MODULE 101: MAGNETISM

1. Introduction

1.1 What is a magnet?

1.2 What is magnetism?
1.3 History of magnetism
1.4 Fundamentals of magnetism

2. Classification of magnets

2.1 Diamagnetic
2.2 Para-magnetic
2.3 Ferro-magnetic
2.4 Ferri-magnetic
2.5 Anti-ferro Magnetic

3. Magnetic Properties

3.1 Magnetic fields

3.1A What is magnetic field?

3.1B How is magnetic field created?
3.1C Magnetic field of the Earth
3.1D Magnetic Field In and Around a Bar Magnet
3.1E Magnetic Fields in and around Horseshoe and Ring Magnets

3.2 Magnetic line of force

3.2A What do the lines around the bar magnet indicate?

3.2B How is the earth like a magnet?
3.2C General Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force

3.3 Magnetic Field Strength

3.4 Magnetic Flux Density (B)
3.5 Magnetic Moments

4. Magnetic Domains

4.1 What is magnetic domain?

4.2 What is different about ferromagnetic materials that make them strongly magnetic?
5. Electricity and Magnetism

5.1 If electricity produces magnetism, can magnets produce electricity?

5.2 Why is electromagnetic induction important to us?
5.3 How does a magnet help a generator convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy?

6. Electromagnets and electromagnetism

6.1 What are electromagnets?

6.2 What is electromagnetism?
6.3 Electromagnetic waves
6.4 Applications of electromagnetism
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 What is a magnet?
A magnet is any piece of material that has the property
of attracting iron (or steel). Magnetite, also known as lodestone,
is a naturally occurring rock that is a magnet. This natural
magnet was first discovered in a region known as magnesia and
was named after the area in which it was discovered. Magnetism
may be naturally present in a material or the material may be
artificially magnetized by various methods. Magnets may be
permanent or temporary. After being magnetized, a permanent
magnet will retain the properties of magnetism indefinitely. A
temporary magnet is a magnet made of soft iron that is usually
easy to magnetize; however, temporary magnets lose most of their magnetic properties when the
magnetizing cause is discontinued. Permanent magnets are usually more difficult to magnetize, but they
remain magnetized. Materials which can be magnetized are called ferromagnetic materials.

A magnet is any material capable of attracting iron and producing a magnetic field outside itself.
By the end of the 19th century all the known elements and many compounds had been tested for
magnetism, and all were found to have some magnetic property. The most common was the property of
diamagnetism, the name given to materials exhibiting a weak repulsion by both poles of a magnet.
Some materials, such as chromium, showed paramagnetism, being capable of weak induced
magnetization when brought near a magnet. This magnetization disappears when the magnet is
removed. Only three elements, iron, nickel, and cobalt, showed the property of ferromagnetism (i.e., the
capability of remaining permanently magnetized).

1.2 What is magnetism?

Magnetism is a force generated in matter by the motion of electrons within its atoms.

Magnetism is the force of attraction or repulsion in and around a material. Magnetism is

present is all materials but at such low levels that it is not easily detected. Certain materials such as
magnetite, iron, steel, nickel, cobalt and alloys of rare earth elements, exhibit magnetism at levels that
is easily detectable.

Magnetism is a phenomenon associated with magnetic fields, which arise from the motion of
electric charges. This motion can take many forms. It can be an electric current in a conductor or
charged particles moving through space, or it can be the motion of an electron in an atomic orbital.
Magnetism is also associated with elementary particles, such as the electron, that have a property
called spin.

