1.

0 TITLE
Fluid friction and losses in pipes.

2.0 OBJECTIVE
The purpose of this experiment;

I. To obtain the relationship between Reynolds number, frictional factor and losses in
pipes.
II. To determine the relationship between head loss due to fluid friction and velocity for
flow of water through bore pipes.

3.0 INTRODUCTION
Fluid flow in pipes is continuously impacted by the resistance to flow offered by the
roughness of pipe at the walls based on the law of similarity. Smooth pipes offer little or
negligible resistance to flow while rougher surfaces offer increasing resistance depending on
the degree of roughness. Such resistance affects flow rate (Q) and velocity distribution of
process fluid in the pipe. The resistance increases for Q values in transition and turbulent
regions. Studies elsewhere have shown that high velocities produce high resistances to flow
in pipes and hence hL values for particular type of surface roughness. Darcy- Weisbach,
Hazen-Williams, Moody and Fanning showed that for any flow of fluid in a pipe exhibiting
some form of roughness; head losses (hL) due to friction were produced. The challenge with
the delivery of fluids is either non delivery or insufficient delivery to the desired destination.
Oftentimes, it is either the insufficient pumping due to faulty pumps or high friction losses
in the delivery system. This may be caused by pipe blockage or increased roughness which
may contribute to high friction losses or the system has a high positive delivery head or
insufficient net positive suction head at the pump.

As an incompressible fluid flows through a pipe, a friction force along the pipe wall
is created against the fluid. The frictional resistance generates a continuous loss of energy or
total head in the fluid and hence decreases the pressure of the fluid as it moves through the
pipe. There are four factors that determine friction losses in pipe:
 i. The velocity of the fluid.
ii. The size (inside diameter) of the pipe
iii. The direction of flow in the pipe
iv. The length of the pipe

In addition to energy or head loss due to friction, there are always head losses in pipes
due to an enlargement or contraction of the flow section, bends, junctions, and valves etc.,
which are commonly known as minor or small losses. When the direction of flow is altered
or distorted, energy losses occur which are not recovered are dissipated in eddies and
additional turbulence and finally lost in the form of heat. However, this energy must be
supplied if the fluid is to be maintained in motion, in the same way, as energy must be
provided to overcome friction. In practice, in long pipe lines of several kilometres the effect
of minor losses may be negligible. For short pipeline the losses may be greater than those for
friction.

4.0 THEORY
In Bernoulli’s equation as shown below, hf represents the head loss due to the friction
between the fluid and the internal surface of the constant diameter pipe as well as the friction
between the adjacent fluid layers.
𝑷𝟏 𝐕𝟐 𝐏𝟐 𝐕𝟐
+ 𝟐𝐠𝟏 + 𝐙𝟏 = + 𝟐𝐠𝟐 + 𝐙𝟐 + 𝐡𝐟 (1)
𝐠 𝐠

This will result in a continuous change of energy from a valuable mechanical form
(such as kinetic or potential energies) to a less valuable thermal form that is heat. This change
of energy is usually referred to as friction head loss, which represents the amount of energy
converted into heat per unit weight of fluid.

The head losses (hf) in pipe due to friction can be determined using Darcy-Weisback
equation;

Turbulent flow ;
𝟒𝒇𝑳𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = (2)
𝟐𝒈𝑫
Laminar flow ;

𝟑𝟐𝒇𝑳𝑸𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = 𝟐 𝟓 (𝟑)
𝝅 𝒈𝑫

Where;

f = Friction factor

L = Length

V = Mean velocity (Q/A)

g = Gravity

D = Constant diameter

The friction head loss for both laminar and turbulent flows can be expressed by
similar formulas although the original derivation of each one is different;
𝑳 𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = 𝒇 (𝟒)
𝑫 𝟐𝒈
In laminar flow, the friction factor is only a friction of Reynolds number while for
turbulent flow it is a function of Reynolds (Re) number and the relative roughness of the pipe.
𝐕𝐃
𝐑𝐞 = (𝟓)


Where;
: Density
V: Average velocity
D: Pipe inside diameter
: Viscosity

Based on the nature of the flow, friction factor(f) can be estimated using the following
correlations;

Laminar flow ;
𝟔𝟒
𝐟 = 𝐑𝐞 (6)
 Turbulent Flow ;
𝐟 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟔 𝐱 𝐑𝐞 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 (7)
Equation (7) is Blausius Equation and only valid for smooth pipe and 3000<Re<105.
The value of f for turbulent flow can be obtained experimentally from the Moody Chart.
Moreover, for turbulent flow, the relationship between hf and V takes the form;
𝐡𝒇 = 𝐊𝐕𝐧 (𝟖)

Where K is a loss coefficient and n ranges from 1.7 to 2.0 (depending on the value of
Re and ks/D).This equation can be written as;
𝐋𝐨𝐠 𝐡𝒇 = 𝐋𝐨𝐠 𝐊 + 𝐧 𝐋𝐨𝐠 𝐕 (9)
In order to find K and n experimentally, using graph.

