2017 Valve Stenosis Guideline
2017 Valve Stenosis Guideline
2017 Valve Stenosis Guideline
This document is endorsed by the following American Society of Echocardiography International Alliance Partners:
Argentine Federation of Cardiology, Argentine Society of Cardiology, ASEAN Society of Echocardiography,
Australasian Sonographers Association, British Society of Echocardiography, Canadian Society of Echocardiography,
Chinese Society of Echocardiography, Department of Cardiovascular Imaging of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology,
Indian Academy of Echocardiography, Indian Association of Cardiovascular Thoracic Anaesthesiologists, Indonesian
Society of Echocardiography, InterAmerican Association of Echocardiography, Iranian Society of Echocardiography,
Israel Work Group on Echocardiography, Italian Association of Cardiothoracic Anaesthesiologists, Japanese Society of
Echocardiography, Korean Society of Echocardiography, National Society of Echocardiography of Mexico, Philippine
Society of Echocardiography, Saudi Arabian Society of Echocardiography, Thai Society of Echocardiography,
Vietnamese Society of Echocardiography.
From the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, RDCS, RCS, ACS, FASE, has served on the speakers bureau for Lantheus Medical
Wisconsin (C.M., P.S.R.); the Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota (L.A.B., J.A.F.); Imaging and as a faculty speaker for Gulf Coast Ultrasound. Eric J. Velazquez, MD,
the Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, Oregon (B.C.); Duke FASE, received cardiovascular research grants from the National Institutes of
University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.C.F., E.J.V.); Health/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, Am-
Intermountain Heart Institute, Intermountain Medical Center, Salt Lake City, gen, General Electric, Novartis Pharmaceutical, and Pfizer and has served as a
Utah (K.H.); First Cardiology Consultants Hospital, Ikoyi, Lagos, Nigeria (K.O.O.); consultant for ABIOMED, Amgen, Merck, New Century Health, Novartis Pharma-
and St. Francis Hospital and Medical Center, Hartford, Connecticut (R.A.P.). ceutical, and Philips Ultrasound.
This document is endorsed by the following American Society of Echocardiogra- * Reprint requests: American Society of Echocardiography, Meridian Corporate
phy International Alliance Partners: the Cardiovascular Imaging Department of Center, 2530 Meridian Parkway, Suite 450, Durham, NC 27713 (E-mail: ase@
the Brazilian Society of Cardiology, the Chinese Society of Echocardiography, asecho.org).
the Indian Academy of Echocardiography, the Japanese Society of Echocardiog-
raphy, the InterAmerican Association of Echocardiography, the Italian Association Attention ASE Members:
of Cardiothoracic Anaesthesiologists. Visit www.aseuniversity.org to earn free continuing medical education credit through
The following authors reported no actual or potential conflicts of interest in relation an online activity related to this article. Certificates are available for immediate access
to this document: Peter S. Rahko, MD, FASE, Lori A. Blauwet, MD, FASE, Barry upon successful completion of the activity. Nonmembers will need to join the ASE to
Canaday, RN, MS, RDCS, RCS, FASE, Joshua A. Finstuen, MA, RT(R), RDCS, access this great member benefit!
FASE, Michael C. Foster, BA, RCS, RCCS, RDCS, FASE, Kenneth Horton, ACS,
RCS, FASE, Kofo O. Ogunyankin, MD, FASE. The following authors reported rela- 0894-7317/$36.00
tionships with one or more commercial interests: Carol Mitchell, PhD, ACS, RDMS,
Copyright 2018 by the American Society of Echocardiography.
RDCS, RVT, RT(R), FASE, authored a textbook for Davies Publishing Inc., and
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.echo.2018.06.004
authorship with royalties for Elsevier and Wolters-Kluwer. Richard A. Palma, BS,
1
2 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Abbreviations
NCC = Noncoronary cusp
2D = Two-dimensional
PA = Pulmonary artery
3C = Three-chamber (apical long axis)
PFO = Patent foramen ovale
3D = Three-dimensional
PLAX = Parasternal long-axis
4C = Four-chamber
PMPap = Posteromedial papillary muscle
5C = Five-chamber
PMVL = Posterior leaflet mitral valve
A2C = Apical two-chamber
PR = Pulmonic valve regurgitation
A4C = Apical four-chamber
PRF = Pulse repetition frequency
Abd Ao = Abdominal aorta
PSAX = Parasternal short-axis
ALPap = Anterolateral papillary muscle
Pulvn = Pulmonary vein
AMVL = Anterior leaflet mitral valve
PV = Pulmonic valve
Ao = Aorta
PW = Pulsed-wave
AR = Aortic valve regurgitation
RA = Right atrium
Asc Ao = Ascending aorta
RCA = Right coronary artery
ASE = American Society of Echocardiography
RCC = Right coronary cusp
AV = Aortic valve
R innom vn = Right innominate vein
CDI = Color Doppler imaging
ROI = Region of interest
CS = Coronary sinus
RPS = Right parasternal
CW = Continuous-wave
RV = Right ventricular
Desc Ao = Descending aorta
RVIDd = Right ventricular internal dimension diastole
DTI = Doppler tissue imaging
RVOT = Right ventricular outflow tract
HPRF = High–pulse repetition frequency
SC = Subcostal
Hvns = Hepatic vein
SoVAo = Sinus of Valsalva
IAS = Interatrial septum
SSN = Suprasternal notch
Innom a = Innominate artery
STJ = Sinotubular junction
IVC = Inferior vena cava
SVC = Superior vena cava
IVS = Interventricular septum
TAPSE = Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion
LA = Left atrial
TGC = Time-gain compensation
LCC = Left coronary cusp
TR = Tricuspid valve regurgitation
LCCA = Left common carotid artery
TTE = Transthoracic echocardiographic
L innom vn = Left innominate vein
TV = Tricuspid valve
LSA = Left subclavian artery
UEA = Ultrasound enhancement agent
LV = Left ventricular
VTI = Velocity-time integral
LVIDd = Left ventricular internal dimension diastole
LVIDs = Left ventricular internal dimension systole 9. Zoom/Magnification 8
10. Frame Rate 8
LVOT = Left ventricular outflow tract B. Spectral Doppler 8
1. Velocity Scale 8
LVPW = Left ventricle posterior wall
2. Sweep Speed 8
MPA = Main pulmonary artery 3. Sample Volume Size 10
4. Wall Filters and Gain 10
MR = Mitral valve regurgitation 5. Display Settings 12
MS = Mitral stenosis 6. Pulsed-Wave Doppler, High–Pulse Repetition Frequency Doppler,
and CW Doppler 12
MV = Mitral valve 7. Doppler Tissue Imaging 15
C. Color Doppler Imaging 17
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 3
Volume 32 Number 1
This section defines the basic imaging windows, display, and mea-
surements for color Doppler imaging (CDI) to be integrated into the
comprehensive transthoracic examination. Similarly, display of color
Doppler flow interrogation for valves, vessels, and chambers is defined.
VIII. Spectral Doppler Imaging
This section defines the basic imaging windows, display, and measure-
ments for spectral Doppler to be integrated into the comprehensive trans-
thoracic examination. Similarly, display and measurement of spectral
Doppler flow interrogation for valves, vessels, and chambers are defined.
IX. Additional Techniques
C. Measurement Techniques
It is recommended by the writing group that the interface between
the compacted myocardium and the noncompacted myocardium
(trabeculated) be used for all 2D and 3D measurements (Figure 8).
The compacted myocardium is the solid, homogenous wall separate
from trabeculations within the blood-filled left ventricular (LV) cavity.
In instances when this interface cannot be discerned, one should mea-
sure at the blood-tissue interface.
Key Points #1
Descriptions of transducer movements to optimize the
image:
Tilt: The transducer maintains the same axis orienta-
Figure 3 Tilting maneuver of the transducer. The blue dot tion to the heart but moves to a different imaging
represents the index orientation marker. plane.
Sweep: Multiple transducer movements are used to
the anterior surface of the body, just below the sternum. Image acquisition record a long video clip to show multiple anatomic
for this window is performed with the patient in the supine position. The structures.
initial view from this window is the SC four-chamber view, which is ob- Rotate: The transducer maintains a stationary
tained with the index marker directed toward the patient’s left side at the position while the index marker is moved to a new
3 o’clock position.2,9-12 The SSN window is located just superior to the position.
manubrium of the sternum. Images are obtained from this window Slide: The transducer moves across the patient’s skin
with the patient in the supine position. The initial view demonstrated is to a new position.
the long axis of the aortic arch. The transducer orientation index Rock: Within the same imaging plane, the transducer
marker is initially directed toward the left shoulder, and the face of the changes orientation either toward or away from the
transducer is directed inferior so that the transducer is almost parallel orientation marker.
with the neck. Small movements of rocking and angling may be used Angle: The transducer is kept at the same location on
to demonstrate the best view of the aortic arch. the chest, and the sound beam is directed to show a
new structure.
B. Scanning Maneuvers
The terms tilt, sweep, rotate, slide, rock, and angle will be used to define trans- III. INSTRUMENTATION
ducer movements. The term tilt refers to a movement in which the trans-
ducer is fixed in position and the face of the transducer is moved to Operators performing TTE imaging are expected to be familiar with
demonstrate other image planes in the same axis (Figure 3).13 Sweep refers instrumentation settings and the contributions of these settings to im-
to the deliberate action of capturing a long video clip of data. An example age quality. Some features of image production are determined by
of a sweep would be recording the tilt planes of the heart from posterior to design of the ultrasound system and cannot be changed by the oper-
anterior in the apical window during one long video clip. The term rotate ator. However, several instrumentation settings can be modified dur-
refers to keeping the transducer in a stationary position but turning the in- ing image acquisition (preprocessing) or manipulated by the operator
dex marker to a new position (Figure 4).9,13,14 The term slide refers to after data are collected and stored (postprocessing), and these are
moving the transducer over the patient’s skin to a new position important for optimal image acquisition.10,15
(Figure 5).9,13,14 The terms rock and angle refer to smaller movements To save time for operators and improve consistency of imaging,
used to optimize an image. Rock refers to an action of moving the many laboratories set up imaging ‘‘presets’’ on their ultrasound equip-
transducer, staying in the same imaging plane, toward or away from ment. Presets are instrumentation settings that are optimal for imaging
the transducer orientation marker to center a structure or extend the a particular type of patient, anatomic structure, or blood flow and
field of view.13 Rock differs from tilt, in that the rock motion stays in should be considered starting points for image optimization.10,15,16
the same imaging plane (Figure 6), whereas the tilt motion refers to mo- They are time saving in that they are set for a typical patient
tion in the same axis but different imaging planes.13 Angle refers to a mo- coming to the echocardiography laboratory. Presets are available for
tion in which the image is optimized by keeping the transducer in the all ultrasound imaging modes, including M-mode, 2D, and all forms
same position and directing the sound beam toward a structure of inter- of Doppler imaging.10,16,17 The first section of the guidelines will
est. An example of angling is imaging of the tricuspid valve (TV) in the par- discuss instrumentation settings controlled by the operator.
asternal window, PSAX view, then moving the transducer to image the
PSAX aortic valve (AV), then manipulating the transducer to demonstrate A. Two-Dimensional Imaging
the pulmonic valve (PV) (Figure 7).14 Angle differs from rock, in that the
rock motion is used to center a structure, whereas the angle maneuver is 1. Grayscale Maps. The amplitude of reflected ultrasound de-
more complex, combining several small movements to optimize imaging tected by the imaging system varies over several logarithmic units
of a structure but not necessarily centering the structure to the middle of of signal strength, well beyond the capacity of human visual percep-
the image display. Throughout this document the term optimize refers to tion. Systems process the data to enhance and suppress signals, trans-
making the appropriate transducer movements to produce the best forming raw data into useful images that display the echocardiogram
possible image. in various shades of gray. High-amplitude signals are depicted as
6 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Figure 4 Rotating scanning maneuver. The blue dot represents the index orientation marker as it is related to the image. In the PLAX
image, the blue dot represents the orientation index marker located on the superior aspect of the image. In the PSAX image, the blue
dot represents the position of the orientation index marker and the lateral aspect of the image.
Figure 6 Rocking scanning maneuver. The blue dot represents the index orientation marker.
Figure 7 Angling scanning maneuver. The blue dot represents the index orientation marker.
transmit frequency and then adjust to lower frequencies if additional frequency of transducers to increase penetration while displaying
penetration of the sound wave is needed. The highest possible fre- the higher frequency second harmonic. This is especially helpful in
quency should be used for imaging throughout the examination patients who are obese or have dense muscle tissue and typically
(Tables 1.4a and 1.4b). yields higher quality images. Because the degree of harmonic
distortion is proportional to the strength of the reflected signal,
5. Harmonic Imaging. Modern imaging systems allow the selec- higher energy specular echoes at tissue borders are enhanced while
tion of harmonic imaging, where returning frequencies that are lower energy noise is eliminated. Thus, harmonic imaging results in
multiples of the transmit (fundamental) frequencies are used to an image that appears clearer with a maximized signal-to-noise
create the ultrasound image. Harmonic frequencies are caused by ratio.10,17,21,22 With early forms of tissue harmonic imaging, axial
the sound beam becoming distorted as it travels through resolution was negatively affected by the long pulse durations
tissues.10,17,21,22 Harmonic imaging most commonly uses the needed for frequency resolution. Newer forms of broad bandwidth
second harmonic frequency, which is twice the fundamental tissue harmonic imaging have resolved this problem and allow
frequency.10,17,21,22 Manufacturers have lowered the fundamental low-artifact, high–axial resolution imaging.23 The writing committee
8 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
(Continued )
demonstrated across each sweep. This will allow visualization of more allow a more precise measurement of time, velocity-time integral
than one beat and allow accurate measurements of time intervals. In (VTI), and slope. At other times when evaluating for physiology linked
some instances, sweep speed should be adjusted to optimize the to the respiratory cycle, a slow sweep speed of 25 mm/sec is desirable
display for a specific diagnosis. For example, different sweep speeds to allow many beats to be seen simultaneously with a respirometer
may be used to assess mitral inflow. In one case, it may be desirable (Tables 1.14a and 1.14b).31-33 All velocity and time interval
to increase the sweep speed to spread out the spectral waveform to measurements should be performed at a speed of $100 mm/sec.