1.3 History of magnetism

The earliest discovery of the properties of lodestone was either by the Greeks or Chinese.
Stories of magnetism date back to the first century B.C in the writings of Lucretius and Pliny the Elder
(23-79 AD Roman). Pliny wrote of a hill near the river Indus that was made entirely of a stone that
attracted iron. He mentioned the magical powers of magnetite in his writings. For many years following
its discovery, magnetite was surrounded in superstition and was considered to possess magical powers,
such as the ability to heal the sick, frighten away evil spirits and attract and dissolve ships made of iron!
People believed that there were whole islands of a magnetic nature that could attract ships by virtue of
the iron nails used in their construction. Ships that thus disappeared at sea were believed to have been
mysteriously pulled by these islands. Archimedes is purported to have used loadstones to remove nails
from enemy ships thus sinking them.
 People soon realized that magnetite not only attracted objects made of iron, but when made into
the shape of a needle and floated on water, magnetite always pointed in a north-south direction creating
a primitive compass. This led to an alternative name for magnetite, that of lodestone or "leading stone."
For many years following the discovery of lodestone magnetism was just a curious natural
phenomenon. The Chinese developed the mariner's compass some 4500 years ago. The earliest mariner's
compass comprised a splinter of loadstone carefully floated on the surface tension of water.

Peregrinus & Gilbert Peter Peregrinus is credited with the first attempt to separate fact from
superstition in 1269. Peregrinus wrote a letter describing everything that was known, at that time,
about magnetite. It is said that he did this while standing guard outside the walls of Lucera which was
under siege. While people were starving to death inside the walls, Peter Peregrinus was outside writing
one of the first 'scientific' reports and one that was to have a vast impact on the world.

However, significant progress was made only with the experiments of William Gilbert in 1600
in the understanding of magnetism. It was Gilbert who first realized that the Earth was a giant magnet
and that magnets could be made by beating wrought iron. He also discovered that heating resulted in the
loss of induced magnetism.

In 1820 Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851 Danish) demonstrated that magnetism was related to
electricity by bringing a wire carrying an electric current close to a magnetic compass which caused a
deflection of the compass needle. It is now known that whenever current flows there will be an
associated magnetic field in the surrounding space, or more generally that the movement of any charged
particle will produce a magnetic field.

1.4 Fundamentals of Magnetism

Basic to magnetism are magnetic fields and their effects on matter, as, for instance, the deflection
of moving charges and torques on other magnetic objects. Evidence for the presence of a magnetic field
is the magnetic force on charges moving in that field; the force is at right angles to both the field and the
velocity of the charge. This force deflects the particles without changing their speed. The deflection can
be observed in the torque on a compass needle that acts to align the needle with the magnetic field of
Earth. The needle is a thin piece of iron that has been magnetized—i.e., a small bar magnet. One end of
the magnet is called a north pole and the other end a south pole. The force between a north and a south
pole is attractive, whereas the force between like poles is repulsive. The magnetic field is sometimes
referred to as magnetic induction or magnetic flux density; it is always symbolized by B. Magnetic
fields are measured in units of tesla (T). (Another unit of measure commonly used for B is the gauss,
though it is no longer considered a standard unit. One gauss equals 10−4 tesla.)

A fundamental property of a magnetic field is that its flux through any closed surface vanishes.
(A closed surface is one that completely surrounds a volume.) This is expressed mathematically by div
B = 0 and can be understood physically in terms of the field lines representing B. These lines always
close on themselves, so that if they enter a certain volume at some point, they must also leave that
volume. In this respect, a magnetic field is quite different from an electric field. Electric field lines can
begin and end on a charge, but no equivalent magnetic charge has been found in spite of many searches
for so-called magnetic monopoles.

The most common source of magnetic fields is the electric current loop. It may be an electric
current in a circular conductor or the motion of an orbiting electron in an atom. Associated with both
these types of current loops is a magnetic dipole moment, the value of which is iA, the product of the
current i and the area of the loop A. In addition, electrons, protons, and neutrons in atoms have a
magnetic dipole moment associated with their intrinsic spin; such magnetic dipole moments represent
another important source of magnetic fields. A particle with a magnetic dipole moment is often referred
to as a magnetic dipole. (A magnetic dipole may be thought of as a tiny bar magnet. It has the same
 magnetic field as such a magnet and behaves the same way in external magnetic fields.) When placed in
an external magnetic field, a magnetic dipole can be subjected to a torque that tends to align it with the
field; if the external field is not uniform, the dipole also can be subjected to a force.

