding of me-
many plants that have turned to At Worthington, however, the chanical, hydraulic, electrical and
automation. Here, a giant numer- electrical department has licked this electronic principles, the plant feels
ically controlled dr ill, electronic problem. Their successful electronic that an alert, specially trained plant
tracers, electronically controlled maintenance program, developed electrician, wi th his experience and
welders plus many other automatic gradually over the years as an in- familiarity 'vit h plant equ ipment, is
processes typify t he inevitable, con- creasing number of electron ic con- the logical choice.
stantly growing t rend toward com- trols were being installed, is the In general, their electronic main-
plete automation. result of careful studies and prac- tenance program is based on t he
And with these electronic instal- tical experience. They have found following principles : 1) careful se-
lations comes the often difficult t hat electronic maintenance can lection of men for electronic main-
tenance, 2) training in electronics,
3) application of systematic com-
mon-sense troubleshooting tech-
niques plus practical preventive
maintenance procedures.
Encompassing over a million
square feet, this multi ~building
plant manufactures a complete line
of pumps as well as standard and
custom-built condensers and com-

30
 Mixer "x"and"Y"

-
Servo
and - Positioni119 Drill
Tronsducers Amplifier Amplidyne
Discriminator DC Gantry
Circuits Motors
I
+ t
L ------------------------
Feedback geor linkage
-----------~ v10

p1·essors. Majo,r processes include t heir experience and skill. Some ing is based on assembly line pro-
heavy machining and assembly ; perform general maintenance du- cedures. Thus we limit our EPM
fabrication, in which s teel plate, ties ; others are assigned special to the best economical balance.
angle or channel is cut to s ize and duties. For example, one regula rly However, because of our r ecent
weldccl; erection, in which giant inspects all cranes. Another elec- modernization and addition of spe-
condensers and compressors are as- trician has been t rained to main- cial equ ipment, our EPM has been
sembled. In addition, the plant has tain and t roubleshoot electronic expanding.
steel, iron and brass foundries as equ ipment and instruments.
well as extensive fac ilit ies for re- In general, what equipment is in-
search and development. What are your respons ibilities ? cluded in your EPM?
In t he following personal in- In addition to direct ing t he ele<!- The outdoor substation, which in-
terview, chief electrical foreman t rical crew, supervis ing new con- cludes transformers, circuit break-
Charles F. Riechers describes the struction and planning maintenance ers and insulators receives periodic
electrical maintenance procedures, procedures, my duties include se- inspection a nd tests. l gn itron rect i-
the development of their electronic lecting new equipment, ordering fiers, motor-generator sets, standby
maintenance program and reveals spare parts, estimating costs of new battel'ies, electric trucks, cranes
how practical techniques simplify construction or changes, and trou- and electronically controlled appa-
electronic troubleshooting. bleshooting both electrical anrl ele<!- ratus also receive r egularly sched-
t ronic equipment. uled inspections and maintenance.
How is your electrical department Because much of our production
organized? Do you have an EPM program? equ ipment operates on varying
Under t he plant engineer, the Our EPM (electrical preventive schedules, disconnect switches, con-
maintenance manager is responsible maintenance) is performed on es- trol panels, and similar related
fo1· over-all operations, planning sential or expensive equipment or apparatus are checked between pro-
and coordination of all maintenance on apparatus that appears to need duction runs or whenever a ma-
departments. The chief electrical attention. Much of our manufac- chine is not in production.
foreman directs the electrical crew turing progresses on individual op- Equipment operating on severe
wh ich consists of 21 electricians. erations because we specialize in applications or subject to poor en-
Electricians are rated mechanic, in- heavy and custom-built equipment. vironments is inspected on a weekly
termediate, or star ter according to As a result, very little manufactur- basis or sooner if required.

ROBOT MACH INE TOOL is o 32-spindle drill which, through PUNCHEO-TAP E READER mounted on shelf ot the operator's
tope-fed nume rical control, con drill up to 2000 holes per control console or digit pushbuttons shown at to p left accept
hour in JA·i n. m e tol plates. Control automatically selec ts input doto in binary code. Controls o n consoltl desk top allow
drills and pos itions d rill s pindles to allow drilling anywhere in o manual con t rol if desired. Two main contro l panels are located
10- by 15 -ft area. Specially trained plant electricians ore re- nea rby. Ma intenance incl udes cleaning, looking for burned or
sponsibl e for e lec tronic sys tem maintenance. loose connections ond testing relays.

31
 tion, some circu it functions are de-
pendent on phase relationships. And
with the oscilloscope, these relation-
ships can be eas ily checked.
Brush recorder operation is s im-
ilar to the oscilloscope except that
it provides a permanent oscillo-
grnph. We use it to record the num-
ber of cycles required for a fast-
acting r elay to open or close or lo
check t he number of cycles it r e-
ma ins open or closed.
Describe the operation of the 32-
s pind le drill.
'l'he machine automatically drills
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS in the main panels include electron-tu be amplifiers a pattern of holes in heat exchanger
\le ft photo) mounted on swing-out door; and terminal blocks, resistors, transformers, plates such as used for steam con-
s tepping relays, etc. {right photo) mounted inside the panel. The electronic specialist densers in power plants. In engi-
inspects stepping relays (shown bottom of right photo) periodically, checking for neering, "x." and "y" dimensions
contact wear, worn ports and for proper mechanical operation.
are taken from drawings and
marked on a process sheet. Directly
gener al ability and capacity for ab- from t he process sheet, an operator
What e lectronic e quipment do you types t he data on a special type-
maintain? sorbing this type of tra ining is
eval uated. If the man qualifies, he writer which punches paper tape in
Our most. complex electronic sys- binary code. This tape is then
r eceives special courses such as
tem is the control for a numerically placed in the tape-reading device
those given by instrument and elec-
controlled, 32-spindle drill which installed at t he drill control console
t ron ic equipment manufacturers.
also incorporates extens ive hy- readying the machine for operntion.
Also. he is urged to take formal
draulic and mechanical systems. We As shown in an accompanying
als1.> maintain scores of thyr atron evening courses in electronics. au-
photo, the 32 drills are arranged in
speed controls; electronically con- tomatic machine contr ol, etc. a str aight line on a gantry-like as-
Additional skill is developed on
t rolled welders; electronic balancing sembly which moves forward or
the job after studying training
machines, which allow exact balanc- s ideways over the stationary work-
manuals. drawings and becoming
ing of pump impellers; electronic piece. A hole can be drilled any-
int imately familiar with the vari-
tracers; a large X-ray machine plus where in a 10- by 15-ft area.
ous electronic circuits.
electronic laboratory devices and All operations can be effected au-
instrnments. We anticipate install- Whal test equipment do you use tomatically or by the operator at his
ing additional numerically con- when 1roubleshooting electronic control console. Operations include
trolled machine tools as well as controls ? all gantry bridge tr avel which
otht-.r electronically controlled ap- 1n addition lo standard electrical brings drills to the exact locations
par>itus in the near future. instruments such as, voltmeters, required; selection of spindles to
clamp-on ammeters and the like. we drill or not to drill; selection of
Do you have a s pecialis t to main- drill speed plus auxiliary functions
tain this equipmen t? use an industrial analyzer, a vac-
uum-tube voltmeter, recording volt- such as starting and stopping of
Electronic troubleshooting and amp meter, ammeter oscilloscope auxiliary motors, operation of
maintenance is accomplished by a n and a brush frequency recorder, safety devices or indicating lights,
electronic and instrument special- which provides a permanent oscillo- a nd the like.
ist, who is basically an electrician, graphic r ecord. Manl\gement appears highly sat-
and by myself. In our system, one isfi ed with t he numerically con-
electrician is trained to maintain How does the oscilloscope a nd tr olled drill because set-up time has
electron ic controls and instruments. brus h frequ ency recorder assis t been practically eliminated, the ma-
Before I became foreman, I was the I rou bleshooting? chine's production rnte has been
plant electronic and instrument The oscilloscope has many useful very high and down t ime has been
man. However, the electronic spe- applications in electronic trouble- minimum; and r ejects a r e practi-
cialist performs most electronic shooting. For example, it will indi- cally non-existent because the ma-
maintenance; my attention is r e- cate voltage level, compare oscilla- chine has a constant accur acy of
quired only during a particularly tor frequ encies, present waveforms plus or minus 0.0005 inch.
difficult problem or when certain of r ectifier or amplifiers outputs,
electronic circuit design changes Describe the numerical control
a nd the like.
may be needed. We find its use necessary to cneck system for t he 32-s pindle drill.
backlas h or overshoot of drill posi- After the punched paper tape is
What s pecial training do your tioning cir cu its. In this function, a installed, the tape-reader senses the
electronic s pecialists r eceive? volt.age deviates from zero so rap- punched holes with spring-operated
Before a man is considered for idly that a voltmeter would not brushes or fingers which, upon en-
the position of electronic specialist, indicate. On the oscilloscope, how- countering a hole, will trip and send
he is required to have a basic knowl- ever, the voltage waveform is easily voltage impulses to stepping r elays
edge of electr onics. In addition, his obser ved and interpreted. In addi- in the control pan el. These r elnys

32
connect to digit decoding relays and
to a multi-tapped transformer,
which provides voltages correspond-
ing to the proper digits. From the
transformer, the selected voltages
are applied to positioning servo
transrlucers. These servo transduc-
ers are motor-like devices furnished
with a numbei: of primary windings
and a rotating core winding, which
is mechanically linked to the mov-
able drill gantry. Movement of the
gantry causes the transducer core
to rotate until its output conforms
to a preselected value which cor-
responds to the required drill posi-
tion. Electronic mixer and discrim- ELECTRONIC TRACER automatically cuts and forms pump housings, im-
inator circuits combine the various peller blades and similar ports. A template is placed on rock above the
servo transducer outputs and con- revolving table. Cutting tools then form the port guided by a stylus t racing
vert them into de voltages. These the template. Control box on top of eiectronic panel allows operator to
select speeds of de driving motors and d i.ection of cut.
voltage signals are amplified and
applied to t he control fields of an
amplidyne, which in turn, supplies the problem and replace the faulty
the armatures of the positioning de component. However, this skill is
motors. developed relatively quickly if the
In a similar manner, transistors troubleshooter has had the proper
and other solid-state circuitry con- training and on-the-job guidance.
trol solenoid valves and components Would you explain how a circult
in the hydraulic system. In addi- is traced and checked?
tion, all auxiliary control functions
as well as operation of s pecial cir- Usually, the troubleshooter will
cuits, such as error-checking cir- make his checks working back from
cuits or drill feed-rate circuits, are a faulty function. For example, if a
programmed into the paper tape. drill will not position properly for
a particular hole, all the circuits
When you have trouble with t he concerning thai drill and related
numerically controlled dr ill, what dimensions or digits are checked.
is your a pproach ? Using the schematic drawings, wir-
ing diagrams, instruction book, and
We first define the problem and
localize the source of trouble. For voltage and resislnnce tables, the ELECTRONIC TROUBLESHOOTING is o
troubleshooter takes readings with specialty of chief electrical foreman
example, if drill No. 25 will not Charles Reichers. Here he makes on ad-
lower, we check the hydraulic valve a vacuum-tube voltmeter at desig-
nated points in the pertinent cir- justment on the electronic tracer.
which mechanically lowers that
drill; or we inspect the relays and cuitry. If a voltage or resistance
reading is not within prescribed Electronic maintenance is part of
electronic circuitry related to that our regular electrical preventive
limits, this particular circuit is
drill using schematic and wiring mamtenance program. As an ex-
traced back until a propet· reading
diagrams as a guide. ample, ignitron rectifiers are in-
is obtained. The trouble then is lo-
Another example might be if the calized between this point and the spected once a week. Water
operator cannot obtain the "in po- point of the first improper reading. pressure, temperature and meter
sition" signal on his console. In While circuit tracing, the trouble- readings are checked and the con-
this case, we can eliminate all logic shooter also looks for loose connec- trol plane is inspected for signs of
circuitry concerning drill selection tions, burned or darkened compo- burning or loose connections. Other
or operation; instead we will look nents and improperly positioned equipment such as electronic speed
into the circuit's components re- relays. controls, electronic tracers and the
lated to that lamp. Because relays are prone to mal- like receive similar inspections.
In general, the troubleshooter functions, we check them carefully These inspections are also per-
must become familiar with the vari- for proper contact and tight connec- formed on the numerical control
ous functions and circuits in the tions. On some occasions we found system for the 32-spindle drill. In
system. He must have a good un- that electron tubes were weak and addition, we periodically lubricate
derstanding of the mechanical and required replacement. The transis- all relays with a special lubricant
hydraulic functions because the op- tor circuitry has been most reliable and check relays for pickup or drop-
erations are all interrelated in the beca use no failures have occurred out, contact wear and worn parts.
control scheme. He must study and in these circuits s ince t he uni t was It is very impor tant that elec-
t horoughly understand the block installed over t wo years ago. t ronic controls qe kept clean. Using
diagrams, schematics and wiring compressed air, we blow out control
diagra ms so that he can quickly Do you have an electronic preven- pa nels as required depending on the
trace through the circuitry, localize tive maintenan ce program? condition of t he sur rounding a rea.

33
 LUBRICATI ON FREQUENCY TABLE

Motor Size
Type of Bearing Where Normally Lubrication *
Applied Frequency
Sleeve
Plain sleeve Fractional hp 6 mo to 1 yr
Oil-ring sleeve Lorge 6 mo to 1 yr
Boll bearing
Open Lorge 3 mo to 3 yr

Single shield All sizes 3 mo to 7 yr

Double shield All sizes 6 mo to 7 yr

Sealed
I Medium & small Not needed**

• Recommended lubrication freq uency depends on type of service- cosy, sta ndard, severe,
or very severe. Use the longest interval on easy applications; use the shortest interval on
very severe applications .
.. Scaled bearings may be disaucmbled and repacked with grease at 1 to 5-year intervals
depending on kind of service.

Ellective Motor
Here's how a plant electrica l department applies modern bear-
ing maintenance techniques to increase the life of motors.

T THE Weston Instruments Di- wide range of high-quality elec- well as emergency breakdown re-

A vision, Daystrom Inc., Newark.

N. J., motors last longer and
perform better because plant elec-
t rical measul'ing instruments as
well as instrument component pa r ts.
Major processes include plastic
pairs.
The chief electrician plans elec-
trical preventive maintenance, s u-
t1·icians follow a carefu Jly planned mold ing, small-parts machining, as- pervises the electrical crew, formu -
motor lubrication schedule and ap- sembly and testing. lates electrical maintenance and
ply the latest bearing maintenance In the follow ing personal inter- repair procedures, selects spare
techniques. vie·w, Howard Wachter, chief elec- electrical parts, and advises on se-
Previously, ac motor failures ac- trician, describes his electrical lection of new electrical equ ipment.
counted for a high percentage of maintenance procedures and dis-
electrical repa-ir work. And most of cusses modern bearing maintenance How is your EPM (electrical pre-
these failures were traced to faulty techniques. ventive main tenance) program set
bParings. As a r esult, their motor up?
maintena nce program places heavy How is your electrica l department We do not go over boa rd on pre-
emphasis on proper handling, r epair organized? ventive maintenance. Because we
and maintenance of various types The electrical department is part a re essentially an assembly plant
of sleeve and ball bearings. of the maintenance divis ion, which and because our products are, in a
Motors of various types a.id sizes is supervised by the plant engineer. sense, handmade or custom-made,
are used extensively in all processes Headed by a chief electrician, the our processes do noL include a high-
at t he plant, which consists of nine elect1·ical departmenL consists of produc.>tion conti11uous ty pe of op-
major buildings encompassing 500,- eight electricians, who perform eration. Related to electrical main-
000 sq ft. The plant produces a electrical preventive maintenance as tenance, this means that downtime
will not hurt us nearly as much as
it hurts an automated high-produc-
t ion process. Therefore, we feel it
is more efficient to function with a
minimum-size electrical crew and
perform electrical maintenance on
only essential or expensive equip-
ment or where it is needed.
However, since motor failures

34
BALL BEAR ING is assembled into cart- VERTICAL INSERTION aids in centering PLAIN SLEEVE BEARING receives o coat-
ridge-type housing. Bearing must be moto r shaft to hou sing when ext reme ing of o durable plastic sealant, which
seated squarely on shoft and must fit clearances occur. The bea ring should be acts as o shim, filling excess clearance be-
snugly. Before installing on shaft, bear- free to move axially to allow for shaft ex- tween bearing and housing. After the ap-
ing should be heated either by on induc- pansion. If th e fit is too loose, however, plication, the assembly is set aside for
tion heating unit, or by immersing it in the housi ng will be damaged. During all two to four hours to allow the sealant to
oil that hos been heated to o tempera- assembly phases, strict cleanliness must ha rden into o strong and long-wearing
ture of a bout 200°F. be maintained. surface.

Bearing Maintenance
were our· most frequent cause of As a result, we updated our mo- Ball bearing:s may be found on vari-
downtime, we felt that preventive tor lubrication methods and bearing ous-size motors and their construc-
maintenance or other necessary maintenance techniques, emphasiz- tion may be (1) open, (2) single
steps to reduce motor fai lures would ing cleanliness in procedures for all shielded, (3) double shielded, ( 4)
be worthwhile. Therefore, we in- types of motor bearings. sealed, plus double row and other
vestigated these motor breakdowns special types. Open bearings a re of
and, as a result, we established a What types of bear ings mus t you open construction and must be in-
modern motor repair and mainte- maintain? stalled in a sealed housing. These
nance program. There a re many types of bear- bearings are less apt to cause churn-
ings, however, most of our motors ing of g rease, hence they are usu-
How was your motor main tenance are equ ipped with ball bearings. a lly applied only on large motors.
program established?
The first step was to find out why
our ac motors were failing. And, of
course, there are various causes of
motor breakdowns, such as exces-
sive load, binding or misalign-
ment of motor drives, wet or dirty
surroundings and bearing failures.
Among t hese we found t hat faulty
motor bearings were the most com-
mon cause of fai lure. And it is sig-
nificant that such failures occurred
in newer motors with hig h-quality
bearings as frequently as in older
motors equipped with less reliable
bear.ings. A notable exception was
that motors equipped with sealed
bearings were much less prone to
failure.
Cons idering this data, particu-
larly the fact that sealed bea1·ings
are shielded from contamination
and do not r equire lubrication, we
BEARING MAINTENANCE includes ove rhaul and inspection of large oil-ring
concluded that contamination of sleeve bearings. At left of photo, o 4 160-volt, 250-hp wound-rotor motor
bearings was one of the major drives o refrig erant compressor via o speed converter. Exposed coupling
causes of bearing failures. at the compressor wi ll be checked for alignment.

35
 Our very large motors are fur- ence to these procedures cannot be
nished with oil-ring sleeve bearings. overemphasized. We feel that con-
And some of our fractional-hp mo- tamination and overgreasing of
tors are equipped with plain sleeve bearings are the major causes of
bearings. bearing failures.
For sleeve bearings, we use only
How often do you lubricate motor the recommended oil for particular
bearings? service conditions. Observing care-
Frequency of motor lubrication ful cleanliness, old oil is removed
depends not only on the type of and new oil is added until the oil
bearing but also on the motor appli- level reaches the "full" line on t he
cation. oil sight gauge. This is done only
Small and medium-size motors when t he motor is not running.
equipped with ball bearings (except
sealed bearings) are greased every How do you tes t or check the con-
three to six years if the motor duty dition of bearings on motors in
ELECTRONIC CODED-PAGING system in-
corporates on encoder, transmitter and is normal. On severe applications place?
several small, pocket size receivers which (high temperature, wet or dirty lo- We find that the two most effec-
ore worn by maintenance foreman. Main- cation, or corrosive atmosphere), tive tests a re what you might call
tenance secreto ry con dial o foreman's lubrication may be required more the "feel" t est and the "sound"
code on encoder, operate a switch and often. In severe applications, past test. The "feel" test is performed
thus immediately contact th e foreman by the electrician. If, while t he mo-
onywhere in or near the plant.
experience and condHion of the
grease a re the best guides as to tor is running, the bearing housing
frequency of lubrication. feels overly hot to touch, it is prob-
We change lubrication oil in ably malfunctioning. (Some bear-
sleeve bearings at least once a year. ings, however, may operate safely
When the motor duty is severe or up to about 85° C.)
the oil appears dir ty, we change it During the "sound" test, the elec-
sooner. trician listens for foreign noises
coming from the motor. Also, he
Describe your motor lubrication may place one end of steel rod-3 ft
procedure. long and about ~ in. in diameter-
For effective motor lubrication. on the bear ing hous ing; the other

,_
~ -·
cleanliness and use of t he proper
lubricant are of paramount impor-
tance.
When greasing a ball-bearing mo-
tor, the bearing housing, grease gun
and fittings are wiped clean. Great
care must be taken to keep dirt
end is held against his ear. The rod
then acts as an amplifier, transmit-
ting unusual sounds such as thump-
ing or grinding, which would indi-
cate a failing bearing. Special
listening devices, such as the tran-
sistorized stethoscope, can also be
out of the bearing when greasing. used for this purpose.
Next, the relief plug is re- Additional checks can be made.
moved from the bottom of the bear- For example, the air gap on sleeve-
POCKET-SIZE RECEIVER is worn ot the
belt by chief e lectrician, Howard Wach-
ing housing. This is done to pre- bearing motors should be checked
ter. Upon receiving the proper signal vent excessive pressure from build- periodically. These test-s, performed
from the transmitter, the receiver emits o ing up inside the bearing hous ing with a feeler gauge, indicate when
series of "beeps" that correspond to Mr. during greasing. Grease is then a bearing begins to wear. Four
Wochter's code. He then calls in to re- added, with the motor running if measurements are taken about 90
ceive his message. The electronic paging possible, until it begins to flow from degrees apart around the rotor pe-
system hos proved to be on efficient time-
sover.
the relief hole. Allow the motor to riphery. These measu rements are
run from 5 to 10 minutes to expell recorded and compared with earlier
The single-6hielded bearing has a excess grease. Then the relief plug readings, providing a check on con-
shield on one side to preclude grease is replaced and the bearing housing dition of the bearing.
from the motor windings. Double- is cleaned. Motors should also be checked for
shielded bearings have a shield on It is important to avoid over- end play. Ball-bearing motors
both sides of the bear ing. This type greasing. When too much grease is should have about ~ in. to h in. end
of bearing is less susceptible to con- forced into a bearing, a churning of play. Sleeve-bear ing motors may
tamination and, because of its de- the lubricant occurs, resulting in have up to ~ in. end play.
sign, reduces the possibility of over- high temperature and eventual On large sleeve bearings the oil
gr easing. Sealed bearings have, on bearing failure. level is checked periodically, and the
each side of the bearing, double On motors that do not have a re- oil is visually inspected for contami-
shields which form an excellent seal. lief hole, we apply grease sparingly. nation. If it is possible, t he elec-
This bearing requires no mainte- If possible we disassemble the mo- trician checks that t he oil rings ro-
nance, affords protection from con- tor and repack the bearing housing tate when the motor is operating.
tamination at all times, and does with the proper amount of grease. Other inspections include check-
not require regreas ing. It is usu- During this procedure we always ing for misaligned or bent shafts
ally used on small or medium-size maintain strict cleanliness. and for excessive belt pressure.
motors. The importance of strict adher-

36
 ELECTRICAL
CONSTRUCTION
AND MAINTENANCE

Electrical
Maintenance
For Steelmaking
Electrical equipment and systems at Pittsburg, Calif., steel making facility are
maintained under a comprehensive preventive program. Scope ranges from
personnel training to c<X>rdination with continuous production schedules.

By H. P. Scott
HE steel industry's evolution Maintenance of motors and gen- ing attached to mechanical equip-

T from manpower to horsepower

and instrumentation has radi-
cally changed the pattern of main-
erators is based on the fact that ro-
tating equipment fails due to (1)
normal wear of moving parts, (2)
ment which suffers shock or vibra-
tion as an inherent operating
symptom. This is true especially
tenance. It has changed in charac- vibration, (8) dirt and electrically with control equipment, inasmuch
ter, due to growing use of electronic conductive dust, (4) moisture, (5) as vibration and bounce shortens
controls, system analyzers, graphic insulation breakdown, (6) too lit- tube life, increases bearing wear,
panels and the like. It has changed tle or too much lubrication, and causes contacts to chatter and pit.
in magnitude, with size of mainte- (7) misapplication of equipment. In most instances protection of
nance departments, budgets and in- Vibration problems generally rotating equipment against dirt
ventories increasing as processes are due to electrical equipment be- and moisture is furthered by en-
become more complex, functions of
controls more critical, product
specifications more precise. It has
changed in timing, due to process-
ing and sequences which now are
highly automated and continuous.
It has changed in status and sig-
nificance, with acknowledgment
that prevention of fault-caused
shutdowns are vital. And it has
changed in cost evaluation, inas-
much as maintenance charges now
are accepted as "insurance premi-
ums,'' approved so long as "divi-
dends" are obtained by productive
continuity.
This changing pattern is clearly
evident at the Pittsburg (Calif.)
Works, Columbia-Geneva Div., U.S.
Steel, where the electrical and elec-
tronic maintenance program covers
all rotating equipment, controls,
protective relays, capacitors, trans-
formers, cables and high,voltage
switchgear. Also included are trac-
tor motors and magnet equipment
for transportation and materials- INSPECTIOM, adjustment, replacement of worn ports and tightening of connections ore
continuous maintenance routines on this annea li ng-line control board. Filtered air is
handling facilities, communication kept unde r slight positive pressure in this underground room to insure dust-free en-
equipment and training programs. vironment for countless contact devices.

37
 closure designs such as splash- (through other mill departments or
proof, drip-proof or totally-enclosed outside suppliers) . This avoids
fan-cooled motor housings. Motor needless duplication, t hereby pro-
life also is prolonged by facto ry- moting economy and conserving
sealed prelubricated anti-friction storage space.
bearings. Consultations between mainte-
Factory guarantees, however, are nance, engineering and operating
not taken for granted. Whenever authorities also take place when
oil and grease bearings are acces- new equipment is specified, de-
sible, lubrication is checked regu- signed or installed. These meetings
larly and replenished with amounts, acquaint desk men with practical
types and viscosities specified by field knowledge. In such sessions
manufacturers. This information, maintenance makes suggestions
which is particularly important concerning equipment location, ac-
when motors are installed in high cessibility, necessary replacement
I
ambient temperatures, is filed con- inventory, estimated times for re-
I veniently fo r reference, in some in- placement or transfer to a standby
stances being attached directly to unit. This follows t he thought that
frames of motors demanding spe- it is more sensible to avoid or an-
cial lubricants. Rotating equip- ticipate bad conditions than to cor-
ment also is cleaned regularly by rect them later. Therefore, engi-

I
/ vacuum, or by blowing with dry
a ir, or wiped with dry cloth.
neering consu lts with maintenance
regarding poss ibilities for contami-
COMM UNICAT ION between mainte- Through scheduled inspection, nation by dust or moisture, preva-
nance and operating personnel stationed adjustment, lubrication and clean- lence of heat or hazards, conditions
in different areas of the mill is established ing, trends towards failure gener- of corrosion or vibration, protec-
th rough speaker-mikes and intercom ally are detected in ample time to tion of personnel and equipment.
jacks located at all main control panels. schedule rep:.irs or replacements
Communication in this large mil l also is
maintained through sho rt-wave radio sets
during normal down-time. When Emphasis on Control
mounted on fork-trucks, fire trucks, crane major repairs require more than
cobs, yard locomotives, area stockrooms, normal down-time, maintenance su- Maintenance of controls covet·s
central engineering and dispatch offices. pervisors consult with operating automatic, electronic and non-elec-
and engineering personnel to deter- trical devices. Automatic timing
mine approaches most acceptable to devices and recording instruments
all. are periodically checked, recali-
Down-time is shortened in sev- brated and repaired in the mill's
eral ways. Where numerous motors instrument shop. In some special
are alike in capacities and charac- instances, automatic controls are
teristics, spare units are available returned directly to manufacturers
for replacement or substitution. for repair or replacement.
Spare motors are moved to loca- Maintenance of controls, such as
tions of pending trouble, then are relays and contactors, includes
substituted as scheduled down-time tightening of connections, adjust-
pe1·mits. ment of contacts, replacement of
Motors are repai1·ed and re- springs, general cleaning and lubri-
wound, generally, in the mill's well- cation.
equipped shop. In emergencies, Protective relays, as the name
motors are trucked to local, inde- implies, are designed and installed
pendent EASA shops for servicing. to protect electrical equipment from
Storage of spare parts, espe- damage by fault curr ents. There-
cially coils, is a compromise between fore, dependability is mandatory
full replacement and minimum in- and maintenance must be thorough.
ventory. For example, s ince experi- This dictates checks for corrosion,
ence suggests little likelihood of all damaged or missing covers or glass
coils failing simultaneously in a ports, dust or dirt ins ide enclo-
major 6900- or 2300-volt motor, sures. Relays are actuated manu-
only quarter-sets of these coils are ally, noting whether parts move
carried in inventory. As their use freely and perform intended func-
is anticipated and scheduled, other tions, such as tripping circuit
replacement sets are reordered. breakers or actuating related equip-
When delivered, coils are packaged ment. When parts move sluggishly,
6900-VOLT AC SWITCH GEAR, motor- for long-time storage. steel pivots or cracked jewelled
generator sets and 250-volt de control In smaller, more prevalent 440- bearings are replaced-never lubri-
equipment for cold reduction mills are volt sizes, motors a re card-indexed cated.
housed in clean, cool, separate room ad- Time-delay settings are checked
jacent to mill proper. Meters and record-
and cross-filed to show what mo-
ing instruments ore periodically checked, tors, materials and parts are avail- by simulating overcurrent and
repaired ond recalibrated in the mill's in- able, where they are stored, or over-voltage, reverse-current and
strument maintenance shop. where they can be obtained ground-fault conditions. Also

38
checked are cu rrent and voltage
calibrations at pick-up and drop-
out points. In some instances, re-
lays are electrically loaded by uti-
lizing variable-res istance kits, then
related circuit breakers are tripped
to check protection against short
circuits and overloads.
Where s ilver contacts are found
to be corroded, they are burnis hed
lightly with flexible, etched steel-
strip tools. Abras ive cloth is not
used because non-conductive parti-
cles might remain to prevent posi-
tive closing and contact. Files and
knives also are avoided, inasmuch
as hars h scratching might cause
arcing and pitting.

Capacitor Routines
Maintenance of capacitors in-
cludes checking fo r over-voltage,
automatic switching, blown fuses,
dirt, excessive temperature and
adequate ventilation.
High operating temperatures are
DEPENDABILITY of drive motors, sensing end safety devices, conTroi a nd dii.tribution
checked by attaching thermometers equipment is mandatory for continuous operation of block-long strip steel annealing
directly against enclosures. When line. Key requisites for uninterrupted production include preventive electrical and
indicated, ventilation is improved electronic mointenance programs.
by relocating capacitors in cooler
ambients; by installing fans to pro-
vide forced cooling, or by installing or by blowing with compressed air standard base temperature.
baffles between adjacent capacitors not over 20 psi. Dry transformers Where feeder replacements are
to lessen inter-unit convection of are bracket-mounted on columns or indicated, cables are not disturbed
heated air. Heat also can be caused out from walls to obtain good ven- until replacements are available
by thin layers of dust that lessen tilation, and are removed or pro- and substitution is coordinated
dissipation of heat from parts and tected from water and steam pipes with scheduled production down-
enclosures. Heavy layers of dust on to avoid wetting due to leaks. time. Cables are not disturbed un-
bushings can cause flas hover and til then, because insulation which
leakage. Cleanliness, therefore, be- Checking Power Pat hs has become brittle might easily
comes essential. crumble with movement, causing
Tran.~{ormers, located at outdoor Moisture and heat again enter immediate fai lure.
substations as well as indoor load the maintenance picture in connec- Maintenance of high-voltage
centers, are checked frequently for tion with checking f eede1· cables, bushings includes inspection, clean-
coolant level and dielectric inasmuch as t hese two causes are ing, testing and replacement of
strength, operati ng temperatures, prime reasons for dielectric losses damaged parts. This can include
voltage and ampere loads. In ex- and insulation cracking, drying, chipped petticoats, fract ured porce-
t racting samples of coolants from disintegration and fai lure. There- lain or leaking gaskets.
liquid-cooled transformers for t est, fore, cables are checked periodically To protect maintenance inspec-
drain valves are first wiped clean for poor thermal conditions, me- tors before work is st arted, (1)
and sample bottles rinsed with liq- chanical damage, overloading and high-voltage bushings a re first de-
uid being sampled. Temperature potential faults. Loading is checked energized; (2) saf ety locks and
of the liquid is checked to assure by hook-on ammeters. These give tags are attached to related circuit
that it is at least as warm as sur- fairly accurate and fast readings breakers to prevent others from re-
rounding air. This prevents con- without disturbing or de-energiz- energizi ng the system until main-
densation. Samples then are ing f eeders. tenance work is complete, and (3)
checked for dielectric strength by Megohm readings are taken and grounds are attached to remove
the mill's substa tion maintenance recorded regularly, plotted to show poss ible electrostatic charges.
department. trends and checked against recom- Cleanliness of bushings is impor-
Liquid-cooled transformers also mendations of the IPCEA (Insu- tant for two reasons: first, to pre-
are checked for tightness of connec- lated Power Conductor Engineers vent flashovers during humid
tions and undercover condensation, of America) . Records include periods; second, to prevent corona
while dry-type transformers are dates of tests, identification num- effects from interfering with recep-
checked for cleanliness, dryness, bers of megohmmeters used, in- tion over short-wave 'radios which
signs of heat discoloration, corro- itials of electricians making the are used extensively for two-way
s ion and loose connections. tests, existing temperatures and intercommunication between main-
Windings a re cleaned by vacuum megohm r eadings corrected to a t enance a nd tra nsportation dis-

39
 ..t.&Nf HO. _ __ _ MACHl,_t H0 . - - - - --ttfv-DJIO•T H 0 · - - - - - M0 1'0 • N 0 . - - - -

:;:.·::
',.=====:!#:!!AH~\IP'ACfU•CD llY ===::~:::=::::::=====;::;;========
.... CO• ll'OUHO l'f,. CNllO#ltQVS
.,... ,0
IN0\IC1'10N

ucrr• l'•OHAM,.._ ltOTO- Olt a 11w , , .. Jol0.

OVll 0-0«.- N O..

~ ~- ---·---:-:.~~~~:--~ .•.•.
N·~··~·~·U~V~K~·~··~c·~·~·..--r----.- ..-..c-.-...-.---~
---1----------------l-:-------- ----

PROTECTIOH of maintenance inspectors

is insured by worning togs attached to cir- MOTOR SERVICE RECORDS identify motors by code, serial, series and style numbers,
cuit breakers related to feeders serving by location in the plant, horsepower roting, key dimensions, and complete con-
equipment being checked, se rviced or re- struction, operating, Insta llation and connection dote. Also noted ore dotes of
paired. Breakers also ore padlocked in installation and repairs, cause diagnosis and corrective recommendations, identifica-
Off posi ti ons, high-voltage bushings ore ti on of maintenance crew or individual making such repairs, repair costs, monhours
de-energized, and grounds ore attached. required and ports inventory remaining in stock.

patch offices, moving fork-trucks, merely preached. l\lanngemcnt con- superintendents and foremen by a
crane cabs, yard locomotives, fire tends that "knowing's not enough," Joint Safety Committee; yet it is
trucks, area stockrooms and ro\·- basing this belief on the fact that the responsibility of management
ing maintenance crews equipped most injuries can be avoided when to insure the safety of those in
with walkie-talkies. knowledge of safety procedures is their departments. When a safety
applied consistently. measure is adopted by any division,
No Mere Slogan Management also endorses "Sin- this information is disseminated to
gle Objective Safety" in reviewing other general managers and super-
Few industrial plants have as injuries, even minor ones. By this intendents. Whether they adopt the
high a safety concept or record as procedure, information is compiled measure is their personal choice,
this one. H erc protection of per- to determine injury extent, pat- because rules governing safety in
sonnel is the rule not the exception. tern, frequency. Conditions and specific departments is their in-
Safety is enforced rigorously not causes are analyzed to determine dividual decis ion. Safety, how-
preventive protective measures. ever, must be achieved.
Then correction is determined and When considering men for pro-
applied to prevent reoccunence. motions, their division safety rec-
When an injury occurs, the fore- ords are reviewed critically, for it
man attempts to determine the is assumed that executives who are
cause. Findings a nd conclus ions Jax concerning safety of men may
are submitted in fu ll reports. If be equally lax in other things as
an injury is serious or disabling, well. For these reasons safety is a
the maintenance superintendent reality.
and two foremen conduct an on- Emphasis upon safety was illus-
the-spot investigation to determine trated forcefully immediately fol-
responsibility and recommenda- lowing a recent strike. With men
tions for prevention of recurrence. returning to work after a Jong mill
In addition, there are numernus shut-down, tremendous pressure
safety "huddles" between divis ion was placed on production to meet
heads and wage employees at the backlogged orders. Before operat-
start of each s hift, also group ing and maintenance men were per-
safety meetings, individual con- mitted to resume their function s,
tacts and instruction programs. they were reindoctrinated in safety
During a recent month, for ex- rules and procedures, individually
SAFETY HUDDLES ore held on tho job
almost doily. A typical session, above, ample, this mill conducled 192 as well as in groups. These re-
catches o maintenance foreman explain- safety huddles, 86 safety meetings, fresher sessions covered every-
ing to his crew the purpose and impor- 82 planned personnel interviews, t hing from use of hard hats to
tance of wearing safety glosses ond hard 88 reports concerning unsafe pro- color-coding of electrical equipment
hots where their use is prescribed. Effec- cedures, 20 reports on unsafe con- and warning s ign~ at blind corners.
tiveness of huddles is evidenced by un- Throughout the mill, safety is
usually high safety record; this mill hav-
ditions and 9 safely analyses.
ing less than 0.8 disabling injuries per Recommendations, met.hods and evidenced by readily identified
million monhours worked. plans are submitted to department stretcher-blanket locations, fire

40
 COUJ.:au..QUVA STUl. DlVlSIOI
P1C•)ot6 I
PlTl'Sl!CJPC WOPXS I

rurnuc.11. MAillmlAIJCJ! cmn smr I II ...___

·- -· _
-
66" COll?IJU)\E Plaulll LIU

........
4".. .......

1------------i---------------~--~--
~ ~J1.mnof1oii'·-.-~~1 I
Il:sl'ICTllW Kn'D am 6£CTIOI JiealCPLIHID ..__ I

1 •r ~. tfgl4' ~-- Wa .,.. I

11>n1r-1• T I

-. _....
THOROUGHNESS OF MA INTENANCE program is indicated
-
INVENTORY RECORDS for spore ports identify items, contain
by detailed extent of checklists. The obove sheet, for example, basic specificotions, indicate storage locations, vendors,
is port of o 6-poge list relating to weekly inspections of a standard order quantities and price quotations. Records also
continuous pickling li ne. Maintenance inspections of motors indicate additions, deletions and running balances of quon ti·
and generators, control equipment ond capacitors, trans· ti es on hand. Stock clerks alert purchasing deportment when
formers and feeders, crones ond communication equipment inventories ore reduced to minimum amounts consistent with
ore equally detailed. importance of ports ond predetermined rotes of replacement.

stations and fire truck doors. This maintenance program The trend is neither new nor revo-
Workers wear protective glasses, stresses tea mwork and cooperation lutionary, merely an intens ifica-
safety shoes and gauntlets where between maintenance workers, su- tion of a continuing evolution
activities so dictate. All workers perintendents, inspectors, opera- which has fostered higher-speed
wear hard hats. Protection is pro- tions men and technicians. It also production. Today this is empha-
moted by structural guards, subscribes to the belief that an sized by keener competition and
screens and handrails. Warning effective maintenance department narrower profit margins.
tags and padlocks are used for cir- must be well bala nced, well knit, This has spurred development of
cuit lock-outs to safeguard main- well informed, even preinformed. modern mills where production is
tenance men working on related Only then can pending fau lts be governed by sophisticated sensing
feeders or remote equipment. Work- spotted and scheduled for preven- devices and computer-like controls.
ers are indoctrinated in use and tive attention. It is inevitable t hat the trend will
care of quality tools and test equip- Many maintenance and repair continue ; that operating and con-
ment. Posters and safety rules a re jobs can be delayed and scheduled trol equipment will become even
posted conspicuously, practiced for the one 8-hr shift or "turn" more complex and precise. Invest-
consistently, enforced rigidly. per week when production is halted. ments in equipment will increase,
Urgent maintenance assignments and production must be continuous
Training and Retraining are handled promptly by alerted to yield reasonable investment re-
crews during these periods of turns.
It should be emphasized that in- "bonus" down-time. Therefore, power must be in-
spections cannot be thorough, nor At the Pittsburg Works, this sured by fault-free transforma-
can repair routines be efficient if maintenance approach is used to tion, switching and distribution.
maintenance men are unfamiliar insure continuous operation of Motors and generators, cables and
wit h equipment. This is true open hearth furnaces, rolling and capacitors, relaying and grounding
whether equipment be a simple rod mills, wire and wire rope mills must be dependable. Process varia-
machine or a digital computer. Effi- . .. also a 4-stand reduction mill tions must be detected and cor-
ciency demands knowledge, which where 8-ton steel coils are rolled rected instantly, automatically, ac-
begins with instruction. to thin-gauge sheet . . . also a 6- curately.
Therefore competent workman- story-high continuous annealing This is true especially in con-
ship and skills are fostered by ap- line wherein strip steel is unrolled tinuous sequences, such as the roll-
prentice training in 14 trades, in- from coils, cleaned, heat-treated at ing, annealing, galvanizing and
cluding electricians, instrument 1350° F, cooled and recoiled at the tinning processes at Pittsburg.
repairmen and machinists. Appren- rate of 1500 ft per min . . . also Here failure of one component can
tices attend classes during working three continuous electrolytic tin- halt an entire production line.
hours at a mill training center ning lines where strips move Maintenance is recognized as a
where they study mathematics and through sequence processes at 1250 key factor in plant efficiency, cus-
mechanical drawing as well as print fpm. All these f acilities are highly tomer deliveries, personnel and
reading and related trade subjects. motorized, operated and controlled equipment safety, over-all operating
There also is on-the-job training electrically and electronically. costs and investment returns. This
of new employees, and retraining Perhaps the word "automation" is a great responsibility, and an
programs for older workers. has received too much publicity. equally great challenge.

41
 Selective
Manpower
For Organized
Maintenance
Here's how a well-organized plant e lectrical department selects a nd
trains electricians to provide specialized maintenance for a wide
range of equipment including a 50,000-kva primary distribution
system, solid-state speed controls for la rge paper-mill motors, and a
computer-controlled co nveyor system.