10 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 1 (Continued )
1.4. Transmit frequency
Shows the effect on image quality of two
selections of frequency.
(see Videos 7 and 8)
1.6. Depth
Selects how shallow or deep the image will
display. The image on the right
demonstrates maximal use of the video
display. (see Videos 11 and 12)
(Continued )
3. Sample Volume Size. The sample volume size feature should 4. Wall Filters and Gain. Another adjustable spectral Doppler
be used to decrease spectral broadening (noise within the spectral parameter is the wall filter. The wall filter allows the removal of
window) in order to display the clearest Doppler signal.10,34 If the high-intensity but low-velocity signals (‘‘clutter’’) from the Doppler
sample volume is set too large, the Doppler signal may be spectrum that may emanate from movement of chamber walls or
inherently noisy, making it difficult to distinguish laminar from valve leaflets. It should be set to allow unambiguous display of the
turbulent flow.34 The appropriate sample volume size changes de- beginning and end of the flow signal of interest. In some instances,
pending on which structure is being interrogated. Specific recommen- when signal velocity is very low, the wall filter may need to be
dations appear in later sections for individual imaging circumstances set to a very low level to best detect the Doppler signal. In
(Tables 1.15a and 1.15b). instances in which high velocities are present, the wall filter may
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 11
Volume 32 Number 1
Table 1 (Continued )
1.7. Transducer beam focus
Alters the beam shape and placement of
the narrowed region of the sound beam,
resulting in improved lateral resolution at
the site of the focal zone. Note the clarity of
the structure based on the focal zone
placement (apex clarity, image 1.7a; MV
and LA wall, image 1.7b).
(see Videos 13 and 14)
1.9. TGC
Selectively amplifies returning echo signals
in different horizontal regions of the image
before display. Note the appearance of
focal banding when TGC pods at this area
are not set correctly (arrows, 1.9a).
Optimized TGC is image 1.9b.
(see Videos 17 and 18)
(Continued )
12 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 1 (Continued )
1.11. Zoom/magnification
Magnifies a selected area of interest within
the sector: Image 1.11a demonstrates the
placement of the zoom box; Image 1.11b
demonstrates the zoomed image.
(see Videos 21 and 22)
(Continued )
need to be adjusted upward to remove more low-velocity clutter to 5. Display Settings. The spectral Doppler baseline should be posi-
allow an unambiguous display of the Doppler signal of interest tioned to optimally display the flow of interest. In some instances,
(Tables 1.16a–1.16c). such as when using continuous-wave (CW) Doppler to evaluate the
As with grayscale imaging, the overall Doppler gain is adjusted to PV, it may be desirable to demonstrate forward and regurgitant
demonstrate the clearest Doppler signal that shows the full spectrum flow simultaneously on the same Doppler display.
of velocities, displaying many shades of gray without missing impor- Several systems also have an automatic ultrasound optimization
tant low-amplitude information (undergaining) or obscuring feature that adjusts the spectral Doppler signal and includes positioning
the true spectral envelope with excessive noise (overgaining) of the baseline, gain, and wall filter with one control. This can be a good
(Tables 1.17a–1.17c). The optimal signal for measurement is one starting point for image optimization (Tables 1.18a and 1.18b).
that demonstrates a smooth velocity curve (Tables 1.17a–1.17c).35
The modal velocity (densest portion of the Doppler signal) is the 6. Pulsed-Wave Doppler, High–Pulse Repetition Frequency
velocity measured.35 Doppler, and CW Doppler. Spectral Doppler consists of three
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 13
Volume 32 Number 1
Table 1 (Continued )
1.14. Sweep speed
Changes number of cardiac cycles shown
on the horizontal axis of the Doppler display:
1.14a demonstrates a sweep speed of 25
mm/sec, and 1.14b demonstrates a sweep
speed of 100 mm/sec.
1.17. Gain
Amplifies spectral Doppler signals before
display. Proper adjustment of gain may
have a profound effect on the ability to
make accurate measurements.
(Continued )
modes: pulsed-wave (PW) Doppler, high–pulse repetition frequency (range resolution). The major limitation of PW Doppler is aliasing,
(HPRF) Doppler, and CW Doppler.17,30 PW Doppler is used when which is the inability to display a complete velocity waveform at
one wishes to measure blood flow velocity at a particular depth excessively high velocities. Aliasing occurs when the detected
14 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 1 (Continued )
1.18. Baseline
This control should be positioned to
optimize the entire Doppler signal as large
as possible and can be used along with the
‘‘Doppler scale’’ control to eliminate
aliasing. Image 1.18a demonstrates
improper baseline settings. Note the
aliasing. Image 1.18b demonstrates
optimization of the baseline.
1.20. DTI
DTI presets use larger sample volume size
and lower velocity scales. Image 1.20a
demonstrates an optimized DTI tracing.
Image 1.20b demonstrates a DTI tracing
with a smaller sample volume size and
high-velocity scale setting. Note the
difference in the quality of the DTI tracing.
(Continued )
Doppler shift frequency is greater than half the pulse repetition tion of this technique is range ambiguity, or an inability to determine
frequency being transmitted into the heart.10 The pulse repetition fre- the origin of the displayed velocities.10 With HPRF Doppler and two
quency, which is the primary factor determining the maximum sample volumes, the displayed velocities could come from either sam-
measurable velocity, or Nyquist limit, is determined primarily by ve- ple volume. The clinical setting usually defines which sample volume
locity scale and is limited by maximum imaging depth. When aliasing is the source, but display artifacts may, in some situations, be difficult
cannot be eliminated in normal PW mode by maximizing the scale, to define. Operators should know the characteristics of the imaging
switching to HPRF Doppler increases the number of active sample system being used, realizing that some systems automatically revert
volumes. HPRF Doppler is used when the operator wishes to mea- to HPRF when the velocity scale is increased, suddenly causing mul-
sure the blood flow velocity at a certain depth at which aliasing occurs tiple sample volumes to appear (Tables 1.19a and 1.19b).
with regular PW Doppler. For example, increasing the number of CW Doppler is used to measure and record high velocities.
sample volumes to two increases the Nyquist limit by a factor of 2, Although there is no Nyquist limit with CW Doppler, as transmission
and therefore higher velocities may be displayed.10 The major limita- and reception of ultrasound are continuous, the limitation is range
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 15
Volume 32 Number 1
Table 1 (Continued )
CDI parameter and function
1.21. Effect of sector size/ROI size
The size of the color flow Doppler ROI
influences frame rate. Smaller color ROIs
increase frame rate. To optimize the color
image and keep frame rates high, the color
ROI should be as narrow and small as
possible while still including all relevant
anatomy. (see Videos 26 and 27)
1.22. Gain
Amplifies color Doppler signal before
display. In this example, the image on the
left has the color flow Doppler gain
optimized to demonstrate flow in the Pulvns.
In this example, the gain is increased from
17 dB (1.22a) to 9.5 dB (1.22b) to better
demonstrate the Pulvn flow.
(see Videos 28 and 29)
(Continued )
ambiguity.10,15 CW Doppler samples the entire range of returning myocardium and the annuli of the mitral and TVs.3,16,38,39 Both
frequencies along its beam path, and therefore it is not able to PW and color Doppler modes can be used with DTI.40 Compared
discern where any particular frequency shift is located.10,17,36 CW with measuring blood flow velocities, tissue Doppler detects very
Doppler may be performed with duplex (combined imaging and low velocities (<20 cm/sec) at a very high amplitude (>40 dB).3,16
Doppler) transducers that help define the source of the high- Filter settings are much different compared with standard PW
velocity flow. For maximum sensitivity, it is recommended that the Doppler set for blood flow. To optimize this Doppler mode, it is
small-footprint specialized nonimaging (pulsed echo Doppler flow) recommended that a preset be used that is recommended by the
transducer be used for clinical situations in which it is critical to obtain ultrasound manufacturer.16 A preset for DTI will improve workflow
maximum flow velocity.37 for acquiring these Doppler data and serve as a quick starting point
for optimizing the DTI signal. DTI presets have a larger sample volume
7. Doppler Tissue Imaging. Doppler tissue imaging (DTI) is typi- than PW Doppler, the velocity scale set below 25 cm/sec, specialized
cally used to measure the Doppler frequency shift of the moving filter and power settings, and sweep speeds selected as noted above
16 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 1 (Continued )
1.24. Scale/PRF
Specifies the range of velocities that can be
represented by a color map without
aliasing. In the image on the left (1.24a),
color Doppler aliasing is noted in the PA.
When the scale range is increased from
0.69 to 0.77 m/sec, the aliasing is
eliminated (1.24b). (see Videos 32 and 33)
(Continued )
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 17
Volume 32 Number 1
Table 1 (Continued )
1.28. Color M mode
Color M mode assists with the timing of
events. Image 1.28a demonstrates M mode
with MS. In image 1.28b, color M mode
demonstrates the inflow with MS in diastole
and turbulent flow from MR in systole.
for PW Doppler. Velocity and time interval measurements should be Nyquist limit for the imaging frequency and transducer being used.
made at a sweep speed of 100 mm/sec (Tables 1.20a and 1.20b).41 Typically, the scale setting is 50 to 70 cm/sec. To differentiate flow velocity,
the map displays velocities in a set of hues or intensities, with dark shades
C. Color Doppler Imaging depicting low velocity and bright shades representing the highest velocity
(e.g., from deep red to bright yellow). Laminar flow tends to be depicted as
CDI is a pulsed Doppler technique that uses multiple sample volumes
a pure color, as velocities are relatively uniform. Turbulent flow, which
along a series of scan lines, displayed in an ROI.17,42 It is not a stand-
contains a relatively random amalgamation of all velocities of the color
alone display but rather is integrated with the 2D image and is
map, is depicted as a multicolor mosaic. Color maps also may have fea-
affected by 2D gain settings. CDI displays the following blood flow
tures in which the operator can select a setting that will add shades of
characteristics: timing, relative velocity, direction, and presence of tur-
green and yellow colors to the map, which serve to highlight variance
bulence.34 To best display color-flow data, several parameters should
in flow velocity as an alternative method to differentiate turbulent from
be optimized, including the size of the color ROI, 2D sector size,
laminar flow. Each manufacturer has the basic red/blue map and its
color-flow map, and velocity scale.
own set of proprietary maps. The echocardiography laboratory should
choose a consistent map across all systems (Tables 1.23a and 1.23b).
1. ROI and 2D Sector Size. Before initiating color Doppler, the 2D
sector size should be adjusted to the lowest depth and width
necessary to accurately depict the anatomic region to be imaged. 4. Color Doppler Velocity Scale. Optimization of the color-flow
This will help optimize the color frame rate.34 In some settings, the Doppler velocity scale is an important feature that affects how color-
preprocessing zoom mode may be the best alternative for the 2D flow jets are perceived. The scale setting is often displayed as a numeric
display. The color box ROI defines the size and position of the region value (usually in centimeters per second) seen on the color map. This
of color Doppler interrogation within the B-mode sector. The color numeric value represents the range of mean velocities that can be dis-
box ROI should be sized to include all of the flow information being played. Setting the scale to high-velocity ranges demonstrates some
evaluated.34 Setting the ROI as narrow and shallow as possible allows color-flow data without aliasing (Tables 1.24a and 1.24b). This is partic-
maximum frame rate and velocity scale, thus yielding the best tempo- ularly true for laminar flow through normal valves and blood vessels.
ral and flow velocity resolution (Tables 1.21a and 1.21b).34 As a default, it is recommended that the color-flow scale (Nyquist limit)
be set between 50 and 70 cm/sec in each direction for all routine color
2. Color Gain. The color-flow Doppler gain should be adjusted by Doppler interrogation.43 This is particularly important for display of tur-
slowly increasing the color gain until there is random color-flow speckling bulent regurgitant valve jets. The size of the displayed regurgitant jet is
beyond the borders of the anatomic area of interest, followed by slowly affected by several variables, one being the Nyquist limit, in that the
decreasing the gain until the speckling disappears. Color gain settings same regurgitant volume appears considerably larger at a lower color
should be frequently adjusted during the examination, as variations in scale compared with a higher scale (Tables 1.25a–1.25c).44 Consistent
sound transmission and signal attenuation may result in unintended un- settings also enhance reproducibility of longitudinal studies for patients
derrepresentation of flow if the gains are allowed to stay too low. with chronic valve disease. Another important variable to record and
As with grayscale and spectral Doppler, the overall gain can also be report in all studies is blood pressure, because driving force across the re-
adjusted to demonstrate the ‘‘best’’ flow through anatomic structures.34 gurgitant orifice also proportionally affects the displayed jet size.45
In some situations, if an anatomic structure is poorly visualized by gray- High scale settings may have a significantly different effect when all
scale imaging, increasing the color-flow Doppler gain may demonstrate of the flow in the interrogation box is at a low velocity. In this situation,
filling of the structure (Tables 1.22a and 1.22b), confirming its presence. the color box may demonstrate virtually no color Doppler signal,
3. Color Maps. The color map parameter defines how the imaging sys- because most velocities fall within a narrow band of ‘‘dark’’ low veloc-
tem displays flow and can be adjusted. The most basic maps display the ity near the baseline on the color scale. Lowering the Nyquist limit
direction of flow. Almost universally, there is a baseline with zero flow dis- makes the system display lower velocities in brighter hues by using
played as black. Typically, the CDI maps are set up so that flow toward the the entire range of color display. A good starting point for low-flow
transducer is a red color map, while flow away from the transducer is a states, such as in the atria (Tables 1.26a and 1.26b) or pulmonary veins
blue color map. The velocity range in each direction represents the (Pulvns), is a Nyquist limit of about 30 cm/sec.