Experimentally, one can obtain the head loss by applying energy equation between
any two points along a constant diameter pipe. This is done in Eq.1 and by noticing that the
pipe is horizontal and the diameter is constant. The pressure heads of a fluid between 2 points,
h1 and h2 are measured by using Piezometer tubes. The total head loss can be determined
experimentally by applying the Bernoulli’s equation as follows:
𝐏𝟏 – 𝐏𝟐
𝐡𝒇 = = 𝐡𝟏 – 𝐡𝟐 (10)
𝐠

Energy losses are proportional to the velocity head of the fluid as it flows around an
elbow, through an enlargement or contraction of the flow section, or through a valve.
Experimental values for energy losses are usually reported in terms of a resistance or loss
coefficient K as follows:
𝐊𝐕 𝟐
𝐡𝑳 = (11)
𝟐𝐠

Where;
hL = The minor loss
K = The resistance or loss coefficient
V = The average velocity of flow in the pipe in the vicinity where the minor
occurs.
The resistance or loss coefficient is dimensionless because it represents a constant of
proportionality between the energy loss and the velocity head. The magnitude of the
 resistance coefficient depends on the geometry of the device that causes the loss and
sometimes on the velocity of flow.

In the experiment the pressure heads before & after a fluid undergoing sudden
change in pipe diameter or flow direction, h1 and h2 are measured by using Piezometer tubes.
The total head loss (major and minor losses) can be determined experimentally by applying
the Bernoulli’s equation as follows:

𝑷𝟏 𝐕𝟐 𝑷 𝐕𝟐
+ 𝟐𝐠𝟏 + 𝐙𝟏 = 𝒑𝒈𝟐 + 𝟐𝐠𝟐 + 𝐙𝟐 + 𝐡𝑳 (12)
𝛒𝐠

𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝟐
𝐡𝟏 + 𝟐𝐠𝟏 + 𝐙𝟏 = 𝐡𝟐 + 𝟐𝐠𝟐 + 𝐙𝟐 + 𝐡𝑳 (13)

and since z1 = z2 , then ;

𝐕𝟏 𝟐 −𝐕𝟐 𝟐
𝐡𝐋 = 𝐡𝟏 − 𝐡𝟐 + (14)
𝟐𝐠

5.0 EQUIPMENT
I. Hydraulic Bench; as shown in Figure 1.0.
II. Smooth and roughened bore pipes of various diameters.
III. Manometer.
IV. Stop watch.

Figure 1.0 shows the apparatus of Hydraulic Bench

6.0 PROCEDURE
1. The water manometer’s rubber tube was connected to the inlet flowing pressure (H1)
and the outlet flowing pressure (H2).

2. The pump and valve were started and controlled to manipulate the flow rate. Then, the
readings at the rotameter for flowrate, Q was taken.

3. The diameter and the length were followed as given in the laboratory sheet.

4. It was made sure that there are no bubbles along the tubing. If there was presence of
bubbles, they are carefully removed without damaging the line.

5. The manometer reading was balanced. The reading of manometer, H1 and H2 were
taken and recorded.

6. The time taken to collect 5 litres of water in the tank was recorded using a digital
stopwatch.

7. Steps 1 to 6 were repeated with pipe B and pipe C. The reading of manometer and time
taken to collect 5 litres of water for each flow rate was repeated twice. The experiment
is repeated with different flow rates.

7.0 RESULTS

Given in Table 1.0 are the pipe dimensions;

Straight Pipe Section Diameter (D), mm Length (L), mm

1 10mm Smooth 10.0 1080
2 17mm Smooth 17.0 1080
3 17mm Rough 17.0 1080

Table 1.0 shows the straight pipe dimensions.