By Robert J. Lawrie

T THE Scott Paper Co., Chester, tinues to expand incorporating ad- In the following personal inter-

A Pa., electrical maintenance cov-

ers a broad range of responsi-
bilities. Modernizations, brought
vances such as automatic transfer
switching of separate power sources.
To provide effective maintenance,
view, Nelson Allen, electrical su-
perintendent and LaRue Scott, as-
s istant electrical s uperintendent,
about by continuing technical ad- t he electrical department employs a describe t heir electrical mainte-
vances in the pr oduction of paper, well-organized and skillfully man- nancP. program and d iscuss ma in-
have resulted in many complex con- aged maintenance program. Here, tenance procedur es for specific
trol installations as well as an ex- selection and training of electri- equipment and systems.
panding power distribution system. cians, specialization in mainte-
For example, giant paper mills, nance, a well-planned preventive H ow is your e lectrical department
heart of the paper-production proc- maintenance program, and accurate organized ?
ess, are automatically controlled by cost accounting through a mainte-
solid-state or electronic-tube-ampli- nance coordination department are As heari of the mainte1.ance de-
dyne systems. For high-speed ware- the principal features of their suc- partment, the mi>intenance manager
housing and shipping, digital com- cessful program. is responsible for costs, planning
puters supervise an automated Encompassing over a half-million and over-all operations. Under him
case-selection conveyor system. In sq ft of floor space, this multi- a re the maintenance superintend-
addition, a secondary-selective dis- building plant employs about 2000 ents and a maintenance operations
tribution system, which supplies people. Products produced include and coordination group.
power for these installations and a wide variety of sanitary paper The electrical superintendent a11d
other plant equipment including products such as paper towels, table his assistant are responsible for
over 4000 production motors, con- napkins, and facial tissues. electrical depa r tment activities.
Some of our duties include control
of electrical maintenance costs, pre-
ventive maintenance pr ogramming
and pr ocedures, hiring and training
of men, wr iting new equipment and
construction specifications, estimat-
ing electrical maintenance or con-
struct ion costs and designing new
electrical installat ions at the Ches-
ter plant.
We have two foremen who pro-

42
 being assigned to a specific duty,
MAINTENANCE the candidates' education, past per-
I MANAGER I formance and general ability is
Mo inte no nee evaluated both verbally and through
Other ope rations 8 written tests. In addition, we make
moint. deportment coo rd i notion
ELECTRICAL certain that all new electricians
superintendents MAINT.PLANNING ENGR.
SUPERINTENDENT hired are of highest caliber.
MECHANICAL MAINT. P.M. SHUTDOWN PLANNER
PIPE SHOP P.M.SHUTOOWN COORDINATOR
INSTRUMENT DEPT. FINISHING MAINT. PLANNER
How do you select new electri·
FINISHING MAINT. ASSISTANT MAINT. EXPEDITOR cians?
BLDG. 8 GROUNDS ELECTRICAL SECRETARY
SUPERINTENDENT CLERK TYPIST
To obtain the best qualified appli-
cants, we advertise in local papers
calling for plant electricians with
ELECTRICAL ELECTRICAL a minimum of six years mainte-
MAINTENANCE CONSTRUCTION nance experience on various types
FOREMAN FOREMAN of equipment, such as large motors,
. generators, transformers, substa-
15 men 4 shi ft leaders tions and control devices. A basic
ROUTINE MAINTENANCE 12 other knowledge of electronics is also a
TROUBLESHOOTING AND EXPERIENCED requirement.
ELEC. CONSTRUCTION TROUBLESHOOTERS When a prospective new electri-
cian applies for a position, he must
2 men fill out, in addition to standard ap-
3 men
ELECTRONIC plication forms, a special question-
REFRIGERATION
TECHNICIANS naire on his electrical background
and experience. Consisting of about
I man 30 questions, this questionnaire
I man will tell us whether the applicant
ELECTRICAL
BENCH REPAIRMAN
INSTRUMENTS has had experience on equipment or
systems similar to that installed in
our plant.
I man 1man If he appears to have a good
CLERK 8 background which may meet our re-
LUBRICATION
EXPEDITOR quirements, the assistant superin-
E. ECTRICAL DEPARTMENT ORGANIZATION promotes speciolizotion in moin- tendent or superintendent will in-
tenonce. Four teoms of experienced troubleshooters (four men per teom) ore terview him. During the interview,
ovoiloble to mointoin continuous production in the plont. The mointenonce opera- we will ask him specific questions
tions ond coordination deportment coordinate electrical molntenonce activi t ies with about our equipment and electrical
production ond other mointenonce deportments to obtoin maximum efficiency.
maintenance procedures. We then
try to evaluate his background and
experience from his answers.
vide direct superv1s10n of our 40- most effective way to maintain in- In addition, he is taken on a tour
man electrical crew. One foreman creasingly complex control systems, of the plant by our electrical fore-
is particularly skillful in mainte- special equipment and larger power- man. Several times during the tour,
nance techniques; the other has an distribution net.vorks. they will stop at an equipment in-
excellent background in electrical For example, to service our com- stallation and the applicant is asked
construction. puter-controlled conveyor system, to explain its operation; or he is
Our maintenance electricians ne two of our electricians, who have required to describe how he would
assigned specific duties and are ex- taken courses in electronics and troubleshoot and repair a particular
pected to become highly proficient have thoroughly studied the cir- apparatus.
in their specialty. Most of the men cuitry, concentrate almost entirely The questions we ask the appli-
are on "days" but to insure against on this system. As a result, the cants are comparatively difficult, but
excessive downtime, four experi- automated controls operate we adhere to this procedure rigidly.
enced troubleshooters are assigned smoothly antl downtime is min- For example, the last two electri-
to each shift. imum. cians were hired only after we bad
Another example is the electrical personally interviewed over 35 men.
What a re t he advantages of hav- instrument man. He maintains, re- This extra effort pays off, however,
ing area specialists in t he elec- pairs and calibrates ah electrical because we feel that our men do a
tr1£al department? instruments including panel meters. su:p.erio.r job n~ith minimum di.rect
Maintenance of instruments such as supervision.
This arrangement helps us to clamp-on ammeters, voltmeters, and
maintain more efficiently the wide certain sensitive relays require spe- Do you have an in-plant training
variety of equipment and systems cial skill. Through study, t raining program?
in the plant. We believe that the and practical experience, be is able
"all-a1 Jtmd" ele.~trician, particu- to provide efficient service. Yes, our informal training pro-
larly i11 a large plant, is gradually It is important that the men se- gram has been successful because
becoming outmoded, and that de- lected for these jobs have sufficient our carefully selected electricians
partmental specialization is the background and ability. Before are quite receptive to opportunities

43
UNIT SUBSTATIO N roted 2500 kvo steps 13.2-kv primary INTERLOC KED ARMORED CABLE, installed in ladder-type
supply down to 550 volts for distribution in o secondary troys, carry 2400 volts to large oc motors. Multiple runs of
selective system. Unit sub is one of 20 roof-mounted stations. interlocked armored coble (which hove been pointed white)
Phone sets at all unit subs and at elect rical shop focilltote in center of photo are supported on welded angle irons, and
system operation. carry power to large synchronous motor-generator sets.

to learn. In addition, the program a week around the clock. And re- nation group plans and schedules
provides for incentive rate ad- quired maintenance must be accom- work to be done by each depart-
vances. plished during a seven- to eight- ment.
Electricians are classified as lst- hour shutdown, which is scheduled Another important function of
class, 2nd-class and helper. In order about every 30 days. t he maintenance operations and co-
to advance in rate, the men must At a monthly meeting, electrical ordination department is mainte-
pass written and verbal tests. These department supervisors, as well as nance cost accounting. Because
tests concern our power distribu- other maintenance supervisors, sub- processing is a continuous opera-
tion system, motors, generators, mit a report on maintenance or re- tion, maintenance breakdown costs
control, electronic installations, and pairs that are needed. Usually, the are measured in downtime. Each
the like. maintenance departments will want month, a report on downtime is sent
Training is accomplished infor- to complete more work than is pos- to each department head. On the
mally during the work day. The sible in the time allotted. And co- electrical department report, the
assistant electrical superintendent ordination between the maintenance date, paper mill affected, hours
will gather available men at a par- workers is required to avoid con- down, and causes of trouble are
ticular apparatus and discuss its fusion. After all maintenance re- listed. This data serves to control
operation and troubleshooting and quirements have been thoroughly costs by pinpointing trouble-spots
maintenance procedures with them. discussed, t he maintenance coordi- and pointing up excessive cost
A question and answer period is areas.
also included. All inspections, repair or con-
Also, we have a library in the struction work are scheduled on a
electrical shop area, well stocked work-order basis. These work or-
with carefully selected books and ders are sent to maintenance plan-
magazines. A card system is used ning, where costs are computed. A
to lend out literature. report is then sent back to the elec-
In addition. we urge the men to trical department to help us analyze
attend training courses at nearby our costs.
schools and colleges. The company
refunds all costs for these courses What kind of power distribut ion
upon their successful completion. syste ms do you have and how do
So far, over 50% of the electrical you maintain it?
crew has taken, or is enrolled in,
formal outside courses. Philadelphia Electric brings in
three separate 13.2-kv feeders. In
Describe t he fu nction of the main- addi tion, we have three steam-tur-
tenance operation and coordina- bine generators, which can provide
tion group. SOLID-STATE SPEED CONTROLS for
12,000 kva of power. Total capacity
paper-mill de drive system requi re mini- of the system is about 52,000 kva.
This department plans, sched- mum main tenance. Control circuitry is Twenty unit substations, installed
ules and coordinates preventive contained on cord-packs, which con be on the building roofs,- reduce the
maintenance and repairs between seen in lower right portion of panel. Test primary voltage to 550 volts, 3
all maintenance and production de- panel (mounted above cord-pocks) is fur- phase. Substations are both single-
nished with dual meters and selector
partments. Careful planning and switch, and provides for simple testing ended and double-ended; transform-
coordination are important because of control circuits and quick location of ers range in size from 1500 to 2500
our paper mills operate seven days defective card-pocks. kva. Providing a high degree of

44
ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROL system for additional paper- DIGITAL COMPUTER, instolled on extensive, high-speed con-
mill de drive systems incorparotes tochometer generotors to veyor system, selects, counts and records specific cartons
provide input-feedback slgnols, electron-tubes to omplify sig- according to binary code printed on cartons. System com-
nors ond provide reference voltoges, mognetic omplifiers ond puters select cortons from over I 00 different brands, ond
omplidynes to supply reguloted power to de drive motors. inltiote conveyor track swi tching and discharge.

MOTO R DATA is checked by electriol SPARE COIL RACK ollows shop electri- ANNUNCIATOR PANEL, one of three
superintendent Nelson Allen. Card sys- cian to quickly select o required coil from instolled, simplifies operation ond moin-
tem provides o complete reody reference the mony stocked. For rapid identifica- tenonce of the conveyor system. Asst.
on over 4000 production motors within tion, coil hooks on rack are coded to electrical superintendent La Rue Scott
the plant. coil stock numbers. tests loudspeaker system.

reliability, the 550-volt network is loads with electl'icians at each oratories, and a reflected-light
connected in a secondary-selective pertinent unit sub, thereby greatly photo-electric scanner furnished
system operated through magnetic reducing the possibility of incor- with dual-light sources for added
air circuit breakers. rect switching sequences. reliability, are installed at dis-
In general, maintenance of the charge and switching stations.
system includes annual insulation Would you describe t he operation As cartons pass a computer sta-
resistance tests, transformer oil and maintenance of the computer- tion, the scanner detects a binary
tests, circuit - breaker inspection, controlled conveyor system? code system printed on the carton
cleaning and testing. The electrical and sends varying voltage impulses
instrument man records meter read- Located in our 300,000-sq-ft stor- to t he computer. As shown in an
ings periodically, daily in some age and shipping warehouse, the accompanying photo, the code con-
cases, providing a good check on the conveyor system forms an exten- sists of a series of printed mark-
system condition. Annually, all me- sive loop-network of motorized ings similar to those on a business
ters and relays are inspected, cali- sections powered by 60 motors. Op- machine card.
brated and tested. erating around the clock, the sys- The digital computers employ
Because unit substations are 1·e- tem automatically routes and dis- logic circuitry to decipher the code
mote from one another, we have charges into waiting railroad cars enabling it to select and count des-
installed an intercom system with over 7'50 tons of packaged paper ignated cartonR from over 100 dif-
phones at each Jinit sub and at the products per day. Completely tran- ferent brands.
electrical shop. With this system, sistorized digital computers, de-
we can coordinate switching of signed and built in our research lab-

45
OUTDOOR SUBSTATION roted
25,000 kvo is served ot 115 kv.
Annually, o maintenance service
company performs on-site oi l-di-
electric and acidity tests and, if
necessary, reconditions or replaces
main transformer oil. Modern re-
search and development building is
in right background.

In a large processing plant

Contract Maintenance
Aids Production
Reliability
"Outside" e lectrical maintenance specialists team-up with the plant e lectrical
department in a co mprehensive plan to assure continuous power for vita l
around-the-clock processes.

N ELECTRICAL contractor, a vital is conti nuity of power to this

A maintenance service company

and a consulting instrumenta-
tion technician are key figures in a
By Robert J. Lawrie
instrumentation, repairs and cali-
critical growth process, that a
5-minute power interruption could
cause complete destruction of large
comprehensive plan to assure top brates highly sensitive measuring amounts of valuable materials.
production reliability at Bristol instt"Uments and provides instru- In addition, the process requires
Laboratories, Division of Bristol- mentation engineering assistance. extensive instrumentation to mon-
Myers Co., Syracuse, N. Y. All of these outside services, in itor and control temperature, hu-
Working on contract, the elec- conjunction wi th the plant electrical midi ty, application of sterile air
trical contractor supplies skilled crew, play an important role in and other environmental condition-
electricians to supplement the plant Bristol's "power reliability" plan. ing factors.
electrical force and performs power Here, manufacture of penicillin, Thus, dependable power for pro-
system maintenance, which includes tetracycline and other life-saving duction is the primary concern of
on-site testing of circuit breakers antibiotics demands continuous the electrical department. To pro-
and relays. Also, the maintenance power for the contr olled growth of vide reliable power, Robert A. Kem-
service company inspects, tests, and microorganisms. Power must be merer, manager of maintenance and
reconditions or replaces t rans- available around-the-clock to oper- engineering, a nd Albert Gallagher,
former and circuit-breaker insulat- ate a wide variety of equipment head of the electrical and instru-
ing oil. And the consulting tech- which creates a controlled environ- ment department, developed a
nician, who is a specialist in ment in silo-like process tanks. So 3-point electrical maintenance plan.

46
This plan effectively affords the de-
sired result-power continuity. At
the same time, it remains within
practical cost limits and meets the
·fl I
company's policy of continuous em-
ployment for its personnel.
The three main parts of the plan
are: (1) development and mainte-
nance of a reliable power distribu-
tion system; (2) efficient manage-
ment and utilization of plant
electrical personnel; and (3) use of
"outside" maintenance specialists.

Distribution for Positive Power

Established in the early 1940's,
the plant grew rapidly as the need
for penicillin and other antibiotics
increased. Gradually, new buildings,
facilities and a research and devel- CURRENT-LIMITING REACTORS, installed in the original 6000-kvo out·
opment division were add ed. Today, door substation, will limit short-ci rcuit currents to within ra tings of the
this large pharmaceutical manufac- original CBs should o fau lt occur. Reactors ore connected in tie lines be-
tween the 4 160-vo lt feeder buses in both stations.
turing plant has over 15 separate
buildings encompassing nearly a
half-million sq ft.
As the plant grew, the power dis-
tribution system was expanded and
refined. A new 25,000-kva outdoor
substation supplements the original
6000-kva outdoor substation. Both
substations as well as the 4160-volt
primary distribution system incor-
porate many features which provide
system dependability. For example,
the utility brings two separate 34.5-
kv lines to the original substation.
Within the substation, a switching
arrangement allows either incoming
line to feed either, or both, of the
two main 3000-kva transformers,
which step the primary voltage
down to 4160 volts. Oil circuit
breakern, in the secondaries of each
transformer, connect the 4160 volts
into the main switchgear split bus. CONTRACT MA INTEN ANCE, which includes Inspection, cleaning, testing,
A normally closed t ie breaker con- adjustment and repair of oil power system circuit breakers and protective
nects each half of the bus. This ar- relays, is performed by on electrical contractor. Inspecting the operating
rangement allows either trans- mechanism of the main l 15-kv CB ore the contractor, Horwood Jones
former to supply either section of (left) and Robert A. Kemmerer, manager of maintenance and engineering.
the bus as requ ired.
A third utility line supplies the flexibility, each section of the 4160- the original 3000-kva transformers
new substation at 115 kv. This line volt buses in both substations con- and plant equipment. However, as
feeds two main 12,500-kva trans- nects through tic breakers and line plant loads grew and when the al-
formers through a 1200-amp OCB. reactors. This over-all design of the ternate Jines from the new 25,000-
Provisions have been made fo r a primary switching arrangement of- kva substation were circuited
second OCB and a fourth utility fers many alternate power-supply th rough the original CBs, the mag-
supply to be installed in the future. circuits, thereby affording a high nitude of the short-circuit currents
The secondaries of each trans- degree of dependabili ty. available was higher than the rat-
former, which also provide 4160 Because this power system was ings of the original CBs. To limit
volts, are protected by 2000-amp air "grown" rather than designed as an these short-circuit currents within
CBs located in the main metalclad original concept, cer tain modifica- the rating of t he CBs, 5-kv current-
switchgear. As in the or iginal sub- tions, such as the addition of cur- limiting reactors were installed in
station, the 4160-volt bus is split rent-limiting reactors and ground- substation split-bus tie lines.
into two sections. A 2000-amp, nor- ing resistors were required. In the To fut'ther reduce magnitude of
mally open, tie air circuit breaker original substation, feeder CBs have fault currents, the 4160-volt neutral
is installed between the sections. ample capacity to safely interrupt is grounded t hrough res istors lo-
Providing further operational short-circuit currents available from cated in each substation at the main

47
 substations can be remotely oper-
ated from a control panel near the
main switchgear. All remotely op-
erated disconnect switches are key-
.. interlocked with appropriate circuit

I I breakers as a safety measure.

The design for reliability con-
tinues with the underground pri-
mary distribution to ten load cen-
ters feeding the plant buildings.
t • Duplicate 4160-volt feeders extend

'•
to most load centers. And several
load centers have alternate 460-volt
circuits connected through tie CBs
in a complex network arrangement.

.. At load centers, both dry-type and

oil-filled transformers reduce the
primary voltage to 460 volts delta
ungrounded for utilization. It was
decided to fol'feit the advantages of
PROTECTIVE DEVICES in the 4160-volt switchgeor ore inspected by Robert a grounded secondary system in or-
Kemmerer (right) and Albert Gallagher, deportment head of the electrical der to retain continuous power
and instrument deportment. Relays, which include di rectionol-overcurrent,
time-overcurrcnt, inverse-time, undervoltoge, and ground relays, ore cali-
should a ground occur on the 460-
brated end coordinated on-si te by the electrical contractor's technicians volt system. Ground indicators are
using mobi le laboratory equipm en t. strategically located throughout the
plant to monitor the system.
transformers. The r ating of the of relays installed for protection of Because power distribution is so
2-ohm grounding resistor in the the primary system include: direc- extensive, a coding system was de-
original substation is 1200 amps at tional - overcurrent, time - overcur- vised for quick identification of
2400 volts. In the new substation, rent, differential-protective, inverse- circuits. At each load, panel, or dis-
a 1.6-ohm grounding resistor is time, undervoltage, and ground tribution point, a plastic tag, at-
rated 1500 amps, 2400 volts. relays. Meters include ammeters, tached in an obvious location, iden-
Carefur coordination of protective voltmeters, wattmeters, watt-hour tifies the location of the circuit's
relays and thorough metering is an- meters, and power factor meters. previous disconnect switch, panel or
other plus factor aiding the distri- To speed switching operations, circuit breaker. For example, 5-2-
bution system dependability. Types disconnect switches in the outdoor Lt-NW-14 would identify a circuit
emanating from building 5, 2nd
floor, from a lighting panel, located
in the northwest corner of the build-
ing, circuit 14.

Maintenance Management
The second part of the plan to
assure electr.ical continuity is the
application of effective management
methods. Generally, this includes :
(1) organization of the electrical
department, (2) efficient utilization
of manpower, (3) operation of an
EPM (electrical preventive mainte-
nance) program, and (4) selection
and installation of improved, more
dependable equipment.
As head of the electrical and in-
strument department, Albert Gal-
lagher is responsible for electrical
maintenance costs, planning and op-
e1·ation of the EP.M program, and
design and construction of new elec-
t rical installations. Under him are
an electrical foreman, who super-
RECORDING AMMETER monitors pro- MODERN CONTROL for giant 2250-hp, vises a five-man electrical crew, and
duction -motor running current at a mod- 4 160-volt synchronous motor driving o an instrument foreman who directs
ern motor control center. Intermi ttent 14,000-cfm air compressor includes (from
overcurrent relay tripping prompted elec- left) cir-volume, air-flow, water-tempera- six instrument technicians. The in-
trica l foremon to obtain continuous record ture and motor-load controls. Protect ive strument technicians calibrate, r e-
of motor current to ascer tain cause of relays and on annuncia tor system ore pair and maintain production and
trouble. installed in end section of panel. laboratory instruments and controls

48
to assure continuous, accurate in-
strumentation.
The primary responsibility of the
plant electrical crew is to perform
the EPM required on essential pro-
duction equipment, which is shut
down for short intervals during the
continuous production cycle. In ad-
dition, they must be fami liar with
pertinent production circuitry in
order to rapidly troubleshoot and
repair any malfunctions.
The electrical crew also performs
electrical construction and some
maintenance of the power system.
However, the bulk of power system
maintenance is accomplished by an
electrical contractor and a mainte-
nance service company working on
contract.
. r.a
Contract Maintenance EXTENSIVE INSTRUMENTATION is required to control ond monitor the
critical penicillin-production process. Every two weeks, a consulting technician
The third part of the "power re- who specializes in instrumentation is brought In to augment services to vital
instruments. Shown above is a portion of these measuring instrum ents.
liability" plan is use of the special-
ized skills and manpower of "out-
side" service companies. A local
electrical contractor, who specializes
in industrial electrical maintenance,
services the power distribution sys-
tem. This includes a complete visual
inspection of all power system com-
ponents; cleaning, test and repair
of all circuit breakers; and thor-
ough testing and coordination of all
protective relays.
These inspections and tests are
accomplished by the contractor's
specially trained men at the CB and
relay location using mobile test
equipment. And, in most instances,
the work can be done without inter-
rupting plant power. Future main-
tenance work to be done by the
contractor includes insulation-re-
sistance tests on all power feeders,
and inspection and test of high- DUAL BUSWAYS in pilot.plant laboratory provide a ready power source for
voltage components in the outdoor additional equipment when required. Top buswoy supplies 220 volts, 3
substations. phase; lower buswoy provides 208 volts, 3 phase ond 120 volts, single phase.
In addition, the electrical contrac- Plug-in bus receptacles hove individual circuit-breaker protection and polar-
tor supplies construction and main- ized receptacle slots.
tenance electricians as required.
Normally, there are from two to curate, up-to-date one-line diagram service is provided by a consulting
ten contractor electricians working of the power system. instrumentation technician. Al-
with the plant crew on electrical Transformer and circuit-breaker though most of Bristol's instrumen-
construction or maintenance proj- oil is also serviced through contract tation technicians are fully trained
ects. maintenance. Annually, an inde- and experienced, the instrumenta-
The contractor also provides en- pendent service company that tion technician is brought in every
gineering consultation for equip- specializes in maintenance of in- two weeks to provide an added de-
ment installations as well as other sulating oils inspects, tests and gree of reliability and accuracy to
special services. For example, he filters or replaces insulating oil in the critical laboratory and research
recently surveyed the rapidly grow- all oil-filled transformers and cir- instrumentation. His services in-
ing electrical system to obtain per- cuit breakers. This service company clude adjustment, repair and cali-
tinent equipment data, and studied also provides on-site service using bration of especially sensitive
the available electrical drawings to mobile equipment, such as a dielec- instruments, sucp as temperature
extract circuit layout information. tric test unit, acidity test equipment and humidity controllers, and en-
With this data, he then consolidated and a filter press. gineering consultation to improve
the various drawings into an ac- Another contract maintenance instrumentation methods.

49
 /,

//

·r

CHEMICAL PLANT operotes on continuous schedule which o ll ows li tt le time for

normol maintenance procedures. Power s~·stem design, reliable components, con-
tinuing modernizoti on ond simplified mointenance keeps downt ime to o minimum.

Continuous production depends on ...

Design for simplified maintenance

H EN an industrial plant op-
Skillful electrical design, continuing W erates on a seven-day, around-
11iodernization and careful planning add the-clock schedule, electrical sys-
tem des ign must provide for
'UP to si1nplified elect?·ical ?naintenance dependable opera tion with a mini-
mum of maintenance. Furthermore,
at an industrial chemical coniplex. when electricity is the key element
in the cont inuous pr oduction proc-
Unusual maintenance methods include a ess. power systems become vital
lifelines essential to successfu l plant
coniprehensive color-coding schenie to operations.
Such is the case at the Inorganic
speed trou bleshooting and protective Chemicals Div., FMC Corp., Buf-
falo , N. Y. At t his multi-building,
waxing of expansive de bus-bar syste1n. 270,000-sq-ft plant, a n extens ive
installation of de-powered electro-
lytic cells make up the major powe1·
load. Total connected de load is over
7000 kva. These cells are part of a
By ROBERT .J. LAWRIE, Associate Editor pr ocess in t he production of hy-
drogen peroxide, which is the pri-
mary chemical produced. The proc-
cess is continuous, operating on a
24-hr schedule, seven days a week.
Because electric power plays the
major r ole in the production proc-
ess, r eliable power systems are a
must. And usually, maximum re-

50
liabili ty demands frequent mainte- 2. Dual utility service plus an 23/ 4.G-kv transformer. From each
nance inspections and tests. How- auxiliary incoming line. A 115-kv transformer a 4160-volt circu it is
ever, the continuous production loop feed and a separate 23-kv carried to each of two selector-
schedule permits little time for supply assure a dependable power switching cubicles which supply
many of tho usual electrical main- source because it is unlikely that the main 5-kv switchboard in the
tenance procedu1·es. Because of this, all three services will be down at plant. Either or both of the feed-
the plant electrical department the same time. ers may be selected to supply the
called for a number of features 3. Standby primary feeder for switchboard.
in the original electrical design to production power. Normal feeders 5. Ungrounded 240-volt utiliza-
promote dependability and to mini- supply two silicon rectifier substa- tion-voltage distribution system.
mize maintenance. In addition, a tions, which convert ac power to The ungrounded system assures
continuing moderni?.ation program de for t he production process. The that utilization power, particularly
further reduces maintenance re· standby feeder supplies an ignitron for control ci rcuits and instru-
quirements and, at the same lime, installat ion, which is part of the ments on process lines, will not be
increases plant power system de- original conversion equipment, and interrupted if a phase is grounded.
pendability. which now serves as a standby de A ground detector, consisting of
power supply. The ignitrons also three lamps connected across all
Design for maintenance supplement the silicon units, pro- phases, is inst.'llled at the 240-volt
Design features that promote viding additional de power when main distribution switchgear. This
continuous power for production production demands are high. device indicates when a ground
include: 4. Primary selective arrange- occurs and a maintenance crew will
1. Proximity of power sou rce. ment of feeders supplying circuits immediately start procedures to
The plant is located less than a essential to production. From the find and eliminate the ground.
mile from a large Niagara l\Iohawk outdoor substation, two 23-kv feed- The accompanying one-line dia-
Power Corp. generating station. ers each extend to a 1500-kva, gram and photos show details of

?.3-Kv 11 5-Kv 115-Kv

.ouxilipry incoming incoming
incoming line No.1
line line No.2

! Disc.sw
34.5 Kv
!.,,,--__-Disc.s
115-Kv
w- , !
--...
I 600omp 600 amp
I mtr. ope r.
I SIMPLIFIED ONE-LINE diagram shows basic e lemen ts of
l 15,000Kvo design. Dual 115-kv utility line plus auxiliary 23-kv service

I
I

L ___ J_nter!Q.~------
T 115/23 Kv
3-phose
provide o high degree of reliability. Moin OCB as well os
feeder OCBs ore located in outdoor substation. The two 23-kv
feeders at left, which ore stepped down to 4.16-kv and extend
to switching cubicle, offer high dependability of service be-
cause either feeder or both may be selected to the supply 5-kv
primary switchgear. The 23-kv feeder supplying the igni tron
rectifier serves os o standby feeder since the igni trons ore on
standby duty. Silicon rectifiers supply hig h-capacity de power
to two large bus-bor systems in hydrogen peroxide process.

Oise sw
- 23Kv
400omp

-Feeder OCB
34.5 Kv
r 600omp
I I rectifier
lr
L _Jlsubslolion
23Kv/215V
18000 amp (Q) Power-
266 volts de foclor
corrective
copacilors

DC bus - bar syslem DC bus-bar sys tem

7 feeders protected by air circuil breakers

lo 4.16-kv malors, elc , ond 4.16-kv/240-voll disl.
lransfrs. for process power and lighting.

51
the high - voltage distribution However, maintenance require- able distance away at the Niagara
scheme. These design features, ments tended to offset any gain River. Also, outdoor light ing equip-
which emphasize alternate power offered by the efficiency of the me- ment is in the process of being
supply routes, help to provide the chanical rectifiers. Weekly, the upgraded throughout the 14-acre
1·esuU of a good maintenance pro- units bad to be s hut down for re- plant grounds.
gram-continuous power for pro- placement of contacts. Not only was Recently, a portable polarizing
duction, while at the same time, this maintenance procedure costly, unit was acquired. This unit essen-
actual maintenance procedures are but also considerable production tially is a portable s ilicon rectifier.
held to a minimum. t ime was lost. In the electrolytic process, differ-
When silicon rectifiers became ent de voltages are required at vari-
Modernization for maintenance available, John W. Worrell, engi- ous times. This is accomplished
High-capacity de power is re- neering superintendent, who is an through a motorized lap changer
quired for the electrolytic, hydro- electrical engineer, investigated on each s ilicon rectifier substation.
gen-peroxide process. Direct cur- the possibility of replacing the me- Power must be off during the tap
rent at 220 to 280 volts is applied chanical rectifiers with silicon change, which would allow loss of
to the electrolysis cells which pro- units. His investigation revealed polarization of t he electrnlytic cells.
duce a bisulfate and a persulfate that silicon rectifiers were ideal To maintain polarization, a holding
solution. The solution is further for the electrolytic process. Their voltage is derived from two large
processed through evaporation and efficiency is high, in the order of battery banks rated at 1600 amp-
distillation, resulting in hydrogen 95%, and they are highly reliable, hrs. This is practical when many
peroxide in a 50 % to 90 % solution. requiring little maintenance. There- cells require a polarization hold-
Two silicon rectifier substations fore, in 1959 during a program of ing voltage. However, it is imprac-
each supply a large electrolytic in- conversion from 25-cycle to 60-cycle tical when only a few cells require
stallation. One rectifier delivers power, the two silicon rectifier sub- the holding power. As a result, the
9600 amps at 272 volts de; the stations and associated protective portable silicon unit, rated 15 kw
other is capable of delivering 18,- devices and controls were installed was obtained to provide small
000 amps at 266 volts de. as shown in accompanying photos. amounts of de power.
Originally, this high-capacity de In an effort to further improve
power was provided by mechanical power system reliability and to re- Maintenance methods
rectifiers. Mechan ical rectifiers duce maintenance, Worrell advo- E lectrical mnintennnce is the
were selected over motor-generator cates a continuing modernization responsibility of Carl Kamholz,
sets because of their inherent high program. For example, a recent electrical foreman, who heads up
efficiency (94 % to 97 % ). Efficiency control installation allows elec- the electrical department. Under
of operation was important because tricians at the plant to monitor and him are four plant electricians, who
the cost of power was a significant operate 350-hp, 4160-volt pump mo- perform all electrical maintenance
factor in the production process. tors which are located a consider- and construction; two instrument

MAIN 1 S,000-KVA TRANSFO RMER in outdoor substo- 115-KV OUTDOOR SUBSTATION hos dual feed plus on auxiliary
tion is inspected by Corl Komholz, electricol foremon, service. Lorge transformer at left steps primary voltage to 23.4 kv.
ond Jomes Gronton, Niogoro Mohowk Power Corp. An- At right is line-up of OCBs which protect primary feeders to plant.
nuol mointenonce includes toking oil somples ond com- Small structure at left contai ns main OCB control and battery for
plete onolysis to determine condition of oil. CB operatin g power.

52
5-KV PRIMARY SWITCHGEAR is located in powerhouse at SILICON RECTIFIERS installed in powerhouse supply high-
one end of plont. Dual 4 160-valt feeders enter selectar- copocity de power to e lectrolytic cells. Unit at ri-gh t is roted
switching cubicles at right, which supply power to the 5-kv 18,000 omps at 266 volts de. Rectifier a t left supplies 9600
switchgear line-up. Color-code scheme col ls for b lock point amps at 272 volts de. These units ore furnished with rec tifi er
on oc µowcr circuits. tra nsformers, motorized top changers, and silicon cells.

technicians, who maintain process and an overall cleaning or paint- be highly reliable and likewise re-
instrumentation and meters ; and ing of sta t ion components. quire minimum maintena nce. Each
three welders. In addition, a ll insu lators re- of the two silicon rectifier substa-
Kamholz uses a "check-sheet" ceive a coat of s ilicone g rease for tions consist of a rectifier trans-
met hod to s.!hedule routine mainte- environmental protection. Air- former, which steps down incoming
nance, which consists mostly of borne contamination s uch as dust 23-kv power to 230-280 volts, de-
visual inspections because of the and waste chemical matter from pending on the setting of an inte-
continuou s operation. However, nearby plants often settle on in- gral motorized tap changer; banks
meters, gauges, recording equip- sulators and could cau se a s urface of silicon cells mounted on water-
ment and monitoring devices, in- flash-over. The silicone grease cooled bus bars; and outgoing de
stalled on essential components or coating is inspected and replaced protective equipment. All compo-
systems, aid evaluation of equip- if necessary wheneve r the substa- nents are housed in free- standing,
ment condit ion and indicate im- tion is s hutdown. in-line metal enclosures. Gener..
pending or current troubles. Kamholz points out that if a ll ally, maintenance procedures con-
High-voltage maintenance start s of these procedu res a re not per- s ist of keeping the equipment clean,
at the outdoor 115-kv substation. formed w it hin a four-year period, visual inspection, and evaluation of
Annually the station undergoes a arrangements are made with pro- data compiled from recording in-
thorough inspection plus proce- duction fo r a station shutdown. struments, meters a nd gauges
du res or tests which can be per- This permits completion of t he which monitor the de system.
formed without interrupting power. entir e maintenance program and Hourly, process operators record
This includes inspection of super- assures a high degree of power incoming voltage; ac a nd de a mps;
structure for rust, insulators for system reliability. temperature of silicon-cell cooling
excessive conta mination, switches High-voltage feeders which con- water; transformer tap posit ion,
for corrosion and ground connec- sist of s ingle-conductor, paper- temperature and pressure. Know-
tions for tightness. Also, oil sam- insulated lead-covered cables at ing proper operating values, opera-
ples taken from all OCBs and the the 23-kv level, and 5-kv rubber- tors will spot any deviations from
main transformer are sent to a insulated, neoprene-jacketed ca- normal and immediately notify the
testing laboratory for analysis. bles at the 4160-volt level have electrical maintenance department.
When power can be isolated been highly reliable and, as a re- In addition, operators check pilot
from the station, further pro- sult, warrant minimum mainte- lights, furnished on each rectifier,
cedures include calibration of nance. These cables are inspected which indicate when a silicon cell
protective relays ; close inspection at potheads and terminations on has shorted out. Each s ilicon recti-
of ins ula t ors for cracks; checking a spot-check basis. During out- fier consists of a number of s ilicon
of conductor connections ; inspec- door station s hutdowns, a ll feeders cells connected in parallel. The 18,-
tion, lubrication and test operation receive ins ula tion-resistance tests. 000-amp unit is furnished with
of OCB operating mechanisms; Silicon rectifiers have proved to over 100 cells. Connected in series
53
DC M ETE RING includes mcosurement of MAZE OF BUS BARS carries de power from SILICO N CELLS (arrow) in rectifie r
voltage ond omperoge on de branch cir- silicon rectifiers to electrolytic cells. Double ore connected in parallel t') carry
cuits (bus runs to eoch electrolytic celll. bus-bor feeders ot right ond bus runs at top high currents ot selected voltage.
A de circuit breaker protects bus-bor have o capacity of over 18,COO omps at 266 Cells ore mounted on wot.:r-cooled
runs which branch off from moin run to volts. Bus run indicated by "R" is positive bus bors. Adjacent to eoch silicon
elec trolytic cell. Meter shunts for current leg ond is painted red in color-code scheme; cell is o protective fuse ond pilot
measurement ore installed on one leg of negative bus run is pointed green ond is lomp which is illuminate<.! ....hen o
eoch bus feede r. indicated in photo by "G." cell foiis.

with each cell is a fuse with a

shunt-connected pilot lamp. If the
silicon cell shor ts out, the fuse will
blow permitting t he pilot lamp to
be illuminated, which pinpoints t he
fau lted cell. At the next production
shutdown, the cell is replaced.
The bus-bar system is a complex
maze of copper extending from the
silicon rectifiers in the powerhouse
to the electrolytic cells in process
areas. Two main bus-bar runs sup-
ply de power to two separate elec-
trolytic process areas. Bus-bar
runs, which vary in configuration
and make-up, are equivalent to PROTECTI VE RE LAYS, monitoring de- GEOM ETRICAL COMBINATIO N ot bus
eight parallel bars each with a cross- vices, meters, gouges and recording bors consists of ~-in. by 4-in. bors run
charts (on panel in background) help to in multiple. Metal screw clomps hold bus
section of -}-in. by 8 in. to carry simplify maintenance of electrical systems bors of some polarity in close contact.
18,000 amps without overheating. ond equipment. Comprehensive records Coot of point (red for positive; green for
Maintenance of these bus con- ore kept on hond; da to are surveyed fre- negative) protects feeder bus bors from
ductors consists primarily of an quently by opera tors. Any devi a tion from contamination. Bus bors supplying elec-
annual cleaning and application of normol is immediately reported to the trolytic cells receive coot of auto wox
a coat of wax. In process areas, electrical deportment. which provides environmental protection.
chemical salts and other deposits
settle on the bars. This could cause
deterioration of the copper or a
possible flash-over. To prevent this, cqu ipment aids fast ident ification or components contain ac power
plant electricians annually apply a of variouf: systems when mainte- a nd mistaken identification is
coat of a " brand-name" auto wax to nance is requ ired. This is pa r t icu- highly unlikely. Motors are light
all bus conductor surfaces. This has lady helpful when troubleshooting. blue; however, moving parts are
proved to be an effective and prac- On the de system, all positive bus bri~ht yellow. Cooling water piping
tical method of providing environ- bars are painted red; negative bus is dark green; distilled water pipes
mental protection for t he copper bars a re painted green. Conduit, are painted pink. Other colors, as
bus bars. switches, boxes, etc., carrying ac well as color-coded pipe tracing,
Color-coding of t he bus bars, 'POWer are painted black, except i n identify various process piping
conduit, process piping a nd certain some instances where all conduit systems.
54
Part II

Equipment Testing,

Troubleshooting

And Maintenance

55
 A practical

By ERNEST F. COOKE, Equipment Service Engineer,

Reliance Electric and Engineering Co.

PROPER A LIGNM ENT is one of severol requisites for in·

suring vibrotionless operation. This is most important be-
cause excessive vibration con deform or even break
shafts, cause bearings or seals to fail, damage a motor's
mechanical structure, break electrical connections or
brushes, speed dete riora tion of insulat ion or creole severe
commutator slip-ring problems. Maintenance man here
checks alignment bewte.:-n cc-motor and de generator.

Production sequence and motor d epende nce

Ouontity of H.P. of Production Permissible Ronk of

Process duplicate the motor loss if repair time motor
number machines on each one motor before plant importance
mo chine foils shuts down
Production
Process I 10,0
100% 2 days 2
h.p.

10
2 4
h.p.
25% 3

Production 40
Process 2 3 100% None
h.p.

Production 15
4 2 h.p. 50% 4 days 4
Process 3

10
2 10% 5
Production 5
h.p.
Process 4

2-doy RELATIV E IMPORTA NCE of

inventory motors to product processing
can be analyzed by diagram-
ing manufacturing sequences,
noting quantities and hp rat-
ings of motors, also extent of
Production inventory material normally
Process 5 stored between successive pro-
duction processes. In example
above, the 40-hp motor relat-
Input ing to Process 3 is most im-
portant because it is o single
unit ond no inventory is pos-
_ _ _ _ __ sible due to spoce limitations.
Finished If this motor fails, the entire
processing sequence would in-
Output product sta ntly stop.

56
 approach to motor maintenance

H e1·e are some realistic procedures for evaluating the importance

of m otors as they relate to plant production sequences, and fo1·
making knowledgeable predictions as to which motors a1~e likely to
fail first. This analysis stresses the penalty to production when key
motors fail, and advises maintenance supervisors how much downtime
is permissible fo1· repairs before p1·oduction bottlenecks develop.