18 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
(Continued )
20 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 2 (Continued )
Anatomic image 2D TTE image Acquisition image Structures to demonstrate
(Continued )
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 21
Volume 32 Number 1
Table 2 (Continued )
Anatomic image 2D TTE image Acquisition image Structures to demonstrate
(Continued )
22 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 2 (Continued )
Anatomic image 2D TTE image Acquisition image Structures to demonstrate
(Continued )
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 23
Volume 32 Number 1
Table 2 (Continued )
Anatomic image 2D TTE image Acquisition image Structures to demonstrate
2.22. Apical long axis zoomed left ventricle (see Video 62)
Apical window LV
3C view
Optimize depth setting
to focus on LV 3C view
(Continued )
IV. TWO-DIMENSIONAL IMAGING PROTOCOL require multiple measurements should always be taken from the
same heartbeat (e.g., diastolic and systolic volumes for calculating
This section contains a sequential series of 2D images that constitute ejection fraction). Measurements should be taken from the recorded
the essential views of a complete examination. Subsequent sections video clips and saved as separate still frames. This will permit a full un-
will present essential elements of the Doppler examination and mea- derstanding of how each measurement was obtained and allow re-
surements involving these echocardiographic modalities. Following measurement after the examination is completed, if necessary.
these sections, the full sequence of an integrated examination is pre-
sented. Laboratories should establish standards for image acquisition. A. PLAX View
Clinical circumstances may dictate variations in the number of loops The examination is begun by positioning the patient in the left lateral
needed, but it is essential that an adequate number of loops are ac- decubitus position.5,14 The transducer is placed in the third or fourth
quired for each view to accurately represent cardiac anatomy and per- intercostal space to the left of the sternum, with the index marker
formance. Furthermore, standardized methods for recording clips for pointed to the patient’s right shoulder at approximately the 9 to 10
measurement are recommended. Derived function assessments that o’clock position.14,54 If possible, the left ventricle should appear
24 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 2 (Continued )
Anatomic image 2D TTE image Acquisition image Structures to demonstrate
(Continued )
positioned perpendicular to the ultrasound beam within the image majority of patients, the apex should not be seen in the PLAX view.
sector. If the ventricle does not appear relatively horizontal, the The appearance of a ‘‘false apex’’ and a short left ventricle may be
transducer may be moved to a higher parasternal window or the eliminated by rotating, tilting, and/or angling the transducer, thus
patient turned to a steeper left lateral decubitus position. In a maximizing the LV cavity length within the field of view.14
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 25
Volume 32 Number 1
Table 2 (Continued )
Anatomic image 2D TTE image Acquisition image Structures to demonstrate
1. PLAX View: Left Ventricle. After finding the best PLAX im- the patient’s right hip.54,55 Additional counterclockwise rotation of
age, imaging depth should be increased to interrogate beyond the transducer may be necessary to optimally demonstrate the
the posterior wall, evaluating for any abnormal conditions such anterior and a second leaflet of the TV. Depending on orientation,
as pleural or pericardial effusions (Table 2.1). This ‘‘scout view’’ the septal leaflet (if the septum is in view) or the posterior leaflet (if
is the first captured clip. The next clip is obtained after reducing the septum is not visible) is present. The TV should be in the center
the depth to optimally fit the full PLAX view in the sector, leav- of the sector, with considerable portions of the right ventricle
ing about 1 cm of depth beyond the pericardium. This clip should visualized in the upper part of the sector. To the upper right is the
be positioned to show movement of two of three AV leaflets and anterior wall of the right ventricle and to the left is the inferior wall
both mitral valve (MV) leaflets (Table 2.2). Next, the zoom func- of the right ventricle. The right atrium and in some circumstances
tion should be used to optimally visualize the AV and LV outflow the Eustachian valve, Eustachian ridge, coronary sinus (CS), and the
tract (LVOT).14 Often, the optimal long axis of the LVOT and proximal inferior vena cava (IVC) are in the lower part of the
aorta is different from that of the left ventricle, and repositioning sector. A clip of this view should be recorded (Table 2.6).
is required to demonstrate the best view of the LVOT and aorta.
Particular attention should be paid to valve motion and image
quality for linear measurements of the LVOT and aorta. The trans- B. PSAX Views
ducer should be slid slightly toward the sinotubular junction and a The PSAX views are obtained by rotating the transducer 90 clock-
video clip obtained (Table 2.3). After freezing the image, the wise from the PLAX view to position the beam perpendicular to
trackball is scrolled to the frame demonstrating the closed AV, the long axis of the left ventricle.5,14,54 Several anatomic structures
and attention is paid to the closed valve, sinotubular junction, si- are imaged by tilting the transducer first superiorly and then
nus of Valsalva (SoVAo), and ascending aorta (Asc Ao) to make progressively inferiorly to multiple levels. The first image begins at
sure image quality is suitable for measurement.2 If necessary, the level of the great vessels (aorta and PA). In this view, the aorta
the transducer may be positioned one or two interspaces higher above the valve is seen in cross section, and the RVOT, PV, main
or the patient repositioned to obtain a more complete view of PA, and beginning of the left and right branches of the PA are
the Asc Ao. It may be helpful to obtain this image with the pa- visualized. Image quality and structure visualization may be
tient holding end-expiration. The first several centimeters of the improved by moving the transducer up one interspace. A clip
aorta should be visible. Next, the zoom box ROI is positioned should be recorded at this level (Table 2.7).
over the MV to demonstrate motion of the anterior and posterior Tilting inferiorly reveals the PV, AV (all three leaflets), and TV
leaflets. The ROI should also adequately demonstrate the left aligned from right to left across the sector.54 An initial larger sector
atrium and the inflow portion of the left ventricle. This is the final view should be taken to view the left atrium directly below the AV,
video clip of the PLAX view (Table 2.4). the interatrial septum, and the transition to the right atrium. Portions
of the left atrial (LA) appendage may be visible on the right side of
the sector in some patients.14 In the upper sector, care should be
2. Right Ventricular Outflow Tract View. The right ventricular
taken to demonstrate the transition of the right ventricle from the
outflow tract (RVOT) view visualizes the PV and outflow of the right
inflow to the outflow positions (Table 2.8). Each valve should be
ventricle. To obtain this view, the transducer is tilted anteriorly from
interrogated using manipulation of the sector size or use of the
the PLAX view and rotated slightly clockwise.54,55 The cardiac
zoom function. A clip should be taken of the zoomed AV to demon-
structures visualized in this view include the RVOT, two leaflets of
strate leaflet number and motion (Table 2.9). At this level, further
the PV, the main pulmonary artery (PA), and in some instances
fine manipulation can demonstrate the origin of the left main coro-
the bifurcation of the PA. A clip of this view should be recorded
nary artery at about 3 to 5 o’clock in the area of the left coronary
(Table 2.5).
cusp.56 Additional transducer movement toward the right coronary
3. Right Ventricular Inflow View. The right ventricular (RV) cusp may show the origin of the right coronary artery at about 11
inflow view is obtained by tilting the transducer inferiorly toward o’clock.56 Views of the origin of the coronary arteries are not
26 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
considered part of the routine examination. Given variable clinical 1. A4C View. The first apical view to be acquired is the A4C view.
needs of the population served, each echocardiography laboratory To obtain this view, the transducer is placed at the palpated apical im-
should develop a policy on routine inclusion of imaging of the cor- pulse with the index marker oriented toward the bed. The image is
onary artery origins. Next, the sector should be adjusted to demon- optimized so that all four chambers are seen, with left-sided structures
strate the anatomy and motion of the TV leaflets. Also, the full right appearing on the right side of the displayed sector and right-sided
atrium, the inflow section into the right ventricle, and areas around structures on the left.14 In the normal heart, the apex of the left
the high ventricular septum should be demonstrated. Multiple clips ventricle is at the top and center of the sector, while the right ventricle
may be needed at this level (Table 2.10a). After interrogating the is triangular in shape and considerably smaller in area. The myocar-
TV, the transducer is angled toward the RVOT and PV and a clip dium should be visible uniformly from the apex to the atrioventricular
acquired (Table 2.10b). valves and the moderator band identified in the apical part of the right
From the level of the great vessels, the transducer is tilted inferiorly ventricle. Full excursion of the two mitral leaflets and two of the
and slightly leftward toward the apex of the heart, stopping at the tricuspid leaflets (septal and posterior or anterior) should be identi-
level of the MV.14,54,55 In this view, maximum excursion of both fied. The walls and septa of each chamber should be visualized to
the anterior and posterior leaflets of the MV should be clearly assess for size and performance measurements.2 Observing this
demonstrated. The right ventricle appears as a crescent at the top view during respiration allows the operator to assess for ventricular
and left portions of the sector. The anterior, lateral, and inferior interdependence, septal motion abnormalities, and aneurysmal atrial
walls of the left ventricle are visible. Settings should be adjusted to septal motion. The initial video clip should encompass a full view of all
obtain a clear view of the free wall. A clip should be taken showing four chambers, including full visualization of the atria to put overall
the MV and RV (Table 2.11). chamber size into perspective (Table 2.14). To facilitate quantification
Next, the transducer is tilted to a location just inferior to the tips of and observation of regional wall motion, the sector size should be
the mitral leaflets, at the level of the papillary muscles.14,54,55 The reduced to include only the ventricles. This smaller sector size is
ventricle should appear circular, and the papillary muscles should also recommended for longitudinal strain imaging and 3D volume
not wobble. This is approximately at the mid-LV level and is a partic- acquisition.57 An additional one or two 2D clips, as well as additional
ularly important view to judge LV global and regional function. clips for advanced imaging, should be recorded at this level of magni-
Imaging settings should be carefully adjusted to optimally demon- fication (Table 2.15).
strate myocardial motion and thickening. The right ventricle con-
2. Right Ventricle–Focused View. To obtain the right ventricle–
tinues to be present at the anterior and medial portion of the
focused view, the A4C view should initially be obtained. The trans-
sector. At least two clips at this level should be acquired (Table 2.12).
ducer is then rotated slightly counterclockwise while keeping it at
The last PSAX video clip to be acquired is at the level of the apical
the apex to maximize the RV area in this view. The plane should be
third of the ventricle.14,54,55 This may require tilting or sliding the
maintained in the center of the left ventricle, avoiding tilting anteriorly
transducer down one or two rib interspaces and laterally to best see
into a five-chamber view. Fine adjustments should be made to maxi-
the apex. The right ventricle is usually no longer present in the
mize the visualized area of the right ventricle.58,59 This view is
sector (Table 2.13).
recommended for RV linear and area quantification. Alternative
transducer positioning by tilting toward the right heart or sliding to
C. Apical Views a more medial window in a superior rib space may be necessary in
After the PSAX views are completed, the apical window is next to be some patients. Either maneuver can be used to align the vector of
interrogated.5,14 The apical position is usually found on the left side of the TV annulus for tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion
the chest near the point of maximal impulse, aligned near the (TAPSE) and velocity measurements.60,61 Zooming the TV annulus
midaxillary line, as most people present with levocardia. A good for TAPSE is recommended. For laboratories with strain technology,
starting point is the fifth intercostal space, but it should be noted these views can be optimized for RV longitudinal strain.58,59 At
that there is often more than one apical window that can be used least two clips of these views are recommended (Table 2.16).
during the examination. The term axis has been used for the ideal 3. Apical Five-Chamber View. From the A4C view, the apical
projection of ultrasound through the apex of the ventricles, five-chamber view is obtained by tilting the ultrasound beam anteri-
atrioventricular valves, and atria in a vector that maximizes the long orly until the LVOT, AV, and the proximal Asc Ao come into
axis of the heart.14 Ideally, this view would be available in every pa- view.14 Examination in this view should focus on the LVOT, AV,
tient, allowing optimal image quality. However, this is not always and MV. A clip of this view should be recorded. Looking beyond
the case, as ultrasound transmission is limited to the rib interspaces. the aortic outflow in this view, one might also see a part of the supe-
Changes in cardiac structure due to cardiac pathology and changes rior vena cava (SVC) entering the right atrium. Continued anterior tilt-
in the structure of the thoracic cavity may also render the ideal ing may demonstrate the RVOT and PV in some individuals.54,55 This
view impossible. To best position the transducer for the apical views, RVOT view is not considered part of the normal examination
a specialized cut-out bed that better exposes the apex is strongly rec- (Tables 2.17a and 2.17b).
ommended. Throughout the examination, repositioning of the pa-
tient may improve image quality of various apical views. In general, 4. CS View. From the A4C view, the transducer is tilted posteriorly
when imaging in the apical window in a normal heart, the long axis to image the CS,54,55 which appears as a tubelike structure replacing
from the base of the left atrium to the apex of the left ventricle should the MV between the left ventricle and left atrium. The sinus
consist of about two thirds left ventricle and one third left atrium. This terminates near the junction of the septal leaflet of the TV and the
is a helpful subjective guide to know that the left ventricle is not being right atrium. A membrane-like structure, the Thebesian valve, may
foreshortened. In addition, the left ventricle should taper to an ellip- be present at the junction of the CS with the right atrium. In this
soid shape at the apex. If the ventricle is foreshortened, the apex view, the Eustachian valve may be visualized in the right atrium,
will appear more rounded.9 and the IVC may also be visible (Table 2.18).
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 27
Volume 32 Number 1
3.2a. Parasternal window Biplane imaging can assist with proper perpendicular
Biplane imaging alignment for the most accurate 2D
measurements.