All matter exhibits magnetic properties to some degree. When placed in an inhomogeneous
field, matter is either attracted or repelled in the direction of the gradient of the field. This property is
described by the magnetic susceptibility of the matter and depends on the degree of magnetization of the
matter in the field. Magnetization depends on the size of the dipole moments of the atoms in a substance
and the degree to which the dipole moments are aligned with respect to each other. Certain materials,
such as iron, exhibit very strong magnetic properties because of the alignment of the magnetic moments
of their atoms within certain small regions called domains. Under normal conditions, the various
domains have fields that cancel, but they can be aligned with each other to produce extremely large
magnetic fields. Various alloys, like NdFeB (an alloy of neodymium, iron, and boron), keep their
domains aligned and are used to make permanent magnets. The strong magnetic field produced by a
typical three-millimetre-thick magnet of this material is comparable to an electromagnet made of a
copper loop carrying a current of several thousand amperes. In comparison, the current in a typical light
bulb is 0.5 ampere. Since aligning the domains of a material produces a magnet, disorganizing the
orderly alignment destroys the magnetic properties of the material. Thermal agitation that results from
heating a magnet to a high temperature destroys its magnetic properties.

2. Classifications of magnets
2.1 Diamagnetic Substance
Diamagnetic Substances are repelled by magnets due to the
fact that they produce negative magnetization. The net magnetic
moment is zero in diamagnetic substancebecause when an external
field is applied to a diamagnetic substance then the magnetic
moment of electrons is aligned to the opposite direction of the
applied field. Every element in the periodic table possess the
property of diamagnetism, but few elements like Cu, Al2O3, Si, Zn
have stronger diamagnetic property.

2.2 Paramagnetic Substance

In Paramagnetic material, there exists a little magnetic moment since the net magnetic moment is
not cancelled out completely. The magnetic moments in paramagnetic material are randomly aligned
and when they are subjected to an external magnetic field, these magnetic moments align themselves in
the direction of the applied magnetic field H. Example of paramagnetic materials include Al, Cr, Mo, Ti,
Zr.
 2.3 Ferromagnetic Substance
Unlike diamagnets or paramagnets, those materials
which tend to remain magnetized even when the magnetic field
is removed exhibits ferromagnetism. This phenomenon is also
known as Hysteresis and the plot between variations of
magnetism with magnetic field is called Hysteresis Loop.
However at one point or temperature the ferromagnetic materials
tend to lose its magnetic properties. This temperature or point is
known as Curie point or Curie temperature.

2.4 Ferri-Magnetic Substance

The basic difference between a ferromagnetic
material and ferri-magnetic material is that some magnetic
domains in ferri-magnetic material points in the same
direction while some point in the opposite direction. While
in case of ferromagnetic material all the magnetic domains
point in the same direction.

2.5 Anti-Ferromagnetic Substance

In Anti-Ferromagnetic material, the magnetic moments of atoms or molecules usually related to
the spin of the electrons, align in a regular pattern with neighbouring spins in opposite directions.MnO
is an example of anti-ferromagnetism

3. Magnetic Properties
3.1 Magnetic fields
3.1A What is a magnetic field?
A magnetic field describes a volume of space where there is a change in energy. Later, you
will see a simple way to detect a magnetic field with a compass.
Magnetic fields are produced by electric currents, which can be macroscopic currents in wires, or
microscopic currents associated with electrons in atomic orbits. The magnetic field B is defined in
terms of force on moving charge in the Lorentz force law. The interaction of magnetic field with
charge leads to many practical applications. Magnetic field sources are essentially dipolar in nature,
having a north and south magnetic pole. The SI unit for magnetic field is the Tesla, which
can be seen from the magnetic part of the Lorentz force law Fmagnetic = qvB to be composed of
(Newton x second)/(Coulomb x meter). A smaller magnetic field unit is the Gauss (1 Tesla =
10,000 Gauss).