HE subject of motor mainte- Location of duplicate or inter- of inventory permits four days of
T nance is one which has been
discussed in countless previous arti-
changeable motors.
An estimate of the motor's im-
half-volume production). Failure of
a 2-hp motor in Process Five would
cles and instruction manuals. There- portance in the productive process cut production by 10%.
fore the reader might assume, quite to which it relates. But, if the s ingle 40-hp motor re-
correctly, that this present discus- lated to Process Three fails, the
sion is not apt to express a wealth Predictive maintenance entire processing sequence would
of wisdom which is being voiced This estimate of importance, halt immedialely. Therefore, the
for the first time. However, the which we will refer to as the pre- 40-hp motor is the most critical unit
fact that so much has been written dictive maintenance factor, consid- in the plant and should receive
is the justification for this review, ers the importance of the motor to priority attention in the mainte-
for previous discussions have pre- overall plant operation, and it also nance program.
sented some conflicting opinions and involves a knowledgeable prediction This is not a unique conclusion,
have stressed certain subjects while of which motors are likely to fail and most maintenance men have
leaving gaps in the overall picture. first. This is an important evalua- recognized lhis fact instinctively.
For these reasons it is pertinent tion, for it recognizes the penalty Yet, by analyzing an entire opera-
to review and coordinate the think- to production if a motor fails, and tion, evaluating the importance of
ing of many experls from many mo- it also indicates to the maintenance each motor and placing conclusions
tor manufacturers and maintenance supervisor how much permissible on paper, the maintenance depart-
organizations, and to submit an downtime is available for equip- ment remains constantly alert to its
analysis which, hopefully, will be ment repairs before a production productive responsibilities.
basically simple and practical as bottleneck develops.
well as comprehensive. The value of this information can Causes for fa ilure
The first step towards a reliable be illustrated by referring to a In determining which motors are
maintenance program is to prepare typical Production Sequence and likely to fail first, it is well to re-
records. And, while this chore often Motor Dependence chart. As indi- member that motor failures gener-
is distasteful, it also is essential to cated, our theoretical plant has five ally are caused by either loading,
tabulate the mass of pertinent data separate production processes which age, vibration, contamination or
which cannot possibly be retained must be performed in sequence. Also commutation problems.
by memory alone. Obviously, rec- noted are quantities of motors and Obviously, an overloaded motor
ords can take many forms and mu st inventory levels stored between will fail :iooner than one which is
be tailored to specific needs and re- processes. not ovcl'loaded, so the easy answer
sources. But, as a minimum, records This tabulation indicates that to this problem would be to eithe•
on each motor shou Id include : failure of a 100-hp motor (related eliminate overloads or replace these
A complete description, including to Process One) would cause a motors with larger units. But this
age and nameplate data. 100% shut-down after the inventory usually is not possible. Also, over-
Location and application, keeping for the following process is ex- loads may be caused by fluctuations
such notations up-to-date if motors hausted. In Process Two, failu re of of circuit voltage or frequency.
are transferred to different areas or a 10-hp motor would cause a 25 % Sometimes it is possible to up-
used for different purposes. redu ction of operations immedi- grade a motor by using a better in-
Notations of scheduled preventive ately, while fai lure of a 15-hp motor sulat ion system, putting more cop-
maintenance and previous repair in Process Four would cause a 50% per in the slot, changing from a
work performed. reduction after four days (two days cast to a bar-type rotor on an ac

57
 100

u
80

=60
·~

100% lood,1150-rpm bose speed

0"'
~
::;
20 Typical curves of heotinq time
for o 60°C rise motor

20 40 60 80 100
Operating tome in minutes

UPGRADING MOTOR CAPAC ITY sometimes is p?ssible TEMPERATURE TESTS should be mode only ofter a motor has
by ut ilizing insulation with higher temperature resistance, been running for an appreciable period, because maximum tem-
placing more copper in slots or welding de armature leads peratures arc reached only after extended, steady operation.
to commutator risers by inert-gos process. Armature being Curves shown here refer to 60°C rise motors operating at various
prepared for welding operation above is shown mounted on speeds, ot full or overloads, for pericds of on hour or more.
common shaft with ac rotor.

induction motor, or welding de com- Excessive vibration can cause bearings, and can wear down the
mutators by the inel't-gas method. sprung or broken shafts, bearing insulation until failure occurs. Con-
More about these techniques later. or seal fai lures, insulation break- ductive contamination, especially
Light loads on de machines like- down, broken electrical connections, moisture, can cause insulation fail-
wise can cause excessive commuta- damage to the motor's mechanical ure by shorting the windings or
tor wear. structure, broken brushes and a shorting to ground. Moisture also
To prevent a sudden or unex- variety of commutator or slip-ring can cause rust, which certainly
pected overload, it is wise to check problems. never helps.
all protective devices, such as over- Vibration can be caused by mis- Combinations of solid and liquid
load rnlays, fuses, circu it breakers, alignment, bearing problems or im- contaminants can fill up air gaps
field loss relays and voltage relays balance. These conditions can occur so that rotors and stators are locked
periodically. This also insures that either in the motor or machine, and together. Abrasives, moisture and
these devices will not be bypassed should be corrected promptly. chemicals can cause excessive com-
or neglected. Bearing problems can be due to mutator wear. Corrosive contami-
It is worth noting that much bas contamination, lack of lubrication, nants can attack everything in the
been accomplished in recent years improper fits either internal or ex- motor, from metal parts to the in-
in improving motor protective ternal, also overloading, carrying sulation system. These problems
devices which are responsive to stray electrical current, slip-ring can be corrected by proper mote".'
changes in temperature and cur- damage and vibration itself. enclosures or by the use of winding
rent. These devices, usable in 3- Bearing pl'Oblems not only will encapsulation.
phase motors up to 7'hp, are supe-
rior as overload protective agents.
cause excessive vibration that will
damage other parts, but they can
Generally speaking, all motors
can withstand surprising amounts
Larger and other types of motors lead to complete bearing failures of abuse. But when abuse of de
also may be equipped with various which in turn may cause failures motors is cited, the problem should
types of inherent protectors. in rotors or windings. emphasize possible trouble· with
As to the age factor, motors have Contamination probably is the c01mnulation, commutator and
Life-Failure patterns that follow most common cause of failure. Just brushes. This is evident in such
definite curves, although failures plain nonabrasive, nonconductive conditions as rapi,d brush wear,
due to age can be delayed consider- dirt can coat motor windings and chipped or broken brushes, burned
ably by thorough periodic cleaning; cut clown on heat dissipation, or it brushes, copper feathering or drag,
dipping and baking the windings; can block ventilation passages and commutator burning, slot or pitch
replacing fast-wearing bearings and increase insulation temperature so patterns, or overfilming.
brushes; also tightening, turning that failure ultimately occurs. These conditions are caused by
and undercutting commutators on Abrasive contamination can cause many diff~rent factors, sometimes
de motors. wear in moving parts, especially in combination but not necessarily
58
 I service factor, how long the over-
I load is applied, and what the degree
I
I
Closs H 180°C l of overload is. For example, assign
I
I
Closs F 155°C l I up to 3 points for reversing duty
I I and up to 4 points for s hock loads.
~120° I I
Up to 6 points should be assigned
0 c Closs B13fl°C 1
I
;;;
a. I
if starts and reverses are frequent,
E I points varying in accordance wit h
~
Q)
Totally enclosed actual numbers of starts or re-
~100° nonvenliloted verses. Also, up to 10 points are re-
lated to history of operating trouble.
~ c
CJ The duty facto r is determined by
E
~
adding point.s for speed and load,
0 then deducting points for other
:;:0 sooc items noteu in the paragraph im-
mediately above. Theoretically t his
Typical curves relating the temperolure rise procedure can result in a negative
of o molar lo the inlernol hot spot temperature
number for this category, but if
this occurs you had better hur ry
60° into the plant to see if the motor
c ._..._~~-...JL-~-'-~---'-~~~.1--l..~~~~-'-~-
120° 140° 160° 180° is still operating. Actually, nega-
Hot spot temperature of tive ratings art! not valid, so the
motor windings in degrees C least you should give to a motor for
this category is zero.
INTERN AL TEMPERATU RES of o motor normolly ore considera-
bly hotter than external temperatures. Therefore, if motor frame As in all of the categories, t he
becomes as hot as the insulotion roting of the windi ngs, o safe important consideration here is to
conclusion would be tha t interna l ho t spots exceed th is roting remain consistent in rating all mo-
and insulation breakdown can be anticipated in the very near tors by the same standards. In com-
fu tu re. paring motors, sot .e consideration
must be given to whether they are
specially designed for certain jobs,
with cast rotors, 9 points; syn- that is, for laking shock loads or
in this order: low or high load, low
making frequent starts. If you have
or high brush pressure, atmospheric chronous motors with t\vo slip
prior history of trouble, that Let
contamination, vibration, incorrect rings, 7; wound rotor motors with
would be considered in rating the
brush grade, open or shorted arma- 3 slip rings, 5; de motors with
motor for this factor.
ture coils, high-resistance riser con- commutator, 3, and a unit with both
nections, improperly set brush hold- slip rings and commutator, 1. Envil'onment: In rating environ-
ers or inter poles. Age : As indicated by the Life- rnent (15 points maximum), we
Failure Curve, the probability of take into account both the motor
Failure predictions molor failure changes with age, enclosure and the external condi-
To determine which motors are (10 poinls maximum) and thi s is tions. Obviously, an open motor in
likely to fail first, it is pertinent reflected by rating motors which a high-moisture environment will
to use failure ratings (on a point are less than 2 years old, 6 points; fail sooner than a totally enclosed
bas is) as criteria. These relative 2-12 years, 10 points ; 13-15 yeat·s, motor in the same environment. To
ratings are based upon s ix factors 6 points; lG-20 years, 11 points, and determine the rating in this cate-
which can be determined by inspec- over 20 years old, 2 points. gory, add the rating for motor en-
tion and analys is of application. If a motor has been repaired, then closure to the rating for environ-
Factors (and points relating to the point-rating referring to age ment, but do not assign more than
them) include Lype of motor, 10; should be revised to reflect the ex- 15 points.
age, 10; ..iuty, 15; environment, 15; tent. to which repair work has in- Motor enclosu res (and points)
findings Jf visual inspection, 30; creased life expectancy. are as follows : totally enclosed, with
and results of tests, 20. These fac- Duty: As to the lhird factor, drains, 10; totally enclosed, with-
tors have a maximum possible sum- duly, (15 points maximum) we con- out drains, 7; force-ventilated,
mation of 100 points. sider such factors as speed and using clean air, 10; forced-ventila-
Typ e: Each of these factors is loading. To compute this factor, as- t ion, using filtered air, from 4 to 6
evaluated in accot·dance with ex- sign l 0 points if the motor is never points; open, with sealed bearings
perience. F or example, considering fully loaded; if never overloaded, 7 and encapsulated windings, 6; open,
types of 111otors, (10 points maxi- poinls; if 10% overloaded, 3 poinls, nonhydroscopic windings with more
mum) the construction of a squirrel and if 25% overloaded, zero. Simi- l han one dip-bake cycle, 3; and
cage induction motor is relatively larly, if the speed is 1200 rpm or standard open or protected motor,
s imple compared Lo that of a de less, assign 5 points ; if between 2 points.
motor, so a squirrel cage motor is 1300-1800 rpm, 3 points; if between As to external conditions : when
less apt to fa il. Therefore, in con- 1900-3600, 1 point, and if over 3600 they are warm, clean and dry, as-
sidering motor types, induction mo- rpm, zero. sign 13 points; moist or hot, 3 to
tors with bar-type rotors are rated In considering overloads, it is 7; abrasive, 5 to 8; oily, dirty, 2 to
a full 10 points ; induction motors necessary to know the available 6 ; wet, corrosive, zero to 5 points.
59
 the motor usually is much hotter
than the outside. This is indicated
by typical curves relating external
temperature rise of a motor to the
internal hot spot temperature.
Motor
failure
Tests should be made after the
rote motor bas been running for several
hours at full operntion, for, as in-
dicated by temperature rise dia-
grams, full temperature is not
I reached quickly.
~ "14
Premature
Normal life span Old age Small thermometers with mag-
nets for attaching them to frames
LI FE-FA ILU RE CU RVE is basically the some for all motors. This indicates that proba- are available for this purpose.
bility of failure diminishes during first few years, levels out for extended period, then Points should be assigned on a rela-
rises steadily. Failure due to age, however, con be delayed by regular maintenance
practices such as thorough periodic cleaning, dipping and baking the windings or
tive basis, with the realization that
replacing worn brushes and bearings. every increase of 10°C in motor
temperature cuts motor life in half.
As for vibration analysis, it is
Again, points assigned depend Jong or require more ability or possible to obtain lightweight bat-
upon relative conditions. For exam- equipment than is normally found in tery-operated analyzers that are
ple, not many people realize how in- many plants. But, as a minimum, truly portable. Selling for about
efficient most filters are (with the three tests are definitely recom- $1500, these devices can be used not
exception of electrically operated mended. These include insulation re- only to record the level of vibration,
precipitrons). Filter efficiency of sistance, temperature and vibration but to sort out the frequency of vi-
tilter-ventilated motors is low to analysis. bration so that you can determine
begin with, and decreases rapidly Recording insulation resistance the source of the problem.
if filters are not frequently changed, with a 500-volt Megger is useful ns They then can be used for in-place
a chore which frequently is ignored an absolute measure of ground re- balancing to correct any vibration
or minimized. sistance, and for spotting any problem due to imbala nce without
Visual inspection: This probably change over a period of time. Re- the expense of sending equipment
is the most impor tant factor in the su Its are valued according to the out or hiring an expert.
Motor Failure Expectancy rating following formuln: Vibration problems due to mis-
(30 points maximum), because an alignment or component failures
experienced man can spot signs of Insulation Resistance in Ohms usually are easy to correct and,
trouble in a motor which has passed therefore, s hou Id be corrected ns
2000 x Rated Motor Voltage soon as any ser ious vibration is de-
all electrical tests. Some conditions
Point rating (maximum of 7) tected. This category is worth 6
of course may be too difficult to
check visually, and other conditions Any point value below one indi- points, and again it is important to
may be included in the light of an cates the possibility of imminent note relati\·e conditions and changes
individual inspector's personal ex- failu re. Any appreciable change from one tesl period t o the next. or
perience. In general, however, visual from one test period to another also course, it is nol necessary to have
inspections should check insulation indicates trouble. a vibration annlyier to check vibra-
condition, winding tightness, lam~ A temperatiwe test can be quite tion, because vibration can be heard,
ination condition, leads and con- s imple and very indicative. Exces- felt and seen. However, the device
nections, cleanliness, air gap, slip- sive temperatures or appreciable aids individual judgment.
rings and commutators, bands, changes in temperature from one The important consideration in
brushes and brush holders, bearings test period to another indicate trou- utilizing a rating system of this na-
and lubrication. These are sugges- ble. Care must be taken to recog- ture is that you are working- up
tions only. nize that a motor with Class II values that will tell how one motor
Tests: There arc any number of insulation can run a lot hotter than rates in relation to another. This, of
tests that can be applied (20 points a motor with Class A insulation. It course, does not automatically pre-
maximum), such as an insulation no longer is possible to use your dict the exact date when a certain
resistance test, the polarization in- hand as a reliable thermometer. motor should be repaired, but it
dex, de leakage test, temperature This category is worth 6 points, does determine which motor is the
test, power factor test, cor ona test- the score depending upon bow much poorest risk.
ing, vibration level analysis, a test lower the motor frame temperature Half of the points in this rating
of winding resistance, especially of is than the rating of the insulation system have to do with appliC<'ltion
field coils, a surge test, de over- system. Insulation systems are (type, age, duty and environment)
potential test, and an ac over-poten- rated as follows: Class A, 105°C; while the other half have to do with
t ial test. Class B, 130°C ; Class F , 155°C, and actual cond itions ( ascertained
Several of these tests may be re- Class H, 180°C. through visual inspection and test).
jected because they can cause fail- If the motor frame temperature Zeros in the first half are not
ure in a motor that has only a few is the same as the rating of the in- critical, although zeros in the sec-
years of life remaining. Others may sulation system, you probably can ond half should receive immediate
be rejected because they take too expect trouble because the inside of attention.
60
 Maintenance of Large
Motors and M-G Sets
In heavy industries such as steelmaking, production depends upon
reliable performance of all major rotating equipment. This
demands routine electrical maintenance plus scheduled shutdowns
for disassembly and overhauls, a combination ranging from lubri-
cation and care of bearings to fire protection and interpretation of
records.

BY V. E. SCHLOSSBERG, Director, Facilities Planning, Inland Steel Co.

Routine maintenance of large ro-

P
REVENTIVE maintenance is a Inspecting knife switches and cir-
combination of routine and tating equipment includes: cu it breakers for overheating.
planned operations. Routine as- Inspection of bearings for tem- Noting unit load conditions, in-
s ignments are those which follow perature, proper functioning of oil cluding balance of loads on gener-
fixed schedules, daily, weekly or at rings and oil supply systems, check- ators operating in parallel.
other fixed intervals. By contrast, ing for oil or water leaks , water Checking system voltage and cur-
planned maintenance consists of ad- flow and temperature of water- rent, also operation of speed regu-
ditional work which is performed cooled bearings. lators and other control equipment
at irregular frequencies, deter- Checking commutators for spark- to verify intended operations.
mined by inspection or previous ing, high bars, low spots, glowing Using various test panels,
operating experience or records. brushes, or chattering of brushes equipped with voltmeters and tell-
Routine maintenance is per- caused by improper seating. tale lamps, to check for system
formed by normal work forces dur- Utilizing human senses such as grounds.
ing normal operations; that is, dur- sight, touch, hearing and smelling Inspect operation of ventilation
ing normal "down" periods, repair to detect unusual movements, frame features, including fan lubrication
"turns" or "running cycles." temperatures, noises or odors: and tilter contamination.

ACC URATE REASSE MB LY is insured by match marks and COLOR BANDS and narrow matching bars on brushholder
legends placed on frames, bearing pedestals and the like. yokes and si milar removable ports. ldenfificotion of re lated
This prevents upper sections from be in g reversed. Precise secti ons os~ures exact repositioning ofter unit hos been thor-
realignment also is guaranteed by . . . oughly inspected, cleaned and repaired.

61
 to prescribed levels by addition of
new oil.
When maintenance per sonnel as-
s igned lo routine assignments note
condi tions which they themselves
cannot correct immediately, lhey
pr omptly notify thei r foreman. He
in turn reinspects t hose conditions,
to verify their importance, t hen he
checks with operat ions to see
whether normal downtime is sched-
uled suffic iently soon and sufficiently
long in duration to permit comple-
tion of necessary work without dis-
rupting production. Whenever feas-
ible, major repairs are scheduled
for planned periods of production
downtime.

Planned Maintenance
P lanned maintenance is far more
extensive than rou t ine work. For
MAIN DR IVE MOTORS ond gcncrotors ore completely disosscmbled, cleaned, re- example. ou r planned program in-
vornishcd ond repoired os required o t intervols from one lo four ycors, depending cludes yearly clean-and-varnish
u pon importonce of unit, severity of operating conditions ond work performed.
schedules for all main dri ves a nd
supporting motor-generator sets.
These schedules are sent to all elec-
Men assigned to r outine mainte- If necessary, these a re readjusted t rical for emen and mill superin-
nance must be alert to take ndvan- to meet design specificat ions. tendents the first of each year.
tage of short-interval "down" peri- With production depending upon Other major inspections and over-
ods to inspect units not in reliable opemtion of major ro- hauls are scheduled at frequen cies
operation. This includes all electri- tating equipment , many mainte- based on operating importance .')nd
cal auxiliary equipment. nance routines related to motors conditions, records and t rends noted
and generators a r e performed at during previous inspections.
Routine Maintenance more frequ ent intervals, such a s Every three yea1·s, on t he aver-
weekly, 01· daily. In a few critical age, main drive motors a nd gener-
In the process of systematically instances, ma intenance checks are ators a rc completely disassembled,
maintaining large motors and gen- performed hourly. cleaned a nd revarnished. This av-
erators, these units are blown out For example, each week brushes erage interval, however, is influ-
r egularly with clean, dry air, mak- a re checked for over-all length, enced by equ ipment location a nd
ing sure that air pressure is not freedom of movement in their hold- des ign characteristics. For exam-
strong enough to disturb coils or in- e1·s, broken or frayed shunts. When ple, in some instances where condi-
sulation. wear is noted, even in "reasonable" tions a re favorable, complete disas-
In addition, brush holders, insu- amounts, brushes ar e promptly r e- sembly intervals can be increased
lators, windings and bus insulator s placed and properly seated. to four years. Conversely, where
are wiped clean. Riser connections, Commutators Ii k e wise are equipment is located in extremely
V-rings and bands are checked for checked weekly for grooving or dirty envi rons or where oil vapors
damage, tightness and alignment. similar indications of wear. L-0ose a r e drawn into windings due to a
Capacitors and lightning arresters, seals are r eplaced. Commutator variety of causes, then major dis-
located in motor pits, are checked slots are cleaned of carbon. assemblies are scheduled annually.
and wiped clean. Also as required, rheostat face- Before disassembling any r otat-
We also r emove end guards from plates are cleaned and lubricated. ing equipment, precise match marks
motors and generators every t hree Toggles and pins, worn shunts and are placed on couplings, frames,
mont hs (approximately) lo clean contact surfaces a re replaced. Con- brush yokes a nd similar parts. T his
and inspect these areas more thor- trol devices, air circuit breakers assures exact repositioning of
oughly. In so doing, field and pole and knife switches are inspected, stators in frames, brush positions,
face connections are checked for cleaned, adjusted or repaired. etc., upon reassembly.
signs of excessive heating or loose- Shou ld grounds be located on any P r ecaution also is taken to pre-
ness. Windings are inspected :for electrical system, they promptly vent leaving foreign objects or ma-
damage or looseness. Insulation re- a re isolated, checked for cause and teria ls in machines. This includes
sis tance is tested by a megohm- c'leared. checking t he number of bolts, tools
rnetet· for comparison with pre- Weekly mai ntenance of rotati ng and cleaning brushes before and
vious r eadings to detect trends of equipment also includes checking after overhauls . Anothe1· procedm·e
deterioration. Banding wil'es a nd all air filtel'in g equipment and oil included before disassembly is to
wedges are checked for tightness. r eservoirs. Filters are cleaned or measure insulation resistance for
Twice a year, air gaps and brush replaced as necessary. Oil wells are future reference.
spacings are accurately measured. drained of sludge then brought up To assure thorough cleaning and

62
 varnishing, disassembly is carried
to the stage where complete accessi-
bility to all stator and rotor areas
is possible. This means that, on ac
units, stators are shifted on their
bases. On de machines having split
frames, the top half of the frame is
removed and the armatu re is taken
out completely. In certain cases
where these general procedures are
impossible, complete machines are
removed from their bases to permit
removal of rotors.
Oily windings are cleaned by
blowing with dry compressed air,
then using various types and sizes
of brushes (scrub and bottle) to
reach all areas. In some instances,
when it becomes necessary to use
toxic or flammable cleaning solvents
to completely remove oil deposits,
extreme care is taken to guard
against fire hazards and to protect
maintenance personnel against
overexposure to injurious fumes.
Cleaning continues until satisfac-
tory insulation readings are ob-
tained. If low insulation readings
persist, further checks are made to
determine causes, which then are
corrected.
DRY COMPRESSED AIR is hose-directed ot windings for generol cleaning, We also have successfully used
then various types of brushes and solvents ore used to reach all areas finely pulverized corncobs in porta-
and remove stubborn deposits of oil or gummy deposits. Mointenonce men ble blasting machines. This method
ore protected by suitable clothin g and respirator helmets. is effective for removing oil, al-
though care must be taken to pre-
vent the blast from disturbing the
windings or damaging the insula-
tion.
Prior to varnishing, all wedges,
bands, bonnets, stringing, connec-
tions and insulation are checked.
When inspections indicate the nec-
essity to replace or secure bands,
t ighten wedges, reinsulate leads or
resolder connections, these opera-
t ions are performed by men in our
own maintenance department hav-
ing training and experience in
those special categories.
Large rotating elements are var-
nished by means of spray guns. Two
coats of air-dry varnish generally
are applied to insure sealing of
cracks in insulation which may
have developed due to normal
shrinkage a nd drying. Varnish also
serves to hold wedges a nd insulation
supports in position. In our opin-
ion, two thin coats of varnish are
more effective than a single, heavier
application. In extremely oily loca-
tions, the second coat of varnish is
oil-resistant glyptal.
During these varnishing se-
PULVERIZED CORNCOBS olso ore used for cleaning, toking core that force of blast
Is not strong enOlJ9h to disturb windings or domoge insulation. Note ground wire quences, all p,rocedures are de-
on hoses ond guns, also presence of fire extinguisher and use of protective goggles signed to insure maximum fire pro-
and masks. tection. These precautions include

63
 grounding of varnish spray guns to
prevent static sparks, also the use
of vaporproof extension lights.
Fire-fighting equipment is tested
before varnishing begins, then is
positioned conveniently for instant
use. "No Smoking" signs are placed
in prominent positions to remind
vis ito1·s, production employees, elec-
trical maintenance personnel and
all other tradesmen of this danger.
During these periods of complete
disassembly, cleaning and varnish-
ing, we also carefully inspect bear-
ings, particularly the bottom linings
which seldom are r emoved during
routine maintenance work.
Insulated bearings are tested for
insulation fa ilur e. If necessary, in-
sulators are r eplaced. Also in-
spected during these periods are INSPECTION OF BEARINGS, keys, keywoys and couplings ore included in
keys, keyways and couplings. major disassembly and planned overhaul procedures. Worn or badly
After motors and generator sets scored linings ore resurfaced or replaced as necessary. Insulated bearings
are reassembled, insulation resist- ore tested for resistance and, if failure is indicated, insulators ore replaced.
ance is again measured. Bolts,
cleaning brushes and tools are
again checked to make certain that
none is left inside the machines.
For future reference, a report of
all work performed is recorded in
detail. This report includes such in-
formation as insulation measure-
ments, air gap widths, the elapsed
time and number of men required
to do the job, procedures followed,
special tools and slings required.

Grinding Proced ures

Other planned maintenance as-
signments include grinding of ro-
tor and field collector rings. This
is performed with a lathe-type
stone holder, rigidly supported.
Commutators of motors and gener-
ators likewise are ground and un-
BRUSH HOLDERS AR E REASSEMB LED and adjusted by maintenance man
dercut when considered necessary. equipped with necessary knowledge and tools to guarantee reliable work·
Before grinding, it is important monship and operating results. During normal operation of machine,
that mica is sufficiently undercut to weekly routine inspections check brushes for over·oll length, freedom of
(1) facilitate final undercutting and movement in holders, also broken or frayed shunts.
(2) minimize possibilities of high
01· flush mica preventing commu-
tators from being truly round. with commutator surfaces to main- Commutators generally a rc un-
During grinding procedures, ven- tain commutation and rotation. dercut with a motor-driven mica
tilating fans in the vicinity are kept Voltage is maintained at reduced undercutter having a long flexible
ninning. Adjacent machinery and levels to prevent flash-overs from shaft equipped with U-type saws.
electrical equipment is completely presence of copper particles. Saws of various widths are stocked
covered. The grinding speed is ad- l\Iost of our grinding is per- for this purpose. Care is taken to
justed to coincide with the ma- formed using medium-coarse use saws of correct width so that all
chine's normal running speed. stones. Finishing is done with fine· feather and side mica will be re-
Those performing the grinding are grained polishing stones. For grind- moved without cutting the bars
rec1uired to wear protective goggles ing large commutators which are proper. To protect V-rings during
and respirators. not truly round, and also for light undercutting procedures, they are
When grinding commutators of grinding jobs, we use hand stones. wrapped with narrow strips of
generators, all brushes are raised For smaller commutators which are fiber. After undercutting, commu-
to clear commutator surfaces. When out of round, we use lathe-type tator s lots are bevelled, using hand
grinding motor commutators, only stone holders, rigidly supported to tools having ! -in. sq. lathe heads
enough brushes are left in contact prevent chattering. which are properly V'd.

64
 Trouble-Remedy Chart for Induction Motors
The following maintenance and repair hints ore pre- Restricted ventilation: Cleon air passage and
sented in check-list form for plant electricians. They windings.
follow a trouble-cause-remedy outline. Incorrect voltage and frequency: Check nameplate
values with power supply. Also check voltage at motor
MOTOR WILL NOT START terminals with motor under full load.
Overload control tripped: Wait for overload to cool, Motor stalled by driven machine or by tight bearings:
then try starting again. If motor still does not start, Remove power from motor. Check machine for cause
check the causes outlined below. of stalling.
Open fuses: Test fuses. Stator winding shorted or grounded: Test windings
Low voltage: Check nameplate values against power by standard method.
supply characteristics. Also check voltage at motor Rotor winding with loose connections: Tighten, if pos-
terminals with motor under load to check wire size. sible, or r~place with another rotor.
Wrong control connections: Check connections with Belt too tight: Remove excessive pres.sure on bearings.
control wiring diagram. Motor used for rapid reversing service: Replace with
Loose terminal-lead connection: Tighten connections. motor designed for this service.
Driven machine locked: Disconnect motor from load.
BEARINGS HOT
If motor starts sa tisfactorily, check driven machine.
End shields loose or not replaced properly: Make sure
Open circuit in stator or rotor winding: Check for
end shields fit squarely and are properly tightened.
open circuits.
Excessive belt tension or excessive gear side thrust:
Short circuit in stator winding: Check for short.
Reduce belt tension or gear pressure and realign shafts.
Winding grounded: Test for grounded wiring.
See that thrust is not being transferred to motor bearing.
Bearings stiff: Free bearing or replace.
Bent shaft: Straighten shaft or send to motor repair
Overload: Reduce load.
shop.
MOTOR NOISY SLEEVE BEARINGS
Motor ·running single phase: Stop motor, then try to Insufficient oil: Add oil-if oil supply is very low,
start. It will not start on sing le phase. Check for open drain, flu sh and refill.
circuit in one of the lines. Foreign material in oil or poor grade of oil: Drain oil,
Electrical load unbalanced: Check current ba lance. flush and relubricate using industrial lubricant recom-
Shaft bumping (sleeve-bearing motors): Check align- mended by a reliable oil manufacturer.
ment and conditions of belt. On pedestal-mounted bear- Oil rings rotating slowly or not rotating at all: Oil
ing check cord play and axial centering of rotor. too heavy; drain and replace. If oi l ring hos worn spot,
Vibration: Driven machine may be unbalanced. Re- replace with new ring.
move motor from load. If motor is still noisy, rebalance. Motor tilted too far: Level motor or reduce tilt and
Air gap not uniform: Center the rotor a nd if neces- realign if necessary.
sary replace bearings. Rings bent or otherwise damaged in reassembling:
Noisy ball bearings: Check lubrication. Replace Replace rings.
bearings if noise is excessive and persistent. Ring out of slot (oil-ring retaining clip out of place):
Rotor rubbing on stator: Center the rotor and replace Adjust or replace retaining clip.
bearings if necessary. Defective bearings or rough shaft: Replace bearings.
Motor loose on foundation: Tighten hold-down bolts. Resurface shaft.
Motor may possibly have to be realigned.
Coupling loose: Insert feelers at fou r places in coup- BALL BEARINGS
ling joint before pulling up bolts to check alignment. Too much grease: Remove relief plug, and let motor
Tighten coupling bolts securely. run. If excess grease does not come out, flush and
re lubricate.
MOTOR AT HIGHER THAN NORMAL Wrong grade of grease: Add proper grease.
TEMPERATURE OR SMOKING Insufficient grease: Remove relief plug and regrease
Overload: Measure motor loading with ammeter. Re- bearing.
duce load. Foreign material in grease: Flush bearings, relubri-
Electrical load unbalance: Check for voltage un- cate; make sure grease supply is clean. (Keep can
balance or single-phasing. covered when not in use.)
Source of data: Generol Electric Co., Apporotus ~partment

65
FIG. 1-Brushes and commutator on large rotating direct- lions to insure good commutation and lo ng brush life
current machines should receive regularly scheduled inspec- for reliable performance.

Solving Commutation Problems Of

DC Rotating Machines
Here are practical procedures for effective brush and The commutator needs attention
when it becomes rough due to a
commutator maintenance. Commutation troubles such general unevenness, high or low
bars, flat sections, or eccentricity.
as brush chatter, commutator streaking and threading, If these conditions are not cor-
rected, they will result in poor com-
and short brush life are analyzed in detail. A handy mutation, overheating of the com-
mutator, rapid wear of the brushes,
chart speeds troubleshooting and repair. and greatly limit the machine's
ability to satisfactorily handle over-
loads.
Roughness of a commutator sur-
BY J\'l. J . PASCULLE, Engineer, DC Motor 1111cl Generator l~11gi11ecri11g
face can be detected by placing a
targe l~olllti11g A pparotus Division, W csti11ghousc Electric Corp.
pencil or sharp pointed stick on a
l~ast Pittsburgh, Pa.
brush while the machine is rotat-
ing. Any roughness can be detected
ITH proper care direct-current Commutator smoothness - The by feel; on a smooth commutator,

W machines perform faithfully

year after year. Direct-current
motors, generators, converters and
commutator should be smooth and
concentric to insure good brush
rideability and intimate brush con-
no vibrntion will be felt. Take care
to stand on a board or insulating
platform of some kind, not to touch
m-g sets, which are capable of meet- tact. Commutator roughness is usu- any metal part of the machine, and
ing very high power and horse- ally characterized by an abrupt to use a wooden stick if the ma-
power demands, have a proven long change from one bar to the next as chine has voltage on it.
life in many applications. distinguished from an eccentric Commutator grinding should be
To perform reliably, however, the commutator where the runout can done with a grinding rig. The
de machine must. have good com- be measured with a dial indicator. grinding rig consists of an abrasive
mutation and be kept in this condi- In general, for normally rated de stone arrangement similar to a
tion. To do this, it is essential to machines the commutator runout lathe tool in a rigging or carriage
understand the factors which affect should not exceed .003 in. Varia- which may be moved back and
commutation and to know how to tions from one bar to another as forth in an axial direction and is
apply this knowledge fo r effective li.ttle as one ten-thousandth of an equipped with a radial feed. Sup-
brush and commutator mainte- inch are s ufficient to cause poor port the rigging very rigidly so that
nance. operation. the stone is subjected to a minimum

66
 of vibration. When grinding large BRUSH AND COMMUTATOR TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
commutators, such rigging can be TROUBLE POSSIBLE CAUSE REMEDY
mounted on a brush arm by remov-
ing the brushholders on that arm. I. Excessive brush l. Brushes stic~ing in holders 1. Checic brush fit; blow out
Grinding should be done when spa rking dust or dirt; check for
the machine is running in its own warped brushholder
bearings and at rated speed when 2. Brush holders too far from 2. Set holder 3/32 in. to 'la in.
the unit operates at 1200 rpm or com mutator surface from commutator
less. When feasible, higher-speed 3. Spring pressure incorrect 3. Adjust pressure to recom-
units should be ground at less than mended setting
rated speed to minimize the effects 4. High mica or mica fins 4. Chamfer bars; remove mica
of unbalance and vibration. by scraping
To prevent copper and ston·e dust 5. Foreign material on 5. Perform thorough cleaning
from entering windings, the gri nd- commutator
6. Defective e lectrical 6. Check and repair poor con-
ing rig should be equipped with a
connections nections a t equalizers, risers
vacuum-cleaner arrangement, fitted
to commutators, brushhold-
over the stone to catch all dust
ers to brush arms
(Fig. 2). The commutator grinding 7. Brushes off recommended 7. S hift brushes to recom-
should continue until the commu- neutral position mended neutral positi on.
tator is smooth, and runout does B. Overloads 8. Check current with am·
not exceed .001 in. meter, reduce to nameplate
Commutator bevel-After grind- rating
ing, clean out all commutator slots 9. Underloads 9. Increase load current or lift
thoroughly. Also, bevel the edges of brushes uniformly to obtain
the commutator bars. This beveling brush current density of 35
accomplishes two things-it re- to 65 amps per sq. in.
moves burrs caused by the stone 10. High spots or flat bars of 10. Grind or resu rface com·
dragging copper over the slots, and eccentric commutator mutator
eliminates the sharp edge at the 11 . Wrong brush grade 11. Install proper brushes
entering side of the bar under a 12. Machine vibration 12. Check armature balance,
brush. The bevel on bars should be foundation and mounting; in·
about :?2-in. chamfer at 45° for me- spect for d e fective bearings
13. Dark commutator film 13. Check environment for dust,
dium thickness. For thinner or
wider bars, beveling can be changed excessive humidity or other
accordingly. contaminents; install cleaner·
type brush; frequent clean·
Commutator undercutting-All
ing or burnishing of com-
modern machines have undercut
mutator
mica. Keep this undercutting -h-in.
deep plus or minus n in. If it is II. Brush chatter 1. High friction caused by l . See 1-9, install cleaning-type
apparent that the amount of cop- light loading brushes
per to be removed by grinding will 2. High friction caused by 2. Adjust spring pressure to rec·
result in shallow undercutting, the improper brush tension ommended setting; decrease
commutator should be re-undercut 3. High, low or flat bars or brush pressure.
before grinding. Re-undercutting eccentric commutator 3. See 1-10
can be done with a small circular 4 . High mica or mica fins 4. See 1-4
high-speed saw furnished with a 5. Dark commutator film 5. See 1-13, install cleaning-type
blade about .003 in. thicker than brushes
6. Wrong brush grade 6. See 1-11
the nominal thickness of the mica.
7. Machine vibration 7. See 1-12
When undercutting, take care to see
that a thin sliver of mica is not left Ill. St reaking or 1. Dark or uneven commutator l. See 1-13
against one side of the slot. After threading of film
grinding, undercutting the mica, commutator 2. Selective action (ove rload on 2. See 1-1, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-8, 1-10,
and beveling the edges of the bars, one or more brushes cousing 1-11, check terminal connec·
polish the commutator s urface at copper picking on brushes) tions, shunt-to-brush connec-
rn ted speeds. tions, brush grade
The roeker ring must be set. at IV. Excessive brush l. High mica or mica fins l. See 1-4
the predetermined factory position wear 2. Wrong brush grade 2 . See 1-11
as the interpole gap was determined 3. Improper spring tension 3. See 1-3
fo r this position. Never change 4. Rough commutator surface 4. Resurface or grind com mu-
brush positions once the correct or eccentric commutator ta tor
brush position has been located. To 5. Uneven commutator film 5. See 1-13
determine correct brush position
refer to the manufacturer's instruc- brushes or short brushes can cause it enters the armature through the
t ions. Also, a method of locating brush selective action. This means commutator. Thus if the brush arms
factory brush position is shown in that the total current carried by do not carry uniform curr ents, the
Fig. 3. the brushes is not uniformly di- currents in the armature circuits
Brushes must be free to move in vided. The current from a brush will also be nonuniform. This is
the brushholder boxes. Sticking arm divides into two paths when detrimental as the interpole flux is

67
 Center punch marks on end of frame

FIG. 3-Lccotion of factory brush posi tion on de motors end gene rators is
accomplished by scribing ores which intersect on edge of commutator bars.
FIG. 2--Grinding rig is equipped with Then o radial line is drown to th e commutator su rface. This line locates,
vocuum·Cleoner arrangement to remove at the surface of the commutator, the factory brush p~si tion.
copper and stone dust.

FIG. 4-New or replacement brushes must be fitted to com- FIG. S-Stogge ring brushes circumferentially provides several
mutator to obtain good contact. Sheet of sandpape r is drown advan tages. It gives the eHect of a wider brush; there is
under brushes while holding brushes against commutator. some brush contact on all brush arms a t any one instant.

uniform about the armature and holders should clear the commutator vent selective act ion between
incorrect compensation would oc- by ~·~ in. to i in. brushes.
cur in some or possibly all of the New or replacement brus hes Brush s hunts s hou ld be checked
armature circuits. should be fitted to the commutator to see that t hey are properly con-
Because of very close brns h- so that they make good contact over nected to the brus hholder of the
brushholder tolerances, dirt or dust their entire bearing face. You can machine and are arranged neatly to
can impair free movement of accomplish this by fi tting the provide adequate cleara nce from
brushes in the brushholders if the brushes in each brushholder sepa- any other parts of the machine.
machine is not kept clean and blown rately and drawing a sheet of sand- Brush staggering- On some ma-
out at regular intervals. If brushes paper under the brushes in the di- chines, brushes ar e staggered cir-
feel tight in the holders even rection of rotation wh ile presstng cumferentially by placing spacers
though they are thoroughly clean, them firmly against the commuta- between the brushholder and brush-
check the holders for warpage. tor. Keep the ends of the sandpaper holder bracket. Spacers are gener-
Brus h seating- Brushes s hould as close to the commutator surface ally put on alternate brushholders
be properly seated to ins ure in- as possible to avoid rounding t he and placed on the sa me brush t rack
timate contact with the commutator edges of the brushes. The sandpaper in each arm (Fig. G) .
bars. Be sure that the brush face should cut the brushes only in the Staggering is beneficial to com-
is kept free of copper particles or direction of normal rotation. mutat ion for the following reasons :
any foreign matter. The brushes Brush pressure-This pressure (a) It increases t ime of commu-
should have a full seat because should normally be 2 to 2! pounds tation, thereby reducing the react-
brush pos ition is determined by per sq in. of cross-sectional area of ance voltage.
the center of the brush fit. A partial the brush. Set the brush pressure (b) At the trailing edge of the
brui;h seat in the t hickness direc- spr ings to the specified value and brushes where the bar leaves the
tion would have the effect of incor- check for uniform pressu re on brush, the cross section of brush in
rect brush position. The brush- s prings about t he machine to pre- contact with t he bar is reduced re-
68
suiting in higher resistance which BRUSH FRICTION VERSUS BRUSH TEMPERATURE removing the glaze from the com-
is conducive to good commutation.
(c) Where rough or eccentric c Q30 - mutator after extended periods of
light-load running by using a rub-
commutator conditions occur, stag- ~u
ger gives the effect of a wider brush :!: 020 \ ber-bonded stone on the commuta-
tor. The undesirable film can also
and thus all brushes on a given arm
will not be affected simultaneously. g \ ~/
v be minimized by using a grade of
brush with cleaning action.
r-....
As a result, there is some brush g o.10 Streaking and threading of the
contact on all brush arms at any u... 0 commutator is another objection-
one instant. able condition which should be cor-
0 00
Operating condit ions-The op- · o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140160180 rected before extensive commutator
erating limits for de machine load- Brush temperature in degrees C. damage occurs. Streaking and
ing at various speeds should never FIG. 6-Brush friction increases drastic- threading is caused by breakdown
be exceeded. In addition to limiting ally a s temperature drops. Thus no-load or in paths of the film on the commu-
the peak loads, the entire cycle light-load operation over o period of time tator surface. When the film breaks
should be analyzed to insure that it should be avoided. Brush current density
should range between 35 to 60 omps per
down, the current has a tendency
is within the RMS rating of the sq in. to pass through the area where the
machine. If the machine is operat- film has been destroyed. This fur-
ing beyond its limits then a change ately. Brush chatter is caused by ther aggravates the condition,
in schedule is dictated to maintain high friction between the commu- which finally results in threads or
good commutation. tator and brush resulting in a high- streaks on the commutator bars
Commutator film-A requisite of frequency brush movement, which around surface of commutator.
good commutation is a proper com- is injurious to commutator, brushes, There are a number of different
mutator film. The commutator film and commutation in general. causes for this condition. One is
should be a uniform light-brown One of the most common causes that a very heavy film is built up on
color. The film should not have a of brush chatter is a commutator the commutator surface, us ually due
highly glazed or an extremely dull film produced by light-load or no- to some atmospheric condition. This
or dark finish. load running on a prolonged basis. heavy film is not a good conductor
Brush friction increases as the cur- and to permit passage of current
Solving Commutator Problems rent density in the brush is de- between the commutator and the
creased. This also reduces the brush brush it becomes necessary for the
When you observe that a de ma- temperature. Fig. 6 illustrates the film to break down. This breakdown
chine has poor commutat ion, you change in coeffici ent of friction be- occurs in just one spot, but it grad-
should first determine the specific tween brush and commutator versus ually develops into a streak or
cause of the problem, and then take brush temperatu re. It is apparent thread around the surface of the
proper remedial action immediately. that the desirable operating brush commutator.
If this is not done, commutator bar temperature is about 80°C, plus or This threading action and groov-
and brush burning will occur. As a minus 10°C. ing can also be caused by particles
result, brush life will be shortened Brushes which operate with cur· of copper imbedded in the brush
and the commutator damaged. r ent dens ities below 30 amps per face. These particles cut t he com-
When analyzing a commutation sq in. will in time develop a highly mutator fiim and because copper-to-
problem, consider theory of commu- polished glaze on the commutator. copper contact drop is compara-
tation, apply good judgment and This increases brush friction and t ively very low, these areas on the
call on past experience. Each prob- causes objectionable chatter. Chat- commutator surface carry more
lem must be studied carefully be- ter will produce the following ob- t han their share of the cilrrent,
cause any number of factors or con- jectionable results: (a) poor com- which further aggravates the con-
ditions can produce the same symp- mutation; (b) chipping and break· dition.
toms of malfunction. ing of brushes; (c) fraying and Selective action, the tendency for
Undesirable films due to atmos- breaking of brush shunts; (d) one brush or group of brushes to
pheric conditions are usually quite wearing of brushholder finger; and carry more than its share of the
dark or black. You can substantiate (e) grooving of the finger bearing load, is also a prime cause for
an atmospheric condition by noting surface of the brush. threading and streaking. Streaking
any discoloration in machine cop- There are two general approaches in particular can be attributed to
per other than that which comes in to curing brush chatter. The best selective action.
contact with the brushes. When at- solution is to increase the brush To prevent threading and streak-
mospheric filming occu rs, the best current density to a value of 35 to ing due to selective action it is
approach where practical is to pro- 60 amps per sq in. Brushes can be necessary to check the terminal con-
vide a new source of ventilating air. lifted in a uniform manner to pro- nections, spring pressure, shunt-to-
Another solu tion for undesirable duce this desired brush density. brush connections, brush freedom
atmospheric filming is the selection Occasional peaks on the brushes in the brushholders, spacing and
of a brush grade with sufficient should not exceed about 125 amps brush material for symmetry. Any
cleaning action to prevent the film per sq in., and about 100 amps unbalance which will make the elec-
buildup. Otherwise it is necessary per sq in. for frequently applied trical resistance in one path differ-
to clean the commutator frequently loads. ent from the other parallel paths in
with a rubber stone or with canvas. The other solution to brush chat- a machine will cause select ive ac-
Brush chatter constitutes one of ter is the periodic removal of com- tion. Mixing several different brush
the most destructive conditions, mutator fi lm before it becomes ob- grades on one machine frequently
and should be remedied immedi- jectionable. This can be done by causes selective action.
69
 .~
:
.
.. .:
./': .
I

I!. A R G E R 0 TAT I N G ma -
chines ore usually equipped
wi th oil- ring sleeve bearings.
Installation shown is o 3000-
hp, 4000-volt induction motor
driving o boiler feed pump.
To minimize bearing failures,
o well-planned preventive
ma intenance program of bear-
ing inspections and replace-
ment of worn ports should be
performed.