8.0 CALCULATION

Average Time Taken to Collect 5ℓ of Water, t(s)

t A1  t A2  t A3
t avg @ 1 
3
 75  77  76 
 s
 3 
 76.0000 s

Calculation for Flow Rate Q (m3/h)

Volume (m 3 )
Q
Time (hr)
5 1 m 3 3600 s
  
76.00 s 1000  1 hr
m3
 0.2368
hr

Head loss, ΔH (m)

H @Reading 1  H 2 - H1
 0.0590 - 0.0456  m
 0.0134 m

V avg (m/s)
Flow rate
V
Area
3
0.2368 m
 hr  1 hr
  (0.01)  2 3600 s
2
  m
 4 
m
 0.8377
s
 Reynolds number
vD
Re 

kg m
998 3
 0.84  0.01 m
 m s Re > 4000, so it is turbulent flow
kg
10.891  10 -3
m.s
 9382.5172

Pipe friction coefficient, f

2gDH
f 
KLv2
m
2  9.81 2
 0.01m  0.0134m
 s
2
2 m
1.08m  (0.84) 2
s
 0.0035

Table 3.0 shows the calculations involved in this experiment

9.0 ANALYSIS

Pipe A (ΔH against Q) Pipe A (log H against log V)

0.1 -3.30
-0.10 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30
0.0 -3.40

0.0 -3.50

0.0 -3.60

0.0 -3.70

-3.80
0.0
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 -3.90

Graph 1 shows the ∆𝐻 against Q in Pipe A Graph 2 shows the logH against logV in pipe A
 Pipe B (ΔH against Q) Pipe B (log H against log V)
0.0 -3.70
-0.10 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
0.0 -3.80

-3.90
0.0
-4.00
0.0
-4.10
0.0 -4.20
0.0000 0.5000 1.0000 1.5000
-4.30

Graph 3 shows the ∆𝐻 against Q in Pipe B Graph 4 shows the logH against logV in pipe B

Pipe C (ΔH against Q) Pipe C (log H against log V)

30.0 -3.20
-0.50 -0.40 -0.30 -0.20 -0.10 0.00
-3.30

20.0 -3.40

-3.50

10.0 -3.60

-3.70

0.0 -3.80
0.0000 0.0500 0.1000 0.1500 -3.90

Graph 5 shows the ∆𝐻 against Q in Pipe C Graph 6 shows the logH against logV in pipe C

ΔH against Q Log H against Log V

smooth pipe rough pipe 10mm smooth pipe 17mm smooth pipe
0.0600 17mm rough pipe
0.00
0.0500 -0.60 -0.40 -0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40
Head loss,ΔH(m)

-1.00
0.0400

0.0300 -2.00
Log H

0.0200 -3.00
0.0100
-4.00
0.0000
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 -5.00
Flowrate, Q(m^3/h) Log V

Graph 7 shows the ∆𝐻 against Q Graph 8 shows the logH against logV
10.0 DISCUSSION
Every organization requires that the transportation of process fluids be efficient,
that the transporting system must not provide excessive hindrance to the flow of fluid in the
pipe. Any fittings, bends and valves placed in the fluids-transport system should also offer
little resistance to flow of material in order to maintain high efficiency in transportation and
minimize losses due to friction whether the fluid is a single, double or triple phase system.
For a single phase system, such as water in this study, it was quite clear that D of pipe and Q
of fluid played a key role not only in determining the hL but also contributed significantly to
the Length of pipe. It was observed further that the flow rate cannot be left out during the
design of pipe system because it is linked to the area and hence the diameter of the pipe.

It was also observed that different levels of flow of fluid produced different levels of
hL in pipes. The defect law applies only to systems that are not cylindrical. When Q was
doubled the hL quadrupled. This was confirmed elsewhere. It means therefore that
appropriate Q is required to be determined early in the design process so as to avoid high hL
in pipes. The results in this study provide a solution to the choice of the level of Q for
particular design of pipe.

Using the measured hydraulic head, the friction loss coefficients are calculated from
Darcy-Weisbach equation under the non-circular assumption. The friction loss coefficients
are also calculated under the assumption of circular pipe. In Table 2.0 and 2.1, measured and
computed friction loss coefficients are listed with the corresponding Reynolds number and
model discharge. The frictional loss coefficient is decreased with the increase of discharge
and Reynolds number,

Based on the head loss against flowrate graph, the head loss is directly proportional
to the square of velocity and indirectly to the diameter of pipe. The Q values and cross area
of pipe were linked to the velocity of fluid in the pipe. An increase in the Q produced an
increase in head loss. The results in table 2.1 showed that when Q increased from 0.2368
m3/s to 0.5047 m3/s , the hL increased from 0.0134m – 0.0441m for the 10mm smooth pipe,
0.0060m– 0.0171m for the 17 mm smooth pipe and 0.0165m – 0.0525m for the 17 mm rough
pipe. Therefore a choice of pipe roughness, Q and diameter of pipe was important in attaining
the required operating conditions for the chosen pipe and process fluids. The equivalent
lengths of pipes hence total hL were found to be inversely proportional to the diameter of
pipes. This statement agrees well with Darcy’s formula or method. As D increased the
equivalent, length decreased correspondingly regardless of the level of flow rate. It is
important to understand that the transportation of fluids could be carried out with minimal
losses when greater diameters and smooth pipe were used.