Magnetic field is a vector field in the neighbourhood of a magnet, electric current, or changing
electric field, in which magnetic forces are observable. Magnetic fields such as that of Earth
cause magnetic compass needles and other permanent magnets to line up in the direction of the
field. Magnetic fields force moving electrically charged particles in a circular or helical path. This
force—exerted on electric currents in wires in a magnetic field—underlies the operation of
electric motors.

3.1B How is magnetic field created?

As Ampere suggested, a magnetic field is produced whenever an electrical charge is in motion.
The spinning and orbiting of the nucleus of an atom produces a magnetic field as does electrical
current flowing through a wire. The direction of the spin and orbit determine the direction of
the magnetic field. The strength of this field is called the magnetic moment.

The motion of an electric charge producing a magnetic field is an essential concept in

understanding magnetism. The magnetic moment of an atom can be the result of the
electron's spin, which is the electron orbital motion and a change in the orbital motion of the
electrons caused by an applied magnetic field.

3.1C Magnetic field of the Earth

The Earth's magnetic field is similar to that of a bar magnet tilted 11 degrees from the spin axis
of the Earth. The problem with that picture is that the Curie temperature of iron is about 770 °C.
The Earth's core is hotter than that and therefore not magnetic. So how did the Earth get its
magnetic field?

Magnetic fields surround electric

currents, so we surmise that circulating electic
currents in the Earth's molten metalic core are
the origin of the magnetic field. A current loop
gives a field similar to that of the earth. The
magnetic field magnitude measured at the
surface of the Earth is about half a Gauss and
dips toward the Earth in the northern
hemisphere. The magnitude varies over the
surface of the Earth in the range 0.3 to 0.6
Gauss.

The Earth's magnetic field is attributed to

a dynamo effect of circulating electric current,
but it is not constant in direction. Rock
specimens of different age in similar locations
have different directions of permanent
magnetization. Evidence for 171 magnetic field
reversals during the past 71 million years has been reported. Although the details of the dynamo
effect are not known in detail, the rotation of the Earth plays a part in generating the currents
which are presumed to be the source of the magnetic field. Mariner 2 found that Venus does not
have such a magnetic field although its core iron content must be similar to that of the Earth.
Venus's rotation period of 243 Earth days is just too slow to produce the dynamo effect.

Interaction of the terrestrial magnetic field with particles from the solar wind sets up the
conditions for the aurora phenomena near the poles.

The north pole of a compass needle is a magnetic north pole. It is attracted to the geographic
North Pole, which is a magnetic south pole (opposite magnetic poles attract).

3.1D Magnetic Field In and Around a Bar Magnet

As discussed previously, a magnetic field is a change in
energy within a volume of space. The magnetic field surrounding a
bar magnet can be seen in the magnetograph below. A
magnetograph can be created by placing a piece of paper over a
magnet and sprinkling the paper with iron filings. The particles
align themselves with the lines of magnetic force produced by the
magnet. The magnetic lines of force show where the magnetic
field exits the material at one pole and reenters the material at
another pole along the length of the
magnet. It should be
noted that the magnetic
lines of force exist in
three dimensions but are
only seen in two
dimensions in the image.

It can be seen in the magnetograph that there are poles

all along the length of the magnet but that the poles are
concentrated at the ends of the magnet. The area where
the exit poles are concentrated is called the magnet's
north pole and the area where the entrance poles are
concentrated is called the magnet's south pole.
 The lines of magnetic field from a bar magnet form closed lines. By convention, the field
direction is taken to be outward from the North pole and in to the South pole of the
magnet. Permanent magnets can be made from ferromagnetic materials.

As can be visualized with the magnetic field lines, the magnetic field is strongest inside the
magnetic material. The strongest external magnetic fields are near the poles. A magnetic north
pole will attract the south pole of another magnet, and repel a north pole.