How to Maintain Oil-Ring Sleeve

any oil p1pmg. Also, check that
Here are latest maintenance techniques designed to the oil rings are in place. Rotate
minimize troubles of oil-ring sleeve bearings used on the shaft several turns by hand to
distribute oil over the bearing
large rotating equipment. parts, and make sure the oil r ings
rotate freely.
After the first few days of oper-
BY R. C. RADTKE, Electrical Apparatus & Systems Div. ation, remove the oil and refill the
Alli.s-C/111lmers Mfg. Co., Milwaukee, Wis. reservoirs with fresh or filtered
oil. This oil change is performed
because during the initial "run-in,"
metallic particles or other impuri-
IL-RING s leeve bearings nor- which allows no metal-to-metal con- ties may cause contamination of the

0 mally used on large rotating

machines provide an efficient,
reliable means of carrying a rotat-
tact. Thus there is very little bear-
ing wear when the machine is run-
ning. However, if this oil film
oil.
First Sign ol Trouble:
Overheating
ing load-if they are properly breaks down, overheating and ex-
maintained. Although recent de- cessive wear will res ult. Therefore, The first symptom of bearing
sign improvements have consider- the object in effective sleeve bearing trouble i s often a bearing which
ably reduced maintenance r equired maintenance is to minimize wear operates at a temperature higher
on these bearings, inspections and by maintaining the proper oil film. than normal. The maximum safe
certain bearing maintenance pro- operating temperature for most
cedures must be performed on a Maintenance Begins Before sleeve bearings is about 95° C
regular basis to assure peak per- Start-Up (203° F) at the babbit. Because this
formance. Before placing a machine in serv- temperature is too hot to judge
A modern oil-ring sleeve bearing ice, check the bearings carefully. by feeling the bearing, you should
is shown in a cut-away view in an Bearings are usually coated with a use a thermometer placed as close
accompanying photo. The heart of rust-preventive film before the ma- to the babbitt as possible. If the
the assembly includes t he main chine is shipped, but no oil is placed machine is ordinarily left unat-
bearing surfaces, oil rings, and oil in the bearing reservoirs. tended, a thermostatic relay ad-
reser voirs. In operation, the lubri- First, check the bearing for justed to actuate some kind of
cating oil forms a wedge which moisture accumulation and remove alarm system is an effective means
separates t he journal and t he bear- all traces of oxidation. Then fill of alerting you fo hearing trouble.
ing. The shaft rides on this oil film, the bearing reservoirs and flush Or, if the motor is under continual

70
SEALED SLEEVE BEARING cut-away
shows components of bea ring assembly.
Contami nati on and oil leakage along the Single
shaft ore prevented by oil seals. Sight sell-aligning
port allows inspection of oil rings to check seat
for proper rotation.

Oil
reservoir

Bearings Atmospheric vent

chamber

observation, you may use an in- ever, if the temperature is ex- enough oil is carried to the shaft.
dicating thermometer. And other tremely high, keep the machine A low level of oil may cause the
more specialized warning systems turning slowly to prevent "freez- bottom of the oil ring to skip along
are available to meet the require- ing" of the bearing. on the surface of the oil, instead of
ments of any particular installa- Another bearing trouble is an dipping into the oil. The ring then
tion. improper oil level. A high or low loses its intimate contact with the
If the temperature of a bearing oil level reduces the amount of oil shaft ana its rotation slows down,
changes considerably, check the being carried by the ring to the resulting in insufficient lubrication.
bearing immediately; the change is shaft surface and causes overheat- Remember, both high and low oil
more significant than the tempera- ing of the bearing. A high oil level levels may hinder ring perform-
ture itself. Shut down the machine may cause drag on the oil ring and ance, and cause an overheated
if a hot bearing is discovered. How- slow rotation. As a result, not bearing.

BEARING OIL LEVEL INDICATOR on large induction motor BEARING INSPECTION includes checking the babbitt for
provides accurate means of determining oil level in sleeve high spots (babbitt is a soft metal alloy bearing lining, which
bearing. Unit hos low-level alarm contacts; leads will be flows or "wears" at any small spot of interference until on
connected to annunciator system. Proper oil level should be oil film replaces the undesirable metal-to-metal contact).
maintained. A high or a low oil level may hinder ri ng per- Lorge interference spots must be removed to ovoid over-
formance and cause overheating of the bea ring. heating of bearing.

71
 l
fl

Min. oil film 0.001" to 0.006" near this point when

operating normally.

OIL RINGS ore replaced on sleeve bearing ofter inspection. BEARING RELIEF POCKETS hold small amounts of excess oil
When oil level Is low, bottom of ring may skip along surface and lead oil to all portions of the bearing. The pockets form
of oil, causing the ring to lose close contact with the shaft. axial oil grooves ot top and sides of the bearing. Each relief
This slows down rotation of the ring, resulting in insufficient extends over about 60 degrees of the bearing li ning circum-
lubrication. A high oil level may cause drag on the ring, ference. Dimensions ore shown exaggerated for clarity.
also slowing rotation and hindering proper lubrication.

Guard Against Unnecessary wear and replace worn bearings im- year, remove the oil and refill the
Bearing Wear mediately. bearings with fresh oil. Relubrica-
A sleeve bearing shows no appre- On V-belt drives, the bottom side tion intervals depend on many
of t he belt is normally the t ight things, including the amount of
ciable wear during continuous oper-
side. This results in a smaller service, the nature of the sun-ound-
ation if it is properly lubricated.
angle of shaft circumference for ing atmosphere, and the speed and
However, t he life of these bearings
distributing oil to the loaded area, temperature of the machine. Sea-
varies widely, depending chiefly on
and can cause excessive bearing sonal oil changes may be necessary
the frequency of starts and stops.
pressures and subsequent bearing if the machine is subject to wide
This is because there is no bearing-
damage. Wherever the top side of variations in temperature.
to-shaft contact to cause wear ex-
cept when the machine is at rest, the belt may be made the tight side Examine the oil periodically for
during start-up or running at slow without sacrificing good perform- signs of deterioration or sludging.
speeds. ance, it should be done. Many V- Sludge blocks the passages or
A common cause of sleeve bear- belt drives have short center dis- grooves in the bearing and con-
tances and may have the tight side tributes to overheating and ulti-
ing wear is t he motor shaft thrust-
at the top with little or no loss in mately to bearing failure. Also,
ing against the end of the sleeve
efficiency of the drive. check the oil level at regular inter-
bearing. Keep the motor level so
that the rotor will not "slide down vals. To avoid incorrect oil level
Keep Bearings Properly readings, never add oil while the
hill" and cause continuous t hrust Lubricated
against the bearing shoulder. Lim- machine is r unning.
ited end-float couplings are recom- Because proper lubrication of oil- Keep sleeve bearings operating
mended by motor manufacturers ring sleeve bearings is essential, efficiently by maintaining proper
for use on some large high-speed always use a high grade of indus- alignment, providing sufficient oil
rotating machines to prevent motor trial oil: The recommended visco- of good quality, and keeping
shaft thrusting. sity (Saybolt Universal Viscosity) foreign matter out of the oil reser-
at 100° F is shown in the following voirs.
Sometimes one defective part can
cause injury to other parts of a table, or refer to manufacturer's Keep Oil Where It Belongs
machine. Excessive bearing wear, instruction manuals.
for example, can result in air gap 150-250 High Speed Contamination and oil leakage
changes, allow the rotor to rub 250-350 Medium Speed along the shaft are prevented by
against stator, and thus damage 350-450 Low Speed an oil seal on the bearing. When
the machine windings. In addition, Some operators prefer to stand- sleeve bearings are installed or in-
a frozen bearing may lock the rotor ardize on one grade of oil for all spected, clean the pedestal or hous-
and the resulting high current and their machines. This is desirable ing partings of dried sealant and
heat could burn out the motor and can be done in most, but not in oil, and cover them with a non-
windings. To minimize these wind- all, cases. hardening type of sealing com-
ing failures, guard against bearing At intervals of six months to one pound before the bearings are
72
closed. Also, seal the joints in the tend to break down the oil film, A hot bearing is likely to result
oil seals at the ends of large bear- metallic contact between the shaft if the babbitt is scraped to give
ings with the compound. If neces- and the bearing occurs only at very uniform contact with the shaft over
sary, place a thin gasket between low speed when star ting and stop- the entire bearing surface. For t his
the seal and the pedestal or hous- ping. Therefore, under normal cir- r eason, it is best to scrape bearings
ing. cumstances, bearing wear is very to an accurately machined mandrel
The seals (someti mes called oil s mall. having a diameter approximately
guards or oil-and-dirt guards) are Check bearing clearances by 0.001 in. less than the bore of the
bored to provide the proper clear- measuring the shaft and bushing bearing. For self-align ing type
a nce. Adjust t hem to give t he bore with a micrometer. If t he bearings, scraping the bushing to
proper clearance between the seal ends of the bearing are accessible, a mandrel gives t he best assurance
and shaf t while the machine is you may measure the clearance at of proper fi t with the shaft journal.
stationary. Keep side clear ances the bearing ends with a s et of feeler This not only gives a more accu rate
uniform, and the seal partings gauges. indication of high spots, but serves
tight. It may be more convenient to as a check on bearing clearances.
To prevent oil satu ration of measure bearing clearance by plac- In scraping to a mandrel, the bear-
motor windings : ing a piece of soft lead on top of ing s hould s how contact over 75 %
1. Maintain tht! oil level in the the shaft (but clear of the top of the load-carrying area, and this
bearing reservoir at, but not above, bushing relief), and tightening the contact surface should be uniformly
the proper level. If only one level bearing cap. This will squeeze t he distributed over the load-carrying
mark is provided, it is usually the lead to the clearance thickness. The area.
oil level with the motor at stand- lead can then be removed and mea- The goal in maintaining sleeve
still. The running level will be sured. bearings, as in any maintenance
lower clue to the amount of oil car- T.o check the bearings for high program, is to elimina t e as much
ried up by the oil rings. spots, coat the shaft with Prussian emergency work as possible. This
2. Do not fill the oil wells with bl'.le and rotate the bushing halves can be done only through a well-
the motor running. around the journal. Scrape any planned and conscientious program
3. Keep oil well covers and pip- hig h spots, which will be indicated of inspection and replacement of
ing tig ht. by blue areas on the babbitt. Be- worn parts. The large rotat ing ma-
4. Replace worn oil seals. cause of diametral differences, the chine equipped with oil-ring sleeve
5. On large, high-speed motors, bearing and shaft should make con- bearings has a proven long life and
maintain proper adjustment of tact only in a straight, narrow line, when given the proper care it will
bearing reservoir pressure-balance centrally located along the bottom of provide efficient and reliable service
arrangements. the bearing. and reduce costly downtime.
Maintain Correct Bearing
Clearances
I I
0.033
P roper shaft clearances are vital 0.032
~

to efficient operation of sleeve bear-

ings, and must be periodically 0.030
/
checked to assure proper perform- 0.028
7
ance. Bearings a r e usually bored /
to an even dimension (such as 6 in., 0.026
3! in., etc.) and shaft clearance re- ~/ _.
0.024
sults from making the journal -;;; 0.022 ~/ ~/
s lightly sma ller t han the bearing
dimension. Typical bearing clear- ..."'
.c
/ /,
ances for various bearing diameters
a re given in an accompanying
.!:
..."'c
0.020
0.018
v /
graph.
E
0
...
:J:! O.ot6
I/ /
Axial oil grooves at the top and O'
.£
~/
sides of the bearing jou rnal hold 0 0014 / ~/
small amounts of excess oil, and "' 0.012
CD
•
lead oil to all portions of the jour-
nal. The pockets a re formed by 0.010
I /'
reboring the central portions,
nearly to the ends, with offset cen-
ters and a s maller radius. Usually
0.008
0.006
- u, /
~'
each r elief extends over about 60
degrees of the bearing 'lining cir- 0.004
cumference (see accompanying il- 0.002
lustr ation) .
During normal oper ation, the 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
shaft is supported on an oil film Bearing bore (inches)
near t he bottom a nd extending BEARING CLEARANCES must be periodicolly checked to assure proper performance.
over approximately t he lower third Groph shows typical sha~ clearances for bearings up to 30.in. dia. Bearing clear-
of the bearing surface. Unless ance may be checked with micrometer, feeler gouges or by measuring thickness of
some adverse conditions exist which soft lead pressed between shaft and bearing,

73
Preventive maintenance program assures ...

Reliable operation of fire alarm

Here's how to organize and operate a preventive maintenance program de-
signed to make sure your fire alann system works when needed. Operating
p1·inciples, testing, troubleshooting, and inspection techniques are described.

F FIRE should strike your fa- whether the facility is a hotel, office
Itemcility, would your fire alar m sys-
perform properly? Would you
building, hospital or school where
hundreds, poss ibly thousands of
ponents can wear out or corrode in
poor environments. Also, circu it
parameters may change, and relays
receive ample warning and have lives, mus t be protected; or an in- can go out of adjustment. The small
enough time to take the required dustrial plant ot warehouse where investment of t ime and effort ap-
steps to prevent a possible disaster? human lives, which are the primary plied to p1·eventive maintenance of
If you cannot give a positive "yes" concern, and millions of dollars of your fire alarm system will be re-
to both of these questions, your fire property and equ ipment, must be paid many times over on but one
alarm system-no matter how so- preserved. occasion when it must detect and
phisticated-may fail when it is Moreover, preventive mainte- sound an alarm of an actual fire.
needed most. nance of a fire alarm system is es- Because fire alarm systems are
The only way you can be sure that sential whether t he system is basic, essentially electrical systems, they
your fire alarm system will function serving a small installation or is usually are maintained by the elec-
as designed is through an orga- complex, incorporating supervisory trical department in a facility.
nized, well-planned program of test- circu its in a large, multiftoor build- Often, electricians experienced in
ing and preventive maintenance. ing. Although modern fire alarm control work are assigned to fire
Such a program is imperative equipment is highly reliable, com- alarm system maintenance. Most

MAINTENANCE OF CENTRAL
RELAYS Nonsealed plug-in relays have t he gram gauge to check gram tensio11

~
Two types of advantage of permitting adjust- as recommended by the relay manu-
co n tr o I relays ment in the field, although they are facturer. Tension should never be
often used in fire more susceptible to contamination. less than 6 to 8 grams. Contact gap

fl(f alarm syste ms

are sealed plug-
in relays, and
In general, relays require readjust-
ment after many months to a few
years of service. The adjustment
can be changed on some relays by
set screw and lock nut; on others
by bending the spring tab which
nons.ealed plug- may be one of armature gap, arma- rests on the coil spool head or arma-
in r elays. Main- ture spring tension, contact gap or ture actuator insulator. Set contact
tenance and adjustment of sealed contact spring tension. gaps according to the manufactur-
relays usually are performed only To clean relay contacts, use a er's specifications.
by the manufacturer. Because or contact burnishing tool, except
this, spare relays must be kept on where excessive pitting or burning
hand for replacement of malfunc- has occurred. To remove pits or PILOT LAMPS
tioning units. Occasionally, relay burns, a fine steel file shou Id be Where lamps
contacts are burned or pitted by a
circuit fault or transient high-cur-
rent. When this happens, the relay
shou ld be sent back to the manufac-
ttirer for repair and readjustment.
used.
Armature spring tension on some
relays can b~ varied by a screw or
knurled nut with or without a Jock
nut: on others by bending a soft
@0
are only occa-
sionally illumi-
nated, such as in
an annunciator,
their life will be
When it returns, it should be kept brass or steel arm to which a spiral essentially un-
in reserve as a replacement part. retractile spring is attached. In limited unless
A major objection to the sealed some instances, it may be necessary lamps are subject to considerable
plug-in relay is the reluctance of to slightly stretch the spring to re- vibration from nearby equ ipment.
many users to maintain an adequate duce tension, or cut off a turn or Where lamps fail often because of
inventory of spare units for emer- two to increase tension. vibration, install circuits and lamps
gency use. The chief advantage of Contact spr in gs s h ould be rated at 6 or 12 volts because these
this ty~ of relay is that it is im- straight. Any excessive belly or lamps will outlast 24, 32, or 48 volts
pervious to contamination and it is waves can be removed by a spring since their filaments are physically
highly reliable. bender or duck-bill pliers. Use a stronger.
74
 Alarm
Combination bells,
detectors buzzers,
horns Automolic
Rote -of- t ronsmitt e

systems rise
detectors
Q
Fixed - Coded
lempero I ure manual

a
detec tors
Ily EDWARD S. RUTH,
Manager, Fire Alarm Dept.,
Simplex Time Recorder Co.,
Gardner, Mass. Non codec
Photoelectric
smoke manual·
detectors station

maintenance procedures are simple,

can be performed in minimum time, Ionization
and frequency of most inspections detectors
and tests are not often.
The key to a successful mainte-
nance program is good organiza-
tion. This can be achieved by set-
ting up schedules for testing and
inspections in Jog books or some
I I I I
similar record system. The record Supervisory Presignal Municipal
system should include identification system circuits and Annunciolor fire slation
of all components, test and inspec-
tion results, spare parts lists and trouble alarm components alarm circuit
simi lar data. The following pro-
vides a guide to maintenance of
most commonly used fire alarm RE LIAB ILITY of fire alarm system components, such os those shown in b lock diagram
system components. above, is assured by regulor, thorough testing and maintenance program.

PANEL COMPONENTS
When pilot lamps are on contin- Electrolytic capacitors have a posed turns of
uous operation, such as lighting a definite life, which varies depend- wire. These ex-
colo~d bulls-eye lens or a back- ing on quality. The best grades posed turns
lighted panel, it is advantageous to s hould last for at least seven years. should be kept
use lamps rated at a higher voltage Ambient or working temperature clean . Carbon
than the actual supply voltage. This has a direct effect on capacitor life resistors which
greatly increases lamp life. Typical -the higher the temperature the have been over-
examples are: 32-volt lamps sup- shorter the life. heated because
plied at 24 volts or 145-volt lamps They can be tested in a manner of operation at
supplied at 120 volts. This variation similar to the dry paper capacitors; power levels beyond their rated
of rated lamp voltage to supply volt- however, polarity must be observed value will change resistance sub-
age permits ample illumination. on full-voltage tests. Terminal areas stantially. In such instances, they
and electrical connections should be must be replaced.
checked when trouble is suspected. Diodes-Diodes may be checked
CAPACITORS. And the terminal areas should be with an ohmmeter or a de voltmeter:
Paper capaci- kept clean to facilitate inspection and a de source. When using the
tors require lit- and service of connections. ohmmeter, switch to the lowest
tle maintenance scale and connect the diode so that
other than a pe- a very low resistance reading is ob-
riodic inspection RES ISTORS AND RH EOSTATS tained. If a s ignificantly higher
to see that ter- Resistors and rheostats require reading is obtained when the meter
minals are free little maintenance. Usually loose or leads are reversed, the diode checks
of dirt, grease broken connections or an actual out properly. If only a low resist-
or moisture, and to check electrical broken resistor will be the cause of ance can be obtained, the diode is
connections. Failure of this ty.pe of trouble. During inspection, terminal shorted. If only high resistance
capacitor is very infrequent. When screw connections s hould be checked readings can be obtained, the diode
a capacitor malfunction is sus- for tightness. is open.
pected, the capacitor may be tested Slide bands on resistors and the Using the diode principle of uni-
with a ohmmeter or, at rated volt- wiping brushes of rheostats should directional current flow, a de volt-
age, with a voltmeter. make positive contact with the ex- age test can be set up.
75
 TRANSISTORS BATIERIES tions at ter minals are important.
Transistors Batteries Improper stripping someti mes re-
require very lit- should be located sults in nicks in solid conductors
tle maintenance, in a clean, dry which later break from vibration or
except for check- place preferably handling at terminals.
ing lead connec- on shelves or When an installation is com-
tions. Transistor racks, or in a pleted, insulation resistance tests
leads go directly cabinet. Mainte- prove the initial reliability of the
to silicon crys- nance includes installation. Use a 500-vol t tester.
tal junctions. Therefore, when sol- regular checking of battery electro- The insulation resistance ·shou ld be
dering, excessive heat must be pre- lyte level, specific gravity, voltage at least one megohm and preferably
vented from reaching t he crystal output, "ball" floats and the battery higher. Annual insulation resistance
junction. A .pair of pliers grasping exterior for dirt or corrosion of tests should be made and records
the lead when applying heat should terminals. kept for comparison of readings.
prevent this. In addition, when sol- When the electrolytic is low, A continuing downward trend of
dering, quick application of the iron bring the liquid up to proper level readings over a period or a few
tip and immediate removal from the by ~dd ing distilled water (never tap years indicates failing insulation.
lead are important. water). Specific gravity and voltage If frequent grounds or partial
Trans istors are very susceptible should be checked at least twice a grounds are causing erratic opera-
to trans ient voltage spikes that may year. Batteries furnished with tion, make a 500-volt RMS or a
occur in the supply power line. Ex- transparent glass or plastic cases 1250-volt RMS oreakdown test.
cessive spikes can cause undesirable often are equipped with colored ball These tests, with voltage applied
transistor conduction as well as floats which indicate discharge con- between conductor and conduit,
damage to the component. Double- dition of the battery. When balls usually will break through weak
anode zener diodes or similar volt- a re floating at the top of the cell, spots in the insulation revealing the
age clippers effectively prevent t he battery is in a fully or nearly faulty conductor for immediate re-
these spikes from reaching the fully charged condition. When the placement. On circuits of 50 volts
transistor. balls are "down," the battery is or less, use the 500-volt test level;
nearing complete discharge. on 51- to 125-volt circuits, apply
Be su re the battery is kept clean the 1250-volt test. Portable test sets
and dry. Terminals should be tight for the purpose are available. In-
and free of corrosion. Terminals of structions should be carefully fol-
lead-acid cells may be cleaned with lowed to avoid damaging good wir-
OVERCURRENT
DEVICES a cloth moistened with aqueous am- ing or components and t o assure
monia. A coating of petroleum jelly safety.
Important will retard further corrosion of bat- Prior to the test, be sure to dis-
steps in fuse tery terminals. connect all equipment. Also, make
maintenance in- Battery chargers should receive certain t hat the normal power sup-
clude a periodic regular inspections to head off trou- ply is removed and that all precau-
check of fuse ble. The need for more detailed tions are taken to prevent physical
clips to make maintenance will become apparent contact with conductors under test.
sure t h at fer- when batteries are not maintained
rules are in good contact with clips. at full charge. For example, lower
Also look for corrosion or overheat- than normal charge rates will cause
ing at fuse clips. Hot fuses or clips the batteries to slowly discharge.
usually indicate either poor contact When this happens, check input
CONTROL
or an overloaded fuse, probably
close to blowing. A supply of fuses
voltage to the charger, and inspect ..... ~
CABINETS

components such as selenium recti- Control enclo-

of proper ratings should always be fiers for aging and rheostats for - 0 sures should be
kept on hand for fast replacement loose or corroded slide bands. kept free of dust
of blown fuses. and grease on
Molded-case circuit breakers re- the face of the
quire little maintenance. They
0
panel as well as
should be kept free of dust and inside. Dirt can
grime to assure proper mechanical WIRING cause ·faulty relay operation and
operation. Regu lar inspections of The key to re- can be a source of corrosion of
circuit breakers should be made, liable operation metal parts. Connecting wires com-
including dynamic tests. Every of circuits be- ing from conduits and cables should
three or .four years, operating trip tween panels and be neatly arranged at terminating
:;ettings may .be checked with spe- remote devices points and laced into a fanned cable
cial load-testing instruments. These is proper instal- form with skinners opposite the
tests are often performed by elec- lation. Be sure terminals they serve. This saves
trical maintenance contractors or conduits will not time when looking for a wire dur-
special service organizations. When be subject to water or other con- ing troubleshooting or replacement
these tests are performed, it is ad- tamination which could cause in- of circuits.
visable to load-test overcurrent pro- sulation breakdown. In addition, Be sure control panel enclosure is
tective relays. proper wire stripping and connec- Of proper type for its environment.
76
 MAINTENANCE OF FIELD DEVICES
NONCODED parent glass housings, which pro- dicating light and a silencing
r- MANUAL switch. Others have auxiliary con-
vide good protection from dirt.
STATIONS However, some dust can penetrate tacts to close a circuit to a central
Maintenance the enclosure and the parts should annunciator. Some have both fea-
of various types be oiled with "watch oil" at least tures. When inspecting t ransmit-
of noncoded every five years. At t his time, in- ters, be s ure to check these func-
manual fire spect terminals and conductors for tions. On transmitters that sound
alarm statio ns tightness and corrosion and clean a one-r ound signal as a trouble in-
cons ists primar- contacts, if required. Be sure to dication, be certain that the unit is
ily of periodic operational tests, re- check extra contacts for annuncia- reset after operation or testing.
placement of "break-glass" windows tion if the station is furnished with
or glass . rods, and inspection of this feature. Usually, these contacts
terminals for loose or corroded must be reset af ter operation.
connections. In supervised fire Some coded stations must be HEAT
alarm systems, a b1·oken connection wound by a key to set the spring- DETECTORS
will sound a trouble signal. driven operation. On these stations, One type of
A test program should be set up pulling t he lever, s imply releases fix ed-tempera-
in which one station is operated the spring t hat drives the code ture heat detec-
each month (or in accordance with wheel. These stations mu st be re- t o r o p er a t e s
local codes). A different station wound after operation. when a low-melt-
should be operated each month Maintenance of motor-driven ing-point metal
t hereafter unt il all stations have coded stations is s imilar, except allows electrical
been tested within a period of a that some are furnished with mo- contacts to energize the alarm cir-
year or two depend ing on the num- tors that may require attention. cu it. Maintenance consists of a
ber of stations installed. Where These motors are usually fractional- testing program and periodic in-
stations are installed in a presignal horsepower types rated in inch- spect ion of terminals and connec-
system, be sure to test both the ounces. They consume only 4 to 25 tions for looseness or corrosion. It
presignal and general alarm func- watts of power. Those stations fur- is important that the detectors be
tion. In systems that send the alarm nished with synchronous (hystere- replaced if t hey have been painted
t o a municipal fire department, sis) motors will not require addi- several times- to an extent that the
check transmission of the alarm to tional maintenance because these paint has created excessive delay in
the fire department if arrange- motors do not have brushes and operating time of the thermostats.
ments can be made for the test. normally bearings are the sealed This can be checked during testing.
When this is not possible, the alarm type. However, stations equipped The testing program should re-
system should incorporate means to with de mot ors should be checked quire that at least two of every 100
check this feature without actually every one to two years. Inspect detectors be sent to a test ing lab-
transmi tting the alarm to the fire brushes and commutator. Badly oratory each year ( after an initial
department. Identification of each worn brushes will cause excessive no-test period of five years) . Test-
station, location, results of tests, sparking and erratic operation. ing agencies such as Underwriters'
etc., should be kept in a mainte- Pitted commutators may be Laboratories or a similar facility
nance log. smoothed with an emery cloth or will perform the prescribed tests.
Some stations are furnished with turned down in a lathe, polished This type of detector is a "one-
open-type contacts which should be and mica undercut. If motors do operation" device and must be dis-
checked and cleaned every year or not have sealed bearings, they carded after testing; however, re-
two, depending on environment. In should be oiled as recommended by placement cost is low and reliability
some stations, contacts are enclosed the manufacturer. of detectors is proved. If either of
in dust-tight hous ings, which pre- A test program, log of records t he first two detector s are faulty,
clude dust and dirt and eliminate and general maintenance proce- more detectors must be tested to
contact cleaning procedures. Al- dures similar to that described for determine if a general condition of
ways keep on hand spare glass rods, noncoded stations should be ob- faulty detectors exists. A record of
plates and extra hammers, where served. detector location, test results, etc.,
applicable, for replacement. Automatic transmitters -These s hould be kept in a log.
Coded manual stations - Two units are essentially manual sta- The bi-metal type of fixed-
general types of coded stations are tions but they have the additional temperature detector can be tested
the spring-driven type and the feature of an electromagnetic trip without removal from the ceiling or
motor-driven type. When operating circuit to initiate operation. These disconnection from the alarm cir-
a spring-driven station, the pull transmitters, which can be operated cuit. These units operate on the
handle usually winds a clock spring, either manually or electrically from principle of heat-expansion of dis-
which when released, unwinds and a remote location, should be tested similar metals to energize the alarm
drives a gear train and code wheel. for both modes of operation in a circuit; they return to their normal
The code wheel makes or breaks program similar t o that described position aiter cooling ready for an-
contacts which transmit code pulses previously. other operation.
to the control unit. These compo- Some transmitters are equipped These detectors may be tested
nents are usually enclosed in trans- with a local trouble buzzer, an in- using a portable cord and lamp

77
 testing as previously de:-;cribed. HORNS
socket furni shed with a 60- or 75- AND
watt incandescenl lamp. The lamp Spr inkler ~yste m actuators in-
BELLS
is held within a fow inches of the clude pres:-u r e-operated waterftow Ala rm h orns
detector and the heat from the lamp ,;wi tthe;;. paddle-type switches in- may be de or ac.
,;hould cause operat ion of the unit ;;talled in pipe risers. hi gh a nd low The de horns arc
after a few seconds. water-level switches installed in alarm horns are
gra\·ity water tanks, and differ en- usually of the
tial pre:;sure switches on excess vibrating dia-
prc>:surc pu mp :<ystems. In gener al, ph rngm type .
contact~ on thc:<e de,·ices are well These horns are actuated by an ar-
RATE·OF·RISE
DETECTORS
protected; howe,·er mechanical link- mature which r apidly strikes a dia-
Rate - of - rise age:' are ;;ubjcct to corros ion and phragm. Connected in series with
detectors oper- s hould be checked e,·ery year or two. the armature actuating coil is n
ate their con- pair of contacts. The armature
tacts when the makes and br eaks these contacts,
ceiling tempera- alternn t<'ly energizing and de-ener-
ture rises faster SMOKE gizi 11g the coil creati ng the vibrat-
than 12-15 de- DETECTORS ing motion. A tub ular capacitor is
grees per minute. This a ssures op- One type of generally connected across the con-
eration over a wide r ange of val"i- • p ho toc lect ri c tacts lo ~ uppr ess arcing. To obt:'l in
able ambient temperatures depend- ~ s m n k c detector desired sound-level output. an ad-
ing on rating of the detector. ~ con,; is ls of a pho- jusli11g screw can be set to obtain
These 1·ate-of-ri sc detectors may to e I e c tr i c cell minimum to maximum strnke of the
be of the line type or s pot type. and an external armature that strikes the dia-
Line-type detectors consist of small light sou r ce. phrai.tm.
diameter copper or alumi num t ub- When liS!ht recei,·ed by the cell drops The horns should be tested r egu-
ing which is attached to ceilings or to a predetermined n1Ju e (such as lar!\", contacts inspected and any
walls near the ceiling . Both ends when :<moke blocks the light from exi~ting pits or bu rrs removed with
of the t ubing terminate at a bel- the light source). relays will cause a fine file . Contact gap should be
lows-like switch assembly. which the alarm to sound. Because of this. chetkcd and set accor ding to manu-
closes alarm circuit contacts on in- it is important to keep the light facturer's specifications.
ternal pressure increase. A slow sou rce and cell Jens clean. Also, the Some de horns ha,·c a small high-
increase of pressure is bled off lamp in the light sou rce should be ~pecd de motor which drives a
through a small orifi ce ; however, a replaced regularly before failure. wheel with projections that str ike
rapid rise of pressure generated by Another type has an internal a diaphrag m. Maintenance of this
a heat rise of 15 degrees per mi nu le light sou rce f eeding into a laby- type of horn includes inspection of
or mor e expands t he bellows, and rinth. Any dust accumulation in the brushes for excessi\·e wear and com-
closes the contacts to the fire alarm labyrinth may be removed by direct- muta tor for pitting or burning.
ci rcuit. ing compressed ai r into the un it. Most a c-powered vibrating dia-
To test for proper ope rati on. use This type is furnished with a G-volt. phrngm horns require no mainte-
the portable inca ndescent lamp set, 5000-hr lamp which should be re- nance other t han a periodic test.
previously described, held close to placed before end of life. These horns do not have contacts
the tubing. Make this tes t at least The balanced-bridge type of because the zero and peak voltage
twice a year. Annually, check the smoke detector should be cleaned created by the 60-cycle sine wave
tubing for pin-hole leaks with a two or three times a year, or after will alternately energize and de-
special testing de,·ice provided by being actuated by s moke a few cncrgize the armature.
the manufactu rer. These systems times. The unit shou ld be carefully Trumpet-type ac horns are usu-
can be furnished with the fixed- disassembled a nd components ally furnished with contacts to ob-
tempcrature feature with the addi- cleaned wi th ethyl alcohol. tain the right armature speed and
tion of special fittings installed in Ionization detectors will discover stroke force for their characteristic
the tubing at 15-ft intervals. fire s where fl nme predominates and resonant operation. These contacts
Spot-type r ate-of-rise heat detec- smoke generation is negligible. will require attention more fre-
tors are available. One type uses This is because in\"isible gas-com- quently than contacts on de dbrat-
t he melting solder principle of op- bustion products become ionized ing diaphragm horns .
erati on; the other uses the bi-metal when t hey strike the detector head. Alarm bells. both ac and de types,
principle. Another type of detector triggering the detector mechanism. operate on the same princi ples as
is t he rate anticipation heat detec- These units should be kept free of described for ac a nd de horns. Con-
tor. These are s imilar l o rate-of- dust accumulation. s tn1ction of operating mechani sms
rise detectors ; however, they have Smoke detectors should be tested is s imilar to horns except that the
no thermal Jag beyond the instant at least once a year. The test is armature drives a striker th at
that operating tempernture is accomplished s imply by blowing strikes a gong shell. Testing, ad-
reached. The fixed-temperature de- smoke from a cigar, pipe or other justment and mai ntenance are simi-
tectors do have this lime Jag. smoke generator toward the cciling- lar to that recommended for horns.
All heat detector s discussed mounl ed unit. A Jog s hould be kept
should receive period inspection for to assure that all detectors a r c Based on a paper delivc;·ed a t the
corros ion and loose connections, nnd tested on scheclule. l!)(i7 l'lant Engineering Confercnt·e.

78
 Capaci tor -IE- Commutating f ield

Circuit breaker -""'- Direct current

armature

2 or 3 phase squirrel cage

Operoti ng coil induction motor
Wound rotor
Thermal element induction motor @
Fuse 3-phose
synchronous motor

Control Normally open (NO) ~I-- Potential transformer ~L

con tacts t-----------1------------1 Transformerst----- ---1-----------1
Normally closed (NC) ~k Current transformer ::::J=tof*'L

Norma lly open Half wove

Time
t ime closino (TC)
rel ay Rectifiers
con tacts
Normally closed
Full wove +~C­
t ime opening (TO) -yAC"
-L Single pole
No rmal ly open sing le throw (SPST) \Y""""'o
0 0
Pushbuttons,t - - - - -- -----i-- - - -- - - - _ _ _ , Swi tches
Normally closed Double pole
doubl e throw (DPDT)
Open ond closed .o..Lo. Ammeter
Pushbulionst-- - -- - ---l- - --o.;.._..;.
o"="_ _--l Me t ers
Maintained contacts
,.---.:...t__
O"TO o'o Voltme ter

Fixed resistor Limit Normally open

Resistors
Adjust able-top switches
Norma ll y clo sed
resis tor or rheostat

Liquid Normally open

Series field level
switches Normally closed

Fl ow Normall y open
Shunt t ie Id actuated
switches Normally closed

FIG, 1- Symbols for electric control equipment,

Troubleshooting AC
Motor Control Circuits
A working knowledge o f electrical symbols and· dia- ROUBLESHOOTING modern

grams, basic control circuits, and fundamental trouble- T motor controls can be a tedious,
time-consuming procedure. Or it
can be as s imple as A-B-C. The dif-
shooting techniques provide a solid foundation essen- ference lies in the approach. When
t rouble occurs in a motor controller,
tial to skillful control troubleshooting. the electrician may hunt -and-peck
trying to find the difficulty in a dis-
. organized fashion. As a result, the
By Robert J . Lawrie motor starter, the machine it con-
trols a nd all related apparatus and
systems suffer excessive downtime
causing general dissatisfaction. On

79
 the other hand, a practical sys-
tematic approach is the key to con- Accele ra ting contact(s) A Neutra l N
sistent, effective troubleshooting. Armature shunt AS O ve rcurrent oc
Although there are several basic Au xiliary devices X, Y, Z O verlo a d Ol
troubleshooting approaches, a com- B
bination of those methods that
Brake contact(s) O verspeed OS
Ca pacitor C,CAP Plugging p
will suit individual preferences
will provide the most satisfying re- Circuit breaker CB Plugging forward PF
sults. Efficient troubleshooting in- Closing coil cc Plugging reverse PR
corporates all or most of the follow- Control switch csw Potential interlocking Pl
ing basic techniques. Current transformer CT Potential transformer PT
1. Troubleshooting backed by a Eme rgency stop ES Power factor PF
thorough knowledge of system and Fie ld contact(s) FC Pressure switch PS
component operation. Field a ccelera ting FA Pushb utton PB
2. Visual inspection and simple Field d ece le rating FD Rectifie r REC
operational tests without tools. Field loss (fa il ure) FL Resisto r RES
3. Comparison of operation, volt- Field protective FP Start s
age and resistance readings with a Fie ld wea ke ning FW Switch SW
properly operating unit. Forwa rd F Ti me closing TC
4. Circuit analyzing with electri- Full fleld FF Time opening TO
cal diagrams and voltage, current Fuse FU Time rel~y TR
and resistance readings. Jog (inch) J Time switch TS
5. The halving principle: localize li mit switch LS Trip coil TC
the difficulty by halving the circuit; Line contactor M Und e rvo ltage UV
ascertain which half is improperly line switch LSW Unloader coil UC
functioning, then divide this por- Master switch MS Voltage v
tion in two. This process of elimi-
nation is continued until the source
of trouble is localized to a few com- FIG. 2-Device designations on the electrical drawing help to identify functions and
ponents. characteristics of components.
6. Substitution of easily replaced
components.
7. Troubleshooting log of past I.I nes FRONT VIEW
difficulties and repair procedures. L1 L2 U
The troubleshooter is guided by th is
log ; and by records of proper in- -- - --- ----- ---., 2-Wi re pi lot device
I --G--,
sulation resistance, voltage, cur- L3 I ~ L_:y_o
rent, and resistance readings; rec- I
ords of overload relay settings, I
time delays and other similar data. I
I
I n addition, there are other gen- I 3-Wire pilot device
eral techniques designed to facili- I
1.::a:.1 r.:..::,
tate rapid troubleshooting such as I
I 2~1SJ<!ftu
3 ---n- j II
use of special diagrams, controller
·~·i::= ·=~~~~J
I
relay charts, troubleshooting charts I
and instructions. IA I
Although successful troubleshoot- When more than one push-
button stolion is used connect
ing of motor control circuits is pos- per dolled lines omitling
sible without a full understanding connector "A"
of the circuitry, consistent rapid
troubleshooting is dependent on a
t horough understanding of opera- 2
tion. Also, a general knowledge of --.. Elementary diagram
I I 3 I
motor controllers is essential. This T2 I I I
includes a working knowledge of I I I
types available, their applications, '----- ~~
T3 _..J_J_..J
I I
characteristics, and considerations I I
such as proper installations, Na- I I
I I
tional Electrical Code requirements, Tl ~L-Jl
ratings, types of enclosures, etc. :~.
'- -- -~

Indicoling
Symbols and Diagrams light
Wiring diagram (i f used)
Fig. 1 shows basic symbols for
electric control apparatus. These
symbols, which help to identify
functions of components, were FIG. 3-Wiring diag ram and elementary diagram for o reduced-voltage, resistonce-
standardized by the American type starter ore shown in o single drawing. The elementary diagram illustrates con-
Standards Association (ASA) troller operation; the wiring diagram shows component location within the controller.

80
 ~JPMB1 ~ -®-f~~
Li ~~ ~ M1
A 6 c
FIG. 4--Bosic cont rol circuits. (A) This circuit forms o typical ond through coil M. Thus coil M is energized ond its auxilia ry
2 -wire control circuit commonly used with mainta ined-contact contacts M 1 close. The start button may now be released
switches, float switches, pressure and temperatu re devices. because contacts M 1 form o "holding" circuit, which keeps
When the pressu re switch closes, coil M energizes causing coil M energized. This ci rcuit provides low-voltage protection.
main contacts M to close. This circuit also provides low- A power failure will de-energize the coil ond its contacts will
voltoge release. This means that once the switch is closed open; however, the equipment cannot be placed in service
and the coil energized, o power failure will de-energize the ogoin until the start button is depressed. <Cl This typical cir-
coil ond its con tacts will open. Upon restoration of power, cuit is similar to Fig. 4B, except that it shows connections
the contacts will immediately reclose. (Bl This circuit a rrange- when it is desired to control equipment from more than one
ment is known os o 3-wire control circuit because three wires location. Stop buttons ore connected in series and the start
ore required to connect o remotely located pushbutton to the buttons ore connected in porollel with the coil "holding"
controller. Pressing the start button allows current to flow contacts. Any number of additional pushbutton stations con
through the stop button con tacts, the start button contacts be connected in o similar manner.