Besides, it can be clearly seen that that the head loss, for smooth pipe of and rough
pipe of 17mm increases rapidly when the flow rate of the fluid increases. As the diameter of
the pipe increases, the shear force acting on it also increases since the flow velocity is directly
proportional to the volumetric flow rate, the system head loss must also be directly
proportional to the square of the volumetric flow rate. Based on Graph log h versus log V,
log V is directly proportional to log h. As the log V increases, the log h is also increase. The
process of a laminar flow becoming turbulent is known as laminar-turbulent transition. The
transitional flow is where the Reynolds number in the range of 2300 ≤ Re ≤ 4000. The
parameters that can reduce the head loss are diameter of pipe, length of the pipe and also pipe
surface. The pipe diameter should be bigger because it can reduce the resistance and friction
loss. The length of pipe should be smaller because this can reduce the resistance along the
pipe. Smooth surface is more likely to reduce the head loss compared to rough pipe.
However, according to the graph, there is slightly decreasing and then increasing slope. This
happened due to several errors that occurred throughout the experiment.

From the experiment conducted, there are some of the errors that will affect the result
of the experiment. While conducting, presence of air bubble in the tube that caused the height
value of H1 and H2 have lower sensitivity. Unstable flow rate from the water source will
cause the height value to be inaccurate. Furthermore, there are leakages in some point of the
pipe causing the pressure of the water is not consistent and leads to the difference in the
experimental and theoretical value. . Besides, minor errors also occurred such as parallax
error and zero error. To prevent this errors, the position of the eye must be perpendicular to
the reading scale and readings should be obtained at below meniscus level of water in the
manometer. In addition, readings were taken several time in order to get an accurate result
by calculating the average of it.
11.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, all the objectives of the experiment are achieved. However, the result
obtained in the experiment is inaccurate. This is due to difference in the experimental value
and theoretical value. From the experiment, we can conclude that linear pipe with rough
surface have larger energy losses than the energy losses in linear pipe with smooth surface.
This occurs because friction in rough surface pipe is higher than the friction in smooth surface
pipe. From the experiment, we also know that losses in pipe are also dependent on the
diameter of the pipe. The smaller the diameter will have the greater losses. Besides, losses in
pipe are also dependent on the flow rate. When the flow rate is higher, the losses will also be
greater. However, the results obtained were not accurate due to some errors occurred during
the experiment. The accuracy of the experiment can be increase if we can improve all of the
error made during the experiment and taking the precautionary steps discussed in the
discussion.

As a recommendation, the water must be change frequently to avoid corrosion in

pump and in other equipment. This is because it can cause frictions loss and affects the
efficiency of the pump. To get the best result in order to avoid all the errors come out. Some
of the steps are to make the flow rate of the water source consistent and remove the bubble
from the tubes in the measurements. Besides, make sure that valve is tide enough in order to
prevent leakage happen during the flow and also to make sure that the flow rate through the
pipe is the same as the flow rate from the water meter. Furthermore, flow rate must be always
constant during experiment by fully open the valve during every part of experiment. Smaller
scale on water meter should be used. Other than that, every air bubble in the tube is removed.
Hence, the reading should be taken repeatedly to minimize the errors. In avoiding parallax
error, the eyes should be perpendicular to the scale. Last but not least, all water flow must be
turn off before pipe changing. This is to make sure that water level does not exceed maximum
level in the tube.
12.0 REFERENCE

Cengel Y.A and Cimbala J.M. (2014). Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals & Applications.
Third Edition in SI Units. 3rd Ed. McGraw-Hill Education, Asia. p.349-376.

What is friction? - definition, formula & forces - video & lesson transcript. Retrieved on
March 29, 2018, from http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-friction-definition-
formula-forces.html

Rolf H. Sabersky, Allan J Acosta, Edward G. Hauptmann and E.M. Gates, "Fluid Flow-A
First Course of Fluid Mechanics" (Fourth Edition), Prentice Hall Inc., 1999.

R.V Giles, “Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics” (Third Edition), McGrawHill Inc; 1994.

What is friction? - definition, formula & forces - video & lesson transcript. Retrieved on
March 29, 2018, from http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-friction-definition-
formula-forces.html