1. LVIDd is 47.0 mm
(Continued )
28 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 3 (Continued )
View 2D grayscale linear measurements Measurements to make
(Continued )
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 29
Volume 32 Number 1
Table 3 (Continued )
View 2D grayscale linear measurements Measurements to make
1. RA length
2. RA area
(Continued )
30 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 3 (Continued )
View 2D grayscale linear measurements Measurements to make
5. Two-Chamber View. From the full A4C view, the transducer is 7. A4C and A2C Views Demonstrating the Atria and
rotated approximately 60 counterclockwise to demonstrate the api- Pulvns. From the standard A4C view, to optimize imaging of the at-
cal two-chamber (A2C) view.14 In this view, the left atrium, MV, and ria, imaging depth should be increased to be able to see 2 cm behind
left ventricle are demonstrated. The CS can also be seen in short axis, the atria. This will allow imaging of the Pulvns entering the atria
positioned in the atrioventricular groove. Other structures that might (Table 2.23). In addition, the focal zone (if available) can be placed
be visible are the LA appendage along the right side of the sector and at the level of the atrioventricular valves and/or just behind the atria,
the left upper Pulvn. Two clips of this view should be obtained, one whichever demonstrates the anatomy most clearly. The overall gain
full-sector view (Table 2.19) showing the entire left ventricle and and TGCs should be adjusted to optimize the B-mode image. A video
left atrium and a second focused view showing only the left ventricle clip is taken demonstrating the Pulvns entering the left atrium.
(Table 2.20). Frequently the maximal image of the left atrium is not in the same
6. Apical Long-Axis View (Three-Chamber View). To obtain plane as the optimal LV image. The transducer should be separately
the apical long-axis view, commonly referred to as the three- positioned to optimize the view of the left atrium, to maximize the
chamber view, the transducer should be rotated counterclockwise width of the base of the atrial chamber, followed by positioning to
60 from the A2C view.14 The apical long-axis view demonstrates maximize the chamber long axis to avoid foreshortening. This view
the left atrium, MV, left ventricle, AV, and aorta. As with the two- should be recorded and used for chamber quantification. Similarly,
chamber view, two clips should be recorded: one full-sector view the transducer should be repositioned to obtain an optimal view of
(Table 2.21) from apex to base of the left atrium and a second view the right atrium to be used for quantification. Clips should be re-
focused on the left ventricle (Table 2.22). corded specifically for quantification.
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 31
Volume 32 Number 1
Moving back to the A2C view, the process should be repeated to 1. Left Ventricle. LV wall thicknesses and chamber dimension are
obtain optimal data in the two-chamber view of the left atrium. With measured at end-diastole, defined as the first video frame immedi-
proper positioning, the left atrium in the A2C view should have a ately after mitral leaflet closure.2 If mitral motion is not visible, end-
long-axis dimension within 5 mm of that obtained in the A4C view. diastole may be identified as the peak of the R wave on the electro-
cardiogram. The image should demonstrate the chamber along its
D. SC Window and Views center axis to maximize dimension. Papillary muscles should not be
The SC window is used to assess the heart, pericardium, RV free wall visible in the PLAX view. An electronic caliper is positioned at the
thickness, and great vessels located in the abdomen (IVC and SVC, interface of the compacted myocardium of the interventricular
hepatic veins [Hvns], and abdominal aorta). It can be very useful for septum and a line extended perpendicular to the long axis of the
imaging the heart when the images are suboptimal from the paraster- left ventricle to the inner border of the compacted myocardium of
nal window.2,14 The SC view is obtained with the patient laying the posterior wall (Table 3.1). The measurement should be obtained
supine with abdominal muscles relaxed. Having the patient bend at a level just below the MV leaflet tips.2 The interventricular septum
his or her knees may help relax the stomach muscles, thereby and LV posterior wall should be measured at the same time and level
making the views easier to obtain. The image may be further as the LV end-diastolic dimension. Only the compacted tissue of the
improved by acquiring it during held inspiration. septum should be included in the measurement, taking care to avoid
including RV trabeculae, the insertion of the moderator band, or the
1. SC Four-Chamber View. SC imaging begins with the trans- TV apparatus as septal thickness.62 For measurement of the interven-
ducer placed on the patient’s abdomen at the junction of the rib tricular septum, the caliper should be placed at the interface where
cage (xiphoid process), with the index marker pointed to the patient’s the RV cavity meets the compacted interventricular septum and
left, at about a 3 o’clock position. The transducer is pointed toward moved to where the interventricular septum meets the LV cavity.2
the patient’s left shoulder, transecting the heart in a four-chamber For measurement of the LV posterior wall, the caliper should be
orientation. From this image, the right atrium, TV, left atrium, MV, placed at the interface of the compacted posterior wall and LV cavity
left ventricle, interatrial septum, and interventricular septum can be and moved to the LV posterior wall-pericardial interface.2 Care must
examined.14 This view is particularly important to assess the interatrial be taken to avoid including the MV apparatus in the measurement
and interventricular septa for defects, and the RV wall thickness, as (Tables 3.2a and 3.2b). The cine loop should be advanced frame by
the ultrasound beam is perpendicular to each septum. A video clip frame to aid in differentiating posterior wall from leaflets and chordae
should be recorded (Table 2.24). tendineae. The LV end-systolic dimension should be obtained at the
smallest cavity dimension, usually the frame preceding the initial early
2. SC Short-Axis View. From the four-chamber view, counterclock- diastolic opening of the MV, just distal to the MV leaflet tips
wise rotation of the transducer approximately 90 should result in a (Table 3.3).2 An exception to this rule involves the presence of
short-axis orientation of the heart. The liver and IVC are imaged by isolated thickening of the basal septum (sigmoid septum or septal
maintaining the short-axis orientation of the heart and pointing the bulge). In this case, the measurement location in systole and diastole
transducer toward the patient’s liver (Table 2.25). The primary purpose should be moved slightly toward the LV apex to just beyond the septal
of this view in the routine examination is to show the IVC in the longi- bulge, making all linear measurements at this level.63,64 The
tudinal plane for several centimeters as it courses into the right atrium.2 measurements should remain perpendicular to the long axis of the
A video clip of a respiratory cycle should be obtained of the longitudinal ventricle (Table 3.4).
IVC. This view is used to measure the diameter of the IVC and to eval-
uate IVC diameter changes during respiration (collapsibility index) to es- 2. Proximal RVOT. The proximal RVOT should be measured in the
timate central venous pressure.2,58 The Hvns draining into the IVC PLAX view at end-diastole. The measurement caliper should be
should also be imaged from this view and a clip acquired (Table 2.26). placed at the interface of the compacted anterior RV wall and the
RV cavity and extended to the interface of the septal-aortic junction
(Table 3.5).58
E. SSN Long-Axis View
The patient is positioned supine with a pillow behind the shoulders so 3. Anterior to Posterior LA Measurements. Two-dimensional
that the head can be tilted backward. Turning the patient’s face left- linear anterior-posterior measurements of the left atrium are
ward, the transducer is placed in the SSN, with the index facing 12 preferred. M mode may also be used for this measurement. The left
o’clock initially, with gradual clockwise rotation toward the left shoul- atrium is measured at end-systole using a leading edge–to–leading
der (1 o’clock), and tilted toward the plane that cuts through the right edge method.2 For the 2D technique, the caliper is placed at the level
nipple and the tip of the left scapula (Table 2.27).14,55 The structures of the SoVAo of the aortic root and extended to the leading edge of
visualized are the aorta (ascending, transverse, and descending), and the posterior LA wall perpendicular to the assumed long axis of the
the origins of the innominate, left common carotid, and left atrial chamber (Table 3.6).2 For M mode, the cursor is oriented
subclavian arteries. The right PA is demonstrated in cross-section. perpendicular to the aortic root and left atrium, at the level of the
Additional views from the SSN window are provided in the appendix. aortic sinuses. The measurement caliper is positioned at the leading
edge of the posterior wall of the aortic sinus and extended to the lead-
ing edge of the posterior LA wall (Table 4.1).2
V. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEASUREMENTS
4. LVOT and Aortic Annulus. The LVOT and aortic annular diam-
eters are measured from zoomed PLAX images of the LVOT and AV.
A. PLAX View The image should be optimized to show the center axis of the LVOT
The PLAX view should be used for linear measurements of the left with visualization of AV cusp insertion points (annulus). The aortic
ventricle. annular diameter is measured from the inner edge to inner edge of the
32 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
right and noncoronary leaflet insertion points at the maximal opening of cardial tracking throughout the cardiac cycle to allow evaluation of
the valve near midsystole (Table 3.7). For the LVOT diameter, using a the quality of the data. Errors in tracking may be manually adjusted.
similar inner edge–to–inner edge methodology, the measurement These tracking loops should always be recorded to allow the inter-
should be made approximately 3 to 10 mm from the valve plane in mid- preter of the study to judge the quality of the data. Similarly, the
systole.35,37 The diameter interfaces are the compacted myocardium raw data of loops used for biplane summation tracings should always
ventricular septum and anterior MV leaflet. The diameter be recorded as part of the study. When endocardial definition is
measurement position should correspond to where the PW Doppler reduced, UEAs are highly recommended and can markedly enhance
sample volume is placed for the LVOT Doppler tracing (Table 3.8).2 quantification (Table 3.13).2
5. Asc Ao. Several measurements of the aorta are made from the b. Three-Dimensional LV Volume.–If available, use of 3D algo-
PLAX view. All measurements are made perpendicular to the long rithms for LV volume and function assessment is preferred over the
axis of the vessel at the largest dimension, using a leading edge–to– summation-of-disks method.2,57 All the techniques discussed above
leading technique at end-diastole.2 The measurement of the SoVAo for optimization of the LV display are relevant to 3D imaging. It is
is taken at the maximum diameter of the sinus. The measurement important to position the left ventricle so that the entire chamber is
of the sinotubular junction should be made at the junction of the distal captured in the volume set at as high a frame rate as possible.
sinuses and origin of the tubular aorta (Table 3.9). The tubular portion Several systems offer semiautomated algorithms for volumetric
of the Asc Ao is measured at the largest dimension identified above calculation and display. This technique potentially offers the best
the aortic sinuses.2,65 Moving to a higher parasternal window, correlation of echocardiography-derived volumes to reference stan-
closer to the sternum, and/or held expiration may be required to dards when image quality is excellent.66
visualize the Asc Ao (Table 3.10). As with 2D techniques, full-disclosure displays of tracking and vol-
ume sets are necessary for the interpreter to judge the quality of the
information (Table 3.14). Echocardiography laboratories are encour-
B. PSAX View aged to establish standardized work flows for processing and report-
ing 3D data.
1. RVOT. The proximal and distal RVOT are measured from the
PSAX view that is positioned to show the AV at the level of the leaflets
2. LA Volume. As noted above, 2D LA images should be
at end-diastole. A caliper is placed at the interface of the compacted
independently obtained and optimized in preparation for volume
myocardium anterior RV wall and RV cavity and a line extended to
quantification.2 First, maximum volume at end-systole should be
the blood-tissue interface of the aortic root. The distal RVOT should
identified. LA endocardial borders in the A4C and A2C views
be measured using an inner edge–to–inner edge technique at end-
should then be traced. The tracing of the left atrium is completed
diastole just proximal to the PV (Table 3.11).58
by drawing a line from one aspect of the annulus to the opposite
2. PA. The main PA is measured midway between the PV and the PA side. The atrial appendage and Pulvns should not be included in
bifurcation, using an inner edge–to–inner edge technique at end- this tracing. The length of the left atrium should be measured in
diastole (Table 3.12).58 both the A4C and A2C views. This length is measured from the
center of the mitral annulus to the inner edge of the furthest extent
C. Apical Views of the traced superior LA wall, at the approximate midpoint. The
long-axis lengths should be within 5 mm of each other. If they are
1. LV Volume. Calculation of LV volumes and ejection fraction from not, the apical images should be reevaluated.67 Most ultrasound
linear measurements is not recommended and should not be re- systems automatically calculate LA biplane volume using both
ported.2 area-length and biplane disk summation. With the area-length
method, the shorter length obtained (in the two- or four-chamber
a. Biplane Disk Summation.–The biplane summation-of-disks view) should be used for calculating LA volume.2,67 With the
method is the recommended 2D volume measurement technique. method of disks, the longer of the two lengths should be used.
Apical views should be used with a reduced sector size that displays The method of disks is the preferred method for calculating LA
only the left ventricle, MV apparatus, and a small portion of the left volume, as it involves fewer assumptions regarding the shape of
atrium, to enhance definition of the chamber at a maximal frame the left atrium (Tables 3.15 and 3.16).2 Because volume calculation
rate. The LV apex should be centered in the sector and the long varies by technique, it is important that the laboratory consistently
axis of the chamber maximized. Measurements for LV volume are use the same technique.68
made by tracing the LV cavity along the interface of the compacted
and noncompacted myocardium of the chamber wall. These mea- 3. RV Linear Dimensions. In the RV-focused A4C view, the RV
surements are made in the apical four- and two-chamber views at linear longitudinal end-diastolic dimension is measured by drawing
end-diastole and end-systole, defined as the largest and smallest a line from the midpoint of the tricuspid annulus to the interface of
visible areas in each view, respectively. Papillary muscles and trabec- compacted myocardium at the apex of the chamber. Diameter mea-
ulae are excluded from tracing and are considered to be part of the surements include the maximum transverse diameter in the basal
chamber. The tracing is completed by drawing a horizontal line across third of the right ventricle at end-diastole and the midcavity linear
the left ventricle at the level of the MV annulus. From the center of this dimension midway between the maximal basal diameter and apex.
line, a vertical line is extended to the farthest point of the apex for The midcavity diameter measurement is made at the level of the
calculation of the height of the disks.2 The difference in LV lengths be- papillary muscles at end-diastole (Table 3.17).2,58
tween the four- and two-chamber views should be <10%.2 Several
systems offer semiautomatic endocardial tracking algorithms to calcu- 4. RV Area. In the RV-focused A4C view, RV area is measured by
late volumes and ejection fractions. The systems should display endo- tracing the compacted muscle blood–endocardial tissue border
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 33
Volume 32 Number 1
from the tricuspid annulus to the apex and back to the tricuspid
defined by the septum and anterior mitral leaflet, and
annulus. Making this measurement at end-diastole and end-systole
the location in the outflow tract is defined by placement
yields the fractional area change of the right ventricle.58,59 For RV
of the sample volume that achieves laminar flow just
measurements, the papillary muscles, trabeculations, and moderator
proximal to the AV.
band are included within the area measurement. For accurate
measurements to be made, the view needs to demonstrate LA volume calculated from the A4C and A2C views
the entire right ventricle in a well-positioned RV-focused view adjusted to optimize display of the left atrium is the
(Table 3.18). preferred method of atrial size quantification. The
superior-inferior long axes from the two views should
5. Right Atrial Volume. In the A4C view, a dedicated right atrial be within 5 mm of each other.
view should be obtained and optimized. At end-systole, an outline RV dimensions and areas are preferably measured in the
of the right atrial blood-tissue interface is traced, excluding the right RV-focused view.
atrial appendage, SVC, and IVC, to the level of the tricuspid annulus. M-mode techniques are not recommended for routine
A vertical line is extended from the midpoint of the TV annulus to the linear dimension measurements. Specialized measure-
middle of the superior basal wall of the right atrium. The single-plane ments such as TAPSE, IVC diameter during respiration,
summation-of-disks method is used to calculate right atrial volume and prolonged analysis of AV leaflet motion in patients
(Table 3.15).2,58,67 with LV assist devices are valuable specialized measure-
ments.