Inch PB
CR2
t;1ji ~
Start
__!_

~
-0-t:; CR2

~
Stop

A B c
FIG. S-Bosic con trol circuits. (Al This circuit arrangement circuit through the resistor, coll M ond contacts M 1. Coil M
introduces the control relay. The circuit is simila r to Fig. 4B. remains energized as t he moving arm travels towa rd the
Here, however, pressing the start button wi ll energize the "open" contact. When contact is finally mode, coil M is
control relay coil CR causing its "holding" contacts CR 1 and shorted out of the circuit causing Its contacts to open. The
its auxiliary contacts CR2 to close. This, in tum, energizes coil resistor in the circuit prevents short circuiting the line when
M, the main contoctor. (8) This is o typical 3 -wire thermostat the coil is short circuited. (Cl This is o good basic inching
control. The movable center orm in the thermostat travels circuit. It is o 3-button circuit having the normal start-stop
between the open ond close positions according to tempera- function of controlling CR relay. This energizes the "M"
ture. When the movable orm makes contact with the "close" or main contoctor. When the stop button is pressed, the CR
contact, o circuit is formed through the resistor, coil M, ond relay drops out. Inching is obtained by pressing the inch
the thermostat to the other side of the line. Because coil M button, energizing the main contoctor without bringing in
is now energized, its contacts M 1 close forming o holding the CR contacts.

Automatic

--®----<>o~
Monuol

A 8 SS I
FIG. 6-Bosic control circuits. (A) This diag ram shows o open. The F2 contacts prevent coil R from energizing, pro-
typical 3-position selector switch control with positions desig- viding the electrical Interlock. (Cl This diagram shows the
nated monuol-off-outomotic. In the manual position, coil M basic circuit for control of two-speed motors. When the slow-
is energized directly. In the "off" position, it is de-energized. speed start button <SS PB) Is pressed, current flows through
And in the automatic position, coil M is controlled by the the normally closed CR 1 contacts, through the slow-speed
float switch. (B) Providing forward ond reverse motor control, contoctor coil (SSl and through SS PB to the other side of the
this circuit features both electrical ond mechanical interlock- line. This energizes coil SS causing its contacts SS 1 to close
ing. As the "forward" start button is pressed, the mechani- and form o holding circuit. Contacts SS2 also c(?se readying
cally linked "reverse" stop button opens preventing closure the fast-speed circuit for operation. Pressing the fast-speed
of the R (reverse) contoctor. When the "forward" start button start button <FS PB> energizes control relay CR. This causes
Is entirely depressed, coil F (forward contoctor) is energized, normally closed contacts CR 1 to open and contacts CR2 ond
ond its normally open auxiliary contacts Fl close forming the CR3 to close. As o result, the slow-speed contoctor drops
holding ci rcuit, and its normally closed a uxilia ry contacts F2 out, ond the fast-speed contoctor is energized.

81
and the National Electrical Manu- TOOL OR EQUIPMENT APPLICATION
facturers Association (NEMA) to
provide a universal method of Voltage indicator magnetic Portable, rugged instrument for measuring circuit
representing control equipment. voltage up to 600 volts.
To specifically identify each con- Multi·meter Portable instrument for measuring circuit voltage,
tactor, relay or other device which resistance and current.
is included in the control scheme,
standard device designations are Insulated test leads with Used to facilitate fumpering of components during
marked on the diagram. Fig. 2 lists alligator dips circuit tracing; temporary grounding; extend meter
the most commonly used designa- leads.
tions. Note that the designations Electrical diagrams Facilitates understanding of circuit operation; loca tion
are indicative of the device func- of components; essential for rapid troubleshooting.
tion. Also, designations may be
combined and prefixes added to Troubleshooting charts and Provides guidance and information to facilitate efficient
identify a specific function. For ex- maintenance records troubleshooting. .
ample, accelerating contactors are Insula tion resistance tester Tests insula tion resistance; detects low-resistance paths.
marked lA, 2A, SA, etc. Or, the
designations lAX, 2AX, 3AX are Tachometer Checks rotating machinery speeds.
used to denote accelerating relays
used in conjunction with accelerat- Variable autotransformer Allows testing of circuits at reduced voltage.
ing contactors, lA, 2A and 3A, re-
Ground detectors and locators Indicates and helps to locale circuit grounds.
spectively.
Of significant value to the Phase sequence Indicator Determines phase sequence of polyphase circuits.
troubleshooter are the elementary
or "schematic" diagram and the Clamp-on ammeter Portable, rugged instrument for simple measuring of
wiring diagram, sometimes called circuit current.
the connection diagram. On large Potential and current trans- Increase rang e of test instruments to permit reading
multi-panel systems incorporating formers, meter shunts of high·voltage and high-current circuits.
complex control circuitry, physical
layout of the entire system, inter- Protective device analyzers Provides simple means of te sting protective devices.
connection diagrams, cable and
wire identification-number lists, Portable capacitance and Provides accurate readings of capacitance and re·
resistance bridge sistance.
cable point-to-point lists, and com-
ponent location lists and charts pro- Electricians standard tools Troubl eshooting, disassembly or repair of electrica l
vide valuable guidance when cir- (fuse-pullers, screwdrive r, etc.) equipment.
cuit tracing and troubleshooting.
An elementary diagram for a re- FIG. 7-Troubleshooting tools and equipment.
duced - voltage resistance - type
starter is shown at the right of Fig.
3. In the elementary diagram, circuit operates, he may wish to monly used ones are listed in Fig.
physical relationships of compo- check the circuit operation. Using 7. As mentioned earlier, one of the
nents are usually disregarded; com- the wiring diagram as a guide, he most important troubleshooting
ponents and circuit lines are drawn will be able to locate each compo- tools is the electrical diagram, in
to show most clearly the function nent in the controller, or trace con- particular, the elementary and the
of each device and sequence of op- necting wires. wiring diagrams. In addition, ef-
eration. For example, when the The numbered terminals, "l,'' fective troubleshooting can be ac-
start button is pressed, current "2," "3,'' on the controller are desig- complished with such simple tools
flows from Ll through the stop and nated in this manner to show the as a magnetic voltage indicator, a
staxt button, through coil M, proper control wiring connections small, rugged instrument that will
through the normally closed over- to the correspondingly numbered indicate voltage level up to 600
load device contacts (OL ) to the terminals on the pushbutton pilot volts; a multi-meter, which allows
other side of the line, L2. When devices. This numbering method the troubleshooter to check voltage
current flows thTough coil M, its is often used when a large number level, resistance values and circuit
main contacts "M" close and auxil- of connections must be shown. continuity; insulated jumper leads,
iary contact "Ml" closes. When Modern motor controllers as well which consist of a 3-to-4 ft length
contacts "M" close, the motor will as complex motor control circuits of insulated, stranded No. 14 wire
start and run; when contact "Ml" are basically combinations of with insulated alligator clips at-
closes, the start button may be re- fundamental circuits. To facilitate tached at each end. With the
leased because contact "Ml" acts a quick understanding of ac motor jumper leads, the troubleshooter
as an interlock, holding coil M control circuitry, a brief review can short-out or jumper certain re-
energized. of basic circuit configurations is lays or contacts facilitating con-
The wiring diagram at the left presented in Figs. 4, 5 and 6. tinuity checks on a de-energized cir-
of Fig. 3, shows the actual physi- cuit. They can also be used on
cal relationship of the components Troubleshooting Tools energized circuits, but only by an
and wiring within the controller experienced electfician using ex-
enclosure. After the troubleshooter There are many practical tools treme caution. Also, they can be
has examined the elementary dia- which help increase troubleshooting used to extend meter leads, or for
gram and has ascertained how a efficiency. Some of the most com- temporary grounding while testing.

82
 480 vol ts
3 phase

Fl F2 F3
Control L1 L2 L3
LI z
L tronsf.
~ 4801120,olts
LI I Ll2

Fii
Stop
I

CRI \ I

Fost speed con tociors

a over load element~
CONTRO L CIRCUIT POWER CIRCUIT
ELEMENTARY DIAGRAM ELEMENTARY DIAGRAM
FIG. 1-Elem en to ry doogrom for o typico t mu ll ispeed co ntroller is o major too l in the ono1y1icol
t rc')ubleshootong tcchn1Qu c. Con tro lle r is a two·sp ecd ma gnetic s ta rte r for o si ng lc· wind ing,
con sta nt-horsep owe r moto r.

Effective
Motor-Control
Troubleshooting
Practical, step-by-step procedures combined with a common-sense
approach are the key to expert control troubleshooting. A detailed
discussion of a typical motor-control troubleshooting situation illus-
trates the technique.

By Robert J . Lawrie

ow dues the exper t control trou- cir cuit concepts. (See ''Trouble- t hat they have on cm ch other and

H h.es hoot er approa<'h a t r ouble-

s ho1>ting s it untion '! What are
hi:> techniques? What was his pr ep-
shooting AC Motor Cont rol Cir-
cuits," El C & M, June ]!)63.) But
his chief t roubleshooting asset is
on over-nil contr ol-syst em opera-
t ion. Each st ep he makes is calcu-
la ted to conve rge on t he source of
a r ation? And, most impor tantly, the abi lity to apply common sense the diffic ul ty, fin a lly pinpointing
how does he pla n his immedi ate when nnalyzi ng cont r ol operation. t he problem a ccurately and
a ctions . which must. quickly r e- He :i pplies a n orde rly, step-by- qu ickly. This technique is best
mo\'C the roadblocks t hat invari- step procedure, in which cir cuit illust ra w d by a typica l trouble-
a bly appear in his sea rch for the ope1·at ion is separated in logical s hooting s itua tion.
source of trou ble? pa r ts, a nd ci rcuits a nd components Assume t ha t a two-speed motor
The expl!r t t r oubles hooter ap- are didded in to 11ma lle r parts to starter a s s hown in F ig. 1 cont r ols
plies a combina t ion of ma ny tec h- determine their fun ctions, relation- a large fan ins tallation in a n in-
niqu es and has mastered basic ship to one another, a nd t he effect dustr ial plant.

83
 To To
F11 LI L2 L3 lost PB

11
r
: 7
I
I
I

To
OL -----iost
PB

T1 T2 T3 T6 T4 TS
ca

WIRING DIAGRAM
FIG. 2-Wiring diagram for the multispeed controller shows physical arrangement of com-
ponents and wiring, locates components and test points to facilitate troubl eshooting.

You are notified that the fan main contactor in the motor power note the major components of the
installation is not operating prop- circuit to close. This starts the installation, which include a fused
erly and you are called to trouble- motor on slow speed. At the same disconnect switch, motor control-
shoot and remedy the difficulty. time auxiliary contact 82 opens, ler, remote pushbutton station,
Gather preliminary information providing an electrical interlock motor and belt-driven fan. At the.
-The first step in troubleshooting that prevents closing the fast (F) same time, consider the possible
any motor control, which has de- contactor. In add ition, contacts Sl causes of trouble at this type of
veloped trouble, is to understand close, energizing the control relay installation. This includes binding
circuit operation and all related (coil CR). This causes control- or unbalance of the fan blades,
machine functions. In most cases, relay contacts CRl to close, form- which may result in tripped over-
the operator can describe proper ing a holding circuit for coil S load relays; a temporary overload,
machine operation and indicate at through contacts CRl and Sl. which may have caused overload
which point the machine does not Also, contact CR2 closes, readying relays to trip; a temporary power
function properly. In this instance, coil F for operation. system disturbance, which cou ld
the operator points out that the As the fast pushbutton is cause t he overload relays to trip
fan provides equipment ventila- pressed, t he circuit to coil S is or fuses to blow; con tac tors or re-
tion, and that fan operation is in- interrupted. Therefore, coil S is lay contacts, which are not open-
itiated manually at a remote push- de-energized and its main and con- ing or closing properly or have
button station. He also indicates trol contacts resume their normal become o:iridized; loose connec-
that the unit has been installed positions. When the fast pushbut- tions; opens ; shorts or grounds.
for several weeks and had been ton is completely depressed, cur- Check for additional data -
operating properly. rent flow s from Lll through fuse First, check operation of the fan
Next examine the elementary 11, the stop-button contacts, the to determine whether any impor-
diagram (Fig. 1) and the wiring fast-button contacts to point 5, tant factors have been overlooked.
diagram (Fig. 2) . From the ele- and continues through the now It is discovered that although the
mentary diagram, note that the closed CR2 contact and the nor- unit will run at low speed, it will
control is a two-speed magnetic mally closed (NC) 82 contact, not operate at high speed.
starter, which provides compel- and finally through coil F and the Analyze known factors-Before
ling control. (Compelling control four NC overload relay contacts to beginning actual troubleshooting
makes it necessary to increase the other s ide of the line. Thus, procedures, first consider pertinent
speed from rest through each suc- coil F is energized and its main known factors. It is known that
cessive s peed step. The motor can contacts close. This causes the the fan operates at low speed. This
be started only at the lowest speed. motor to run at the fast speed. greatly decreases the possibility of
To reach each higher speed, each Simultaneously, contact Fl closes mechanical t1·ouble at the load.
respective pushbutton must be forming a holding circuit for coil Also, it follows that the main fuses
operated.) F. Also contact F2 opens to pro- Fl, F2, F3 (Fig. 1) , the control-
Circuit operation-When the vide an electrical interlock, which circuit fuses Fll and Fl2, and the
slow pushbutton is pressed, coil S prevents closure of connector S. series-connected overload relays are
is energized, causing its five-pole Major trouble sources-Next, operating properly. Thus the prob-

84
ability is that the difficulty lies in control voltage reaching the coil? The difficulty has been localized to
the fast-speed windings of the Are t he relay contacts in the cir- a small area without the use of
motor, or in the fast-speed con- cuit to the coil in the proper posi- tools and, a lthough the related
troller circuitry. tion? These question s and those discussion here was lengthy, ac-
Select simple procedures- To of a similar nature help guide the tual time spent on t his part. of t he
localize the trouble, select logical choice of subsequent action. troubleshooting process should be
procedures which can be simply Safety must be considered first very brief.
and quickly accomplished. - Because there are only a few Voltage check- Since \'isua l in-
As an example: because t his components to check, a quick vis- spection did not locate the trouble,
starter provides compelling con- ual inspection of each component select the next simplest procedure
trol, start t he motor on low speed, may spot the trouble. First, how- -a voltage check of the circuit.
and press the fast pushbutton to ever, it is essential to consider all Attention is still focused on coil
see if t he fast-speed cont.actor possible physical dangers as well F. Have the coil windings opened
closes. If the fast-speed contactor as possible damage to the equip- or burned out? Is proper voltage
does close, the probability is that ment. Be s ure to observe all nor- reachi ng the coil? Referring to
the trouble is located at the fast- mal safety standard!', and make the elementary diagram, note that
speed main contacts, the motor or certain that all safety interlocks contact CR2 must be closed in
at the motor leads. But in this are functional. order to energize coil F. To ac-
case, it is found that coil F of the On this control, t he magnetic complish this, start the motor on
fast-speed contactor, does not op- safety interlocks are contacts S2 slow speed. Having done this, note
erate. Thus, the trouble is iso- and F2. Be sure both interlocks that relay CR picks-up and that its
lated to the fast-speed circuit in function even though the unit may contacts CRl and CR2 close. Note,
the controller. have a mechanical interlock. While however, that contact S2 opens.
Converge on t he source of the motor is running at low speed, Thus, the next simplest procedure
t rouble-Next, examine the con- refer to the wiring diagram ( Fig. is to determine whether proper
trol-circuit elementary diagram 2) for the location of contact S2 voltage is reaching at least the line
and study t he operation of the (poin ts 11 and 7) . Be sure that it side of contact S2.
fast-speed circuit. Note that the is open. To check interlock F2, Pinpoint t he problem- The next
portions of the circuit t hrough stop the motor, open t he discon- procedure is to check that contl'ol
the stop button (points 1 to 4) nect switch, check with a voltage voltage reaches each component in
and through the overload relays indicator that the controller has the circuit to contact S2. Place one
(points 8 to 9) are common to both been de-energized, and inspect lead of a voltage indicator at
the slow-speed and high-speed cir- contact F2 to see that it is physi- point 8, where it should remain
cuits. Because the motor operates cally intact and will open when for t he remainder of the voltage
at slow speed, these parts of the coil F is energized. tests; place the other lead at point
circuit can be eliminated. This in- Make a visual inspection-Wit h 4. The tester indicates that full
dicates that the trouble is most the safety inspection complete, voltage is reaching t his point.
likely between points 4 a nd 8 in proceed with visual troubleshoot- Next, move the tester lead to point
the remaining part of fast-spee d ing. First ins pect fast-speed con- 5 and press the fast pushbutton to
circui t (Fig. 3). tactor F. Check that the armature complete the circu it. Here it is
Determine most effective proce- moves freely and look for signs of discovered that the voltage has
dures-Before proceeding, stop fo r burni ng or loose connections. In- dropped considerably, perhaps to
a moment to analyze what has spect contacts CR2 and S2 for 10 or 20 volts. From the elemen-
been learned. Then, determine the signs of burning, arcing, or metal tary diagram, it appears that volt-
best possible course to pursue. bu ild-up, which may cause im- age is not getting through the fast
From the inspection so far, it ap- proper closure. pushbutton. Thus, stop the motor,
pears that the motor is not at In t his case, the inspection re- open t he disconnect switch, and
fault, and that the trouble most veals that all components and con- inspect the fast-pushbutton con-
likely is in the controller fast- tacts are in good condition. Now, tacts in the remote pushbutton
speed circuit between points 4 and other means must be used to lo- station. This inspection reveals
8. As noted on the elementary dia- cate the trouble. that the contacts are in excellent
gram, t he fast-speed circuit from Note that all procedures, since condition but that t he connection
point 4 extends t hrough the fast- troubleshooting started, have re- point of control wire C5 to the fast
pushbutton NO contacts, the NO quired only common-sense think- PB is discolored and heavily oxi-
contact CR2, NC contact S2, ing plus a few simple operations. dized. A slight movement of the
t hrough coil F to point 8. Thus, wire reveals that the connection
the probable sou rce of trouble is is loose. It can be deduced that
8

i
limited to a relatively few compo- the original connection in this re-
nents (Fig 3). Fast cent installation had been loosened

·~L . 1--'1~
.
Of these components, the most during installation. And t hat this
significant is coil F, which is not did not affect operation immedi-
being energized as indicated by ately, but after several weeks of
the elementary diagram. There- arcing, the resultant oxida tion had
fore, attention should be focused CR2 52 built up to form a high resistance.
on coil F. Why doesn't it pick up 1 Repair is made by cleaning or
FIG. 3- Using the onolyticol, trouble.
Is it physically jammed or mis- shooting procedure, the source of trouble replacing all affected current-car-
aligned ? Are the coil windings is localized to this portion of the fost- rying parts and by making a new,
burned or opened ? Is the proper speed circu it without the use of tools. tight connection.

85
 How to
Maintain
Motor Controls
Here are practical considerations in serv1cmg motor
controls including care of contacts, coils an d re/,ays .
T roubleshooting charts and a controller preventive
maintenance guide point up modern techniques de-
signed to minimize motor-control tronbles.

BY ROBERT J . LAWRIE

UCCESSF UL motor - control against the spring pressure. As a

S maintena nce starts w ith the

recognition-and the eventual
elimination-<>f the chief sources
result, contact pressure is below
normal causing higher contact re-
sistance and arcing, resulting in
of motor controller troubles. After overheating and possible welding
years of experience, control experts of the contacts.
agree that the three major causes Systematic maintenance consists
of motor-control failures are ( 1.) of the application of effective con-
improper application, (2.) an inade- trol maintenance procedures within
quate electrical system a nd (3.) the framework of a well-planned
lack of systematic maintenance. electrical preventive maintenance
I mproper application results, for prngram. It will detect early symp-
example, when wrong overload re- toms of trouble and help ward off
lays are selected; and when wrong costly major breakdowns and at-
size, wrong starting voltage, or tendant production downtime.
wrong enclosures are used. In addi-
tion, misapplication occurs when Control Maintenance Practice
locations with poor environments
are selected for controller installa- Personal safety is a primary con-
tion. Improper locations include s ideration when servicing motor
overly dusty or dirty areas, or loca- controllers. Always observe all
tions which subject the motor con- standard safety precautions. When
trol to severe vibrations or exces- adjusting or repairing a control,
sive heat. To insure cor rect be sure the supply voltage has been
applicat ion, always obtain and fol- removed from t he motor s tarter.
low the control selection, operation Tag operating handles, remove
and installation instructions, wh ich fuses or block out circuit breakers
arc available from the manufac- personally-never rely on others
turer of the control equipment. for these procedures where you1·
An inadequate electrical system, safety is concerned. Before opening
in particular one which is charac- 01· closing a switch, make certain
terized by low voltage, is a common that the switch is designed to op-
source of motor-control t r ouble. erate under the particular circuit
If the supply voltage is low, motors conditions. (Some safety discon-
will draw higher currents causing nect switches are not designed to
PREVENTIVE MA INTEN ANCE INSPEC- frequent tripping of the overload operate under load. ) Always use
TION of motor controls should be per- relays. In addition, during the proper safety equipment and tools,
formed on o regularly scheduled basis. and have protective equipment
Inspections include clconing, checking
starting period, control voltage
contacts, contact spring pressure, coils, could drop to a point where the ( rubber gloves, mats, grounding
fuses, relays, interlocks, and main and starting contacts may touch but sticks, etc.) checked periodically
control conductor connect ions. are unable to close completely to assure that proper insulation

86
 levels are maintained. Also, make MOTOR-CONTROL PREVENTIVE MAI NTENANCE GUIDE
sure all control safety interlocks
are functional, and that equipment What ta Inspect Whal to Inspect for
ground connections are tight. 1. Exterior and Surroundings Dust, grease, oil; high temperature; rust end corrosion;
Keep motor controls clean- mechonlcol damag e; condition of gaskets, if any.
Dust, dirt and grease must be re-
2. Interior of Enclosure, Nuts and Some os for No. 1 plus: excess vibrat;on which may hove
moved periodically from the con- Bolts loosened nuts, bolts o r other mechanical cormedions.
troller. This is important because
dust or grease can become lodged 3. Contactors, Relays, Solenoids Ch eck control circuit voltage; inspect for excess heating of
A. Generol ports evidenced by discoloration of metal, charred insu-
in auxiliary relay contacts or inter- lotion or odor; freedom of moving ports; dust, grease,
locks and may prevent a circuit and corrosion; loose conn ections.
from functioning. In addition, dust
may contain conducting materials, o. Contact Tips Check for excessive pitting, roughness, copper oxide; do
not Ole silver contocls.
which could form unwanted circuit
paths resulting in current leakage c. Springs Check contact pressure ; Is pressure some on ell tips.
or possible g1·ounds or short cir- D. Flexible leads look for fro yea or broken strands; be sure leod is
cuits. Dry dust may be blown out flexible-not brittle.
with dry compressed air. Sticky
E. Arc Chutes Check for bre aks or burning.
dust and grease will require more
thorough cleaning with a suitable F. Bearings Ch eck for freedom of movement; do not oil.
solvent. Also, check the surround-
G. Coils look for overheating, charred insulation or mechonlcol
ing area for sources of dust, oil, or injury.
corrosive vapors. If the control is
exposed to a poor environment, re- H. Magnets Cl eon faces; check shading coil; inspect for misalignment,
bonding.
locate the control in a less severe
environment, install a protective 4. Fuses and Fuse Clips Check for prop er roting, snug flt; if copper, polim ferrules;
shield, or change the enclosure to check fuse clip pressure.
one designed for the particular en- s. Overload Relays Check for proper hea ter size; trip by hand; check hea ter
vironment. coil end connoctio~; inspect for dirt, corrosion.
Moving mechanical parts should
operate easily without binding or 6. Pus h button Stations and Pilot Ch eck contacts, inspect for dirt, grease end corrosion.
Dov Ices
excessive friction. Check operation
of each contactor and relay by 7. Doshpot-Type Timers end Check for freedom of movement; check oil level.
Overload Relays
hand, and, at the same time look
for loose pins, bolts or bearings. 8. Resistors Check for signs of overheating; loose connections; tighten
Do not lubricate bearings. Bear- slid ers.
ings on electrical controls are de- 9. Connections Tighten main line and control conductor connections; look
signed to operate without lubrica- for diKolorotion of currenl-<arrying ports.
tion. Oil or grease on the bearings
will cause dirt to accumulate, re- 10. Control Operation Check sequente of operation of control relays; check
re lay con tacts for sp arking on operation; check contoclors
sulting in sluggish action and pos- for Aosh wh en dosing; if so, ad just to eliminate contact
sible failure. bounce; check limit switches, pressure switches, temp erature
Check terminal screws for tight- switches, etc.
ness. Loose connections may de-
velop at any time. Therefore, check
main line connections and control
connections on a regularly sched-
uled basis.
Contactors need the most atten-
tion. Be sure contact springs main-
tain the proper contact pressure.
If contacts are allowed to wear too
thin, spring pressure decreases and
overheating of the contacts results.
Spring pressure should be
checked with a scale in accordance
with t he manufacturers' recommen-
dations. A typical procedure is as
follows: With the contactor in the
closed position, the scale is attached
to the movable contact. (Size of
scale required will vary according
to size of relay or contactor.) A
steady pull is exerted. At the point
where the contacts begin to sepa- MODERN HIGH-VOLTAGE MOTOR CONTROLS for 200- and 400-hp
motor-generator drives in a large paper mill ore equipped with recording
r ate, t he spring pressure reading kilowatt meters to monitor power demands. For safe ty, door handles ore
is taken and recorded. Readings interlocked with control circuits. Note that handles ore furnished with
should fall within recommended pod locks.

87
 MOTOR-CONTROL TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
Troublo Poss ible Couse Remody
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-

CONTACTS 1. Broken pole shader. 1. Replace.

Conto ct Chotte r 2. Poor contact in control drcuit.2. Improve contact or use holding
circuit interlock (3·wlre control).
3. low voltage 3. Correct voltage condition.
Check momentary voltage dip
·during starting.
We lding or Froning 1. Abnormal inrush of current. I. Use larger contoctor or check
for grounds, >horts or excessive
motor 'load current.
2. Rapid jogging. 2. Install forger device roted for
jogging service or caution
operator.
3. Insufficient tip pressure. 3. Replace contact springs; check
contoct carrier for damage.
4. low voltage preventing mag · 4. Correct voltage condition.
net from sealing. Ch eck momentary voltage dip
during starting.
5. Foreign matter preventino con- 5. Cleon contacts with oppoved
tacts from closing. solvent.
6. Short circuit. 6. Remove short foult and check
to be sure fuse or breaker size
is correct.
Short Contact Life 1. Filing or dressing, 1. Do not Ille silver-faced con-
or O verheating of tacts. Rough spots or discolor•
Ti ps o tion will not harm contacts.
2. Interrupting excessively high 2. Install larger device or check
currents. for grounds, shorts or excessive
motor currents. Use silver·
faced contoch.
3. Excessive jogging 3. ln1toll forger d evice rated for REDUCED - VOLT AGE AUTOTRANS·
jogging or caution operator. FORM ER TYPE motor starter controls o
4. Weok contact pressure. 4. Adjust or replace contact 200-hp, 440-volt, 3-phose induc tion mo-
springs. tor. Contoctors ore the vertical-lift type
5. Dirt or foreign matter on con- 5. Cleon contacts with approved
solvent.
equipped with silver-faced contacts,
t act surface.
6. Short drcuits. 6. Remove >hort fault and check which never require filing. Mointenonce
for proper fuse or breaker size. procedures include checking oll moin
7. loose connection. 7. Clean and tighten. line ond control conductor connections
8. Sustained overload. a. ln1tall larger device or check for tightness.
for excessive loo d current.

COIL, OVER HEATED 1. Overvoltage or high ambient 1. Check application and circuit.
t emperature.
2. Incorrect coil. 2. Check roting and If Incorrect,
replace with proper coll. limits (from ounces for small re-
3. Shorted turns caused by m&- 3. Replace coll. lays to many pounds for large con-
chanlcal damage or corrosion. tactors).
4. Undervoltage, failure of mag· 4. Correct system voltage,
net to seal in. Another test that can be made
5. Dirt or rust on pole feces in- 5. Cleon pole face s. is to check that spring pressure is
creasing air gap. the same at all contactor poles. If
OVER LOAD RELAYS I. Sustained overload. 1. Check for grounds, shorts or pressure at one pole is consider-
Tripping excessive motor currcnrs. ably lower t han that at the other
2. loose connection on load wires. 2. Cleon and tighten.
3. Incorrect heater. 3. Relay should be replaced with poles, the spring is weakened and
correct size hooter unit. should be replaced.
Fa ilure to Trip 1. Mechanlcol binding, dirt, cor· 1. Clean or replace. Copper contacts should be re-
(Coualng Moto r rosion, etc.
Burn-Out) 2. Wrong heater, or heaters 2. Check ratings. Apply proper placed when worn thin or when
omitted and jumper wires used. heater. badly burned or pitted. Always
3. Motor and relay in different 3. Adjust relay rating accord· replace both the moving and sta-
temperatures. ingly, or make temperature
same for both. tionary contacts. In many in-
4. Wrong calibration or improper 4. Consult factory. stances, operation of a new contact
calibrotion adjustment. in conjunction with an old contact
MAGNETIC & MECHANICAL PARTS has not been satisfactory.
Noisy Magnet 1. Broken shading coil. 1. Replace shading coll. When copper contacts become ex-
(hummlns) 2. Magnet feces not mating. 2. Replace magnet assemb'y or cessively rough, they should be
realign.
3. Dirt or rust on magnet faces. 3. Clean and realign. smoothed with a fine file. &so, any
4. low voltage. 4. Chec.k system voltag e end volt- copper oxide on the contact surfaces
age dips during starting.
1. low voltage. 1. Check system voltage and volt-
should be removed because it acts
Failure to Pick-up
and Seal age dips during starting. as a high resistance and could
2. Cail open or shorted. 2. Replace. eventually cause overheating. When
3. Wrong coil. 3. Check con number. filing, particular care should be
4. Mechanical obslrvction. 4. With power off, check for free
movement of contact ond taken to maintain the surface shape
armature assembly. or contour of the original contact.
Failure lo Drop-Out 1. Gummy substance on pole 1. Clean with solvent. This is important because the orig-
feces.
2. Voltage not removed. 2. Check coil circuit. inal contact shape was selected for
3. Worn or rusted parh causing 3. Replace parts. best operation.
binding. Silver contacts should never be
4. Residual magnetism due to 4. Replace worn magnet parts.
lack of air gap In magnet path. filed except in extreme cases when

88
 Coil
terminals -~~----.-..·'.

CUSTOM-DESIGNED MOTOR CONTROL TYPICAL VERTICAL-LIFT magnetic sta rter is shown with contact protective block
provides outomotic control for o 100-hp, re moved. Movable moi n contact is being pointed out. Cross section of contoctor
240-volt, 3-phose induction motor, which and magnet assembly shows arrangement of essentiol components. Preventive main·
drives a fire pump at a steel plant. Auto- tenance inspection calls for a general examination of the contoctor for wear, and
motic controls will start motor when plant the contoctor and all other ports for loose connections. Also, look for excess heating
sprinkler system is octuoted. Exerciser of ports, which is evidenced by discoloration of metal, charred insulation or odor.
control provides for automatic testing Operate plunger by hand to check for freedom of movement. Check contoct tips
of motor opera tion once eoch week. Note for excessive pitting, roughness or copper oxide; do not file silver contacts. Check
wiring dlagrom and operating and main- contact spri ng pressure with scales in accordance wit h manufacturers' recommenda-
tenance instl'\lctions toped to inside of tions. Be sure spring pressure is some on all contoct tips.
enclosure door.

they have become severely rough- load relays, which can be adjusted gram heads off major equipment
ened. Silver oxide, which some- over a wide range to provide ac- failures by simple inspections and
times forms on the contact surfaces curate protection for t he controlled minor repairs; it is practical and
does not have to be removed be- motor; dashpot types, which afford economical to operate; and above
cause it is a good conductor. varia ble inverse-time tripping (as all, it results in dependable equip-
Operating coils for ac contac- the overcurrent becomes larger, the ment operation, less downtime,
tors function satisfactorily over a relay will t rip faster). longer equipment life and lower
range of 85 to 110 % of their rated In general, maintenance r equire- over-all costs.
voltage. Higher voltages will cause ments for t hese relays include To be effective, the maintenance
coils to operate at a higher tem- checking that: (1) the rating of program must be tailor-made to ht
perature, which results in a shorter the relay was properly selected; the various requirements of any
coil life. In addition, the contactor (2) the rating or trip setting takes specific industrial plant. Key fac-
or relay wilJ operate with unneces- into account ambient tempernture ; tors which dictate t he scope of t he
sary force causing more mechanical (3) contacts are clean and free motor-control preventive mainte-
wear and bounce when closing. from oxidation; ( 4) the relay will nance program include reliability
An excessively low voltage s up- operate dependably when necessary. required of the equipment; type of
ply to a coil causes contactors and To insure reliable operation, relays process or production (continuous
relays to operate sluggishly. Be- should be tested and calibrated process, job-lot, etc.); age of
cause of the weakened magnetic every one to three years. Special equipment; environmental; condi-
force, contacts may not "make" equipment is available for testing, tions; and t ype of duty.
firmly, which could result in over- or an outside service company can In addition, frequency of inspec-
heating and welding together of be called in to perform the relay t ions must be determined. This will
contacts. Also, if the voltage is too tests. depend on past performance of the
low to allow complete closure of a controller; operating frequency ;
contactor ( or if the contactor or Preventive Maintenance cost of inspection compared to cost
relay is blocked open) , the coil of a failure ; environment and simi-
wilJ draw an excessively high cur- Preventive maintenance of motor lar factors.
r ent resulting in coil burn-out. controls consists of regularly sched- An accompanying table outlines
Overload relays foun d in motor uled inspections, required minor a typical preventive maintenance
controllers ·include t hermal types, maintenance repairs, and a system inspection guide for a motor con-
s uch as the bimetallic type, solder- of inspection r ecords for future trol. Also, a control troubleshoot-
ratchet type, and res istance-wire referenc.e. An effective motor-con- ing guide lists major troubles and
heater-coil type ; magnetic over- trol preventive maintena nce pro- remedies.

89
 Typical applications include con-

Troubleshooting veyor drives, film processing drives,

paper slitters, pulp washe1·s, extrud-
ers, corrugator drives, machine-tool
systems, printing presses, paper

Solid-State machines, etc.

Fig. 1 shows a control panel,
rated 230 volts ac input, for speed

Speed Controls control of de motors. Thls control

panel is made up of an output
bridge rectifier and three plug-in
circuit modules called cardpaks. A
typical cardpak, with components
Modern de rnotor-speed controls incorporate silicon mounted on a plug-in printed-cir-
cuit cord, is shown in Fig. 2. These
rectifiers, SCRs, transistors and other solid-state com- circuits are shown in Fig. 3.
At first glance., the schematic
ponents for better, more reliable operation. Here are may appear quite complex; how-
ever, if you immediately break it
latest trou,bleshooting and maintenance techniques. down into separate circuits, you
will find it is much easier to follow
BY GERALD D. LONC, C1womer Training Direct.or and understand.
and ART H UR J. PARKEH, ilfointe11n11ce Scl1ool Director
The basic circuits are shown in
block-diagram form in Fig. 4. Es-
Reliance Electric nrul E11gi11ceri11g Co., Cleveland, Ohio
sentially, the motor speed increases
as the speed pot (potentiometer) is
increased. The signal from the
ODERN speed controls for de The control selected is a versatile, speed pot causes the output of the

M motors are of solid-state de-

sign. Because of recent im-
provements in the operating char-
all-semiconductor speed control for
de motors ranging in size from 5 hp
to 125 hp. Continuously variable
controller to increase. This increas-
ing signal from the controller is
fed to the driver cardpak, which
acteristics of SCRs (silicon con- motor speed is obtained by con- causes a transistor (J29) to con-
trolled rectifiers). transistors and trolling motor armature voltage duct less collector current through
other semiconductor components, and current. It also provides such three saturable reactors (D5, 024
solid-state control systems have features as acceleration rate con- and Yl). This results in less reset
gained widespread acceptance and trol, maximum armature current, (essentially decreased saturation)
are being installed in hundreds of IR drop compensation; to mention through the three saturable reac-
industrial plants. only a few. Magnetic contactors and tors. The less the saturable reactors
In application, static speed con- associated circuitry arc provided are reset the earlier they can be
trols offer many advantages over for starting. saturated with the opposite polar-
other types. They provide high ac-
curacy of control, arc compact and
lighter in weight, are more depend-
able with no moving parts and with
no tubes to burn out or to cause
drifting, and they are easier to
maintain because module construc-
tion is easily incorporated and be- Output
cause they are resistant to adverse bridge
s1t1con
atmospheres. recti fi ers
Although static controls afford and SCRs
reliable operation, t hey can get out
of adjustment, or a component may
fail resulting in lost production.
When this happens, the plant elec-
trician or maintenance man must
be able to make repairs surely and Controller -+t,......------..1
quickly. Driver -+-,_.------""--..I
Using common-sense thinking, a Amplifier -r--~----+=---1:=-'
troubleshooter can locate and repair
many control malfunctions; how-
ever, rapid efficient troubleshooting
requires a thorough understanding
of principles of operation.
To help you to understand opera- FIG. 1- MoJor components of the solid-state control ore the output bridge circuit,
tion of solid-state drive systems, a which consists of silicon rectifiers and silicon controlled rectifiers connected in o
typical up-to-date static control will 3-phose bridge configuration, and three plug-in cordpoks (printed-circuit boards).
be described in detail. Practically a ll of the complex COf'\trol circuitry is contained on the cardpoks.