The magnetic field lines of a bar magnet can be traced out with the use of a compass. The needle
of a compass is itself a permanent magnet and the north indicator of the compass is a magnetic
north pole. The north pole of a magnet will tend to line up with the magnetic field, so a
suspended compass needle will rotate until it lines up with the magnetic field. Unlike magnetic
poles attract, so the north indicator of the compass will point toward the south pole of a magnet.
In response to the Earth's magnetic field, the compass will point toward the geographic North
Pole of the Earth because it is in fact a magnetic south pole. The magnetic field lines of the Earth
enter the Earth near the geographic North Pole.

3.1E Magnetic Fields in and around Horseshoe and Ring Magnets

Magnets come in a variety of shapes and one of the more
common is the horseshoe (U) magnet. The horseshoe magnet has north
and south poles just like a bar magnet but the magnet is curved so the
poles lie in the same plane. The magnetic lines of force flow from pole
to pole just like in the bar magnet. However, since the poles are located
closer together and a more direct path exists for the lines of flux to
travel between the poles, the magnetic field is concentrated between the
poles.

If a bar magnet was placed across the end of a horseshoe

magnet or if a magnet was formed in the shape of a ring, the lines of
magnetic force would not even need to enter the air. The value of such
a magnet where the magnetic field is completely contained with the
material probably has limited use. However, it is important to
understand that the magnetic field can flow in loop within a material.

3.2 Magnetic line of force

3.2AWhat do the lines around the bar magnet indicate?

The lines that we have mapped out around the magnet, called the magnetic lines of force,
indicate the region in which the force of the magnet can be detected. This region is called the
magnetic field. If an iron object is near a magnet, but is not within the magnetic field, the object
will not be attracted to the magnet. When the object enters the magnetic field, the force of the
magnet acts, and the object is attracted. The pattern of these lines of force tells us something
about the characteristics of the forces caused by the magnet. The magnetic lines of force, or flux,
leave the north pole and enter the south pole.

3.2B How is the earth like a magnet?

Since the earth is a huge magnet with a magnetic north and south pole, the lines of magnetic
force around the earth look like there is a huge vertical bar magnet running through the center of
the earth. We will see in the next experiment how the magnetic lines of flux around a magnet can
be seen. The next page will tell you more about how you can observe the magnetic field of a
magnet and what you can learn from reading the patterns of the magnetic lines of force.
 3.2C General Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force

Magnetic lines of force have a number of important properties, which include:

 They seek the path of least resistance
between opposite magnetic poles. In
a single bar magnet as shown to the
right, they attempt to form closed
 loops from pole to pole.
 They never cross one another.
  They all have the same strength.
 Their density decreases (they spread
out) when they move from an area
of higher permeability to an area of
 lower permeability.
 Their density decreases with
 increasing distance from the poles.
 They are considered to have direction
as if flowing, though no actual
 movement occurs.
 They flow from the south pole to the
north pole within a material and north
pole to south pole in air.


3.3 Magnetic Field Strength

Let us consider that a current carrying coil has produced a magnetic field H as shown in the diagram
below:

Then the value of H is given by,

H = nI/L(A/m)
Where n is the number of turns in solenoid and l is the length of the cylinder.
 3.4 Magnetic Flux Density (B)

When a substance is subjected to the magnetic field H, then the density of magnetic field lines that pass
through the substance per square meter is known as Magnetic Flux Density. It is given by
B = μ X H (Tesla or weber /m2)
Where μ is called the Permeability and is defined as the degree to which a substance gets
magnetized.The value of permeability in vacuum is given by
m = 4px 10-7(H/m)

3.5 Magnetic Moments


Motion of electrons in atoms gives rise to the phenomenon called magnetism. Basically two types of
motions are associated with the electrons:
 Motion of electrons in an orbit within the nucleus.
 Spin of electrons around its axis
The spin and orbital moments imparts magnetic moment on each electron, forcing them to behave as
tiny magnets.
The rotational force experienced by a magnet when placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to its
magnetic axis is defined as the MagneticMoment of a Magnet.