D. SC Views LV volume and LV ejection fraction are preferably
measured using 3D techniques. The size and depth of
1. IVC. The IVC diameter is measured from the SC long-axis view, the acquired volume should be optimized to maximize
with the patient in the supine position. The measurement should be frame rate. Tracking of the entire cardiac cycle should be
made 1 to 2 cm proximal to the junction of the IVC and right reviewable and correctable and displayed as part of the
atrium.2,58 The IVC diameter should be measured at its maximum final images acquired.
dimension, usually during expiration. A sufficiently long recording
If 3D volumetric analysis is not available, the 2D
should be made to observe the change in IVC diameter during the
biplane method of disks is preferred for calculation of
respiratory cycle. If central venous pressure is normal, the diameter
LV volume and LV ejection fraction.
of the IVC typically collapses >50% of its expiration diameter. If
not, or a less vigorous collapse is observed, the patient should be
instructed to perform a rapid inspiratory ‘‘sniff’’ to force a more
significant change in intrathoracic pressure and record IVC motion
a second time. This information is taken together with the IVC VI. M-MODE MEASUREMENTS
diameter to estimate right atrial pressure2,58 (Table 3.16).
Routine linear M-mode measurements for quantification are not rec-
ommended. The writing committee does recommend recording the
Key Points #3 standard PLAX views for the MV and the left ventricle, as unique diag-
nostic data that incorporate temporal events (e.g., MV motion, septal
Measurements
Linear measurements of the left ventricle should be and posterior wall motion) that may be present (Tables 4.2 and 4.3).
made in the PLAX view with the ventricular chamber The LA anterior-posterior diameter, discussed in the section on LA
optimally centered and as perpendicular as possible to measurement, and the two measurements noted below may still be
the long axis. used by some laboratories and in research imaging protocols.
Consistently make LV dimension measurements just
A. TAPSE
beyond the leaflet tips of the MV. Pay careful attention
to the posterior wall; avoid measuring mitral chordal TAPSE is a measurement of longitudinal systolic performance of the right
and papillary muscle apparatus. Similarly, avoid ventricle.60,61 It is measured in the A4C view.58,59 An M-mode cursor
including right-sided structures that insert into the should be aligned along the RV free wall as perpendicular to the lateral
septum when measuring septal thickness. tricuspid annulus as possible (and as parallel as possible to movement
of the TV annulus). The TV annulus ROI should be demonstrated as
If a basal septal bulge is present, move the dimension
large as possible without eliminating relational anatomic structures. The
measurements slightly apical beyond the bulge.
distance moved by the leading edge of the annulus from end-diastole to-
The anterior-posterior diameter of the left atrium may
ward the apex at end-systole is measured (Table 4.4).2,58,59
be measured using M-mode or 2D imaging as the diam-
eter line extending from the SoVAo to the posterior wall
of the left atrium. Two-dimensional imaging is B. IVC
preferred over the M-mode technique. Both measure- M-mode imaging in the SC window is a method for measuring IVC
ment techniques should maintain a consistent orienta- diameter69 and the IVC collapsibility index.70 The M-mode cursor is
tion to these two structures. placed through the IVC approximately 1.0 to 2.0 cm distal from the
Diameters of the LVOT and aortic annulus are systolic
right atrium, and the IVC diameter is measured at rest and during
measurements, and measurements of the aorta are dia- normal respiration. It may also be measured with the patient per-
stolic measurements. The outflow tract diameter is forming a sniff maneuver. The collapsibility index can be calculated
using the ratio of the diameters obtained.2 Care should be taken
34 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 4 M mode
Ao, Aorta.
that the M-mode cursor transects the IVC in a perpendicular fashion ing. A clinical example would be using M mode to measure the
so that the diameter is not erroneously overestimated. Imaging the degree of AV opening in patients with LV assist devices.71
IVC in short axis during the sniff maneuver can help determine if
the IVC translates out of the imaging plane during inspiration
(Table 4.5).
VII. COLOR DOPPLER IMAGING
(Continued )
36 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 5 (Continued )
View 2D TTE image Structures to demonstrate
(Continued )
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 37
Volume 32 Number 1
Table 5 (Continued )
View 2D TTE image Structures to demonstrate
the M-mode, 2D, or 3D image with which it is combined. It is recom- panning through the valve in the multiple views to maximize detection
mended that the anatomic image be recorded first, immediately fol- of regurgitation. If turbulence is noted proximal to the valve in the LVOT,
lowed by the CDI examination. For routine normal flow, one CDI additional zoomed views may be needed to characterize the location of
interrogation is adequate. For unusual or eccentric flow signals, mul- abnormal flow. CDI combined with M-mode imaging may be of consid-
tiple views, sweeps, and off-axis images are recommended to fully erable value to characterize timing of events in the LVOT. Color gain set-
characterize the pathology. If needed, the sector width can be nar- tings may need to be adjusted multiple times for different types of flow
rowed to improve frame rate, but the sector should not be so narrow jets. Standard velocity scale settings should be initiated and adjusted for
that parts of the ROI are eliminated. Simultaneous dual-screen side- specialized measurements as needed (Tables 5.9–5.12).37,43
by-side imaging showing the grayscale image on one side with CDI
on the other can be helpful in select circumstances as an added E. Aortic Arch
view but is not recommended as the only color display for entire pro- When imaging the arch, the color box needs to be aligned with the
tocols. Rarely are both images optimal simultaneously, and data from segment of interest, and the operator will need to manipulate the
either CDI or grayscale views may be missed. Similarly, routine pro- transducer to demonstrate the Asc Ao, transverse arch, and descend-
tocols only showing CDI without an associated regular grayscale im- ing aorta (Desc Ao) at the best Doppler angle to demonstrate color fill.
age are not appropriate. Although time is saved, crucial data are lost. Because the aorta is close to the transducer, some systems may auto-
matically raise the Nyquist limit to very high levels and may need to be
A. RVOT, PV, and PA adjusted downward to achieve good color fill. Marked changes in co-
CDI should be used to interrogate the RVOT, PV, PA, and branch pul- lor hue are normally expected, from red hues of flow toward the
monary arteries to assess for systolic flow, valve regurgitation, and transducer in the Asc Ao, to black at the top of the arch due to virtual
shunts.37,43 These structures are evaluated in the PLAX, PSAX, and perpendicular orientation to flow, to blue hues of flow away from the
SC views. CDI scale settings should be set to 50 to 70 cm/sec but transducer in the Desc Ao (Tables 5.13a and 5.13b).37,43
may need to be lowered for low-flow states (Table 5.1).
F. Pulvns
B. RV Inflow and TV The Pulvns should be interrogated with color Doppler in the A4C view.
The TV can be interrogated using CDI from the PLAX RV inflow This plane is most parallel to flow and typically exhibits three of the four
view, the PSAX TV view (level of aorta), the A4C view, an apical Pulvns. Anterior angulation toward the apical five-chamber view may
RV-focused view, and SC views. In each view, both forward flow demonstrate the fourth Pulvn, the right upper Pulvn. The depth should
and valvular regurgitation are assessed. The normal color-flow veloc- be set to allow visualization of the Pulvns entering the left atrium. The
ity scale (50–70 cm/sec) is used initially, particularly if TV regurgita- color box ROI should be set as small as possible to maintain higher
tion is noted. Velocity scale and gain may need to be optimized to frame rates. Because of the imaging depth and lower flow velocities,
demonstrate low-velocity forward flow. Off-axis planes should be the color gain will need to be calibrated and the Nyquist limit reduced
used to fully characterize regurgitant jets (Tables 5.2–5.4).37,43 CDI to demonstrate good color filling (Table 5.14).3 CDI can also assist with
should also be used to guide placement of the PW and CW cursors identification of which Pulvn is being imaged on the basis of the color
to align the Doppler sample as parallel as possible to flow. map (red toward, blue away).
G. Hvns
C. LV Inflow and MV
The Hvns are imaged from the SC window.14 Color-flow Doppler is
The MV should be interrogated using CDI from the PLAX view, the
often set to image the middle Hvn, as it often is the one that lies at the
PSAX view, and the A4C, A2C, and long-axis views. SC views may be
best Doppler angle. The color Doppler ROI should be set to demon-
used as necessary. To best demonstrate color Doppler velocities through
strate blood flow in the Hvns as they enter the IVC. Color-flow
the MV into the left ventricle, the valve should be positioned in the center
Doppler may be optimized by adjusting the gain and setting the veloc-
of the sector to ensure that the entire valve is included in the color box,
ity scale to a lower range to demonstrate the best color fill without co-
then the transducer rocked and angled through the valve to identify
lor aliasing and noise (Table 5.15).
any stenotic or regurgitant jets. Depending on initial findings, additional
CDI cine loops should be recorded to fully display the entire extent of
H. IVC
inflow and regurgitation. Standard velocity scale settings combined
with optimized CDI gain will best demonstrate flow. Forward flow is In the SC long-axis view of the IVC, if practicable, the IVC should be
best demonstrated in the A4C view, which is most parallel to inflow. imaged at an angle of #60 to best demonstrate color. The color ve-
However, it should be realized that MV inflow is normally partially locity scale settings should be reduced and the gains adjusted to
directed toward the lateral wall of the left ventricle. Regurgitant jets should demonstrate good color fill in the IVC. The entire length of the visible
be carefully mapped and may change markedly across different imaging IVC should be interrogated with CDI (Table 5.16).
planes (Tables 5.5–5.8).37,43
I. Atrial Septum
D. LVOT and AV The atrial septum can be visualized from the A4C, PSAX, and SC views.54
The LVOTand AVare evaluated by pairing the grayscale views with CDI The depth can be adjusted or the zoom box used to display the right
in the PLAX, PSAX, apical five-chamber, and apical long-axis views. The atrium, interatrial septum, and left atrium as large as possible without elim-
AV is interrogated to evaluate for laminar versus turbulent forward flow inating any of these structures of interest. CDI is optimized at a lower ve-
in systole and for turbulent regurgitant flow patterns in diastole. In each locity scale and gains adjusted. The entire length of the atrial septum
view, the color box width and length should be adjusted to initially should be included, looking for any evidence of color crossing the septum
display both the LVOT and AV. Careful attention should be paid to in all views. The jets may be eccentric. The SC view is most effective
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 39
Volume 32 Number 1
because grayscale images are close to perpendicular to the ultrasound Measurements should be taken from the recorded video clips and
beam and most flow signals from a septal defect are parallel (Table 5.17). saved as separate still frames. This will allow Doppler measurements
to be made at the time of acquisition or by the interpreting physician.
The section is organized by valve. CDI should be used to help align
VIII. SPECTRAL DOPPLER IMAGING MEASUREMENTS
the spectral Doppler cursor as parallel to blood flow as possible, and a
sweep speed of 100 mm/sec should be used. The baseline and pulse
This section will discuss the routine Doppler measurements performed
repetition frequency/scale settings must be individually optimized for
during a complete TTE examination. Laboratories should establish
each valve and velocity measurement to demonstrate the best quality
standards for those measurements that are to be made. Clinical circum-
signal without aliasing.
stances may dictate variations in the number of beats measured.
(Continued )
40 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 6 (Continued )
View Spectral Doppler Measurements to Make
(Continued )
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 41
Volume 32 Number 1
Table 6 (Continued )
View Spectral Doppler Measurements to Make
(Continued )
42 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 6 (Continued )
View Spectral Doppler Measurements to Make
Doppler imaging is directionally limited. The maximum Doppler shift plane producing the maximum velocity. Information from other planes
is detected when the ultrasound beam is parallel to flow. Maximum de- must be edited out and not averaged.
tected velocity is reduced by a function of the cosine of the angle away During laminar flow, the modal velocity is the densest part of the flow
from parallel. Fortunately, an angle of 20 results in only a 6% reduction signal, representing the majority of blood flow. This is the correct part of the
in measured flow velocity, so keeping the interrogation reasonably close signal to trace or measure a peak velocity.2,37,43 An overgained signal may
to parallel does not materially affect results. By first using color Doppler obscure the modal velocity. For turbulent flow, a distinct border should be
interrogation, alignment can be improved, but this cannot account for identified that best represents the flow signal. Excessive gain may obscure
flow in all three dimensions. Ultrasound systems have angle correction this border, while undergained flow may miss the maximum velocity. The
algorithms, but this is not recommended for echocardiography. Instead, laboratory should agree on standardized presets for routine imaging and a
all valves and other areas of flow should be interrogated with multiple set of alternatives for nonstandard situations. All operators should be
imaging planes. Data should only be used clinically from the imaging aware of these settings and their proper use.