90
 ity; ther efore, t he earlier in the
cycle the amplifier cardpak transis-
tors can conduct. The earlier the
transistors in the amplifier can con-
duct, the earlier they produce firing
pulses to the silicon controlled recti-
fier (SCR) in the output bridge.
And the earlier in the cycle the
SCRs conduct, the greater the out-
put voltage to the motor armature.
Thus, the greater the rmatu r e
voltage, the greater the motor
speed. The motor field is a fixed 140
volts de.
If the motor tries to draw over
125 % current, the current feedback
into the controller cardpak causes
the controller output to drop, which
FIG. 2- Typicol plug- in cordpok with cove r removed shows plug-i n type terminals drops the armature voltage causing
a nd semiconduc tor components, which include tra nsistors and diodes. Control system a decrease in armature current.
may use up to eight cardpaks to provide special features. T he above explanation of basic
oper ation p rovides t he groundwork
3</> oc input for a clearer understanding. Now
we will study each circuit in detail
Amplifier beginning with the output bridge
MoI or
field
circuit.
Speed Conlroller Driver
pot. Motor
armature Output Bridg e Circ uit
Armature voltage feedback The output section is a 3-phase
Armature currenl feedback bridge consisting of s ilicon rectifier
diodes, silicon controlled rectifiers,
FIG. 4--Bosic control operation is illustrated in simplified block-diagram form . Speed fuses and protective circuitry. The
pot a pplies desi red voltage signal to co ntroller circuit; armature voltage and current circuit is shown in the upper por-
feedback signals ore also applied. Signals o re compared to a bias or reference signal
tion of Fig. 3.
and resultant vo ltage applied to d rive r circuit. Drive r sets firing point of pulses for
phase-control of SCRs in bridge ci rcuit. From driver, pulses ore amplified and peaked As shown in Fig. 3, the ac input
in the amplifiers and applied to gates of the SCRs. The amount of time that the phase rotation to this bridge is im-
SCRs ore gated determines output voltage providing control of motor speed. portant. At the input, the circuit
made up of lC, IR, 2R and lT is a
phase-sensitive network to insure
ISR 2SR 3SR + proper phase rotation. If the incom-
230 Volts oc Motor ing phases are incorrect, l '1' will not
St ...______.,.___,..___,.
82+ field supply enough voltage to energize

83- -----4..... -+--------i------.. . . ....__, ~--

CR. CR contacts a r e w ired into t he
stop-star t pushbuttons, such t hat
the CR con tact.s must close for t he
drive to run. Therefore, if the pha se
3SCR
rotation is incorrect, the drive will
not start. If such is the case, any
two ac input wires must be re-
A. Oulput bridge-motor field circuit
versed.
In series with the CR coil is a
temperature sensitive device. The
2SR bridge diodes and SCRs could be
230 Volts oc
destroyed with excess temperature.
81
82
83
+--...-....----·
- --~-·
Motor
armat ure
If the heat sinks to which the d i-
odes a nd S CRs are connected be-
come too hot, the temperature sens-
ing element opens, de-energizing
2SCR CR, stopping the drive.
lL, 2L and 3L are line "soften-
ing" reactors, but more impor tant
B. Output bridge - motor armature circuit they offer line reactance to assist
the commutation of diodes and
FIG. S-ln A, current from 230-volt oc terminals is rectified by silicon diodes to
provide a constant 140 volts de for motor field. Circuit path denotes electron flow. SCRs.
A simila r path exists when terminal 81 is positive with respect to terminal 83. In lSSR is made 'up of three tran-
B, electron flow through output bridge and motor armature is shown. Current flows s ient-voltage suppressors i one
only when pulses ore applied to gates of silicon cont rolled rectifiers. across each phase of the ac line.
91
 MolOt
FIG. 3 -Schematic diagram of basic held
speed con trol appears complex; but when Oulpol
blid9e
broken down in to smaller circuits, it is
much easier to follow and understand.
Molor
The schematic divides into four major arrnalure
circuits-controller, driver, amplifier and
output bridge. These circuits ore shown
sepa ra ted In la ter illustrations.
45
l:"'"l Line sequence and heol sink

+
120v -20v
Thtrrnol ~ lemperolure conlrol relay
proleclor_....... ~ 230vac 39 __...------oti ver
81 82 83

Conl lransf 2T-~

Driver
Con I roller

llSvac ~I
inpol LI·
41

Error
=Tm~1-::M:33 inpul
...f.;R
57

Ll9
57 ~9 (~)
: Limil Molor leedbock
1 input vollo9e
i'---L.5!
p™ ______________ J57~

These clip off any transient volt- the firing angle. If the three SCRs from the controller becomes larger,
ages that might appear on the ac are each fir ed 120° late in the cycle, the base current of t ransistor J29
input; hence, they protect the the output is as shown in Fig. 6A. becomes smaller; therefore, the col-
bridge components. (Shaded portion is conduction time lector current is less. The collector
Bridge circuits-The motor field of the SCR.) If the SCRs are fired voltage of J29 comes from trans-
receives constant 140 volts de exci- 90° late in the cycle, the output former 2T, through saturable reac-
tation from the diode section of t he armature voltage is higher as tor Yl. Reactor Yl has a quite rec-
bridge. Fig. 6A shows electron flow shown in Fig. 6B. Fig. 6C shows t-angular hysteresis curve, which
( reverse of conventional current full 240-volt de armature output by provides for the switching action
flow) . When 83 is negative with re- firing the SCRs at 65°. Only if the of the reactor. For example, when
spect to 82, electrons can flow in on SCRs were fired at 30° could this 2T is positive on top, the incoming
83, up through the motor field, down become a full-wave bridge. How- signal could cause J29 to have
through 2SR and out on 82. A simi- ever, the firing circuit does not per- enough collector current (electrons
lar path exists when 83 is minus mit firing earlier than 50°. down through Yl) to reset Yl
and 81 is plus. 3SR serves as a From the above, you can see that (take out of saturation)only one-
back rectifier to discharge any in- the earlier the SCRs are fired, the fourth, as shown in Fig. 8B. When
ductive kick from this motor field. higher the output armature volt- the top of transformer 2T becomes
In Fig. 6B, electron flow through age. negative, J29 cannot conduct, but
the bridge for armature excitation It is important, then, to see how now there is correct polarity for
is shown. Electrons flow in on 81, the phase of the firing pulses is con- base current of V28 through Yl.
down t hrough lSCR if a gate pulse trolled. Some manufacturers choose Yl is high impedance until it satu-
is present, up through the motor to use a relaxation oscillator to sup- rates. This takes one-fourth of a
armature, down t hrough 2SR and ply firing pulses. This specific panel cycle because it was one-fourth re-
out on 82. A similar path could be uses saturable reactors in a reset set. After one-fourth of a cycle, Yl
repeated for any chosen polarity. circuit. Reset essentially means to becomes low impedance (completely
Current flow and the resulting take reactors out of saturation. saturated) and base current flows
motor armature voltage depends on When reactors are out of satura- in V28 causing a collector current
when the SCR gates receive a pulse t ion, they present a high circuit im- through R80.
or are fired. If no pulses are pres- pedance. The signal on R30 is coupled
ent on the gates of t he SCR, there through capacitor Y29 and resistor
is no armature voltage. Plug-In Circuit Boards X22 causing a base current in tran-
SCR operation-The output sistor Xll. As a result, collector
bridge is a full-wave configuration, SCR firing cont1·ol-Fig. 7 is an current flows in Xll through T35.
but as you will find, it is used here abbreviated sketch of the plug-in Then T85, which is a peaking trans-
as a half-wave circuit because of driver cardpak. As t he input signal former, provides a sharp rise in its

92
 secondary voltage delayed one-
fourth of a cycle because of the in-
put signal effect on Yl. The firing
pulse developed on the secondary of
T35 is supplied gate-to-cathode of
lSCR. lSCR fires one-quarter late
I I
II in the cycle for near maximum
I I
armature output, resulting in near
I \
x I maximum speed.
,_/ \ \._,/
I
If the incoming signal had been
sufficient to reset Yl by one-half,
(Fig. 8C) , V28 could not conduct
during the first half of the half
cycle, 90° late; therefore, the out-
put pulse would be delayed and
l SCR would fire at 90° and conduct
for a half of the half cycle, result-
Output voltage waveform Output voltage waveform Output voltage waveform ing in a lower output voltage and
for resistive load for resistive load for resistive toad
lower speed.
A. 120° FIRING 8. 90° FIRING C. 55° FIRING As the incoming signal becomes
FIG. 6--0utput de voltage to motor armature is directly proportional ta the amount smaller, J2g conducts to reset Yl
of time por holf cycle thot the SCR conducts. Shaded portion of cycle Is conduction perhaps by three-fourths (Fig.
time of SCR. Firing point (flrinQ ongle) of SCR is accurately controlled by saturable 8D). The firing pulse is then three-
reactor circuits to provide close control of armature voltage, thus providing accurate
speed control. As shown, the earlier the SCR is fired, the larger is the output voltage,
fourths late in the half cycle. lSCR
resulting in higher motor speed. would conduct for only one-quarter
of the time, resulting in a low arma-
ture output voltage and a low speed.
The amplifier has two additional
identical pulse-output circuits,
which function in the same way
off the common reset transistor
J29.
Controller circuit-Now, opera-
XI I tion of the controller circuit ( Fig.
g) will be described to illustrate
V22 how t he signal into the driver cir-
P22 Ul6
cuit is controlled. Key to this cir-
YI cuit is the voltage on capacitor P9,
co which is deternlined by the setting
Q: of the speed control pot (potentiom-
J29

~
eter). When the system is turned
~
Input
sigrol t T35 R on there is no charge on pg; how-
Bios ever, pg immediately t ries to charge
+ _pot.
to the full 50 volts de at an RC
t imed rate of X5 and pg, However,
FIG. 7- ln the driver circuit, pulses are developed to fire SCRs. Duration of pulse the speed pot sets the maximum
Is determined by reset of saturable reactor YI. (Reset means to toke out of so turo- voltage that can be on pg, If the
tion.l When ou t of saturation, reactors present a high impedance to circuit. speed pot is set at 0 volts, as soon
as pg has a 1 volt charge, diode X3
starts to conduct t-0 keep the voltage
of P9 down to 1 volt. If the speed
pot were set at 10 volts, pg could
charge to about 11 volts before XS
conducts to keep the voltage of pg
down to 11 volts. Thua, the voltage
on P9, through summing resistor
4-r l <f>r .,,, R3, is the turn--0n signal, positive
to line 41, \vhich is applied to the
A c 0 driver circuit input.
If - - - Forward current 4'1___ Forword flux
(soluroting current) An armature-voltage feedback
I , ___ _Reset current <f>, ___ Reverse flux circuit serves as a regulator to
maintain a constant armature volt-
FIG. 8-Soturoble reactors have a nearly rectangular hysteresis loop, which facili- age. As the armature voltage builds
tates switching action. In A, o fully saturated reactor is shown; B shows tho reactor up, the armature-voltage feedback
reset for V.. cycle; at C, for Y.2 cycle; ond at D, for 3A cycle. The effect Is such
that for B, current cannot flow in the control circuit for the first V.. cycle, resulting
is fed back into the circuit through
in firing pulse ot 45°; in C, current connot flow during the first half of tho cycle, J5 and the maximum-volts pot. The
resulting In a fi ri ng pulse at 90°; etc. Reset of the reactors Is continuously variable armature-voltage feedback is a
according to the Input signal from the controller circuit. turn-off signal, negative to 41. If

93
+ spect motor, magnetic controls and
other components with moving
parts ; 2. perform visual check of
solid-state panel; 3. check output
41 bridge circuits; 4. voltage test the
cardpaks in order : controller,
50volts Speed driver, amplifier.
DC control Do not attempt to speed trouble-
pot. X3 shooting by simply changing card-
J2 paks. These components are highly
reliable. In most cases the trouble
will be found exterior to the solid-
state control system.
57 After inspecting the motor and
J17
99 exterior connections, make a thor-
ough visual check of the drive cabi-
L20 net as follows :
'----4---nTo emitter of J29
1. Connections (for loose, open,
FIG. 9-Controller circuit supplies the continuously variable signal voltage to the shorted or broken connections) .
driver. Key to this circuit is the voltage across capacitor P9, which is determined 2. Overloads and protective de-
by sett ing of speed control pot. Desired vo ltage on P9 is applied through resistor R3
ond line 41 to tho driver inpu t. T he armature volta ge feedback through JS and
vices (in the case of selenium surge
maximum-volts pot serves to maintain a constant vo ltage at the level selected. protectors a characteristic odor
will be present).
3. Resistors, capacitors, trans-
Fus e Armature Fuse Armature Fuse Armature Good Armature
Blown Volta ge Blown Voltage Blown Voltage Fuses Voltage formers and coils for discoloration
or other indications of overheating.
4. Control pot settings to be sure
1 210 3 & 4 135 2,3&4 55 1 & 2 0
2 180 3 & 5 125 2,3&5 125 1 & 3 0 the original settings have not been
3 210 3 & 6 170 2,3&6 100 1 & 4 85 changed and/ or misadjusted.
5. Phase relation of ac power.
4 180 4 & 5 135 2, 4& 5 100 1 & 5 0 (Should cause CR to energize.)
5 210 4 & 6 100 2, 4&6 0 1 & 6 55 6. l\I and RR contactors (M ener-
gized on jog- M and RR on run) .
6 180 5 & 6 135 2,5&6 85 2 &3 50
Before making any further tests
1 & 2 155 1, 2&3 50 3,4&5 55 2 & 4 0 on the panel, it is necessary to dis-
1 & 3 125 1, 2&4 85 3,4&6 85 2 & 5 85 connect the motor armature and put
a dummy load on the armature out-
1 & 4 170 1, 2&5 85 3,5&6 85 2 & 6 0 put. (This disables the drive to pro-
1 & 5 125 1,2&6 50 4,5&6 55 3.& 4 0
tect the rotating equipment and any
personnel who may be working on
1 & 6 135 1,3&4 85 3 & 5 0 the machine.) A 100-ohm, 500-watt
resistor or two 60-watt, 120-volt
2 & 3 135 1,3&5 0 3 & 6 85 light bulbs in series will function
quite satisfactorily as a dummy
2 & 4 100 1,3&6 I 125 4 & 5 1 50
load. Also, t he lamps serve nicely
2 & 5 170 125 4 & 61 0 as a visual indication of output volt-
l,4&5 1 I age.
2 & 6 100 1,4&6 100 5 & 6 I 0
Output Bridge Check
FIG. 1 0-Voltoge check chart for output bridge circuit speeds troubleshoo ting when
o malfunction occurs. Specific readings of armature voltage indicate which fuses ore The most probable cause of fail-
blown (or failure of associated SCR or diode). ure in this speed control system is
in the output bridge-fuses, SCRs
this armature voltage is low, the shooting requires a planned, meth- or diodes. A table of armature out-
charge on P9 increases the arma- odical approach using common- put voltages (Fig. 10), quickly
ture voltage. If the armature volt- sense thinking. identifies which fuse has failed (or
age is high, its feedback decreases When trouble occurs, determine associated open diode or SCR).
the armature voltage. Also, there is which control function has failed. In addition, much information
an armature-current feedback from This often indicates which circuits can be derived from a motor-field
terminal 99 to prevent t he motor or components are faulty. Next, voltage check, terminals 35 to 37.
from drawing excessive current. make a quick visual check and per- The motor field output should be
form other tests that are simple 140 volts de. If fuses IFU or 3FU
Troubleshooting Techniques and quick to accomplish. These blow or if diodes lSR or 2SR open,
tests include checks of line fuses, the field output drops to 95 volts de.
Once you have a good under- overload relays and other associ- If 5FU or 3SR open,' the field out-
standing of circuit operation, ated magnetic control circuits. put drops to 0 volt de.
troubleshooting will be greatly sim- For this control, the following
plified . However, effective trouble- approach is usually effective : 1. in-
94
 Testing and Maintenance
Of Protective Relays
And Circuit Breakers
How to test and maintain protective relays, motor
overload relays, molded-case circuit breakers and
low-voltage power circuit breakers.

BY HENRY S. ORTH, Director of Education,

Multi-Amp Corp., Cranford, N. ].

N MANY industrial plants, elec- stalled in modern power systems,

I trical protective devices are often

neglected. In some instances, pro-
tective relays and circuit breakers
basic types include: 1) overcurrent
-time delay and instantaneous; 2)
over/under voltage-time delay and
remain idle for years without an instantaneous; 3) directional over-
operational check, calibration or current; and 4) percentage differ-
proper cleaning. Motor overload re- ential. Because the operating prin-
lays may get out of adjustment, ciple of most of t hese relays is
corrode or otherwise become inop- similar, inspection and testing are,
erable. Then, when t his equipment in general, also similar. However,
is called upon to clear a fault or an to provide effect ive maintenance of
overload, they can fail to operate. this equipment, the inspector or
As a result, human life is jeopard- tester should have a thorough
ized, equipment is destroyed or knowledge of the operation and
damaged and valuable production functions of each type of relay in
time is lost. the system. In addition, he should
However, t hese losses can be have a good understanding of the
avoided by providing proper care operat ion of distribution system.
and attention for electrical protec- How often to ins pect and test-
tive equipment. This includes not Frequency of inspection and testing
only routine inspections and clean- depends on individual circum-
ing but also r egula rly scheduled stances. If t he protective relays
testing and calibration. Inspections installed are subjected to an ad-
can reveal most potential trouble verse environment - corrosive
sources, such as contamination, cor- gases, dust, excessive heat, etc.-
rosion or loose connections, but inspect ions and tests may be re-
only through electrical tests can quired every three to six months.
you be sure that a protective device Under normal conditions, relay
will trip properly. maintenance may be performed
Special testing equipment is every one to two years. Ideal con-
available to test all types of protec- ditions might allow the mainten-
TESTING PROTECTIVE RELAYS on-site t ive devices. This equipment is safe, ance cycle to be extended to every
without de-energizing the power circuit economical and comparatively easy three to four years. The best guide
is performed by qualified personnel using to use, although some formal train- can be derived from inspections and
special test eq uipment. Effective mainte-
nance of protective devices inc ludes a
ing in its use is des irable. P lants test records made in previous years.
thorough inspection plus electrical tes ts. without qualified personnel often Plan ahead-Before starting the
Inspectio n includes chi::cks for dust, cor- contract this work out to mainte- maintenance procedures on protec-
rosion and binding of mechanical ports. nance service companies. tive relays, obtain the required test
Electrical tests provide ossuronce that the data, settings, records, test equip-
reloy wi ll operate when required; will trip Maintenance of Electrical ment and relay tools (tools recom-
fast enough to prevent damag e; ond is Protective Relays
coordinated with other protective devices mended for inspection and adjust-
to provide selective tripping ond minimize Although there is a great variety ment of protective relays are listed
the extent of power outages. of electrical protective relays in- in an accompanying table). In-

95
form operating personnel of work circuit breaker. Open trip circu it this test requires that caution and
to be done so that, if possible, cir- according to instruction. Also, safety practices be closely observed.
cuits to be checked can be de- check for proper operation of t he Typical tests for an overcurrent
energized. However, if circuits mechanism that shorts the current relay include : 1) insulation-res ist-
ca nnot be de-energized, proceed transformer when the relay is re- ance tests of relay conductive com-
wi th caut ion bearing in mind that moved. ponents to ground ; 2) zero-set
a relay is temporarily out of serv- 2. Remove foreign material, s uch check, which determines that the
ice and that some of that circuit's as dust, filings, etc. from the relay. relay contacts close when the dial
protection is removed. Therefore, Be sure the rotating disc and mag- is set to zero; 3) pick-up test,
a relay job should never be started net gaps are clean. Dust can be which determines minimum operat-
unless it can be finished before leav- removed with a small hand syringe ing current of the relay ; 4) time-
ing the work area. for blowing air. Dry compressed current characteristics test, which
Also, action to be taken .in case air 50 PSI or lower may be used. checks that a relay closes its con-
a circuit is inadvertently tripped Higher air pressure may damage tacts within a specified time for
shou ld be worked out with operat- small parts. Remove any rust or given value (s) of current as de-
ing personnel before star ting work. filings from disc or magnet poles termined from the time-current
Always consider safety - Safe with a magnet cleaner or fine brush. cu rves for that specific relay; 5)
work habits and use of common 3. Hold relay up to t he light to pick-up on instantaneous ; and 6)
sense cannot be overemphasized. make sure the disc has good clear- main contact seal-in.
Never use metal ladders or step ance between magnet poles.
stools around switchgear. If safety 4. Inspect relay for the presence Maintenance ol Low-Voltage
helmets are required, always wear of moisture. If moisture is pres- Power Circuit Breakers
a fiber or plastic helmet. Loose key ent, or rust spots are noted, it may Low-voltage power circui t break-
chains, tool pouches, or other tools indicate that the relay is in an ers have wide application and pro-
should never be allowed to hang improper atmosphere and presents tect utilization voltage circuits up
from the body. Remove rings and a design problem. to 600 volts ac or 250 volts de.
metal watchbands. Whenever pos- 5. Check bolt connections, solder When used as a direct-acting cir-
sible, power circuits should be de- joints and taps for tightness. cuit breaker, a dashpot (o il or air)
energized a nd properly tagged to 6. Check bearings a nd springs or a mechanical-escapement mech-
conform with approved procedures. for proper operation according to anism is generally used to provide
Always be careful when working the instruction manual. t ime delay before tripping. These
on or near current transformers. 7. Inspect contacts. Pitted or breakers have several kinds of clos-
A current transformer reduces the bu rned contacts should be cleaned ing and tripping devices: 1) man-
current in the power circuit to a with a contact burnisher or fine ual closing, which employs an oper-
value that can be handled by the file. Be sure to maintain contact ator with handle or lever. Often
protective relay, and insulates the face configuration. Never use a a loaded spring mechanism is pro-
relay from the power circuit. How- solvent on these contacts or touch vided to assure rapid closing of
ever, there is a danger associated with fingers because the residue contacts; 2) electrical closing,
wi th a current transformer. If its left may cause improper operation. which employs a solenoid or small
secondary circuit is opened while 8. Check for proper operation of motor togethe r with mechanical
prima ry cu rrent flows, a very high the indicating target. linkage; 3) protective-relay trip-
and dangerous voltage appears 9. Inspect fit of relay cover, glass ping, which employs a protective
across its secondary terminals. and gaskets. Tight fits are impor- relay to init iate tripping; 4) series
Therefore, never open the second- tant to keep out contaminants. tripping, in which a ser ies trip
ary of a current transformer while Perform electrical tests-Elec- element carries load current; a nd
the primary is carrying cu rrent. trical tests provide a positive in- 5) auxiliary tripping methods, such
Perform a visual inspection-- dication of relay condition. as shunt or undervoltage tripping.
First, double check the identifica- There are three standar d meth- Trouble source s - E ffective
tion of relays on the panel. When ods of t esting relays : 1) Testing maintenance of low-voltage power
work on relay terminals must be with t he relay disconnected from CBs requires recognition and elimi-
done behind a large complex board, the current transformer. This al- nation of the major sources of
posit ive identification of a relay at lows testing to be accompli shed trouble. These include:
the rear of t he board can be accom- without de-energizing the power 1. Frozen contacts a nd/or oper-
plished if an assistant turns the system. 2) Testing across the ating mechanism (will not open
ammeter switch from the front of secondary of t he current trans- automatically or manually), or ex-
t he pa nel, while you obser ve which former with the primary de-ener- cessive force to operate manually.
switch arm turns in back of the gized. This test is used whenever Freezing of components may be
board. This quickly locates the primary power can be disconnected. due to corrosive atmosphere or to
proper panel. Then consult wiring Also. this test checks relay connec- an extensive· period of inoperation.
diagrams. Also, have ava ilable the t ions as well as the relay and oper- Check operation of CB manually;
manufacturer's instruction book for ation of the circuit breaker, etc. remove effects of corrosion a nd pre-
each type of relay. These instruc- 3) P rimary circuit testing, which vent further contamina.tion ; oper-
tions provide necessary informa- uses hign current and low voltage ate breaker periodically.
tion concerning connections, inter- (called primary injection). In this 2. Improper calibrat ion (trip is
locks, adjustments, repairs, etc. test. the complete protect ive system too fast or too s low). Considered
1. Refer to the manufacturer's related to a particular relay is most dangerous of CB malfunc-
instructions to determine how to checked. Because test connections tions. Can be revealed a nd cor-
remove relay without tripping the are made on primary conductors, rected only through electrical tests.

96
 3. High contact resistance. Pos-
sible causes are adverse atmosphere TOOLS FOR SERVICING PROTECTIVE RELAYS
and inoperation. Can be revealed
by electrical tests. Clean contacts Tool Use
and make recommended mechanical
adjustments. 3 thin open-end wrenches, 3/ 16", 11 / 32", 3/ 8"
4. Open contacts ot· serjes trip- 1 screw-holding screw driver
ping elements. Revealed through 1 thin-l;>lade screw driver (6" shonk, 3/ 16")
inspection or tests. Operate breaker 1 stubby screw driver
manually. Disossembly, ossembly
1 standord-blade screw driver
5. Low leakage resistance (ter- and adjustments.
1 Phillips screw driver
minals to ground) . Caused by dust, 1 optician's screw driver
moistu re or carbon contamination. l pair needle-nose pliers
Revealed by insulation resistance 4 small socket wrenches, 3/ 16 11, 5/ 1611, 11 / 32 ", 3/ 8''
tests. Remove sou rce of contamin-
ation or dry out.
fine contact Ale Smooth current-carrying
6. Broken or cracked arc chutes.
burnishing tool contacts.
Revealed through inspection. Re-
place damaged arc chute.
1 dental mirror Examination of rear or
In general, maintenance of low-
voltage circuit breakers follows "hidden" portions of
procedures outlined for mainten- components.
ance of protective relays-inspec-
tors and testers should be qualified 1 small-bulb air syringe Remove metal fllings,
personnel; proper test equipment 1 soft 1 " Aat paintbrush dust or other contami-
must be used; inspection and test 1 magnet cleaner nation.
procedures should be carefully 1 magnet brush
worked out in advance; and safety
must always be considered first. properly. Check that the breaker type, a heater coil, carrying motor
Circuit breaker inspection pro- position indicator shows the proper line current, will heat up on over-
cedure--Safety rules and coopera- positions of the breaker. load. The generated heat melts a
tion with operating personnel must Electrical tests - The circuit special alloy allowing spring-held
be strictly. observed. breaker is tested using special test contacts to open, shutting down the
1. Be sure circuit is dead or that equipment that supplies a high cur- motor.
breaker can be racked out. rent at low voltage to s imulate 2. Thermal bi-metallic strip-
2. Inspect primary fingers at actual operating conditions. The This type employs a contact-holding
back of breaker. Check fingers for test equipment is safe to operate device made up of bi-metallic strips
excessive wear, burning or dis- and does not damage the breaker in with different rates of expansion
coloration. Look for broken or any way. Breaker trip devices are under heat. The principle of opera-
missing springs. Clean out dust. tested one phase at a time. Test tion using a heater coil which gen-
3. Inspect arc chutes for cracked, made includes : 1) pick-up current erates heat to initiate operation is
burned or broken parts. (all elements) ; 2) timing (Jong- the same as described for the ther-
4. Inspect and clean main and and short-time delay elements) ; 3) mal solder-pot type.
arcing contacts in accordance with resettable delay (long- and short- 3. Magnetic type-The magnetic
manufacturer's instructions. Com- time elements) ; and 4) instanta- overload relay operates on the basic
mercial products are available to neous trip. All test results should transformer principle to operate a
resilver contacts, if necessary. be recorded for future use. damped plunger device or moving
5. With arc chutes removed, me- iron core arrangement, which is
chanically close breaker to check Molded-Case CBs employed to provide adjustable time
contact action and alignment. Take Motor 0Yerload Relays delay and circuit tripping.
care to keep clear of breaker con- The small molded-case circuit In some instances, when a motor
tacts and moving mechanism be- breaker provides a relatively in- keeps tripping out, it is not un-
cause these parts are actuated by expensive method of protecting usual to find the next larger size
stored-energy devices which can branch circuits. Depending upon heater installed in a relay. If this
cause serious injury. their application, most of these is done, a careful investigation of
6. Open and close breaker several small breakers employ a pure ther- the motor, motor circuit and over-
times to determine that operation mal trip element or a thermal- load relays should be performed to
is smooth and without binding. magnetic tripping mechanism. prevent the motor from being over-
7. Perform lubrication according Thermal-type breakers should be loaded. The best check for proper
to manufacturer's instructions. tested at least every two years. operation of the overload r elays is
8. Tighten a ll scrt:iwed or bolted In adverse atmosphere where over- through electrical testing.
connections. load elements may corrode, more Regularly scheduled inspection
9. Blow dust and dirt from frequent tests are recommended. and tests will reveal potential
breaker and arc chutes using low- There are many different types troubles and assure reliability of
pressure dry air. of motor overload relays; however, overload relays. When installed
10. Determine that the breaker they can be categorized into three over a period of time, these relays
trip mechanism and the various general types: get out of adjustment, corrode or
trip-device mechanisms operate 1. Thermal solder pot-In this otherwise become inoperable.

97
RELI ABILITY of o voriety of e lectricol equipment can be weakness without breaking down the insulation. Often, prior
evoluo ted th rough de overpotentiol testing, In thi s controlled to de overpo tent ia l testing, the insulat ion receives an insula-
overvoltoge test ing technique, the trained operator observes tion-resi stance test. DC overpo tential testing is applicable to
test currents and frequently is oble to detect an insulation t ransformers, cobles, swi tchg ea r and rotating apparatus.

DC Overpotential Testing of
Electrical Equipment
Investigation of electrical failures reveals that most LECTRICAL faults can be very

electrical malfunctions can be prevented by a thor- E costly to industrial operations .

f.'or example, in one recent in-
stance, a fau lt in plant main dis-
ough maintenance program incorporating electrical tribution switchgear causerl com-
bined losses in physical damage and
tests. T esting of switchgear, transform ers, cable, ro- production downtime totaling $2 ~
million. A similar fau lt at another
tating apparatus and protective devices are discussed. industrial facility resulted in $300,-
000 loss. Although the larger inci-
dent may be considered exceptional
in magnitude of loss, thousands of
electrical accidents occu 1· annually.
DY W . A. WEDDENDORF,
Chief Hlectricnl E11gineer and M.1mager of T ec1111ic11l Ser11ices, I t is estimated that accidents
Mutrwl Doiler a11<l llfocli inery lnsur1111ce Co., IT/11/tham, Mnss. caused by malfunct ions in electri-
cal syst ems cost industry some-
where between $1 and $3 billion

98
 each year. This includes physical tion in reliable operating condition. overpotential proof tests on distri-
damage, productive downtime and The purpose of the test is to dis- bution and power transformers in
compensation for personal injury cover inherent weaknesses which, evaluating their insulation struc-
and loss of life. if not corrected, could in time lead ture.
Investigations of such incidents to serious trouble. The test voltage, Rotating Apparatus-DC volt-
by our inspection and engineering usually a fixed percentage of the age overpotential testing is appli-
service have shown that most elec_. init ial factory dielectric test, is cable for evaluating the insulation
tl"ical faults can be prevented. On selected in accordance with ac- structure of rotating electrical ap-
the other hand, it is not economi- cepted industry standa rds. paratus. A periodic proof test be-
cally feasible, nor possible, to pre- tween 125% and 165% of voltage
vent all electrical failures. Some de- Switchgear-A dielectric test
on a new sw itchgear assembly is rating times a 1.7 ac to de conver-
velop between the recommended sion factor is used, depending upon
periods of inspection and testing made in lhe factory at voltage
levels recommended in ASA Stand- the type and condition of the insu-
due to abnormal transient smge lation. A formula commonly used in
conditions. Others result from a ard C37.20. This standard suggests
subsequent periodic proof testing developing the value for the de volt-
deficiency in design or construction. age periodic proof test is 2 times
And some electrical failures are at 75 % of factory test values to
dete1·mine the practicability of rated voltage plus 1,000 (factory
purely accidental occurrences. ac test) times 0.65 (age factor),
Electrical fau lts that can be pre- placing or safely continuing the
equipment in service. This is a test times 1.7 (ac to de conversion fac-
vented are those which can be an- tor) . Additional data can be ob-
ticipated because of a laxitv in at power frequency, usually 60
cycles, for a duration of one min- tained from IEEE No. 95, Guide
proper and effective mainten~nce. for Insulation Testing of Large AC
Regardless of whether the fault can ute.
When using a de voltage, the gen- Rotating Machinery with High Di-
be prevented, the fact remains that rect Voltage.
the destrnctive, devastating after- eral practice is to apply the peak
value of the rms suggested ac test. The de voltage dielectric test val-
math of sustained electrical arcing, ues suggested are intended as a
common to many failures, can be Table I s hows the suggested values
for periodic proof tests on switch- guide. The test enginee1· should be
minimized. fully familiar with pertinent indus-
The key to minimizing electrical gear in service. A dielectric test
faults is an effective electrical in this order of magnitud~ will try standards and manufacturer's
show up leakage paths which could recommendations when developing
maintenance program. This in- the test values for a type of appara-
cludes searching out and eliminat- lead to trouble. An insulation re-
sistance reading taken with a 500- tus and particular application.
ing potential sources of trouble; When conducting de overpoten-
proper applicaJion of apparatus; volt instrument on a medium-volt-
age switchgear assembly could be tial tests, we use a variety of test
periodic cleaning and testing; re-
of questionable value since it may sets, which range in output from 5
placement of unreliable, inadequate
not reveal a high-res istance leakage to 100 kv. For acceptance and proof
equipment; use of adequate protec-
path. testing of cable circuits, we use a
tive devices, properly set and in re-
small portable de voltage test set.
liable operating condition; and in- Cable Circuits- The reliability The unit has an output of 100 kv
struction in safety of operation. of primary distribution cable cir- but weighs only 65 lbs, which
cuits is most important to a plant's makes it ideal to tl"ansport from job
DC Overpotential Testing productive operation. Cable manu- to job. Each test set we use was
facturers highly recommend cus- carefully selected for each type of
Because the majority of electri- tomer acceptance testing on a new application.
cal faults arise from a breakdown installation before it is energized
in insulation structure, de overpo- at the equivalent of 80 % of the ac Application and Testing of Pro-
tential testing is a significant and factory test. Thereafter, the cable tective Devices-This is a very im-
essential part of a maintenance can be periodically maintenance portant phase of electrical accident
program that will prevent many proof-tested at an equivalent of prevention since much of the costly
electrical failures. DC overpoten- 60 % of the ac factory test. Table destruction from sustained electri-
t ial testing can be used to good ad- JI gives the suggested de accept- cal arcing could be avoided with
vantage in evaluating the insulat- ance nnd subsequent periodic proof- properly applied protective devices.
ing structure of electrical apparatus test voltages for cables having In some instances, the protective
for continued rel iable operation. It ozone-resistant rubber insulation. device which would have seen the
offers several advantages over test- Simi lar standardized test values fault had not been installed. In
ing with an ac voltage in that the have been develop~d for cables hav- others, the investmen t was made in
test set is much smaller and hence ing other than rubber insulation. the proper protection, but it fa iled
more portable. An experien~ed op~ to function due to too high a set-
eralor can usually discover an un- Transformers-ASA Standard t ing, or it was found to be defec-
satisfactory insulation condition C57.12.DO-Hl58 recommends that tive.
without actually breaking down the periodic ac insulatl~n tests on dis- Many serious faults are trig-
insulation from the behavior or pat- tribution und power t ransformers gered from a minor incident. For
tern of measured current. should not be in excess of 65% of example, in a recent case, a turn-
As the name implies, this dielec- factory test voltage. If a de voltage to-turn fault occurred in the
tric test is made at a potential in test potential is used, it should not primary of a small potential trans-
excess of that normal to the ap- exceed the origi nal factory test rms former in a 2400-volt motor con-
paratus but at a value below t hat alternating voltage. Table III gives trol center. The ampere rating of
which would be harmful to insula- values suggested for periodic de the protective fuses was too high,
99
 Table I-Test Voltages for Switchgear allowing t he tl'ansformer to over-
heat and ignite the encapsulating
compound. This gave olf heavy cal'-
Standard 60·Cycle Suggested Periodic
Roted Operating fodory Dieledric Test Ma intenance Proof Test
bonized s moke which caused a
Voltage• in Kv (ASA·C37.20) Kv flashovc1· in the bus structure. The
control center was fed from a cir-
AC DC cui t common to two loadcenter
transformers. This required rather
2SO 1.5 1.12 1.6
high settings on the .definite time
480 2.0 1.5 2.1
600 2.2 1.65 2.3 3
overcurrent relays to enable the cir-
2400 15 11 15.5 cuit to carry the total load require-
4160 19 14 19.8 ments. The relays did not have
7200 26 19.5 27.5 instantaneous elements to immedi-
13800 36 27 38 ately see t he fault. The net result
was the destruction of the eight-
• The standard• for certain auxiliary apparatus, such as current and potential tronsformen, may unit motor control center, plus a
coll for a lower test voltage than 1uggested above. If 10, they should be diJConnected from the costly production interruption. In
tut circuit or the voltage limited to thot allowed for this opporot us. this instance, a lower rated fuse in
the potential transforme.r circuit
would have prevented the initial
trouble. However, proper protection
Table II- Test Voltages for Ozone-Resistant Rubbe r-Insulated Cable in the feeder circuit would have
saved t he destruction of the motor
Insulation DC field Test Voltage, Kv
control center.
Voltag e Condudor Size Wall Thltkneu Acceptance Test Periodic A rather extensive engineering
Roling AWG or MCM in Miis Before Ene rgizing Proof Tests study is required to properly ana-
lyze the protective aspects of a
600 1- 4/ 0 78 18 13.5 plant's electrical distribution sys-
225- 500 94 20.5 15.5 tem. The subsequent phase of ap-
525- 1000 109 24 18
over 1000 125 27.5 20.5
plying the proper settings and
testing the performance of each
sooo 8- 4/ 0 1S6 33.5 25 protective d..vice is another time-
225-1000 172 37 28 consu ming operation. This is a com-
over 1000 188 40.5 30 bination service badly needed by
47.7
industry which only a few short
15,000 2- 1000 297 63 .5
over 1000 312 67.2 50.4 years ago was not readily available.
This motivated our company to es-
tablish a separate activity, which
offers lo industry a specialized form
of accident-prevention engineering,
inspection and testing service for a
Table Ill- Suggested Values for Pe riodic DC Proof Tests of Power and
nominal fee. One facet is that of
Distribution Transformers
making coordination studies of dis-
tribution systems and the setting
Nominal Syste m Insulation •Dc Test Voltag e in Kv and testing of protective devices.
Voltag e In Kv Cla n Kv Oii-immersed Dry-Type In addition, service organizations
offer relay testing and testing of
1.2 1.2 10 4
2.4 2.S 15 10 series lrip devices of low-voltage
4.8 5.0 19 12 circuil breakers. They have pur-
8.32 8.7 26 19 chased the necessary test equip-
14.4 15 34 31 ment. trained technicians and are
34.5 34.S 70 eager to offer this testing service
as part of a contract maintenance
• Somo values as factory oc test. operation.
Before embarking on a testing
projccl, a coordination study shou ld
be made of the system. This in-
volves a study of the rating and
loading on the· components an·d cal-
culating the available fault current
contribution from each source.
Then, dul"ing testing, necessary ad-
justments can be made on protec-
tive equipment to fit their perform-
ance inlo the coordination study.
Based on a paper pre.s ented at the
1965 Plant Engineering & Mainte-
nance Con/ erence, Detroit, Mich.

100
 DATA SHEET

Power transformer
preventive maintenance
A handy guide to inspection, testing and 11iaintenance of ?nodeni powe1·
transformers presented in capsule fonn for easy ?'eference.

ROUTINE INSPECTION SCHEDULE CRITICAL MAINTENANCE INSPECT! ON SCHEDULE

ITEMS TO INSPECT RECOMMENDED SCHEUDLE ITEMS TO INSPECT SC HED ULE

I I l ood Current- (Amperesl. . . . . . . . . Hourly or uso Recording lnstrumon l 1) Tonk, Fittings, and Gaskets f or leaks,
21 Voltoge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hourly or use Recording Instrument Rusi, e tc.. . . . • . . . . . • . . • . . . • • . . . . . . . Seml·Annuolly
31 Ambient Tempero lure .•..•••..... Hourly or use Recording ln1lrumenl 2) Pressure Relief Devices.. .. . • • • . . . . . . . Q uarte rly
41 W inding Temperature . . • • • . • • • . . . Hourly or u•e Recording ln1trument 3) Bushings.. . . . . . . . . . . . • . • • . • • • . . . • . . Semi·Annuolly
5) liq uid Temperature . . . . . • . . . . . . . . Hourly or u1e Recording Instrument ~) lightning Arresters . . • . • • • • . • . . • • . . • . Seml·Annuolly
6) Gos Pressure (Tonk) ....•...•.•.. Hourly or use Recording Instrument 5) Top Changers ....... ....• , . • . . . . . . . Semi·Annuolly
7) liquid level ...•................ Doily 6) Control Equipment, Relays and Circuits . . Monthly
8) Aulomatic-G o •·Sool Equipmon t 7 ) Ground Connections . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . Semi-Annually
o) Transformer Gas Pressure Gouge Dolly 8) Protective Alo rm• . . • . . . . • • • • . . • . . . . • Monthly
b) Gos Cylinder Content . . • . . . • . . Dolly 9) Gos Analysis ..... ............... ... Annually
cl low Pressure Alarm Circuit .. . • . . Quarte rly 10) Pre ssure Test of Cooling Coils or Exte mol
d) External Gos Equipment and Hea l Exchanger. • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • Annually
Hard ware ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Semi-Annually
9) Wate r Coolfng Equipm ent
o) Wate r Temp e rature In and Out W eekly
bl Water Flow Rote ..•.• •. : ..... Semi-Annually
cl Wate r Pumps ...... ... ....... Monthly
d) Oil Circulating Pumps.... . • . • . . Monthly
101 Cooling Equipme nt
al Fon1- Blodes and motors for oc·
cumulation of dirt . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Monthly
d) Fon Beorings -lubrlcolion ..•... Eve ry (2) years or o fter 6000 hours of
opera tion - whicheve r comes first
cl Heat Exchonger- (Rodlo tor Coro) Annually
11) Dry·Typ e Tron1form e rs (Forced Air
Coole d)
o l Air Tempera ture In and Out . . . . Hourly

Oi l TE ST DATA MAINTENANCE TEST SCHEDULE

TEST LIMITS FOR MINERAL TYPE Oil MAINTENANCE TEST SCHEDULE

I) Insulating liquid
SHOULD BE DISCARD
al Dielectric Strength .•.•• .••• .• • . ••.... Annually
TEST SATISFACTORY FILTERED ANO REPLACE
b) Neutralization Number .••• • .••..•. ... Annually
Dielectric Strength cl Color ...........• ...• .••••••• • .•. . Annually
(ASTM 0-8991 . ....•.••.• 23 KV Le u than 22 KV 2) lnsulotion Resistance .. .•.••. •••.•• . ...•. Annually
Neutralization N umber .•••.. 0.4 Mor<. 0.4 to 1.0 Grea ter than 3) Polarization Ind e r< .. ...••••• .• • .. •• •• . •• Annoully
1.0 4) Powe r Factor .... ....•• • .••.. •••••••• •. Annually
Color ....... ......... .•.• 3 \/1 Mor<. Above 3\/2 5) AC Hi-Pot ...... .... .• • •••••••. ••••• •. (5) Yea rs
6) Induced Voltage Test •• • ••• • •••••• • •••• • (SI Years

TEST LIMITS FOR ASKAREL TYPE LIQUIDS

SHOULD BE DISCARD
TEST SATISFACTORY FILT ERED AND REPLACE
Oiolectrlc Strength
(ASTM [).899) .. . •..• . ••. 26 KV l ess than 25 KV
Neutralization Numb e r .••••• 0.05 Grea ter than O.OS
Color .• •••• • ••••••• • •• • • • 2.0 Above 2.0
Base d on p a per presente d at 1966 Pion! Engineering and Molntonance
Confe rence by J. E. Ritche y, Jr., Gene ral Electric Co., Schenectady, N. Y.

101
 SEM ICONDUCTORS con be tested with the multimeter using Anode
the ohms scale. The term inal marked "+" or "positive" on
most multimeters is generally ot o positive potential when the
instrument is used os on ohmmeter. This con be checked
with another meter. Silico n rectifier ce lls and silicon con-
trolled rectifiers should be tested ot roted voltoge and cur-
rent values to provide o positive operotionol check. The low
voltoge a nd current output o f the ohmmeter tests these
unit s in a region for be low their normal ope ra tion. Howeve r
Convenllonol
the tests illustrated o t right will reveal opens, shorts, e tc.
Stud mounting Symbol Curren t flow
Before testing, make certain that the current avai lable from
the ohmmeter (particularly on the lowest scales) will no t Silicon Rectifier Cell
exceed the curren t roting o f the component under test.
Test Procodure

Dotormine polority of ohmmeter leods. Conned the

positive lood of the ohmmeter olternately to the
onode ond cothode of the cell os shown. A shorted
coll wi ll indica te zero or equally low resisto ncos in
both directions; on open cell will hove infinite or high

Electrical resi stance in both d irections; and a good co ll will

hovo a reverse resisto nce considorobly greo tor thon
tho forward rosistonce. See diogrom below.

Testing With
Test for OHM
Portabie good silicon
rect ifie r
MTR

Indicating
+
Instruments o• •c
Test I
....-.
Conventionol current flow forward
resistance is lower

Here are practical hints on the use of portable indi- OHM

MTR
cating instruments when testing or troubleshoot-
ing electrical equipment. Techniques to use with
the rnultimeter and clamp-on volt-ammeter are de- Test 2
Reverse resistance 1s higher
scribed in detail.

(The o hmmeter should be used only to reveal open

BY JlOBER T J. LAW RIE or shorted co ils, or lo determin e polarity. For o
positive check, lest rectifiers ot roted voltage ond
curren t values.)

TESTING SILICON RECTIFIERS

ORTABLE indicating instru- ing techniqu e is not applied. trical department s hould have a full

P ments a re often taken fo r

granted. Plant electricians, when
assigned to PM testing or trouble-
As a result, inaccurate readings
are taken, PM records are incor-
rect, t roubleshooting diagnoses are
complement of modern portable in-
dicating instruments.
Although there is a great variety
shooting, often select the nearest or wrong or misleading, and valuable of portable test instruments, the
handiest instrument without regard time is lost. most common are the volt-ohm-
to its capabilities or limitations. To avoid these problems, the ammeter and the clamp-on volt-
Or, in some instances, the electrical plant electrician should know and a mmeter. Because these instru-
depa rtment does not have the apply modern test techniques and ments are both versatile and easy
proper instrument available. And have a good understanding of the to use, t hey have become essential
when us ing test instruments, characteristics of the basic test in- to effective troubles hooting and
proper care in the test or measur- struments. In addition, the elec- maintenance of industrial electrical

102
 Cathode b b b e
Gote Cathode

Gate

SCR

Anode
Common Transistor Pin Connections
Side View Schem'1.1C
Silicon Controlled Rectifierlstud type)

Tosi Proceduro
I. Determine the polarity of
the ohmmeter leads.

2. Connect the ohmmeter be-

tween the anode (a) and PNP Transistor NPN Tronmtor
cathode {c) as shown. The
resistance should exceed 1
Test is for PNP type germanium transistors. Reverse
megohm.
meter leads for NPN type germanium transistors.

3. Reverse the ohmmeter leads

as shown. Tho resistance 1. Determine the polarity of
should again exceed 1 meg- the ohmmeter leads.
ohm.
2. Put the ohmmeter between +Leod~Lead
the emitter (e) and the col-
4. With the ohmmeter leads
c - Lead
lector (c) as shown. Tho re- ! 8 !
connected as in Step 3, short
the gate (g) to the anode as
sistance read ing shou ld bo
between I 0 0 ohms and SOK ,~,
shown. Tho resistance ohms. {This read ing is not
should drop to loss than significant by itself.)
b
1000 ohms. +Leod~Leod
3. Leave the ohm meter con-
0 nected as in step 2, butshort +~ +
5. Leave ohmmeter leads connected. Set meter to a
low range. The resistance reading will stay low
the Base (b) to the collector
as shown. The value of the 'Ve
~hart
resistance sh"Ou Id become
ofter the jumper Is removed, indicating that the
Iess than ii was In Step 2.
gale is functioning properly. (However, In some
Instances, the lest circuit resi stance may be too +Leod~Leod
4. Again leav e the meter con·
high for a positive check of ga te operation. Then,
an external gate firing pulse will be required.)
nected as in Step 2, but this +~ +
lime, short the base lo the ewe
emitter as shown. The resist-

(The ohmmeter should be used only to reveal open

ance should become much
greater than in Step 2. Short~
o r shorted units and operation of gale. For a positive
check, test SCRs a l roted voltage and current values.)