4. Magnetic Domains

4.1 What is magnetic domain?

A magnetic domain is region in which the magnetic fields of atoms are grouped together and
aligned. In the experiment below, the magnetic domains are indicated by the arrows in the metal
material. You can think of magnetic domains as miniature magnets within a material. In an
unmagnetized object, like the initial piece of metal in our experiment, all the magnetic domains are
pointing in different directions. But, when the metal became magnetized, which is what happens when
it is rubbed with a strong magnet, all like magnetic poles lined up and pointed in the same direction.
The metal became a magnet. It would quickly become unmagnetized when its magnetic domains
returned to a random order. The metal in our experiment is a soft ferromagnetic material, which means
that it is easily magnetized but may not retain its magnetism very long.

4.2 What is different about ferromagnetic materials that make them strongly magnetic?
Ferromagnetic materials get their magnetic properties not only because their atoms carry a
magnetic moment but also because the material is made up of small regions known as magnetic
domains. In each domain, all of the atomic dipoles are coupled together in a preferential direction.
This alignment develops as the material develops its crystalline structure during solidification from the
molten state. Magnetic domains can be detected using Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM) and images
of the domains like the one shown below can be constructed.

During solidification, a trillion or more atom moments are aligned parallel so that the magnetic
force within the domain is strong in one direction. Ferromagnetic materials are said to be characterized
by "spontaneous magnetization" since they obtain saturation magnetization in each of the domains
without an external magnetic field being applied. Even though the domains are magnetically saturated,
the bulk material may not show any signs of magnetism because the domains develop themselves and
are randomly oriented relative to each other.
Ferromagnetic materials become magnetized when the magnetic domains within the material
are aligned. This can be done by placing the material in a strong external magnetic field or by passing
electrical current through the material. Some or all of the domains can become aligned. The more
domains that are aligned, the stronger the magnetic field in the material. When all of the domains are
aligned, the material is said to be magnetically saturated. When a material is magnetically saturated, no
additional amount of external magnetization force will cause an increase in its internal level of
magnetization.

Unmagnetized Material Magnetized Material

5. Electricity and Magnetism

5.1 If electricity produces magnetism, can magnets produce electricity?

This process is called electromagnetic induction. When an electrical wire cuts across
magnetic lines of force, a current is produced in the wire. We know this because the current is
detected by watching the needle on a galvanometer, which is an instrument that can measure
electric current in wires. The same result is obtained when a magnet is moved in and out of
coils of wire. It does not matter if the magnet is moved or if the coils of wire are moved. The
important thing is that there is motion within the magnetic field, and that the magnetic lines of
force are cut.

5.2 Why is electromagnetic induction important to us?

The discovery of electromagnetic induction is very important in our lives because it is

the principle by which electric generators can make electricity. Through the use of magnets, a
generator can convert mechanical energy to electrical energy and provide electricity that we
need for so many things. Remember that energy is the ability to do work and that mechanical
energy is the energy caused by moving objects. For example, when you move your legs to
peddle a bicycle, you cause energy that moves the bicycle wheels and runs the bicycle. When a
rushing wave of water hits a boat and turns it over, the moving water causes the energy that
moves the boat to overturn it. When there is a way to turn this moving energy into electricity
that can light a light bulb, we can get light in our home.

5.3 How does a magnet help a generator convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy?

A generator works very much the same as you saw in the experiment. Inside a
generator is a magnet, some electrical wire, and a source of mechanical energy. The
mechanical energy moves the wire into the magnetic field of the magnet so that the wire cuts
through the magnetic lines of force. As a result, electric current is produced. Electric
generators can come in all sizes. Some electric generators are very big and contain huge
magnets so they can produce a lot of electricity. On the other hand, some generators contain
small magnets and are small enough to hold in your hand. These small generators may produce
only enough electricity to light one small light bulb.