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 43
Volume 32 Number 1
A. RVOT and PV measured (Table 6.6a).3 The deceleration time is measured by placing
Forward flow through the RVOT should be evaluated in the PLAX or a caliper on the peak E velocity and following the slope of the E wave
PSAX view. The view that provides the Doppler angle most parallel to to the baseline (Table 6.6a). An optional measurement is the A-wave
flow is preferred. To begin, the PW Doppler sample volume (4–5 duration, which is measured from the onset to the offset of the
mm) should be positioned in the center of the RVOT, about 5–10 A-wave flow signal, with the measurement taken with the sample vol-
mm proximal to the PV. The normal forward velocity waveform is ume positioned in the flow at the level of the MV annulus.
downward and systolic. A short vertical spike (closing click) may be If the MV appears abnormal, is a prosthetic valve, has been
present and suggests appropriate positioning of the sample volume. repaired, or shows flow velocities that are increased or turbulent by
The RVOT peak velocity and VTI are measured (Table 6.1). The CDI or PW Doppler, CW Doppler should be used to measure
RVOT acceleration time and RV ejection time are additional optional the mean gradient and pressure half-time (Tables 6.7a and
measurements from this velocity waveform. 6.7b).3,30,37,43,75
For the PV, a CW Doppler cursor should be oriented as parallel as Transiently lowering preload by recording MV flow during a
possible to the flow across the valve. The outer edge of the modal ve- Valsalva maneuver is a technique all operators should understand
locity signal should be traced to obtain the VTI (Table 6.2). The PV and be capable of performing. Every echocardiography laboratory
peak systolic velocity is measured from the same signal by placing should have a protocol for performance and a work flow to determine
the cursor at the peak of the spectral profile.72 when the maneuver is indicated. The patient should be instructed to
If pulmonary regurgitation is present, it should be displayed with bear down against a closed glottis and practice this technique before
CW Doppler (Table 6.3). The user should position the CW recording. The sample volume is positioned in the same location as
Doppler cursor parallel to the flow of the regurgitant jet, displaying for normal MV flow recording. The MV inflow signal should be re-
the full diastolic flow signal. Measurement of end-diastolic velocity corded for 10 to 12 sec before release. The recorded still image should
is possible using an electronic caliper (Table 6.3).43,73,74 be annotated to indicate the use of the Valsalva maneuver. The MV
flow signal should change during the Valsalva strain. The E velocity
should decrease by 20 cm/sec or $10% if the strain is to be consid-
B. TV
ered adequate. In normal patients, there is typically a relatively equal
Forward flow velocity across the TV should be recorded through at reduction in E and A velocities (Table 6.6b). In patients with elevated
least one respiratory cycle with PW Doppler. The normal flow is dia- LA pressure and a pseudonormal filling pattern, the E velocity de-
stolic with two distinct waves: the first in early diastole (E velocity) and creases to a greater degree than the A velocity, resulting in a reduction
the second at the time of atrial contraction (A velocity). The velocity is in the E/A ratio.76
best measured in the A4C view or RV-focused view, whichever one If mitral regurgitation is present, CW Doppler should be used to re-
provides the best Doppler angle (Table 6.4). Using PW Doppler, a 1- cord the regurgitant flow in the A4C, A2C, and long-axis views. The
to 3-mm sample volume should be positioned at the tips of the open flow signal should be traced along its modal margin to calculate a VTI,
valve leaflets in diastole. Although the flow velocity pattern should al- peak velocity, and peak gradient (Table 6.8).3,43
ways be recorded, measuring and reporting peak velocities across the In patients with tachycardia or some forms of heart block, there
TV is not considered a routine measurement. Echocardiography lab- may be fusion of the E and A waves. This is best demonstrated by
oratories should determine if this measurement is part of normal observing the E-wave velocity at the time of onset of the A wave.
workflow or only to be measured under certain conditions. Given Significant fusion is present if the beginning of the A wave starts on
the significant normal variation in flow with respiration, echocardiog- the E deceleration slope line at an E velocity of >20 cm/sec. In this
raphy laboratories must also decide on how to make the measure- setting of fusion, the deceleration time should not be measured, the
ment. Current guidelines suggest a measurement either at end- E/A ratio is decreased, and the A-wave velocity increased
expiration or averaged across an entire respiratory cycle.30,58 (Table 6.9).3,30,43
If TVregurgitation is present, CW Doppler should be used to obtain
the peak tricuspid regurgitant velocity for assessment of RV systolic D. LVOT and AV
pressure.30,43,58 The maximum tricuspid regurgitant jet is variable The LVOT is best evaluated in the apical five-chamber or apical long-
and may be obtained from the PLAX, PSAX, A4C, apical RV- axis views. PW Doppler is used to obtain velocity in the LVOT. The
focused, or SC four-chamber view. In some cases, a weak flow signal PW Doppler sample volume is placed about 5 mm proximal to the
may be enhanced using UEAs. If after the use of contrast agents the AV in the center of the LVOT. The spectral signal should be narrow,
signal is still weak and/or incomplete, the measurement should not with a rapid upstroke and an end-systolic click terminating the flow
be reported. In addition, there may be substantial variation in flow ve- signal.30,37 Broadening of the flow signal indicates that the sample
locity in different views. The highest velocity and view from a good- volume is too close to the AV and should be repositioned. The
quality signal should be reported for the final calculation, and lower peak velocity should be measured and the signal traced to calculate
velocity data from other views should be edited out (Table 6.5).43,58 a VTI (Table 6.10a). If high velocities or turbulent flow is present,
CDI of the LVOT and left ventricle should be examined. Further ab-
C. MV normality (i.e., presence of AV stenosis) should prompt pulsed-
Spectral Doppler is used to characterize the patterns of forward dia- Doppler mapping from the LV apex to the AV, noting the level at
stolic flow across the MV and to measure several indices of mitral which high velocities are detected. If aliasing is present, a switch to
regurgitation, if present. In the A4C view, a 1- to 3-mm sample vol- HPRF Doppler can be considered to further evaluate flow velocities
ume should be positioned at the tips of the open MV leaflets for and the shape of the flow signal (Table 6.10b).3,30,37 The LVOT
PW Doppler recording. The sample volume should be placed toward diameter should be measured at the same location at which the
the lateral wall, as blood normally flows across the valve in this direc- highest velocity signal was obtained.
tion. The peak E (early diastolic) and A (atrial contraction) velocities After sampling the LVOT, CW Doppler is used to measure the
and MV early diastolic deceleration time should be recorded and aortic velocity.37 The Doppler signal should be traced to provide a
44 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
peak velocity, peak gradient, mean gradient, and VTI. The distinct contraction). The inflow should be recorded in all patients
flow signal border should be traced, and weak, shaggy, low- (Table 6.16).3 The pattern of the inflow signal is important in several
amplitude clutter should not be included in the VTI tracing diagnostic settings. Actual peak velocity measurements of each wave
(Table 6.11). If aortic stenosis is suspected, a prosthetic valve is present, are not part of a routine examination but may be measured and the
or high-velocity lesions are suspected in the LVOT, the nonimaging duration of the A wave measured for comparison with the MV
transducer should be used to acquire Doppler signals from the apical, A-wave duration in some circumstances.3
right parasternal, and SSN windows.37 In difficult patients, to assist
with placement of the nonimaging CW Doppler transducer, a duplex H. Tissue Doppler of the Mitral and Tricuspid Annuli
imaging transducer should be used first and its position noted
Tissue Doppler is used to record velocities of the longitudinal move-
(Appendix Table 12.10: high right parasternal view of the aorta).
ment of the lateral and medial mitral annulus as well as the lateral
If aortic regurgitation is present, CW Doppler should be used to
tricuspid annulus.3,16,38,39,58,59 The angle of interrogation should be
measure the peak velocity and pressure half-time. Color Doppler is
as parallel as possible to the Doppler beam. DTI presets are
used to direct the CW interrogation, as the regurgitant jet is frequently
markedly different from conventional PW Doppler settings and
eccentric (Table 6.12).43
vary by manufacturer. It is best to have a system-specific preset for
these measures. Tissue Doppler signals should be optimized by using
E. Aortic Arch and Desc Ao
a large sample volume of 5 to 10 mm to fully capture annular motion,
CW Doppler may be used to evaluate the Desc Ao for the presence of and the scale should be set at #25 cm/sec depending on the actual
flow-limiting obstructions. PW Doppler can be used to sample multi- velocity.3,16 To improve visualization of the peak annular velocities,
ple positions in the Asc Ao, transverse aortic arch, and Desc Ao decrease the velocity scale to maximize Doppler signal display16
(Tables 6.13a and 6.13b). This is done to evaluate any aortic pathology and set the sweep speed at 100 mm/sec. Velocity waveforms are
and to better define the location of obstructive lesions, such as coarc- designated as s0 for systole, e0 for early diastole, and a0 for atrial
tation of the aorta. Color Doppler can be used to guide the placement contraction. Accurate measurement is important, as both absolute ve-
of the sample volume in interrogation of obstructive lesions. PW locities and the ratio of mitral E velocity to e0 velocity are major parts
Doppler evaluation of the proximal Desc Ao can also be used to eval- of diagnostic criteria for noninvasive estimation of LV filling pressure
uate for diastolic reversal of flow associated with aortic regurgitation, and diastolic performance.3,16 Provision should be made to average
rupture of the SoVAo, noncompliant aorta in elderly patients, the peak lateral and medial velocities of all three components and
arteriovenous fistula in the upper extremity, and aortic dissection to report these values. The averaged e0 is used for calculation of the
(Table 6.14).37,43 Routine flow sampling should be performed in E/e0 ratio in addition to individual data from the lateral and medial
the proximal Desc Ao 10 mm below the origin of the left sites. Similar protocols are used for the lateral tricuspid annulus.58,59
subclavian artery using a 3- to 5-mm sample volume. The normal The most important measurement for the right heart is the s0
PW Doppler signal is systolic and nonturbulent. In normal individuals, velocity, which correlates well with alternative measures of global
there typically is a brief low-velocity, early diastolic flow reversal. RV systolic function (Table 6.17).58
Reversal velocities longer than the first third of diastole are abnormal
and associated with aortic regurgitation (Table 6.14).37,43 Key Points #4
Doppler Imaging and Measurements
F. Hvns For routine CDI of valvular insufficiency and forward
Hvn flow is a three-component signal consisting of the S wave of flow flow, use a consistent scale setting of 50 to 70 cm/sec.
into the IVC during systole, the D wave of flow into the IVC during Maintain optimal gain settings.
the first part of diastole, and the A wave of flow reversal in the Hvn CDI scale velocity should be adjusted for specialized cir-
caused by atrial contraction.30 Some patients have a fourth compo- cumstances to best display color flow, particularly in
nent: a brief ventricular flow reversal wave immediately following low-flow states.
the S wave. A sample volume of 3 to 5 mm is placed in the Hvn about Spectral PW and CW Doppler measurements should be
1 to 2 cm from the junction with the IVC. Flow is recorded at this site made at the modal (densest) margin of the flow signal.
and should be assessed during an entire respiratory cycle. Although Do not overgain. Do not measure weak, ill-defined sig-
absolute peak velocity measurements are not routinely recorded, nals beyond the modal velocity.
the pattern of flow is a valuable diagnostic tool.30,33 If performed, Obtain spectral Doppler signals as parallel as possible to
peak S- and D-wave velocities should be measured at end- flow. CDI interrogation may help orientation.
expiration (Table 6.15).
Flow signals may be acquired (e.g., tricuspid regurgita-
tion) from multiple anatomic sites. Use the highest
G. Pulvns quality and highest velocity signals for final measure-
Inflow from the Pulvns to the left atrium is best imaged from the A4C ments. Edit out velocity data from poor-quality and
or apical five-chamber view.77 Typically, the right upper Pulvn, or at lower velocity signals for the final reported velocity.
times the right lower Pulvn, has flow almost parallel to the Doppler Do not report Doppler flow signals of poor definition
cursor. A 3- to 5-mm sample volume should be placed about 10 or marginal quality.
mm proximal to the vein’s junction with the left atrium. Color Use CDI and pulsed Doppler mapping to characterize
Doppler aids in the positioning of the sample volume.3 The flow the origin of unusual signals within chambers or blood
signal is typically triphasic, with an S wave (during ventricular systole), vessels.
D wave (during early diastole), and A reversal wave (during atrial
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 45
Volume 32 Number 1
When recording spectral Doppler for measurements of opacification is considered positive evidence for an intracardiac shunt.
velocity and time intervals, use a default sweep speed Clip length must be prolonged to start with an right atrium free of
of 100 mm/sec. Slower sweep speeds are valuable for bubbles, then show inflow of saline bubbles into the right atrium
specialized pathology. and possible early or late flow into the left atrium via either an intra-
cardiac shunt or intrapulmonary shunt. Visualization of saline entering
For tissue Doppler, always maximize the signal display
the left atrium via the Pulvns is an echocardiographic finding that is
and use manufacturer-recommended presets.
suggestive of transpulmonic shunting and should be evaluated
when the Pulvns can be seen entering into the left atrium.78 At least
20 consecutive beats should be recorded. Tissue harmonic imaging
should be used to improve bubble visualization (Tables 7.1 and 7.3).