TESTING SI LICO N CO NTROLLED RECTIFI ERS TESTIN G TRA N SISTO RS

systems. I n many plants, two or ment by providing a good indica- able fo1· some time; however recent
more of each of these instruments tion of the condition of electrical des igns offer more advantages at
with different ranges and capabili- insulation. Insulation - resistance lower costs. The motor overload
ties are on hand for different appli- testers should always be included in relay tester, a relatively inexpen-
cations and to meet the possibility the complement of portable test in- sive compact unit, provides a safe
of troubleshooting or testing in dif- struments. and simple means of testing motor
ferent locations at the same time. Two additional instruments, protective devices. As a result, mo-
Another instrument basic to good which only recently have gained tor failures due to faulty overload
electrical maintenance is the insula- widespread acceptance, are the re- relays can be minimized.
tion-resistance tester. This instru- cording meter and the motor over- In addition, there are many other
ment helps to detect, diagnose and load relay tester. Many types of indicating instruments which help
prevent troubles in electrical equip- recording meters have been avail- increase electrical troubleshooting
103
 and maintenance efficiency. These Volt -Ohm-Ammeter loads the circuit under test. How-
include relatively inexpensive but ever, most available multimeters in
very useful items-phase-sequence The volt- ohm - ammeter, often all three ratings provide readings
indicator, magnetic voltage indi- called a multimeter or VOM, is a accurate enough for general use in
cator, transistorized stethoscope, highly versatile test instrument industrial plants.
and tachometer. Other useful in- capable of measuring voltage, re- El ecfronic circuit testing - Be-
struments include ac and de volt- sistance and low values of de cur- cause many electronic circuits have
meters ; industrial analyzers; porta- rent. When us ing this instrument, a very high impedance, a multi-
ranges; wattmeters; power factor it is essential to know its character- meter having a sensitivity of 20,000
meters; industrial analyzers, porta- istics and limitations. ohms-per-volt should be used to ob-
ble capacitance and resistance Accuracy-Meter accuracy is de- tain accurate voltage readings.
bridges; oil dielectric test sets and termined by the amount of current Electronic testing with low-imped-
protective relay testers. required to drive the pointer or ance meters will not provide satis-
For electronic testing and trou- needle full scale-the smaller the factory results. If, for example, a
bleshooting, portable high-imped- current, the more accurate and sen- 5000-ohms-per-volt meter is used, it
ance meters (20,000 ohms per volt), sitive the meter. Another way of will draw a portion of the current
vacuum-tube voltmeters, oscillo- expressing meter sensitivity (which from the circuit or component un-
scopes, signal tracers, tube and determines accuracy) is in ohms- der test. Because the current
transistor checkers, and oscillo- per-volt. This indicates the imped- through the test circuit is lowered,
graphic recorders are popular in- ance the meter presents to the cir- it follows that the IR drop of the
struments utilized. cuit when used as a voltmeter. Most test circuit is also lowered, which
To complete the complement of multimeters are rated 1000, 5000 or res ults in inaccurate voltage read-
portable indicating instruments, 20,000 ohms-per-volt. Meters hav- ings. If a high-impedance meter is
many special types of test equip- ing a sensitivity of 20,000 ohms- not available, the accuracy of a 1000
ment are available for specific ap- per-volt have higher accuracy be- or 5000-ohms-per-volt meter can be
plications. cause their higher impedance least improved by using the highest prac-
tical scale during the test. This
provides additional impedance in
the meter circuit, decreasing the
loading effect the meter has on the
CLAMP-ON RANGE EXTEND ER permits
measurement of high currents beyond the test circuit.
Cf:~·:e
range of the clomp·on volt-ammeter. Unit Using the mtdtimeter - When
'~' 11t1t141r
shown extends current range ten t imes- using the multimeter always con-
ollows actual current reading of I 000 sider your personal safety first.
amps oc on 0-100-omp meter scole. Know the voltage levels and shock
hazards related to all equipment to
be tested. Be sure your meter has
been tested and calibrated (port-
able test instruments should be in-
spected and calibrated at least once
a year).
Never try to take voltage read-
ings on distribution circuits rated
CUR RENT MULTIPLIER permits current over 600 volts. Measurement of
measurement on low-current equipment. high voltages is accomplished by
Device multiplies load current IX, 5X, or permanently installed instrument
I OX. Diagram A shows connections for transformers and meters. To ob-
measuring current on permanently wired tain indication of high voltage, a
motor. For this connection, shorting cop
must be attached to device. In B, line cur-
high-voltage neon indicator may be
rent of plug-connected motor is easily used.
measured using the current multiplier. When making measurements, be
sure that the meter selector and
range switches are in the correct
position for the circuit to be tested.
To prevent damage to the needle,
always use a range that insures
less than full scale deflection of the
needle. Also, a ~ to mid-scale de-
PH ASE SEQUENCE INDICATING AT-
flection of needle provides the most
TAC HMENT is used in conjunction with accurate readings.
the voltmeter circuit of the clomp-on volt- If possible when making meas-
ommeter. To determine phase sequence, urements, de-energize the circuit
the circuit voltage is first measured. Then, under test before attaching the me-
Phase sequence adopter connections ore mode os shown in the dia - ter leads to the desired test point.a.
gram. If the meter reading is higher than
Voltage leads the origi nal circuit voltage, the phase
Then, energize the circuit to take
sequence is block-yellow-red. If the meter the readings. To disconnect the
reading is below original circuit voltage, meter, again de-energize the cir-
3 phase line the phase sequence is red-yellow-block. cuit.

104
CURRENT MEASUREMENT wi th o MOTOR OVERLOAD RELAY TESTER RECORDING AMMETER monitors motor
clomp-on volt-ammeter requires core provides o safe and efficient means of running current at motor controller. In.
when toking readings. Stroy magnetic testing thermal and magnetic motor termittent overcu rrent prompted use of
fields from relay magnet coils or trans- overload relays and small circuit break- recorder to determine source of trouble.
formers con cause erroneous readings. ers. This relatively inexpensive instru- Recording meters which provide con-
Frequency of test circuit must be within ment tests protective devices for proper tinuous records of voltage, wattage,
the calibrated frequency range of the operation ond time-delay tri p and allows power factor, or frequency, etc. ore val-
instrument. calibration adjustment. uable aids in troubleshooting.

Capacitors can be tested with a meter are described in an accom- Many of these instruments are cali-
multimeter using the ohms scale. panying illustration. The ohm- brated at 60 cycles.
Set the . meter selector switch on meter is also useful for circuit trac- Also, take care that stray mag-
ohms and the resistance range se- ing in de-energized control circuits, netic field s do not affect the cur-
lector on R x 10,000. Lift one ca- and to take resistance readings of rent reading. When taking current
pacitor lead from the circuit, and circuit components. These resist- readings, try to arrange conductors
short capacitor terminals for one to ance readings can later be used for so that they are as far removed as
two minutes to drain off any re- comparison during troubleshooting. possible from the conductor under
maining voltage charge. This not Many multimeters are equipped test. If testing is being done in a
only eliminates the shock hazard with a de current scale for reading control panel, try to take the current
but also prevents damage to the low values of direct current. Usu- readings at a location remote from
ohmmeter from excessive voltage. ally, the current range has a max- relay magnet coils which could in-
When the meter test leads are imum of 500 milliamperes. This fluence the accuracy of the reading.
touched to the capacitor terminals, function is useful when testing or Also, avoid taking current readings
a shorted capacitor will cause a troubleshooting electronic equip-
large deflection of the needle. A on conductors at a point close to a
ment. For higher current readings, transformer.
capacitor with a high leakage will
the clamp-on volt-ammeter provides If current readings must be taken
cause a partial deflection of the
an easy means of measuring cur- on high-voltage conductors, always
pointer. rent.
Capacitors of 0.05 mfd and use a hot-line e.id:ension pole spe-
smaller should have a resistance cifically designed for use with the
Clamp-On Volt-Ammeter clamp-on volt-ammeter.
not less than 10 megohms. Large
capacitors (1 mfd and larger) To read currents higher than the
should have a resistance of at least Most clamp-on volt-ammeters arc highest current range of the clamp-
1 megohm. Usually, a capacitor is designed to read alternating cur- on volt-ammeter, an accessory
good if the needle swings up scale rent only, although some types are clamp-on current transformer can
and then back again when the meter available which will read direct cur- be used. This device extends the
leads are touched to the terminals. rent as well. Also, most are pro- instrument cunent reading capa-
Electrolytic capacitors are more vided with plug-in leads so that the bilities. As an example, one type
difficult to check because they have instruments can be used as a volt- provides a 10-to-1 current division
low leakage resistance. If you can meter. Some models can also be -an actual current flow of 1000
obtain a reading of at least 100,000 used as an ohmmeter. amps will indicate 100 amps on the
ohms, the electrolytic capacitor is Using the clamp-on volt-ammete1· clamp-on volt-ammeter. Then the
usually good. The best check for an - Although the clamp-on volt-am- known multiplication factor of 10
electrolytic capacitor in the absence meter is easy to use, care must be is applied resulting in a reading
of a capacitance bridge is by direct taken to obtain accurate readings. of 10 x 100 amps = 1000 amps.
substitution of a good capacitor. For example, be sure that the fre- For measuring very low currents,
Simple tests for solid-state recti- quency of the circuit under test is similar current-transformer acces-
fiers and transistors using the ohm- within the range of the instrument. sories are used.

105
 DATA SHEET
Know Bearing Types Each bearing type has characteristics which
make it the best choice for a certain applica-
tion. Replacement should be made with the
And Functions for same type bearing. The following list of fun c-
tions provide a basic understanding of bear-
ing application, a guide to analysis of bearing

Proper Replacement troubles due to misapplication. and emphasize

the importance of proper replacement.

SELF-ALIGNING BALL BEAR INGS SPHERICAL·ROLLER BEARINGS

The self-aligning boll bearing, with two The spherical-roller bearing, due to the
rows of bolls rolling on the spherical sur- number, size and shape of the rollers, and
face of the outer ring, compensotes for the accuracy with which they ore guided,
ongulor misalignment resulting from errors hos maximum capacity. Since the bearing
in mounting, shaft deflection and distor- is inherently self-aligning, angular mis-
tion of the foundation. It is impossible for alignment between the shaft and housing
this bearing to exert any bending influ- hos no detrimental effect, and the full
ence on the shaft, o most importont capacity is always available for useful
consideration in opplicotions requiring work. The design and proportion · ore such
extreme occurocy, at high speeds. Self- that, in addition to radial load, thrust
oligning boll bearings are used for radia l loads may be carried in either direction.
loods and moderate thrust loads in either
direction. CYLINDRICAL-ROLLER BEARINGS
The cylindrical-roller bearing hos high
SINGLE-ROW, DEEP-GROOVE radial capacity and provides accurate
BALL BEARINGS guiding of the rollers, resulting in a close
The single-row, deep-groove boll bearing approach to true rolling. Consequent low
will sustain, in addition to radial load, o friction permits operation at high speed.
substantial thrust load in either direction, Those types which hove flanges on one
even at very high speeds. This advantage ring only, allow o limited free axial move·
results from the intimate contact existing ment of the shaft in relation to the hous-
between the balls and the deep, continu- ing. They ore easy to dismount even when
ous groove in each ring. When using this both rings ore mounted with a tight fit.
type of bearing, careful alignment be- The double-row type is particularly suit-
tween the shaft and housing is essential. able for machine-tool spindles.
This bearing is also available with seals
and shields, which serve ta exclude dirt BAll·THRUST BEARINGS
and retain lubricant. The boll-thrust bearing is designed for
thrust load in one direction only. The load
ANGULAR-CONTACT BALL BEARINGS line through the bolls in parallel to the
The angular-contact boll bearing supports axis of the shaft, resulting in high thrust
a heavy thrust load in one direction, some- capacity and minimum axial deflection.
times combined with a moderate radial Flot seats ore preferred for heavy loads or
load. A steep contact angle, assuring the for close ax ial positioning of the shaft.
highest thrust capacity and axial rigidity,
SPHERICAL-ROLLER THRUST BEARINGS
is obtained by o high th.rust-supporting
shoulder on the inner ring and o similar The spherical-roller thrust bearing is de-
high shoulder an the opposite side of the signed to carry heavy thrust loads, or
outer ring. These bearings can be mounted combined loads which ore predominantly
singly or, when the sides are flush ground, thrust. This bearing hos o single row of
in tandem for constant thrust in one direc- rollers which roll on a spherical outer race
tion; mounted in pairs, also when sides with full self-alignment. The cage, cen-
are flush ground, for a combined load, tered by on inner ring sleeve, is con·
either face-to-face or back-to-bock. structed so that lubricant is pumped di-
rectly against the inner ring's unusually
DOUBLE -ROW, DEEP-GROOVE high guide flange. This bearing operates
BALL BEARINGS best with relatively heavy-oil lubrication.
The double-row, deep-groove boll bearing
TAPERED-ROLLER BEARINGS
embodies the same principle of design as
the single row bearing. However, this Since the oxes of its rollers and raceways
bearing has a lower axial disp lacement form on angle with the shaft axis, the
than occurs in the single-row design, sub- tapered-roller bearing is especially suite·
stantial thrust capacity in either direc- ble for carrying radial and axial loads act-
tion, and high radial capacity due to the ing simultaneously. A bearing of this type
two rows of bolls. usually must be adjusted toward another
bearing capable of carrying thrust loads
in the opposite direction. Tapered roller
bearings ore separable-their cones (in ner
rings) with rollers and their cups (ou ter
Doto Sheet compiled by SKF Industries, Inc., Philadelphia, Po. rings) ore mounted separately.

106
DATA SHEET

Do's and Don'ts for Ball-Bearing

Assembly, Maintenance,
Inspection and Lubrication
DO DON'T
DO work with clean tools, in clean surroundings. DON'T work under the handicap of poor tools, rough
bench, or dirty surroundings.

DO remove oil outside dirt from housing before exposing DON'T use dirty, brittle or chipped tools.
bearing.

DO treat o used bearing as carefully as o new one. DON'T handle bearings with dirty, moist hands.

DO use clean solvents and flushing oils. DON'T spin uncleaned bearing.

DO lay b earings out on clean paper. DON'T spin any bearings with compressed air.

DO protect disassembled bearings from dirt and DON'T use same container for cleaning and final rinse
moisture. of bearings.

DO use clean, lint-free rags to wipe bearings. DON'T scratch or nick bearing surfaces.

DO kee p bearings wrapped in oil-proof paper when not DON'T remove grease or oil from new bearings.
in use.

DO clean outside of housing before replacing bearings. DON'T use incorrect kind or amount of lubricant.

DO keep bearing lubrica nts clean when applying and DON'T use o bearing as a gauge to check either the
cover containers when not in use. housing bore or the shaft fit.

DO be sure shaft size is within specified tolerances DON'T install o bearing on a shaft that shows excessive
recommended for the bearing. wear.

DO store bearings in original unopened cartons in o DON'T open carton until bearing is ready for installation.
dry place.

DO use o clean, short-b ristle brush with firmly embedded DON'T judge the condition of o bearing until ofter it hos
bristles lo remove dirt, scale or chips. been cleaned.

DO be certain that, when installed, the bearing is square DON'T pound directly on o bearing or ring, when in-
with and held firmly against the shaft shoulder. stalling, as this may cause damage to shaft and bearing.

DO follow lubricating instructions supplied with the DON'T overfill when lubricating. Excess grease and oil
machinery. Use only grease where grease is specified; will ooze out of the overfilled housings post seals and
use only .oil where oil is specified. Be sure to use the closures, collect dirt and cause trouble. Too much lubri-
exact kind of lubricant called for. cant will also cause overheating, particularly whe re
bearings operate at high speeds.

DO ha ndle grease with clean paddles or crease nuns. DON'T permit any machine to stand inoperative for
Store grease in clean containers. Keep grease conrorners months without turning it ove r periodically. This prevents
covered. moisture which may condense in o standing bearing from
causing corrosion.

Compilod bv SKF Industries, Inc., Philad e lphia, Po.

107
DATA SHEET

Pump motor troubleshooting chart

This troubleshooting and repair guide aids swift location
of elect?·ical troubles in modern pump installations.

Symptom Probable Cause Remedy

Motor fails to start Loss of supply voltage Check voltage across all phases above disconnect switch.

Blown or defective line fuses; Check voltage below fuses (all phases) with disconnect
tripped line circuit breaker closed.

Overload t rips are open Push reset button.

Defective holding coil in mag- Push start button and allow sufficient time for operation of
netic switch time delay, if used, then check voltage across magnetic
holding coil. If correct voltage is measured, coil is defective.
If no voltage is measured, control circuit is open.

Loose or poor connections in Make visual inspection of all connections in control circ uit,
control circuit or make spot circuit checks.

Poor contact Open manual disconnect switch, close magnetic switch bl{
hand and examine contactors and springs.

Open line circuit in control Check voltage at Tl·T2-T3; check magnetic contactor.
panel

Open circuit in leads to motor Check voltage at leads.

Leads improperly connected Check lead numbers and connections.

Motor fails to come up to speed Low or incorrect voltage Check voltage at Tl, T2 and T3 in control panel and at
motor leads.

Incorrect connection at motor Check for proper lead connections at motor, compare with
connection diagram on motor.

Overload mechanical Check impeller setting. Check for a locked or tight shaft.

Overload hydraulic Check impeller setting. Check GPM against pump capacity
and head.
Motor runs hot Inadequate ventilation Assure adequate supply of fresh air. Check ai r bl~st
through motor by feeling air discharge at bottom of motor.

Overload Check load with ammeter

Unbalanced supply voltage Check supply voltage phases with voltmeter.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Motor vibrates Headshaft misaligned Removed top drive coupling and check alignment of motor
to pump.

Worn lineshaft bearings or bent Disconnect motor from pump and run motor only to deter·
lineshaft m ine source of vibration