6. Electromagnets and electromagnetism

6.1 What are electromagnets?

 Electromagnets are a different from permanent magnets. Electromagnets are made of coils of
wire with electricity passing through them. Moving charges create magnetic fields, so when the coils of
wire in an electromagnet have an electric current passing through them, the coils behave like a magnet.
When the electricity stops flowing, the coils don’t act like a magnet anymore. Electromagnets are used
in a lot of electronic devices when magnetic forces are only needed for short periods of time.

6.2 What is electromagnetism?

Electromagnetism is the branch of physics that deals with electricity and magnetism and the
interaction between them. It was first discovered in the 19th century and has extensive application
in today's world of physics.

Electromagnetism is basically the science of electromagnetic fields. An electromagnetic field

is the field produced by objects that are charged electrically. Radio waves, infrared waves, Ultraviolet
waves, and x-rays are all electromagnetic fields in a certain range of frequency. Electricity is produced
by the changing of magnetic field. The phenomenon is also called "electromagnetic induction."
Similarly the magnetic field is produced by motion of electric charges.

The basic law of electromagnetism is known as "Faraday's law of Induction." The phenomenon
of electromagnetism was discovered in the 19th century, and this led to the discovery of the "special
theory of relativity" by Albert Einstein. According to his theory, electric and magnetic fields could be
converted into one another with a relative motion. This phenomenon and its applications were
discovered because of the many contributions from great scientists and physicists such as Michael
Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Oliver Heaviside, and Heinrich Hertz. In 1802, an Italian scholar
demonstrated the relationship between electricity and magnetism by deflecting a magnetic needle with
electrostatic charges.

Electromagnetism is basically a conjecture of a combined expression of an underlying force,

known as "electromagnetic force." This force can be seen when an electric charge is moving. This
movement produces magnetism. This idea was presented by James Clerk Maxwell who published the
theory of electricity and magnetism in 1865. Based on this theory many applications and other effects
were discovered by other scientists. Electromagnetism has been extended to the area of quantum
physics as well where light propagates as a wave and interacts as a particle.

It has been proved that electricity can give rise to magnetism and vice versa. A very simple
example is that of an "electric transformer." The exchanges take place inside the transformer that
gives rise to electromagnetic waves. Another fact about these waves is that they do not need a
medium to propagate although their speed is relatively slower when traveling through transparent
substances.
6.3 Electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves were first discovered by James Clerk Maxwell and they were confirmed
after wards by Heinrich Hertz. Afterward, a wave form of electric and magnetic equations was derived
by Maxwell which showed that the electric and magnetic fields had wave-like nature. The factors which
differentiate electromagnetic waves from each other are frequency, amplitude and polarization. For
example, a laser beam is coherent and the radiation is of only one frequency. There are other types of
waves varying with their frequencies such as radio waves which are at very low frequencies and gamma
rays and x-rays of very high frequency. Electromagnetic waves can propagate to very long distances and
they are not affected by any kind of obstacles whether they are huge walls or towers.

This special interaction of electricity and magnetism has led to great advancements in modern
science and technology, and efforts are being made to discover more about electromagnetism and its
applications. Other forces are gravitational forces, strong and weak forces. Electromagnetism has also
been combined with the weak force which is known as "Electroweak force."

6.4 Applications of electromagnetism

Electromagnetism has numerous applications in today's world of science and physics. The very basic
application of electromagnetism is in the use of motors. The motor has a switch that continuously
switches the polarity of the outside of motor. An electromagnet does the same thing. We can change the
direction by simply reversing the current. The inside of the motor has an electromagnet, but the current
is controlled in such a way that the outside magnet repels it.

Another very useful application

of electromagnetism is the "CAT
scan machine." This machine is
usually used in hospitals to
diagnose a disease. As we know
that current is present in our body
and the stronger the current, the
strong is the magnetic field. This
scanning technology is able to
pick up the magnetic fields, and it
can be easily identified where
there is a great amount of
electrical activity inside the body.

brain electromagnetism

The work of the human brain is based on electromagnetism. Electrical impulses cause the operations
inside the brain and it has some magnetic field. When two magnetic fields cross each other inside the
brain, interference occurs which is not healthy for the brain.
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