IX. ADDITIONAL TECHNIQUES Two 10-mL syringes and a three-way stopcock are needed for
administration of saline. Syringes and stopcocks should be lockable,
as the pressure resulting from either the agitation or injection of the
A. Agitated-Saline Imaging saline-air mixture can cause pressure-fitted syringes and stopcocks
to become disconnected, resulting in the agitated solution being
Agitated saline (a ‘‘bubble study’’) is used to evaluate for interatrial sprayed on the administering staff member, operator, and patient.
shunts, such as a patent foramen ovale or atrial septal defect, and Eight to 10 mL of saline and #0.5 mL of air should be drawn into
for intrapulmonary shunting, which may be due to pulmonary one syringe.79 The air-saline mixture is briskly agitated between sy-
arteriovenous malformations or hepatopulmonary syndrome ringes and rapidly injected through a forearm or hand vein.79 Care
(Tables 7.1–7.4).78 Agitated saline is also used if there is a question should be taken to ensure that the agitation is complete so that no
of the presence of a persistent left SVC (Table 7.5). Although the large bubbles are injected.80 If no shunt is noted, the injection should
use of agitated-saline imaging is not a routine procedure for all TTE be repeated. Specific maneuvers that are used to transiently increase
studies, an echocardiography laboratory should be provisioned with right atrial pressures, such as coughing, the Valsalva maneuver, and
supplies and appropriate personnel to perform the procedure on de- abdominal compression, may help elicit a right-to-left shunt if no
mand during a routine study. Intravenous access is required. Imaging shunt is detected during quiet respiration. When performing the
windows that provide the best view of the interatrial septum are used Valsalva maneuver, the patient should be instructed to release
when assessing for an interatrial or intrapulmonary shunt. The A4C when contrast arrives in the right atrium. Additional mechanisms to
view is preferred to avoid shadowing of the left heart. If apical win- improve the detection of a shunt are shown in Table 7.2. The reader
dows are of poor quality, the SC four-chamber view may be used is referred to detailed guidelines on evaluation of the interatrial
(Table 7.4). septum for more information.78 Contraindications for use of agitated
When performing a bubble study, it is important to time interaction saline include known significant right-to-left shunts and pregnancy.
of the video clip with the administration of the saline to determine
how many heartbeats elapse before visualizing the saline bubbles
entering the left atrium. Determining the timing of when bubbles
B. UEA Imaging
enter the left atrium is helpful for differentiating between an intracar-
diac shunt and an extracardiac pulmonary arteriovenous shunt. The Guidelines for the use of UEAs are published and widely
appearance of bubbles within three to six beats after full right atrial accepted.79,81,82 It is beyond the scope of this document to
(Continued )
46 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 7 (Continued )
2D TTE image Information
7.1c (see Video 87) Beat 4: bubbles originating at the atrial septum (arrow) within the first six beats
following full opacification of the right side
This demonstrates a bubble study positive for an intracardiac right-to-left
shunt
7.2 (see Video 88) Complete 20-beat clip for a negative bubble study for PFO
Additional maneuvers to try if conventional bubble injection is negative
Add 1 mL blood to 1 mL air and 8 mL saline
Use cough, Valsalva maneuver, and/or abdominal compression-release
when saline enters the right atrium; These maneuvers increase RA
pressure relative to LA pressure
Use femoral vein injection instead of arm injection whenever streaming
of inflow does not allow full opacification of the right atrium; the IVC flow
is directed toward the right atrium and therefore may enhance the
visualization of agitated saline crossing the septum
7.3a (see Video 89) Complete 20-beat clip showing late appearance of bubbles in the LA and LV
consistent with an extracardiac transpulmonary shunt
Beat 9 demonstrating bubbles entering the left atrium via the Pulvns (arrows)
(Continued )
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 47
Volume 32 Number 1
Table 7 (Continued )
2D TTE image Information
7.3b (see Video 89) Beat 16 demonstrating complete filling of the LA and LV with bubbles; note
presence of bubbles in the Pulvns and dilution of bubbles in the
RA and RV
7.4b This view may be less sensitive for detecting right-to-left shunt because of
shadowing from RV bubbles
7.5a (see Video 90) Imaging for a persistent left SVC, left arm injection
Parasternal window
PLAX view
Structures to demonstrate
LA
MV
LV
CS (arrow)
LVOT
AV
Asc Ao
Imaging of CS before the arrival of bubbles
7.5b (see Video 90) Beat 9 demonstrates bubble arrival in CS before right side
(Continued )
48 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 7 (Continued )
2D TTE image Information
7.5c (see Video 90) Beat 7 demonstrates bubbles in CS and right ventricle (arrow)
Image description
(Continued )
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 49
Volume 32 Number 1
Table 8 (Continued )
Image description
Apical window
3C
Table 10 (Continued )
Window View/measurements Clip/still frame
Table 10 (Continued )
Window View/measurements Clip/still frame
Table 11 (Continued )
Window Limited Examination for LV Function: View/Measurements Clip/still frame
Table 11 (Continued )
Window Limited Examination for RV/Pulmonary Hypertension: View/Measurements Clip/still frame
PSAX PA CW Doppler measure peak velocity, VTI (PR if present) Still frame*
PSAX LV just inferior to MV leaflet tips, grayscale Clip
PSAX Mid LV papillary muscle level, grayscale Clip
PSAX LV apex level, grayscale Clip
Apical A4C, grayscale Clip
Apical A2C, grayscale Clip
Apical Apical long-axis, grayscale Clip
Apical MV inflow, PW Doppler (measure E velocity, A velocity, E deceleration time) Still frame
Apical DTI MV lateral annulus, medial annulus (measure e0 , a0 , s0 ) Still frame
Apical Right ventricle focused, grayscale Clip
Apical TV color inflow Clip
Apical TV inflow (optional measure E velocity, A velocity) Still frame
Apical TR if present (measure peak velocity) Still frame
0 0 0
Apical DTI TV lateral annulus (measure e , a , and s ) Still frame
Apical RV-focused view, M-mode, TAPSE Still frame
Apical RV-focused view measure length, maximum basal transverse diameter, midcavity diameter Still frame
Apical RV-focused view trace area at end-diastole Still frame
Apical RV-focused view trace area at end-systole Still frame
Apical A4C view, RA volume summation of disks trace RA area at end-systole, measure length) Still frame
SC IVC demonstrating variation with respiration Clip
SC IVC diameter measurement Still frame
SC Hvns, color Clip
SC Hvns, PW Doppler to display S, D, and A velocity waveforms Still frame
LVIDs, LV internal dimension systole; LVPW, LV posterior wall; TR, tricuspid regurgitation.
*Choose to display either PLAX or PSAX.
describe use of UEAs in detail. However, appropriate use of UEAs is 2. Instrumentation and Administration. Each ultrasound
considered an integral part of the routine transthoracic examination. manufacturer has a different algorithm for UEA image processing
An echocardiography laboratory should be provisioned with supplies and contrast settings. Common to all of them are techniques that
and appropriate personnel to perform the procedure on demand cancel out or lessen the strength of the returning signal from the tissue
during a routine study. Intravenous access is required. This section and enhance the signal received from the microbubbles. This usually
provides a brief description of the indications, instrumentation, involves a tissue cancelation technique coupled with harmonic imag-
administration techniques, and examples of UEA images. Operators ing at a low or very low mechanical index.79,82
are encouraged to become proficient in understanding when UEAs UEAs are administered intravenously using bolus or continuous infu-
are indicated and be familiar with administration techniques and sion techniques. Although the bolus technique (straight bolus followed
image optimization. All echocardiography laboratories should have by a flush or diluted flush) is more commonly used, continuous infusion
established protocols for UEA administration. provides a more consistent concentration of enhancement agent replen-
ishment, which can eliminate or lessen imaging artifacts.79,82
1. Indications. Currently, the only US Food and Drug The most common artifacts associated with UEA imaging are atten-
Administration–approved cardiac indication for the use of UEAs is uation and swirling (Tables 8.1 and 8.2). Attenuation is caused by a
to opacify the LV chamber and to improve delineation of the LVendo- high concentration of microbubbles in the near field and results in
cardial border. UEAs should be used in patients with suboptimal im- shadowing of distal structures. Swirling is an artifact that results
ages for assessment of LV contractility, defined as the inability to when the rate of bubble destruction exceeds the rate of bubble
detect endocardial motion in two or more contiguous segments in replenishment. These common artifacts are easily resolved by varying
any of the three apical views.79,82 the amount or rate of UEA administration.79,82
Other off-label uses of UEAs that are widely used include assess-
ment of cardiac masses and intracardiac thrombi when endocardial 3. Image Acquisition. UEA imaging is usually best performed
border detection is limited. Poor-quality spectral Doppler signals, from the apical window because the anterior position of the right
particularly CW Doppler envelopes for tricuspid regurgitation and ventricle can result in attenuation and shadowing when using para-
aortic stenosis, may be enhanced with UEAs. Operators are encour- sternal views. Imaging is begun from the A4C view, followed by
aged to assess the need for a UEA early during an examination to the A2C and the apical long-axis view. As the UEA concentration de-
minimize the impact of ordering, preparing, and administering the clines, the PLAX view and PSAX view may also be acquired. This
enhancement agent on procedural time. sequence allows the assessment of all 17 LV segments. Imaging
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 55
Volume 32 Number 1
from the parasternal window in the long- and short-axis views should X. THE INTEGRATED COMPLETE TRANSTHORACIC
also be performed after the apical views (Tables 8.3–8.7).79,82 EXAMINATION
25. Senior R, Soman P, Khattar RS, Lahiri A. Improved endocardial visualiza- cardiography developed in collaboration with the Society for Cardiovas-
tion with second harmonic imaging compared with fundamental two- cular Magnetic Resonance. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2017;30:303-71.
dimensional echocardiographic imaging. Am Heart J 1999;138:163-8. 44. Thomas JD, Liu CM, Flachskampf FA, O’Shea JP, Davidoff R, Weyman AE.
26. Masencal N, Bordachar P, Chatellier G, Redheuil A, Diebold B, Abergel E. Quantification of jet flow by momentum analysis. An in vitro color
Comparison of accuracy of left ventricular echocardiographic measure- Doppler flow study. Circulation 1990;81:247-59.
ments by fundamental imaging versus second harmonic imaging. Am J 45. Thomas JD. Doppler echocardiographic assessment of valvar regurgita-
Cardiol 2003;91:1037-9. tion. Heart 2002;88:651-7.
27. Spencer KT, Bednarz J, Rafter PG, Korcarz C, Lang RM. Use of harmonic 46. Kronzon I, Aurigemma GP. M-mode echocardiography. In: Lang RM,
imaging without echocardiographic contrast to improve two-dimensional Goldstein SA, Kronzon I, Khandheria BK, Mor-Avi V, editors. ASE’s
image quality. Am J Cardiol 1998;82:794-9. comprehensive echocardiography. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saun-
28. Hawkins K, Henry JS, Krasuski RA. Tissue harmonic imaging in echocar- ders; 2016. pp. 30-8.
diography: better valve imaging, but at what cost? Echocardiography 47. Brun P, Tribouilloy C, Duval AM, Iserin L, Meguira A, Pelle G, et al. Left ven-
2008;25:119-23. tricular flow propagation during early filling is related to wall relaxation: a co-
29. Barr RG, Grajo JR. Dynamic automatic ultrasound optimization: time lor M-mode Doppler analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 1992;20:420-32.
savings, keystroke savings, and image quality. Ultrasound Q 2009;25: 48. Garcia MJ, Smedira NG, Greenberg NL, Main M, Firstenberg MS,
63-5. Odabashian J, et al. Color M-mode Doppler flow propagation velocity is
30. Qui~ nones MA, Otto CM, Stoddard M, Waggoner A, Zoghbi WA, Doppler a preload insensitive index of left ventricular relaxation: animal and hu-
Quantification Task Force of the Nomenclature and Standards Commit- man validation. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000;35:201-8.
tee of the American Society of Echocardiography. Recommendations 49. Takatsuji H, Mikami T, Urasawa K, Teranishi J-I, Onozuka H, Takagi C,
for quantification of Doppler echocardiography: a report from the et al. A new approach for evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function:
Doppler quantification task force of the nomenclature and standards com- spatial and temporal analysis of left ventricular filling flow propagation by
mittee of the American Society of Echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocar- color M-mode Doppler echocardiography. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996;27:
diogr 2002;15:167-84. 365-71.
31. Wann S, Passen E. Echocardiography in pericardial disease. J Am Soc Echo- 50. Carerj S, Micari A, Trono A, Giordano G, Cerrito M, Zito C, et al. Anatom-
cardiogr 2008;21:7-13. ical M-mode: an old-new technique. Echocardiography 2003;20:357-61.
32. Perez-Casares A, Cesar S, Brunet-Garcia L, Sanchez-de-Toledo J. Echocar- 51. Donal E, Coisne D, Pham B, Ragot S, Herpin D, Thomas JD. Anatomic M-
diographic evaluation of pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade. Mode, a pertinent tool for the daily practice of transthoracic echocardiog-
Front Pediatr 2017;5:1-10. raphy. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2004;17:962-7.
33. Otto CM. Pericardial disease. In: Otto CM, editor. Textbook of clinical 52. Otto CM. The echo exam: quick reference guide basic principles. In:
echocardiography. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2013. pp. Otto CM, editor. Textbook of clinical echocardiography. 5th ed. Philadel-
254-70. phia: Elsevier; 2013. pp. 500-3.
34. Pellerito JS, Polak JF. Basic concepts of Doppler frequency spectrum anal- 53. Drew BJ, Califf RM, Funk M, Kaufman ES, Krucoff MW, Laks MM, et al.
ysis and ultrasound blood flow imaging. In: Pellerito JS, Polak JF, editors. Practice standards for electrocardiographic monitoring in hospital settings:
Introduction to vascular ultrasonography. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Sa- an American Heart Association scientific statement from the Councils on
unders; 2012. pp. 52-73. Cardiovascular Nursing, Clinical Cardiology, and Cardiovascular Disease
35. Baumgartner H, Hung J, Bermejo J, Chambers JB, Edvardsen T, in the Young: endorsed by the International Society of Computerized
Goldstein S, et al. Recommendations on the echocardiographic assess- Electrocardiology and the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses.
ment of aortic valve stenosis: a focused update from the European Asso- Circulation 2004;110:2721-46.
ciation of Cardiovascular Imaging and the American Society of 54. Snider RA, Serwer GA, Ritter SB. The normal echocardiographic examina-
Echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2017;30:372-92. tion. In: Snider RA, Serwer GA, Ritter SB, editors. Echocardiography in pe-
36. Stewart WJ, Galvin KA, Gillam LD, Guyer DE, Weyman AE. Comparison diatric heart disease. 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby; 1997. pp. 22-75.
of high pulse repetition frequency and continuous wave Doppler echocar- 55. Lai WW, Ko HH. The normal pediatric echocardiogram. In: Lai WW,
diography in the assessment of high flow velocity in patients with valvular Mertens LL, Cohen MS, Geva T, editors. Echocardiography in pediatric
stenosis and regurgitation. J Am Coll Cardiol 1985;6:565-71. and congenital heart disease from fetus to adult. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-
37. Baumgartner H, Hung J, Bermejo J, Chambers JB, Evangelista A, Griffin BP, Blackwell; 2009. pp. 34-52.
et al. Echocardiographic assessment of valve stenosis: EAE/ASE recom- 56. Brown LM, Duffy CE, Mitchell C, Young L. A practical guide to pediatric
mendations for clinical practice. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2009;22:1-23. coronary artery imaging with echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr
38. Nagueh SF, Middleton KJ, Kopelen HA, Zoghbi WA, Qui~ nones MA. 2015;28:379-91.
Doppler tissue imaging: a noninvasive technique for evaluation of left ven- 57. Lang RM, Badano LP, Tsang W, Adams DH, Agricola E, Buck T, et al. EAE/
tricular relaxation and estimation of filling pressures. J Am Coll Cardiol ASE recommendations for image acquisition and display using three-
1997;30:1527-33. dimensional echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2012;25:3-46.