Hydraulic disturbance in dis· Check isolation joint in discharge piping near pump liead
charge piping
~~~~~~~~~~~~~- -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- -~~~~~~

Motor noisy Worn thrust bearing Remove dust cover. rotate rotor by hand and make visual
examination of balls and races. (Bearing noise is usually
accompanied by a high frequency vibration.)

Electrical noise Most motors are electrically noisy during the starting period.
This noise should diminish as motor reaches full speed.

Source: U. S. Electrical Motors. Div. of Emerson Electric, St. Louis

108
DATA SHEET

Selecting capacitors for PF correction

at motor terminals
Handy tables determine amount of corrective kvar 'required
where capacitors are individually connected at motor loads.

Individual capacitor installat ion

Generally, the most effective method of power factor correction is installa-
tion of capacitors at the source of poor power factor- the induction
motor. This not only increases power factor but also releases system
capacity, improves voltage stability and reduces power losses.

Table I-Suggested maximum capacitor rating when motor and capacitor are switched as a unit.
CFor 3·phase, 60·cycle NEMA Class B motors to raise full·load power factor to 95%)

Nominal Motor Speed i n RPM

3600 1800 1200 900 720 600

lnduc-
tlon Line
I Line
I Line Line
I Line
I Line
Motor Capaci- Current Cap aci- Current Capaci- Current Capacl- Current Capaci- Current Capati· Current
Horse· tor Redue- tor Reduc- tor Reduc· tor Ro due· tor Reduc- tor Re due·
Power Rating ti on Rating ti on Rating ti on Rating tlon Rating ti on Rating tlon
Rating KVAR % KVAR % KVAR % KVAR % KVAR % KVAR %
3 1.5 14 1.5 15 1.5 20 2 27 2.5 35 3.5 41
5 2 12 2 13 2 17 3 25 4 32 4.5 37
7 1/2 2.5 11 2.5 12 3 15 4 22 5.5 30 6 34
10 3 10 3 11 3.5 14 5 21 6.5 27 7.5 31
15 4 9 4 10 5 13 6.5 18 8 23 9.5 27
20 5 9 5 10 6.5 12 7.5 16 9 21 12 25
25 6 9 6 10 7.5 11 9 15 11 20 14 23
30 7 8 7 9 9 11 10 14 12 18 16 22
40 9 8 9 9 11 10 12 13 15 16 2o 20
50 12 8 11 9 13 10 15 12 19 15 24 19
60 14 8 14 8 15 10 18 11 22 15 27 19
75 17 8 16 8 18 10 21 10 26 14 32.5 18
100 22 8 21 8 25 9 27 10 32.5 13 40 17
125 27 8 26 8 30 9 32.5 10 40 13 47.5 16
150 32.5 8 30 8 35 9 37.5 10 47.5 12 52.5 15
200 40 8 37.5 8 42.5 9 47.5 10 60 12 65 14
250 50 8 45 7 52.5 8 57.5 9 70 11 77.5 13
30d 57.5 8 52.5 7 60 8 65 9 80 11 87.5 12
350 65 8 60 7 67.5 8 75 9 87.5 10 95 11
400 70 8 65 6 75 8 85 9 95 10 105 11
450 75 8 67.5 6 80 8 92.5 9 100 9 110 li
500 77.5 8 72.5 6 82.5 8 97.5 9 107.5 9 115 10

Source: Sprague Electric Co.

109
 in the practical application range of
static power-control devices. In the
lower voltage and current range-
Power control with up to approximately 50 amps at 200
volts-transistors serve effectively
as power control devices; the SCR
Silicon performs well at all voltages up to
about 800 volts, at currents up to
an approximate average of 300

Controlled amps; for very high voltages ( up to

11,000 volts) and high currents,
ignitrons are most su itable as
s hown in the graph in Fig. 1.
Rectifiers Operation

Fig. 2 presents a physical analogy

This tiny but powerful semiconductor device opens up a which illustrates the basic operat-
ing principle of the s ilicon con-
completely new concept of ultra-high-speed power con- trolled rectifier.
trol. And in hundreds of different applications, it is In Fig. 2c, if a current of suffi-
cient mag nitude is applied to the
replacing thyratrons, relays, contactors, timers, vacuu;n gat.e (latch) , the SCR will trigger
or start to conduct. This allows
tubes, magnetic amplifiers and many other basic devices. flow of forward current, which is
limi ted only by the external cir-
cuitry. This action is accomplished
BY JO HN C. HEY, Application Engineering Center, in about one microsecond. Remov-
R ectifier Components Dept., General Electric Co., Auburn, N. Y. ing the gate signal will not take the
device out of t he conducting state.
To "turn off" t he device, the flow of

T
HE silicon controlled rectifier The SCR's rapid climb (it was forward current must be inter-
(SCR) is a static switch, a rec- introduced in 1957) to nearly uni- rupted by removing t he SCR anode
tifier and an amplifier capable of versal use can be attributed to its voltage, or reversed by placing a
contr olling large blocks of power. many desirable characteristics. For negative voltage on the anode using
As an amplifier, it will switch or example, it can operate at high volt- appropriate circuitry (this method
conduct heavy currents when com- ages and can conduct high currents; is explained later on in the discus-
manded by very low-level signals. it can switch at high-speeds ( mil- sion of a de to ac inverter) .
As a rectifier, it conducts currents liont h of a second) but has no When the SCR anode is re-
in only one direction-a definite ad- moving parts; it is small in size a nd verse biased (forward current re-
vantage in de control circuits. And light in weight; it requires very versed), the SCR regains its block-
as a solid-state switch, the SCR can little drive (control) current ; and ing state in about 25 to 50 micro-
be turned on in one to four micro- it has no inherent wear-out mech- seconds. If the anode current is just
seconds, off in 25 to 50 microsec- a nisms, thus providing for little interrupted without placing t he
onds, while conducting currents up maintenance and long life. negative voltage on the anode, turn-
to 470 amps. In addition, the SCR fills a gap off time may be as high as 100 mi-
croseconds.

Ratings and Characterist ics

Thyrotrons ::
,...
t ond ,...
ignitrons
Silicon controlled rectifiers are
classified according to their capabil-
"'
cu
L
'Silicon ity to carry forward current and
~ 100 controlled their range of blocking voltage. Also
rectifier
E
..3
....c: . Transistors significant are peak reverse voltage
(PRV) ratings, wh ich indicate
QJ
L
L
maximum voltage level allowable in
..,:::> - the reverse direction; and peak non-
"'g 10
r ecurrent s urge current ratings,
L
cu which specify the SCR's instantane-
:>
<t ous overcurrent capacity. An ac-
companying photo shows relative
s izes of typical silicon controlled
rec t i fie rs.
1.0 In application, SCRs with rat-
1.0 10 100 1000 10,000 ings somewhat in excess of the de-
Anode vo ltage (volts) -
s ign requirements are employed.
FIG. 1 -Ronge of capabilities of power control devices. However, the maximum continuous

110
 Anode
For word
current
II1I
Forward Gate
- L •
voltage, (V1) ~ Gate
voltoge
_L_ \ ~
Cathode._ .)
Gate current (I 9 )

FIG. 2-Hydroulic analogy to SCR operation. In o, the barrier block. When· the amount of liquid exceeds the critical height
blocks forward flow of liquid and th e system is in a state of h, the latch con no longer hold and the barrier opens. Thus,
quiescence (blocking stotel. If a small force is applied to the it is apparent that when the blocked energy reaches a certain
lotch the barrier slams open, and the energy of the system critical magnitude, it hos the some effect on the latch os
is released !liquid flows) as shown in b. Flow of energy cannot the external triggering force.
be stopped by releasing the force applied to the lotch. Thus, In c, if a current of sufficient magnitude is applied to the
full control of the system cannot be obtained at the latch; gate (latch), the SCR will trigger or start to conduct. This al -
the system can only be tu rned "on" ot this control po in t. To lows flow of forwa rd current, wh ich is limited only by the exter-
close the barrier, the flow of curren t must be interrupted or nal circuitry. Removing the gate signal will not toke the device
the flow must be reversed. out of the conducting state. To "turn-off" the de vice, the flow
Also significant is the amount of fluid that the barrie r con of forward current must be in terrupted or reversed.

current rating defines the maximum voltage delivered by a val'iable

operating temperature of the device. transformer. However, the method
Therefore, its current rating should of obtain ing the variance is entirely
never be exceeded and proper cool- different. Fig. 3 shows this differ-
ing should always be maintained . ence in waveform for the same ef-
Simple thermal overload devices fective (RMS) load voltage.
provide adequate protection during By varying the retard (or firing)
moderate overloads, but special angle, Ct, and allowing the SCR (s)
means such as quick-blow fuses are
required for protection against high
overloads.
To provide overvoltag.~ protec-
tion, standard approaches employ-
ing devices such as surge voltage
to conduct for only a port ion of the
half cycle (this portion being the
conduction angle /3), the voltage to
the load is varied. During the t ime
a all t he voltage is on the SCR
(blocking voltage) and during t he
rf 7omp5
400 volts

'
s uppressors, RC networks and non- time f3 essentially all the voltage is

•
linear resistors are often used. on the load. This means that the
Voltage transients are another rms output voltage is directly re-
possible source of trouble. These lated to the amount of time per half
transients could cause the SCR to cycle that the SCR conducts. As a 35omps
turn "on" without a gate signal. result, the output voltage can be 800 volts
When this trouble occurs, the addi- accurately controlled by varying
tion of capacitor circuits will usu- conduction time of the SCR.
ally eliminate the problem, but this Note that it is the fast switching
adds complexity. The best solution ability of the SCR that has made
is to eliminate the source of the phase-control applications so prac-
transient voltage or isolate the SCR tical. Because it is capable of 235 amps llOamps l.6amps
from the transient; or employ an switching within microseconds, the 600volts 400 volts 400 volts
SCR with sufficient transient capa- SCR can be made to "fire" or con-
bility. duct at any point in the positive SMALL IN SIZE, light in weight, silicon
half cycle. con tro lled rectifiers hove hig h current
Motor s peed control - F ig. 4 ond voltage copobilities.
Phase-Control Applications
shows a simple SCR phase-control
A significant portion of SCR ap- application for speed control of a ture (due to residual field) to initi-
plications are built arou·nd I.he prin- universal motor. The circuit not ate the feedback phenomena. Note
ciple of phase control. By phase only provides stable speed control that rewiring is not required.
controlling a voltage to a load, the over approximately a 3-1 range but During the positive half cycle of
effective voltage delivered is varied a lso has a feedback provision, which the supply voltage, the arm on po-
from zero to full voltage. The effect maintains constant speed regardless tentiometer R2 taps off a fraction
of a phase-controlled voltage on a of torque requirements. The circuit of t he sine-wave supply voltage
load is similar to that of a variable uses the counter emf of the arma- through Rl and compares it with

111
 SCR earlier in t he cycle. Wit h the
E1ourc1 - - - - - ERMS SCR firing earlier, more power is
delivered to the heating elements,
and thus the temperature rises.
Conversely, as temperature rises,
the sensor causes the SCR to fire
later in the cycle; therefore, less
power is deliver ed to the heating
elements.
Thyratron replacement - The
silicon controlled rectifier is finding
I
I
application wher e previously the
I
- - - - ERMS magnetic amplifier and the thyra-
tron reigned supreme. Packaged
SCR circuitll for direct ( plug-in )
thyratron replacement are available
and provide significant advantages,
which include: 1) reliability-if
properly applied, t here is no failure
(a) Variable trans former control (bl Phase control mechanis m in the silicon controlled
FIG. 3- Phase control vori es the rms vol tage by ini t iat ing curren t flow
rectifier; 2) no filament or heater
a t specific times (firing angle) during the vo ltage sine wove. Although power, providing instantaneous op-
the theory of control is different, o variable tro nsformer provides the same eration and lower package tempera-
result In the control of voltoge. ture; 3) lower forward voltage drop
- this means higher efficiency and
Fuse cooler operation; and 4) rugged
package.
R2 SCR Lamp dimmer-Fig. 5 illustrates
Speed a basic circuit which provides step-
control Cl58
500ohms less control of a 10-kw incandescent
2 watts la mp load. The lighting level, which
is dependent on the voltage across
6RS20SP484 the lamps, can be varied from full
To Optional >+----i
117v OC voltoqe brightness to off. The lamps a re
GO cps transient controlled by adjusting the SCR fi r-
protection ing angle (point of conduction ) by
means of t he trigger circuit manual
control. Thus, voltage to the lamps
is varied thr ough phase control.
Receptacle Due to t he positive temperature
for coefficient of incandescent filament
motor plug
Universal motor lamps, t his type of circu it must
Approx. 2 amp handle very high inrush currents
Mox rotinq when starting cold lamps. To reduce
FIG. 4-SCR motor speed control uses phase-control principle for variable the inrush cu rrent to within the
speed regulation of o universal motor. Feature of control is Its small size, shor t-term rati ngs of the SCR's, a
which ls approximately 2-in. wide, 2-in. high and 4-in. long. current-limiting circuit is required.
This circuit senses high curr ents,
t he counter emf of the motor at t he preset speed. The particular speed phases back the SCR and reduces
gate of the SCR. When the "pot" at which the motor operates can be the output voltage.
(R2) voltage rises above the arma- selected by R2. A delay circuit provides addi-
ture counter emf, the current Rectifier CRl prevents excessive tional protection. If the circuit is
flows through CR! into t he gate of reverse voltage on the gate of the initially energized with full output
the SCR, triggering the SCR, and SCR. CR2 prevents the inductive called for, the delay circuit causes
t hus applying the remainder of that field current in the motor from the firing angle of the SCR's to re-
half cycle of supply voltage to the "free-wheeling" in the SCR gate tard full output over a period of
motor. If load is applied to the circuit. R3 is used to set the min- several cycles of line frequency.
motor, its speed tends to decrease, imum motor speed at a stable non- This decreases initial cunent in-
thus decreasing the counter emf in hunting level. R4 and Cl also im- rush.
proportion to speed. Because the prove stability by by-passing De to ac inverter- Another one
armature counter emf is decreased, commutator hash around the gate of of the rapidly expand ing applica-
t he sine wave "pot" voltage causes the SCR. tions for the SCR is the conversion
current to flow into the SCR gate Temperature controller circuit of de to ac. The SCR parallel in-
earlier in the cycle. As a result, the - A temperature sensor (usually a verter provides a practical method
SCR triggers earlier in the cycle thermistor or thermocouple) tracks of accomplishing this inversion.
and additional voltage is applied to the temperature to be controlled. Fig. 6 shows a basic circuit con-
the armature to compensate for the As temperature drops, t he sensor figuration .
increased load and to maintain t he causes the trigger circui t to fire the A trigger circu it applies a gate

11 2
117voc
60cps
Load
current
sensor

Manual control
Deloy
circuit

FIG. 5- 10-kw, SCR lomp dimmer circuit uses phoso-control FIG. 6-SCR inverter converts de to oc or functions os on oc
pri nciple to vory voltoge to lomps. Phose shift of the slg no l is to oc frequency chonger. Applicotions include use os fre-
controlled monuolly. Load-current sensi ng circuit o nd de loy quency chonger for high-frequency lighting, stond by power
circuit provide overcurrent protection. supplies ond induction hooters.

current alternately to the gates of ballast size and longer lamp life. At any of the beams, including loss of
SCRl and SGR2. When SCRl is present, operation at frequencies as line voltage or failure of a ny light
conducting and SCR2 is blocking, high as 10 kc is being considered. source, will activate the alarm or
t he current from supply E will then The parallel inverter is only one interlock.
flow through the left-hand s ide of of a number of basic types of SCR The SCR-controlled li ft truck and
the transformer. Auto t r ansformer inver ters. Inverter applications are other similar battery-powered ve-
action will produce a voltage of a p- many nnd varied and include such hicles are additional r ecent applica-
proximately 2E at the anode of things as standby power supplies, tions. SCR inverters and choppers
SCR2 and across capacitor C. When induction heaters, ultrasonic gen- allow stepless acceleration and op-
the next trigger pulse is applied to erators and sonar transmitters. eration at all speeds at full efficiency
the gate of SCR2, it will turn on, in terms of battery power consump-
and the top end of L will rise mo- N ew Devices tion. As an example, a typical bat-
mentarily to about 2E. This rever se tery-powered vehicle r ecently made
biases SCRl and causes it to turn Silicon controlled rectifiers with available is an SCR-controlled
off. Then, the next trigger pulse improved capabilities as well as new (chopper ) golf cart. This vehicle
will occur at the gate of SCRl and devices, which a re outgrowths of has an operating time of over 100
the circuit reverts to the original the ever-expanding SCR technology, holes and is equipped with a fully
state. In this manner, the cu r rent are appearing and broadening the automatic charger for overnight re-
from the supply E will flow alter- areas of application. The Gate charging.
nately through the two s ides of the Turn-Off SCR (GTO ) and the
transformer primary and produce Ligh t Activnted Switch (LAS) are
an ac voltage at the load. typical examples. The GTO is a
The output is essentially a square silicon controlled rectifier fabri -
wave at operating frequencies be- cated so t hnt it can be turned off by
low 3 kc. Also, by rectifying the a negative gate current. This is one
output voltage, the circuit makes an step closer to the continuous control
efficient de to de converter in appli- that is possible wit h a transistor,
cat ions such as power supplies for while r etaining the high power ca-
mobile transmitters. pability a nd switching character-
In addition, an ac input can be istics of the SCR. The LAS is a
rectified to provide the primary two-leaded, SCR-type device ( no
power for the inverter, in which gate lead), which is triggered into
case it then functions as a fre- conduction with light, both visible
quency changer. and infrared.
Frequency changers find an im- Application possibilities for the
portant application in the area of LAS include such things as safety
high-frequency lighting. As higher interlocks for machinery or for
frequency SCRs a r e developed, im- plant secul'ity a larm systems. Using FURN ACE TEM PERATURE is controlled
proved frequency changer s will be- str ategically located LAS's and by SCR circuitry. Control system offers
come available. These will power infrared light beams, the LAS high reliobility ond less mointenonce be-
high-frequency lighting systems cause the SCR, acting os o solid-stote
alarm system is foolproof provided switch, con "moke ond brcok" high-
providing increased lamp and bal- that the alarm circuitry is phys- current circuitry indefini tely with mini-
last efficiency as well as decreased ically isolated. Any interruption of mum ottention.

113
 15 ampere 20 ampere 30 ampere
Receptacle Plug cop Receptacle Plug cop Peceptocle Plug cop

~
Q)
'-
'j
I
125 v
~ C0
N 1·15R 1-15P

L:_
Q)

8 8 B CG @
a.
I
N
250V

2- 15P 2·20R 2·20P 2·30R 2-30P

~
O>

·-cc
"O
:::>
0
c...
O>
Q)
125 v

5-15R
@ @
5-15P 5-20R
@ @
5· 20P
'@ *@
wr
OG
0 c:i.Jw
5-30R 5-30 P
WG
I
'-

~ @ *@ * @
'j

--
I

@ @ @
r"l
Q)
250V CJ CJ

N
.
0
a.

6-15R 6-15P 6-20R 6·20P 6·30R 6·30P

~
277 V @) @ @) <{}) @ @
7·15R 7-15P 7-20R 7-20P 7-30R 7-30 P

~
Q)
'-

.
@ @ @
'j
ti')
Q)

0
a.
I
125/
250V
@
ti') I0-20R t0·20P 10-30R 10 -30P

~
3 cfi ti
250 V
*© *© '@ *© @ @ xc:=i

z~ /JY
11 · 15R 11·15 P ll-20R 11-20P II 30R l l -30P

O>
c
-0
c 125/
~ '@ ' @ ·~ '@ @ @
:::>
0 250V
'-
O>
Q) 14·15R 111-15P t4 -20R 14-20P 14·30R 14-30P

*@ *@
(..

~
@ *@ *@ --
*
'@
3:
..,,.
I
OG WG
-Q)
3 cfi ti
CJ
z9 x
CJ
x ~ z
.
0
a.
r()
250V

15-151l 15·15P 15-20R 15·20P 15·30R 15-30P

~ *
Q)
-
0
a.
I
<:J"..,,.
·-
Q)
c...
3:
I
HY
120/
208V
~ @
18·15R 18·15P
za

18·20R
aYI
=
y
ax
~
18-20P
*@ zO Ox
18-30R
Ov
[}:;
xi
18 ·30P
ly
lz

114
 50 ampere 60 ampere

Receptacle Plug cop Receptacle Plug cop

NEMA CONFIGURATIONS
FOR GENERAL-PURPOSE
NON LOCKING
RECEPTACLES
AND PLUG CAPS
On Moy 17 of this year, the Notional Electrical
*~ Manufacturers Association adopted a new set of

~
receptacle and plug-cop configurations for generol-
purpose, nonlocking devices. This significant develop-
ment is a major contribution to the field of electrical
5-50R 5-50P safety, and it hos been endorsed by various other
segments of the industry, such as Underwriters labo-
*~ *~ ratories', Inc., contractors, and key inspection organi-

e ~
6-50R 6-50P
zations.
Developed by the Wiring Device Section of NEMA,
the accompanying chart illustrates 75 various con-
figurations, which cover 38 voltage and current rat-
ings. The configurations represent existing devices

@@
7-50R 7-50P
as well as suggested standards (shown with on aster-
isk in the chart) for future design.
The work of the Wiring Device Section is of o con-
tinuing nature, and more configurations will be devel-
oped as the need arises. A parallel activity by the
Section concerns the development of standards for

@
10 -SOR 10-50P
locking-type receptacles and cops.
As indicated in the chart, unsafe interchangeability
hos been eliminated by assigning a unique configura-
tion to each voltage and current roting. All dual
ratings have been eliminated; and interchangeability
exists only where it does not present a hazardous
condition.
Each configuration is designated by a number com-
posed of the chart line number, the amperage, and
I I-SOR ll-50P
either "R" for receptacle or "P" for plug cop. For
example, a 5-l 5R is found in line 5, as a 15-omp re-
ceptacle.
Some of the configurations ore new and may not
yet be available. These ore identified in the chart by
on asterisk.
A clear distinction is mode in the configurations
Ill-SOR 14-50 P lll-60R 14-GOP between " System grounds" and " Equipment grounds."

*~ *@ *@ *@
System grounds, referred to as grounded conductors,
Oe We Oe we normally carry current at ground potential, and ter-
z
0
c::::J
c::::J
x xi --z z0 c::::J
c::::J x - _ lz
x
minals for such conductors are marked "W" for
y y y y "White" in the chart. Equipment grounds, referred to
os grounding conductors, carry current only during
15 -50R 15-50P 15-GOR 15-GOP ground-fault conditions, and terminals for such con-
ductors ore marked "G" for "Grounding" in the chart.
*
c::::J y
*~
xi :.z
-y
zO
Ow
Ox
c::::J y
Complete details on the configurations will be
found in NEMA Standards Publication, "General-Pur-
pose Wiring Devices, WD 1-1965."
18-SOR 18-50P 18 -GOR 18-60P

115
A handy checlclis6 on

Hazardous Location Equipment

Here's a practical, quick-reference checklist -0n the most used
National Electrical Code rules on electrical installations in Classes
I, II and III hazardous locations. Prepared by an engineer regu-
larly engaged in such work, the list provides a fast survey of rules
prior to design and a handy double-check for completed designs.

BY PAT D. MOURCES, Asst. to Director of Operations Service.~ Dept.

The Port of New York Authority, New York, N. Y.

ClaH I-Div. 1
A. Wiring Methods 3. Be protected from mechanical injury by guard
1. Only rigid conduit or Type MI cable with ap- or location.
proved termination fittings shall be installed. 4. Fixture intended for portable use to be clearly
2. Only explosion-proof boxes and fittings shall approved for that use.
be installed. F. Utilization Equipment, Fixed and Portable (in.
3. All threaded joints with at least five threads eluding electrically heated and motor-driven
fully engaged shall be provided. equipment)
4. Explosion-proof flexibl e fittings where re- 1. To be approved for Class I (explosion-proof)
quired for motors and for lighting pendant location.
fixtures requiring stems longer than 12 in. G. Flexible Cords
shall be insta lled. 1. To be used only between a portable lamp or a
B. Sealing-In each conduit run: portable appliance and the fixed portion of its
1. 18-in. or less from arc or high temperature supply voltage.
producing enclosures. a. No limitation as to length but cords may
2. Any conduit 2 in. or larger entering any en- not be cascaded to reach distant fixed r e-
closure or fitting for terminals, splices or taps. ceptacles.
3. Upon entering from a hazardous area to a less 2. Be approved for extra hard usage.
hazardous area. 3. Conta in a grounded conductor colored green.
C. Switches, Circuit Breakers, Motor Controllers 4. Have all terminals connected in an approved
and Fuses (Current-Break Devices ) manner.
1. To be housed in enclosure and approved as a 5. Be one continuous length without s plices or
complete assembly for Class I locations (ex- taps.
plosion-proof) . 6. Be s upported by clamps or other means to pre-
D. Motors and Generators vent tension on terminal conductors.
1. To be approved for Class I locations (explo- 7. To be provided with seals where cord enters
sion-proof) . boxes or fittings of explosion-proof type.
E. Lighting Fixtures H. Receptacles and Attachment Caps
1. Each fixture to be approved as a complete as- 1. To be of type providing for grounded conduc-
sembly for locations of this class. tor of flexible cord and approved for use in
2. Clearly marked with maximum lamp wattage. Class I (explosion-proof) location.
116
I. Grounding I. Grounding
1. All exposed metal parts to be effectively 1. Same as Class I (explosion-proof), Div. 1.
grounded. 2. Where general purpose enclosures have been
allowed (see C2 above) and s ingle-locknut or
double locknut-bushing termination has been
provided, a bonding jumper with proper fitting
or other approved bonding technique shall be
Cla ss I- Div. 2 installed to effectively continue electrical
A. Wiring Methods g round from the conduit system to the en-
1. Threaded rigid metal conduit or Type MI closure (Sec. 250-78).
cable with approved fittings.
2. Standard (non-explosion-proof) threaded-hub
conduit fittings and sheet-metal boxes are ac-
ceptable. . Class II- D iv. 1
3. Flexible metal fittings, flexible metal conduit
with approved fittings and extra-hard-usage A. Wiring :Methods
1. To be in rigid metal conduit or Type MI cable
flexible cord-where provision must be made with approved termination fi ttings.
for flexibility, as at motors. 2. Fittings and boxes shall be provided with
B. Sealing-In each conduit run: threaded hubs and close fitting covers and
1. 18 in. or less from any enclosure for arcing shall have no opening through which dust may
or high-temperature producing devices-when enter or through which burning material may
such enclosu res are required to be explosion- escape.
proof. 3. Fittings in which taps or joints are made or
C. Switches, Circuit Breakers, Motor Controllers those used in areas with electrically conduct-
and Fuses ing dusts shall be "Dust-Ignition-Proof" and
1. To be enclosed in Class I (explos ion-proof) approved for Class II Locations.
enclosures. 4. Flexible metal connections to be made with
2. In general-purpose enclosure providing: dust-tight flexible connectors, flexible meta l
a. The interrupt ion of current occurs within a conduit with approved fittings, or flexible
hermetically sealed chamber, or cord approved for extra hard usage and pro-
b. The current interrupt ion devices are oil- vided with bushed fitting. Where dust is elec-
immersed nnd the device is approved for trically conducting, flexible metal conduit
locations of this class and division, or shall not be used and cords must have dust
c. Not more than ten circuit breakers or ten seals at both ends.
sets of enclosed fuses-not intended to be B. Sealing
used as switches-are used for the protec- 1. Required in raceway between enclosure re-
tion of branch circuits or feeders supply- quired to be dust-ignit ion-proof and one which
ing lamps in fixed positions only. is not.
D. Motors and Generators a. By permanently sealing with a seal-off fit-
1. Any rotating equipment employing exposed ting in an approved manner or spacing be-
sliding, switching or resistance devices s hall t ween enclosures with conduit section at
be approved for Class I (explosion-proof). least 10 ft hotizontally or 5 ft vertically
2. General-purpose enclosures are suitable for extending downward from the dust-tight
squirrel-cage induct ion motors and not em- enclosure.
ploying arcing or resistive devices. C. Switches, Circuit Breakers, Motor Controllers
E. Lighting Fixtures an d Fuses
1. Be protected from mechanical injury by guard 1. To be housed in a dust-ignition-proof enclo-
or location. sure and approved for Class II location.
2. Have suitable enclosure or other protective D. Motors and Generators
means to prevent hot sparks from igniting lo- 1. To be: totally-enclosed, non-ventilated; to-
calized concent ration of flammable vapors. tally enclosed, pipe-ventilated; or totally-en-
3. Vaportight approved fixtures are, in general, closed, fan-cooled ; and s hall be approved as
suitable for this location. dust-ignition-proof for Class II location.
4. Portable lamps shall be approved as a com- E. Lighting F ixtures
plete assembly for Class I (explosion-proof) 1. Each fixture shalJ be dust-ignition-proof and
location. approved for Class II location.
F. Applian ces, F ixed and Portable 2. Clearly marked with maximum lamp wattage.
1. Heaters to be in enclosures approved for Class 3. Be protected from mechanical injury by guard
I (explosion-proof). or location.
2. Motor-driven applian ces to conform to Class 4. Pendant fixtures to conform to the following:
I, Div. 2 requirements for motors and gener- a. Be suspended with rigid conduit stems or
ators [501-8 (b)] . chains with approved fittings.
3. Starting switches, fuses and circuit breakers b. For rigid stems longer than 12 in. provide
to conform to Class I, Div. 2 requirements for location or a permanent brace for lateral
Switches, Circuit Breakers, Motor Controllers support not more than 12 in. from lower end
and Fuses. of stem.
G. Flexible Cords c. If distance between brace a nd fixture ex-
1. Same as Class I (explosion-proof) . ceeds 12 in., flexib le connector shall be
H. Receptacles and Attachment Caps used. Flexible connector is to be approved
1. Same as Class I (explosion-proof). for the purpose and for t he location.

117
 d. Where chain or approved means other than E. Lighting F ixtures
rigid pipe stem are provided for fixture 1. Be approved for Class II location or be pro-
support, flexible cords shall be approved vided with enclosure for lamps or lampholders
for hard usage, contain a separate ground- to minimize the deposit of dus t on lamps and
ing conductor and be sealed at the entrance to prevent the escape of sparks, bu rning ma-
to the outlet box or fittin g and the fixture. terial or hot metal.
5. Portable fixtures are to be dust-ignition- 2. Be clearly marked as to maximum wattage of
proof and approved for Class II location. lamp to be used.
Th ey are to be clearly marked as to indicate 3. Be protected from mechanical injury by suit-
the maximum wattage of lamps for which they able guards or location.
are approved. 4. Pendant fixtures shall conform to same wiring
F. Appliances, F ixed and Portable an d supporting arrangements as required for
1. To be dust-ignition-proof and approved for Div. 1 locations.
Class II location. 5. Portable fixtures shall be dust-ignition-proof
G. Flexible Cords and approved for Class II locations.
1. Be approved for extra hard usage. 6. In general vaporproof fixtures are acceptable.
2. Conta in a grounding conductor colored green. F. Appliances, Fixed and Portable
3. Have all terminals connected in an approved 1. - Heaters to conform to Div. 1 locations.
manner. G. Flexible Cords
4. Be supported by clamps or other su itable 1. To conform to Div. 1 locations.
means to prevent tension on terminal con- H. Receptacles and Attachment Caps
ductors. 1. To be of polarized type providing for con-
5. Be provided with s uitable seals where cord nection to the grounded conductor of t he
enters boxes or fittings which are required to flexible cord, and s hall be so made t hat con-
be dust-ignition-proof. nections to the supply circuit cannot be made
H. Receptacle and Attachment Caps or broken while live parts are exposed.
1. To be polarized type providing for connections I. Grounding
to the grounded conductor of flexible cord and 1. All exposed metal parts to be effectively
shall be dust-ignition-proof and approved for grounded.
Class II location.
I. Grounding
1. AIJ exposed metal parts to be effectively Class 111-Div. 1
grounded.
A . Wiring Methods
1. To' be in rigid metal conduit or type MI cable.
Class II-Div. 2 2. Fittings or boxes shall comply with rules for
Class II, Div. 2 locations.
A. Wiring Methods 3. Flexible connections shall be used as required
1. Shall be in rigid metal conduit, EMT or Type for Class II, Div. 1 locations.
MI with approved fittings. n. Sealing
2. Fittings or boxes in which t aps, joints or ter- 1. None required.
minal connections are made shall be designed C. Switches, Circuit Breakers, Motor Controllers
to minimize the ent rance of dust, and (1) and Fuses
have telescoping or tight fi tting covers and (2) 1. To conform to Class II, Div. 2, except for fibers
have no openings, after installation, through and flyin gs rather than dust.
which sparks or burning material may escape. D. Motors and Generators
B. Sealing 1. To conform to Class II, Div. 2, except for lint
1. Same as for Div. 1. and flyings rather than dust.
C. Switches, Circuit Breakers, Motor Controllers E. Lighting Fixtures
and Fuses 1. Fixed lighting fixtures must conform to Class
1. Be designed with close fitting or telescoping IT, Div. 2, except for fibers and flyings .
t ight metal enclosures designed to minimize 2. Portable lamps, to be equipped with handles
the entrance of dust and to have no openings and protected with substantial guards, to be·
t hrough which, after installation, sparks or of the unswitched type with no exposed metal
burning material may escaoe. parts and without provis ions for taking at-
D. Motors and Generators tachment plugs. In all other respects, portable
1. To be: totalJy-enclosed, non-ventilated; to- lamps are to conform to requirements for fixed
tally - enclosed, pipe- ventilated; totally- en- lighting, as in previous paragraph, El.
closed, fan-cooled, except that self-cleaning F. Appliances, Fixed and Porta ble
textile motors of the squirrel-cage type, or 1. Heaters shalJ be approved for Class III loca-
standard open type without arcing or resistive tions.
devices, or standard open type having such 2. Motors to be: totally-en closed, non-ventilated ;
a rcing or resistive devices within t ight metal totally-enclosed, pipe-vent ilated ; or totally-
housing without any openings may be used enclosed ; fan-cooled,
where the fo lJowing is judged to exist : G. Flexible Cords
a. Only moderate accumulation of noncon- 1. To ·conform to Class II, Div. 1 locations.
ductive, nonabrasive dust is likely to exist. H. Receptacles and Attachment Caps
b. Units are readily accessible for routine 1. To conform to Class II, Div. 2, locations.
cleaning. I. Grounding
2. Partially enclosed or splashproof type of 1. All exposed metal parts to be effectively
motors are not to be installed. grounded.
118
 INSIDE THE BALLAST components in-
clude: ( 1) power capacitor; (2) core and
coil assembly; (3) radio-interference sup-
pression capacitor; (4) thermal production
for coil and capaci tor. Most coils use
Closs A insulation; some new high-output
designs use longer-lasting insulating tech -
niques to improve re liabili ty.

INCE fluorescent lighting was

S first introduced at the 1939

New York World's Fair, t here
ha\'e been numerous advances in
component design, reliability and
efficiency. Among these are bal-
lasts, of which there are an esti-
mated 250 million in use today.
Usually, the ballast is the first com-
ponent suspected and checked when
a fluorescent fixture is not func-
t ioning properly. Actually, as field
experience has shown, the fau lt or
trouble in most instances lies else-
'\
where.
A ballast, like a fluorescent lamp,
Troubleshooting starts its normal wearing-out proc-
ess t he first moment it is energized.
It has a certain useful life span.
Fluorescent Faults The normal average life is 12 years
01· about 60,000 hours. This is
based on a duty cycle of 16 hours/
day, 6 days/week, 50 weeks/year at
A check-chart guide to fluorescent troubleshooting 90°C ballast case temperature as
applied in a fluorescent fixture. This
and a discussion of ballast life. also assumes a regulated voltage
supply. If ballasts are operated on
longer duty cycles or at higher
BY ROBERT W. ZAROS I, Ballast Sales Engineer, temperatures, their average life
General Electric Co., Claicngo, 111. will be shor tened. Longer daily
duty cycles can shorten expected
ballast life by years.
IO

-
1
90° C case tempe!alure
16 hr./doy (12 hours ot temperature)
I I Heat Ellect

~ .... Heat is an important facto1:_in_v

50 wk./yr.
8 " ballast life. Since most ballasts ~
~,
have Class A insulation, we can
/~
use the 10-degree half-life rule.
J
I' That is: for every 10°C increase in
/ operating temperature, the life of
OLD DESIGN
(Estimoled life curve)
,' the ballast is cut in half. Con-
versely, it is possible to double the
/
, life of a ballast by lowering its op-
/
erating temperature. There is evi-
,' dence of this in some cool applica-
/
tions (80°C on baJ1ast case) that
/
" NEW DESIGN
have lasted 15 years thus far, and
~
/ (Expected life curve) ~
are still going strong with only a
2
".. "'
,,,_,. ~
few ballast failures to date.

-
There are cer tain routine main-
.,,, "" ~

--- --
__ tenance checks that should be made
_ i..--
to insure full useful life of fluores -
0 cent lighting components. Among
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 them are:
YEARS 1. Assure t hat a well regulated
FIG. 1-BALLAST RELIABILITY cu rves compare failure rote of old (con- voltage supply is used.
vent ional) design with that of new design using new ly developed insulation 2. Provide good lamp mainte-
system. Chart is based on opera ting conditions noted.

119
nance, including periodic lamp re- TROUBLESHOOTING CHART
placement.
Assuming there is not a heat CONDITIOM CHECK THESE POSSIBLE CAUSES
problem, there are no other specific
preventive maintenance measures lamps Won't Stort 1. lomp failure
for ballasts. 2. Poor lomp-to-lompholder contact
3. Incorrect wiring
A. low voltage supply
Remaining Lile 5. Dirty lomps or lamp p ins
6. Defective starters•
At times, especially nfter a 7. low or high lamp bulb-wall temporoluro
known heating or voltage misappli- 8. High humidity
cation, we have been asked about 9. fix ture not ground ed
a possible test to determine the re- 10. Improper ballast oppllcatlon
11. Ballast failure
maining useful life of an installed
ballast. This is impossible, since a Short la mp life 1. Improper voltag e
ballast could check out to be per- 2. Improper wiring
fectly good while its insulation sys- 3. Poor lomp-to-lompholde r contact
tem might be on verge of break- .C. Extremely short duty cyde (greeter than overage number
of lamp starts per doy.) Check with lamp mfgr.
down. 5. Defective starters •
A check could be run on the bal- 6. Defective lamps
last's open circuit voltage and cath- 7. Improper ballast application
ode voltage to see if it is in good 8. Defective ballast
working order. This, however, is
not a conclusive test and involves l amp Flicke r (spiraling 1. New lomp• (should be operated 100 hours for proper
or swlrllng effect) seasoning)
definite shock hazards due to the 2. Defective slorlen •
high secondary voltages of many 3. Orofh on lamp bulb from olr-c:ondlllonlng system (lamp too
ballast designs. cold)
The s implest and most conclu- .C. Defective lamps
sive ballast test is to wire it in a 5. Improper voltage
6. Improper bollosl oppUcollon
fixture. If the lamp lights, the bal- 7. Defective ballast
last is OK. Conversely, the s implest
lamp test is to check the lamp in a Very Slow Starting 1. Improper voltage- loo low
properly wired fixture. 2. Inadequate lamp·slorllng-old strip••
The accompanying troubleshoot- (Refer to fl><lure mfgr.)
ing chart s hows a number of com- 3. Poor lamp-to-lompholder conto<I
.C . Defective starter •
mon trouble conditions encountered 5. Defective lamp
with fluorescent lighting. Each 6. Improper circuit wiring
category has a list of "causes" ar- 7. Improper ballast oppllcollon
ranged in order of frequency expe- 8. High humidity
rienced in the field. Use these as 9. Bulb-wall temperature too low or too high
basic checks to simplify your trou- Audible Ballast wHum" 1. l oose fl><ture louvers, panels or other ports
bleshooting procedures. 2. Insecure ballast mounting
3. Improper ballast selection (Refer to mfgr'• Bollost Sound
Greater Reliability Roting Calculator for correctlvo analysis a nd reliable
answer.)
A new ballast insulation system .C , Defective bollo>I
has been developed and is currently
Excessive Bollaal Heating 1. Improper fixture design or ballo>I application (Refer lo
being used in some 800- and 1500- (over 90°C bollost coH R>< lure mfgr.)
ma fluorescent ballasts. t em perature ) 2. High voltage
More than two years of acceler- 3. Improper wiring or lnslollolion
ated life tests indicate up to four .C. Defective ballast
ti mes greater reliability during the 5. Poor lamp maintenan<e (lnslont-slort and preheat systems)
6. Wrong type lamps
normal applied life of ballast mod- 7, Wrong number of lomps
els incorporating this unique insu-
lation system. Fig. 1 compares the
NOTES: For systems using• Rapid-start (induding 43()., 80()., and 1500-mo lamp bollostsh
reliability curves of the new design trigger-start; slimline and lnslonl-slarl; and preheat (swltch-stort) bollosla.
with that of former old ballast de- • Appfaes only to preheat (switch-start) circuits
sign. ••App lies only to ropld-stort and trigger-start circuits

120
DATA SHEET

TROUBLESHOOTING
MERCURY
BALLASTS
Here's a proven procedure for tracking down
and eliminating troubles in mercury lamp circuits-
a step-by-step approach for fast, accurate troubleshooting.

BY MAURICE ROBERTSON, Manager, Commercial Engineering, ]efierlon Electric Co., Bellwood , Ill.

I. Read ballast nameplate. 4. Ballast secondary short-circuit curre nt. (Starting

A. Check to see that wiring has been mode in current from Fig. 1)
accordance with diagram. 5. l amp ope rating voltage. (Value from Fig. 1)
B. Check to see if proper lamp hos been in- 6. l amp ope rating current. (Va lue from Fig. 1)
sta lled. Items 5 and 6 are suggested only if lamp is op-
C. Measure line voltage with entire system load erating and it is felt that operation is not normal.
turned on and determine if correct primary Values given for item 2 ore to be expected only when
top hos been selected for (A) above. lamp is operating normally.
Values shown in Fig. 1 ore offered on ly as ap-
II. Replace lamp with new or otherwise know n op· proximations to determine whether a ballast is good
e rative lamp. Caution: In case of violent lamp or bod. It is not intended that the balla st under
failure, do not replace lamp but first make elec- measurement must fall strictly within the various
trical measurements 1, 3 one;! 4. limits, as differences in meter movement, inherent
A. If re placement lamp w ill not operate, make resistance and calibration may produce va riations.
e le ctrical measurements 1, 3 and 4 below.
B. If measurements ore satisfactory, then bal-
ADDITIONAL TIPS
last is probably good and cause of trouble
I. A. Check all wiring for proper connections.
con be found e lsewhere in the circuit.
B. Ballast leads
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS 1. Hos the correct primary top been selected?
1. Line voltage-value g iven on ballast nameplate. 2. If ballast is mounted in a pole base, drip
2. Line curre nt-value given on ballast nameplate. loops must be provided and splices toped
3. Ballast secondary open-circuit voltage. (Value to keep water from getting between con-
from Fig. 1) ductor and insulation.

121
FIG. 1-TYPICAL MERCURY LAMP DATA

LAMP

lamp Nominal Approx imate

Type lamp Minimum Starti ng Curre nt Operating
Watts 0 .C. Volts * Amperes t Voltage Ranget Operating Current
(Nominal- Amperes)t
50°F. 0 °F. - 20°F. Min. Max. Min. Ma x.

H-4 100 210 250 265 0 .9 1.8 115 145 0.9

H-38 100 200 210 225 0.9 1.8 115 145 0 .9
H-22 175 210 230 250 1.5 2 .8 120 150 1.45
H-39 175 200 210 225 1.5 2.8 120 150 1.45
H-5 250 200 240 260 2.1 4 .2 115 145 2.1
H-1 400 200 265 290 3.1 6 .5 120 150 3.2
H-33 400 200 210 225 3. 1 6 .5 120 150 3 .2
H-18 700 400 400 400 2 .8 7 .5 240 290 2 .8
H-35 700 200 270 300 2 .8 7 .5 240 290 2 .8
H-12 1000 210 315 380 8.0 15 .0 120 150 8 .0
H-34 1000 200 270 300 8 .0 15 . 0 120 150 8.0
H-15 1000 290 380 440 4.0 7 .5 240 290 4 .0
H-36 1000 200 285 365 4.0 7 .5 240 290 4 .0

• Open circuit volts ore measured across tho ballast lamp leads. Use voltmeter wllh ct least I 00 ohms per volt resistance. Do not use r ecliAer type
meters. Temperatures denote r eliable sterling of lamps at the voltages shown.
t To measure starling current, short the lomp leods through an ommetcr.
l Allow opproximately 7 minutes warm·up time ofter lamps ore turned on.

II. Check fixture for any abnormal conditions. Fix· VI. Three-phase lighting circuits.
t ure lamp leads should be checked for fraying and A. Delta systems should incorporate a 3-phase
e lectrica l rating. circuit breaker for protection. The use of
fuses or single-pole breakers in each of the
Ill. Test the e ntire system for grounds. 3-phase lines of o De lta-connected system
must be avoided. The NE Code prohibits the
use of single·pole CBs in such o 3-phose cir-
IV. Outdoor installations below grade-level.
cuit (Section 240- 11 ). In such o system, if
A. Check to see if ballosts were designed for
one fuse blows, two ballasts will be placed
below grade-level installation.
in series across the remaining phase causing
B. Only rubber-encased or vault-type ballasts
damage to lamps and ballasts. Single-phase
should be used below ground level.
branches may be protected with fuses or
single-phase breakers.
V. Indoor installations.
B. In ungrounded systems, it is wise to incorpo-
A. Check to see that there are no openings in
rate a ground d etector. Multiple g rounds o n
the roof that might a llow roin or me lted
systems utilizing ballasts of the outotrans·
snow to fall on or run along beams, trusses,
former type con cause ballast burnout and
etc., onto the ba Ila st and/ or lomp.
violent lamp failures. Insulated ballasts hav-
B. A good electrical wiring practice in the case
ing no internal connection between line and
of ballasts or fixtures pendantly mounted to
la mp circuits, such as certain constant-wot·
an overhead conduit network is to seal off
toge ballasts, ore recommended on un·
the conduit opening. This seal is to prevent
grounded systems.
condensed moisture or water that may find
its way into the conduit from running onto C. Grounded systems (120 volt or 277 volt) ore
the ballasts or lamps. preferred and resu lt in less field trouble.

122
 Data Sheet
Relay Troubleshooting
Q uick-check refe re nce da ta for spotting and e liminating troub les m e lectro-
magnetic contacting devices-re lays, contactors, solenoids and motor sta rters.

LECTROMAGNETIC contactors By Rick Denning, suit that the armature closes with

E and relays of various types are

used to make and break circuits
that control and protect the opera-
U. S. A1my Corps of fngineors
New York City, N. Y.
a snap, closing normally opened
contacts and opening normally
closed contacts. Binding at the
tion of such devices as electric hinges or excessive armature spring
motors, combustion and process and/or gravity, while at high volt- force may cause a contactor or re-
controls, alarms and annunciators. ages excessive coil temperatures lay that normally has snap action
Successful operation of a relay is may develop. Increasing the arma- to make and break sluggishly. This
dependent upon maintaining the ture spring force or the magnet gap condition is often encountered in
proper interaction between its sole- will require higher pull-in voltage relays that are rarely operated.
noid and its mechanical elements- or current values and will result Contactors and relays should be op-
springs, hinges, contacts, dashpots, in higher drop-out values. erated by hand from time to t ime
etc. When sufficient voltage is applied to make .sure their parts are work-
The operating coil is usually de- to the operating coil the magnetic ing freely with proper clearances
signed to operate the relay at from field builds up, the armature is at- and spring actions.
80% to 110 % of rated voltage. At tracted and begins to close. The air The following check chart of
low voltage the magnet may not be gap is shortened, increasing the symptoms and their possible causes
strong enough to pull in the arma- magnetic attraction and accelerat- should help spot contactor and re-
ture against the armature spring ing the closing action, with the re- lay troubles in a hurry.

Failure to Pull in 5. Contact pressure spring or armature spring too weak or

l. No or low voltoge ot coil terminols. improperly adjusted.
a. Blown fuse, open line switch, break in wiring. 6. Improper mounting position (upside down).
b. Line voltage below normol. 7. Normally opened contacts welded together.
c. Overload relay open or set too low. Time Delay Re lay Operates Too Fast
d. Tripping toggle (non-automatic breakers) fouled, un-
dervoltage reloy plunger jammed (due to overheating). 1. Escapement mechanism faulty
e. Control lever or stort button in off position. a. Air escapes too freely from delay element due to hole
f. Pull-in circuit open, shorted or grounded. in bellows or open air vent.
g. Contacts in protective or controlling circuit open or b. Worn dashpot plunger, dashpot oil too thin.
2. Non-magnetic shim (slow flux decay type) in air gop too
one of their pigtail connections broken. large or armature spring too strong.
2. Operating coil open or grounded. 3. Magnets out of adjustment (mechanism loose or broken by
3. loose or disconnected coil lead wire. vibration.)
4. Excessive magnet gap, improper adjustment. Contacts Pitted or Discolored
S. Armature obstructed or gumming deposits between armature 1. Contacts overheated from overload.
and pole face. 2. Contacts not fitted properly.
6. Binding caused by deformed or gummy hinge. 3. Barriers broken from rough usoge or breokers closing with
7. Excessive armature spring-force. too much force.
8. Normally closed contocts welded together. 4. Wiping action of contacts on closing is insufficient.
Failure of Eq uipment to Start with Centactor Closed
S. Excessive chatter or hum.
6. Exposure to weather, dripping woter, solt air or vibration.
1. One contact not closing.
2. Contocts burned. Excessive Chatte r or Hu m
3. Contact pigtail connection broken. 1. Vibration of surrounding devices communicated to relay.
Failure to Drop Out
2. Relay receiving contradictory signals.
3. Bouncing of controlling or protective contacts.
1. Operating coil is energized 4. Line voltage fluctuoting or insufficient.
a. Contacts in controlling or protective tripping circuits 5. Excessive coil circuit resistance.
closed, shorted or shunted. 6. Armature spring or contact pressure spring too strong.
b. Tripping devices defective; such as, overload tripping 7. Excessive coil voltage drop on closing.
toggles do not strike releose, undervoltage relay 8. Improper anti-freeze pin location.·
plunger stuck or out of adjustment, defective stop 9. Free movement of armature hindered due to deformed parts
button, defective time-delay escape mechanism (closed or dirt.
air vent). 10. Improper mounting position.
c. Current supplied over an unintentional path, due to
grounds, defective insulation, pencil markings, mois- Excessive Coil Te mperature
ture, lacquer chipped off relay's base. 1. Excessive current or voltage.
2. Residual magnetism excessive, due to armature closed tightly 2. Short circuit in coil.
against pole face. 3. Excessive eddy current and hysteresis.
3. Armature obstructed or gumming deposits between armature 4. High room teperature.
and pole face. 5. Lack of ventilation.
4. Binding caused by deformed or gummy hinge. 6. Heat absorbed from surrounding devices.

123
 Data Sheet
Trouble-Remedy Chart for Industrial Controls
The following maintenance ancl repai r hinu in check- Open Circuit-Not Roasted
list form follow a trouhlc-c:111~c-rcmcdy ou tline. Mechanical damage: Do not handle coils by the leads.
Excessive vibration or shock; coil movement causing
Contacts-Chatter insulation failure or broken wire: Relocate and provide a
Poor contact in control pick·up circuit: Improve the special mounting. Coils should be held firmly in place.
contact or use holding interlock.
Excwive jogging: Find out whether device is recom-
Overheated-Roasted
mended for jogging service. Jf it is not, caution operator. Overvoltagc or high ambient: Check application, circuit.
Broken pole shader. Replat·c.
Wrong coil, sbort·time-rated coil energized too long:
Contactor slams, thus operating interlock in coil cir·
Check manufacturer.
cui•: Increase wipe, also pressure on interlock. Shorted turns, caused by mechanical damage, corrosion,
Overheating of Contact Tips or conducting dust: Replace coil and correct conditions
Copper oxide on contact tips: Install silver.faced tips. if practical to do so.
If copper tips-file with a fine file. (Caution: excess filing Too-frequent operation (very rapid jogging of ac coils):
wears out the tips. Ne\'er file silver-faced tips.) Check application.
Carrying load continuously: Install silver.faced tips. Undervoltage, failure of a magnet to seal in: Check
High inductive loads, (de fields): Silver.faced tips. circuit interlock.
Sustained overloads: Reduce current; install larger de-
,·ice. Series Coils (Including Blowout Coils)-Ovcrbeated
Insufficient tip pressure. Clean, adjust. Used above current rating: Install larger coil, or reduce
Loose connection: Clean and tighten. (Measurement current.
of the millirnlt c.lrop across the current-carrying connec- High ambient: Relocate, or regulate temperature.
tions will indicate where excessi\'e heating originated.) Loose connection, corrosion, oxidation on connection
surfaces: IC connection is hot, clean before tightening.
Short-Circuit Currents on Contacu
Feeder fuses too large: Eliminntc shorts; use smaller Flexible Shunt Failure
fuses. Improper instaUation: See manufacturer's instructions.
Short Tip Life Large number of operations-worn out mechanically:
Interrupting high currents: Install special tips designed Replace shunt.
to with,tancl arci ng better than copper. (There are cases Corrosive atmosphere or moisture: Wrong application.
where 1hese cannot be used because of their high resist· . Burned by arcing; oxidized connection : Check applica-
ance. a n~ lower rating.) Install larger device designed uon ancl system voltage.
~or Jogging service. Note: Tip life varies approximately
inversely as lhe square of the current interrupted. There- Magnet and Other Mechanical Parts-Worn or Broken
fore, jogging may wear tips more than 30 times as fast H eavy slamming caused by overvoltage, underload,
as an equal number of straight starts. wrong coil. Chattering caused by broken pole shader or
Excessive filing or dressing: Never file silver tips. The poor contact in control circuit. Heavy duty cycle. Too
rough spots will not hurt them. much jogging. Abrasive dusts, mechanical abuse: Replace
Oil-immersed device is a misapplication: Change to ~art and correct cause of damage: Expected machanical
air-break device if oil is not essential. Note: Oil-immersed life should be measured in number of operations.
tips burn away from 20 to 40 times as fast as similar tips
breaking the same current in air. Noisy Magnet
Mechanical rebound on drop-out, causing tips 10 touch: Broken pole shader, magnet not true-result of wear
Reduce rebound, or report trouble to manufacturer. o~ mounting_ strai!1s: Replace. (For locations where a very
slight hum 1s Objectionable, use de magnets. Hum can
Weak Tip Pressure be r~duced by mounting on rubber or springs.
Wear allowance gone: Replace and adjust. D1.rt or rust on magnet face: Clean.
Poor tip adj ustment: Adjust gap and "wipe". Low voltage: Check system voltage.
Low voltage which prevents magnet sealing: Correct Improper adjustment-magnet overloaded: Check in-
\'Ohage condition (possible line regulation). struction ~heet.
Welding or Freezing
Abnom1al inrush of currents of more or less than 10 Broken Pole Shader
times continuous rating: This will vary, depending on the Heavy slamming, caused by overvoltage, magnet under-
type of dc'"ice. Reduce currents. Substitute special non- loaded, weak tip pressure, wrong coil: Replace, correct.
'~el d tips. Inst.all larger device. Install copper tips. (Cau-
tion: o."c~hea~mg of copper tips should be considered). Failure to Pick Up
Rapid JOggtng: Install copper tips if otherwise suitable. Low voltage on coil: Check system v.oltage.
Coil open, wiring of coil or shorted turns. Replace.
Coils-Coil Failure Wrong coil: Check manufacturer.
Moisture, corrosh·e atmosphere: Relocate coils or use Excessive magnet gap, magnet overloaded: Check in-
special resistant coils. struction sheet.

124
 {DATA SHEET)
Trouble-Remedy Chart for DC Motors and Generators
The following maintenance and repair hints are pre- MOTOR RUNS TOO SLOWLY UNDER LOAD
sented in check-list form for plant electricians. They Line voltage too low: Check and remove a ny excess
follow a troable-cause-remedy outline. resistance in supply line, connections or control.
Brushes ahead of neutral: Set brushes on neutra l.
MOTOR WILL NOT START
Overload: Check to see that load does not exceed
Open circuit in control: Check control for open start-
a llowable load on motor.
ing resistor, open switch for burned fuse.
Low terminal voltage: Check voltage with nameplate MOTOR RUNS TOO FAST UNDER LOAD
rating.
Bearing frozen: Recondition shaft and rep I ace Weak field: Check for resistance in shunt-field cir-
bearing. cuits. Check for grounds.
Overload: Reduce load or use larger motor. Line voltage too high: Correct high-voltage condition.
Excessive friction: Check lubrication in bearings to Brushes back of neut1al: Set brushes on neutral.
make sure that the oil has been replaced ofter installing
motor. Disconnect motor from driven machine and turn SPARKING BRUSHES
motor by hand to see if trouble is in motor. Straighten Commutator in bad rondition: Clean and reset
or replace bent or sprung shaft (machines under 5-hp). brushes.
Eccentric or rough commutator: Grind and true com-
EXCESSIVE SPARKING mutator, also undercut mica.
Poor brush fit on commutator: Sand the brushes and Excessive vibration: Balance armature. Check brushes
polish commutator surface. to make sure they ride free ly in the holders.
Brushes binding in the brush holders: Remove irregu- Broken or sluggish-acting brush-holder spring: Re-
larities on surfaces of brush holders, rough spots on the place spring, and adjust pressure to manufacturer's
brushes; clean with lint-free cloth. recommendations.
Insufficient or excessive pressure on brushes: Adjust Brushes too short: Replace brushes.
brush-spring pressure. Machine overloaded: Reduce load or install larger
Brushes off neutral: Set brushes on neutral. motor.
Short circuit in armature: Check commutator and
SPARKING AT LIGHT LOADS
remove any metallic particles between segments. Check
Paint spray, chemical, oil, grease or other foreign
for short between adjacent commutator risers. Test for
material on commutator: Use motor designed for appli-
internal shorts in armature and repair.
cation. Cleon commutator and provide protection
against foreign matter. Install on enclosed motor de-
BRUSH CHATTER OR HISSING NOISE
signed fo r the application.
Excessive clearance of brush holders: Adjust holders.
FIELD COILS OVERHEAT Incorrect angle of brushes: Adjust to the correct
Short circuit between turns or layers: Replace defec- angle.
tive coil. Incorrect brushes for the service: Get manufacturer's
recommendations.
COMMUTATOR OVERHEATS High mica: Undercut mica.
Brushes off neutral: Adjust brushes. Incorrect brush-spring pressure: Adjust to correct
Excess spring pressure on brushes: Decrease brush- value.
spring pressure but not to the point where sparking is
introduced. SELECTIVE COMMUTATION
(One brush takes more load than it should)
GROOVING OF COMMUTATOR Insufficient brush-spring pressure: Adj ust to correct
Brushes not properly staggered: Stagger brushes. pressure, making sure brushes ride free in holders.
MOTOR ATTEMPTS TO START Unbalanced circuits in armature: Eliminate high re-
BUT OVERLOAD RELAYS OPERATE sistance in defective joints by inserting armature or
Motor is started with weak or no field: If odjustoble- equalizer circuit or commutator risers. Check for poor
speed motor, check rheostat for correct setting. If cor- contacts between bus and bus rings.
rect, check condition of rheostat. Check field coils for
open windings. Check wiring for loose or broken con- BRUSHES WEAR RAPIDLY
nections. Rough commutator: Resurface commutator and un-
Motor torque insufficient to drive load: Check line ·dercut mica.
voltage with nameplate roting. Use larger motor or -. Excessive sparking: Make sure brushes are in line
one with suitable characteristic to match load. with commutator fields.
Source of data: General Electric Co., Apparatus Department

125
 Electrical contractors use . . .

Modern Scaffolding
. . . to save time and labor on " high" work. Here are
selected case studies which show how electrical con~
tractors and plant electrical departments select and use
scaffolding and other elevating equipment to perform
overhead electrical work efficiently and safely.

IL -
r
TELESCOPING WOR K PLATFORM saved
Knowles Electric Co., Charleston, W. Vo.,
25 % of labor costs of installing lighting
fixtures, ove rhead conduit and wi rin g in
nine buildings of the State of Georg ia
New Fa rmer's Market in Atlan ta. Con-
crete block walls divide each building
into sepa rate boys totaling 78 boys in
the project. Because of this, conventional
fixed scaffolding, which requires dis-
mantl ing on each move, was deemed im-
practical by the e lectrical cont ractor. Ex-
tension ladders were ru led out because
they afford awkward footing and limit
free use of the mechanic's hands, thus HO IST-EQUIPPED rolling scaffold saves TELESC.OPING TOWER speeds lamp re-
impairing his efficiency; and they often construction time and labor for Electrical placement, fixture cleaning and other
requi re two or more men to hand le ma- lnstollotions, Inc., Roselle Pork, N. J. overhead spot maintenance at Scibo Holl,
ter ia ls and to steady th e ladde r. The Special ists in industria l const ruction, the Carnegie Tech Un iversity. Primarily used
te lesco pi ng a lu mi num work plat form se- firm uses the motorized rig to ;peed for mointel'"lonce of hundreds of lighting
lected to do the job saved Knowles over overhead installation of t ransformers, fixtures in classrooms, meeting rooms,
$1000 when installing 3600 fluorescent buswoys, heavy condui t and lighting library, cafeteria and auditorium, the
fixtures required for the project. The equipment. Pushbutton on flexible coble unit is also used for other mointenonce
unit, equipped with on enclosed platform allows control of lift from floor level or work on ceilings from l 5 ft to 22 ft
for safety, is lightwei9ht, rapidly assem- from top of scaffold. Robert J. Bouer, high as well as for exterior maintenance.
bled for work by one ma n, and extends president, Electrica l Insta ll a tions, points Th is aluminum work platform becomes
qu ickly to heights up to 30 ft. When the out tha t use of the hoist-equipped scaf- a compact unit when folded, co n be
lighting insta ll ation in each bay was fold hos afforded substantial overheod- easily rolled through doorway and into
completed, the platform was readily instollotion cost savings, which provide elevato rs, and ca n be stored in a small
folded down, a ll owing the unit to poss a definite economic advantage when con- a rea. Constructed of lightweight alu-
through doorways and to be rolled to the sidered du ring planning a nd estimate minum, the folded unit con be ca rried up
next boy. prepo rotion. stairs for work in split-level a reas.

126
and Elevating Platforms

PROFESSIONAL APPEARANC E of scaffolding is on impor- MOBILE SCISSORS work-load hydraulic lift affords many
tant plus value for Standard Electric Co. Inc., Montreal, when time- and labor-saving odvontoges for Weatherbee Electric
performing electrical maintenance in prestige buildings. On Co., Oklahoma City. On construction projects, o utility truck
two major lighting moint enonce contracts in Montreol- tows the scissors lift to the job site; the unit con be towed o r
the 45-story Conodion Imperial Bonk of Commerce Building hand-ro lled t·o the work loca tion within o bui lding under
ond the 32-story C. I. L. House-Standa rd Electric uses duo l- construction; ond heavy apparatus, such a s t ran sform ers,
stoi rwoy alum inum scaffolds with bridging platforms. When buswoy, etc., co n be qu ickly and easi ly lifted to Installation
their use is required during the working doy, these cleon ond height along wi th the installation c rew by the mo to rized
efficient appearing scaffolds ore less likely to offend cus· hydraulic lift. Photo shows the lift in use on on extensive
tamers and clients in the oreo, and along with neatly uni- lighting maintenance project ot the Mayfair Shopping Center
formed workmen, lend o professional quality to the job. The in Oklahoma City. The job called for replacement of all
mobile stairway structures ore quickly erected; safe and lamps installed on approximately 100 pole-mounted lighting
easy to use providing ample space for workmen, replacement fixtures in the shopping center parking oreo, ond replacement
lamps and cleaning of luminoires; and, disassembled, the of several fixtures. Using the scissors lift, two men plus the re-
scaffolding con be compactly stored in basement areas. Li ght- placement fixtures or lomps were quickly and easily rai sed to
ing maintenance contracts coll for group relomping every two the 20-ft working height. When wo rk was completed ot eac h
years, lamp and ballast replacement when required, luminous pole, the unit was lowered ond moved to the next r>ole.
ceiling cleaning twice a year and annual fixture cleaning. Ceil· Weatherbee found that time fo r the job, which previously
ings range in height from 17 ft to 21 ft. The combined ceil- was accomplished using extension ladders ond scaffolding,
ing oreo in both buildings totals mo re than 1,400,000 sq ft. was cut a pproximately In half. The work- load lift is equipped
Included in the lighting maintenance con tract ore several large with outriggers, levelling jocks, telescoping ladder, o la rge
lllminous ceilings in lobby oreos. guard-roil protected platform and o hydraulic pump motor.

DUAL T ELESCOPING towers were used by electrical contracto rs Fischbach

ond Moore, Inc., during Install a tio n of overhead light ing systems a nd e lec-
trical focilities at the new Hilton Hotel, Denver, Colo. The telescopi ng work
platforms with bridging plank were selected for high installation work for two
rea sons: l) to reduce Installat ion time because the work would hove required
over 50 separate scaffold assembly and disassembly operations, and 2) safety
regula tions prohibited scaffolding In areas where carpet installers, TV and
radio installation crews, hotel services personnel, etc., were working ot
night. In add ition, the aluminum towers could be quickly folded down and rolled
out of the way. When ex tended for work on the 22-ft -high ceiling lighting
systems, the units were bridged by a l 0-ft-long plonk and safety railings. T he
telescopi ng wo rk towers ore only 29-in. wide, allowing them to be rolled through'
standard 30-l n. -wide by 6-ft 8-in.-high doorways. Constructed of lightweight
oluminum, they con be carried up and down sta irs by two men.

127
ONE- PIECE SCA FFOLD on wheels saves consideroble time over folding "V" braces snap together ond lock outomoticolly to
conventional scaffold erection on the electrical construction form o rigid "X" brace joint, which support s the structure.
project. Folded, (Photo Al the unit is only 9Y2-in. wide pro- Ready for use, (Photo C> the scaffold is l 0-ft long and 29-in.
viding for compac t storage ond easy rolling through doorways wide enabling it to be rolled through doorways fully assembled.
from job to job. The aluminum scaffold con be erected by one The unit ho s o platform height which is adjustable from l ft
mon in seconds. Photo B shows one set of casters in locked to 8 Y2 ft . Also, th e scaffold legs ore adjustable for use on
position (arrow 2) os scaffold is extended Corrow l >. The two uneven fl oo rs or stairways.

BOOM-PLATFORM truck is one of nearly

l 00 vehicles used by Molnar Electric,
electrical contractors, Woodbridge, N. J.
Photo shows two Molner electric1ons ond
boom truck tn action on o troubleshoot-
ing coll o t o public water-pumping sta-
tion. When notified of the water pump
failure, Molnar rushed o key trouble-
shooter and o helper in the fully equipped
boom truck to the pumping stat ion. The
boom truck wos selected because it wos
known tha t the source of trouble would
be in the pump house, switchgeor house
or the high-voltage pole-line feeder on
the premises. Quick checks isoioted the
trouble to o pole adjacent to the switch-
gear house. The troubleshooter was then
quickly rai sed on the boom platform to
the top of the pole where o malfunction-
ing fused cutout was discovered. Repairs
were mode on the spot and the pump re-
turned to service. John Molnar, president
of the electrical contracting firm, points
out that it is this kind of fast, efficient
service that makes lasting customers ond
opens the way for new construction con-
tracts. In add ition, the boom-platform
truck serves in electrical constructi on
projects on various types of "high" work,
such os pole-line installation, substat ion
superstructure construction ond others.

40-FT LIFT equipped with telescoping

platform allows workm en to reach extro-
high work areas easily ond safely. When
folded, unit is less than 7-ft high. Work
platform is 27 in. by 48 in. affording
ample work space. The hydraulic lifting
system is powered by o JA-hp, l l 0-volt
oc motor. A telescoping lift similar to
the unit shown above is used for mainte-
nance work ot the plant of Emerson Elec-
t ric Co., St. Louis, Mo.

128