39. Nagueh SF, Sun H, Kopelen HA, Middleton KJ, Khoury DS. Hemody- 58. Rudski LG, Lai WW, Afilalo J, Hua L, Handschumacher MD,
namic determinants of the mitral annulus diastolic velocities by tissue Chandrasekaran K, et al. Guidelines for the echocardiographic assessment
Doppler. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;37:278-85. of the right heart in adults: a report from the American Society of Echocar-
40. Ho CY, Solomon SD. A clinician’s guide to tissue Doppler imaging. Circu- diography endorsed by the European Association of Echocardiography, a
lation 2006;113:e396-8. registered branch of the European Society of Cardiology, and the Cana-
41. Nikitin NP, Witte KK, Thackray SD, de Silva R, Clark AL, Cleland JG. Lon- dian Society of Echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2010;23:
gitudinal ventricular function: Normal values of atrioventricular annular 685-713.
and myocardial velocities measured with quantitative two-dimensional co- 59. Horton KD, Meece RW, Hill JC. Assessment of the right ventricle by echo-
lor Doppler tissue imaging. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2003;16:906-21. cardiography: a primer for cardiac sonographers. J Am Soc Echocardiogr
42. Miyatake K, Okamoto M, Kinoshita N, Izumi S, Owa M, Takao S, et al. 2009;22:776-92.
Clinical applications of a new type of real-time two-dimensional Doppler 60. Aloia E, Cameli M, D’Ascenzi F, Sciaccaluga C, Mondillo S. TAPSE: an old
flow imaging system. Am J Cardiol 1984;54:857-68. but useful tool in different diseases. Int J Cardiol 2016;225:177-83.
43. Zoghbi WA, Adams D, Bonow RO, Enriquez-Sarano M, Foster E, 61. Kaul S, Tei C, Hopkins JM, Shah PM. Assessment of right ventricular func-
Grayburn PA, et al. Recommendations for noninvasive evaluation of tion using two-dimensional echocardiography. Am Heart J 1984;107:
native valvular regurgitation: a report from the American Society of Echo- 526-31.
58 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
62. Keren A, Billingham ME, Popp RL. Echocardiographic recognition of para- 74. Parasuraman S, Walker S, Loudon BL, Gollop ND, Wilson AM, Lowery C,
septal structures. J Am Coll Cardiol 1985;6:913-9. et al. Assessment of pulmonary artery pressure by echocardiography—a
63. Canepa M, Malti O, David M, AlGhatrif M, Strait JB, Ameri P, et al. Prev- comprehensive review. Int J Cardiol Heart Vasc 2016;12:45-51.
alence, clinical correlates, and functional impact of subaortic ventricular 75. Dumesnil JG, Yoganathan AP. Theoretical and practical differences be-
septal bulge (from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging). Am J Car- tween the Gorlin formula and the continuity equation for calculating
diol 2014;114:796-802. aortic and mitral valve areas. Am J Cardiol 1991;67:1268-72.
64. Canepa M, Pozios I, Vianello PF, Ameri P, Brunelli C, Ferrucci L, et al. Dis- 76. Hurrell DG, Nishimura RA, Ilstrup DM, Appleton CP. Utility of preload
tinguishing ventricular septal bulge versus hypertrophic cardiomyopathy alteration in assessment of left ventricular filling pressure by Doppler echo-
in the elderly. Heart 2016;102:1087-94. cardiography: a simultaneous catheterization and Doppler echocardio-
65. Muraru D, Maffessanti F, Kocabay G, Peluso D, Dal Bianco L, Piasentini E, graphic study. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;30:459-67.
et al. Ascending aorta diameters measured by echocardiography using 77. Klein AL, Tajik AJ. Doppler assessment of pulmonary venous flow in
both leading edge-to-leading edge and inner edge-to-inner edge conven- healthy subjects and in patients with heart disease. J Am Soc Echocardiogr
tions in healthy volunteers. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging 2014;15: 1991;4:379-92.
415-22. 78. Silvestry FE, Cohen MS, Armsby LB, Burkule NJ, Fleishman CE,
66. Tamborini G, Piazzese C, Lang RM, Muratori M, Chiorino E, Mapelli M, Hijazi ZM, et al. Guidelines for the echocardiographic assessment of atrial
et al. Feasibility and accuracy of automated software for transthoracic septal defect and patent foramen Ovale: from the American Society of
three-dimensional left ventricular volume and function analysis: compar- Echocardiography and Society for Cardiac Angiography and Interven-
isons with two-dimensional echocardiography, three-dimensional trans- tions. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2015;28:910-58.
thoracic manual method, and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. J 79. Porter TR, Abdelmoneim S, Belcik JT, McCulloch ML, Mulvagh SL,
Am Soc Echocardiogr 2017;30:1049-58. Olson JJ, et al. Guidelines for the cardiac sonographer in the
67. Abhayaratna WP, Seward JB, Appleton CP, Douglas PS, Oh JK, Tajik AJ, performance of contrast echocardiography: a focused update from
et al. Left atrial size: physiologic determinants and clinical applications. J the American Society of Echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr
Am Coll Cardiol 2006;47:2357-63. 2014;27:797-810.
68. Jenkins C, Bricknell K, Marwick TH. Use of real-time three-dimensional 80. Romero JR, Frey JL, Schwamm LH, Demaerschalk BM, Chaliki HP,
echocardiography to measure left atrial volume: comparison with Parikh G, et al. Cerebral ischemic events associated with ‘bubble study’
other echocardiographic techniques. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2005; for identification of right to left shunts. Stroke 2009;40:2343-8.
18:991-7. 81. Senior R, Becher H, Monaghan M, Agati L, Zamorano J,
69. Meltzer RS, McGhie J, Roelandt J. Inferior vena cava echocardiography. J Vanoverschelde JL, et al. Contrast echocardiography: evidence-based rec-
Clin Ultrasound 1982;10:47-51. ommendations by European Association of Echocardiography. Eur J Echo-
70. Pasquero P, Albani S, Sitia E, Taulaigo AV, Borio L, Berchialla P, cardiogr 2009;10:194-212.
et al. Inferior vena cava diameters and collapsibility index reveal 82. Porter TR, Mulvagh SL, Abdelmoneim SS, Becher H, Belcik JT, Bierig M,
early volume depeletion in a blood donor model. Crit Ultrasound et al. Clinical applications of ultrasonic enhancing agents in echocardiog-
J 2015;7:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13089-015-0034-4. raphy: 2018 American Society of Echocardiography guidelines update. J
71. Stainback RF, Estep JD, Agler DA, Birks EJ, Bremer M, Hung J, et al. Echo- Am Soc Echocardiogr 2018;31:241-74.
cardiography in the management of patients with left ventricular assist de- 83. Voigt JU, Pedrizzetti G, Lysyansky P, Marwick TH, Houle H, Bauman R,
vices: recommendations from the American Society of Echocardiography. et al. Definitions for a common standard for 2D speckle tracking echocar-
J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2015;28:853-909. diography: consensus document of EACVI/ASE/Industry Task Force to
72. Otto CM. Valvular stenosis. In: Otto CM, editor. Textbook of clinical standardize deformation imaging. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging 2015;
echocardiography. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2013. pp. 16:1-11.
271-304. 84. Barnett C, Ben-Yehuda O. Cardiac catheterization in the patient with pul-
73. Jassal DS, Thakrar A, Schaffer SA, Fang T, Kirkpatrick I, Tam JW, et al. monary hypertension. In: Yuan JX-J, Garcia JGN, Hales CA, Rich S,
Percutaneous balloon valvuloplasty for pulmonic stenosis: the role of mul- Archer SL, West JB, editors. Textbook of pulmonary vascular disease.
timodality imaging. Echocardiography 2008;25:231-5. New York: Springer; 2011. pp. 1387-402.
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 59
Volume 32 Number 1
XIII. APPENDIX: ADDITIONAL ALTERNATIVE VIEWS be accomplished by imaging through the liver in a right lateral decu-
bitus imaging plane. This is often helpful with intensive care unit pa-
tients, who may be difficult to image. This image may be acquired in
This appendix is compiled with additional views that may be of value
the supine position or by positioning the patient on his or her left side.
when an echocardiographic examination is needed to answer a spe-
Place the transducer on the patient’s right side, just below the rib cage.
cific question.
Image through the liver to demonstrate the IVC and aorta in the same
plane (Table 12.5).
A. PSAX Coronary Artery View
The PSAX view imaged just superior to the location of the AV can be
used to demonstrate the origin of the coronary arteries (Table 12.1). F. SC Short-Axis IVC
The right coronary artery typically is in the 11 o’clock position, and The IVC can also be evaluated in the short axis. To acquire this image,
the origin of the left coronary artery is usually in the 5 o’clock position. rotate 90 from the IVC long-axis view, and the IVC will be demon-
To image the coronary artery origin, begin in the zoomed PSAX view strated in cross-section on the right side of the body when normal car-
just superior to the level of the AV and optimize the image. This image diac and abdominal situs is present. This view is helpful to determine
should demonstrate all borders of the aorta and allow enough room in changes with respiration and also may be helpful for ensuring that the
all directions to be able to demonstrate the coronary artery origins and long-axis IVC image is in the center of the vessel, demonstrating its
the initial course of each vessel. In some individuals, both coronary ar- maximum diameter and thus maximum changes in diameter with
teries may be seen in the same view. More commonly, each coronary respiration. A sweep of the ultrasound beam from this transverse
artery is present in a slightly different plane. Sweep superior to infe- view up to the heart can demonstrate pleural effusions (Table 12.6).
rior, slightly rotating counterclockwise to bring in the origin of the
right coronary artery and clockwise to bring in the origin of the left G. SC Focused Interatrial Septum
coronary artery.1
The interatrial septum can be magnified in the SC view to further
evaluate for atrial septal aneurysm and/or echo dropout, which
B. RV A2C View may indicate an atrial septal defect or patent foramen ovale. CDI
Another view that can be used evaluate the right ventricle is the two- can also be used in this view to interrogate the atrial septum for color
chamber RV view. To obtain this view, start from the focused RV four- crossing the septum, indicating that a septal defect is present. The co-
chamber view and rotate 60 counterclockwise (as one does for the lor velocity scale is often reduced to adequately display color flow
two-chamber LV view). The SVC, right atrium, and right ventricle (Table 12.7).
(inferior RV free wall) will be visible. The AV will be seen in part as
well. This view can be helpful to evaluate for endocarditis and H. SC Short-Axis RVOT View
thrombi on pacer leads and catheters coming from the SVC. This
view may also allow a more parallel vector for color and spectral This view can be used to evaluate the RVOT, PV, and main PA. This
Doppler assessment of TV regurgitation (Table 12.2). view provides an excellent Doppler angle to evaluate flow in these
structures and is helpful for Doppler measures to evaluate for PV ste-
nosis and PV regurgitation. This is an alternative for use when para-
C. SC SVC (Bicaval) View sternal views are of limited quality (Table 12.8).
In some individuals, the SVC can also be seen entering the right
atrium from a variation on the SC long-axis IVC imaging plane. To im-
I. SC Short-Axis Sweep from the Level of the Great Arteries
age the SVC, optimize the image of the long axis of the IVC, increase
through the Apex of the Heart
the depth, and angle the transducer toward the head, bringing the
SVC into view. The SVC will be at the bottom of the sector at about In individuals with difficult parasternal and apical windows, the SC
5 to 6 o’clock. The RA junction of the IVC and the SVC can be seen. window can provide a window for completing LV function assess-
This view is helpful to evaluate SVC flow, leads and catheters arising ment. This sweep is a substitute for the PSAX sweep of the left
from the SVC, and atrial shunts, including those from the sinus ventricle and avoids the rib problem with the precordium. Start at
venous (Table 12.3). the great vessel level and sweep toward the apex of the left ventricle.
Anatomy, function, and septal defects can be evaluated with this
view. Multiple clips may be obtained at all the same levels used in
D. SC Abdominal Aorta the PSAX views (Tables 12.9a and 12.9b).
From the SC long-axis image of the IVC, angle and slide slightly left-
ward to image the aorta in long axis. The aorta is typically more ver-
J. Right Parasternal View of the Aorta
tical than the IVC. The vessel is oriented so that superior aspect is at
the bottom of the sector and the inferior aspect is at the top. Color In cases in which aortic stenosis is present and the sonographer is hav-
Doppler and pulsed Doppler show forward flow moving upward ing difficulty obtaining the aortic Doppler signal with the nonimaging
and to the left in the sector. The two-dimensional and Doppler views CW transducer, an imaging transducer can be used to identify the Asc
are helpful to image for aortic aneurysm, dissection, and atheroscle- Ao. Place the patient in the right lateral decubitus position, and extend
rosis. This vessel does not respond to changes in respiration, which the right arm above the head. Place the transducer in the second or
can help differentiate it from the IVC (Tables 12.4a and 12.4b). third intercostal space along the right border of the sternum. Align
the index marker toward the patient’s right shoulder. The Asc Ao is
imaged in a long-axis plane as it leaves the heart. A Doppler image
E. Right Lateral Imaging of the IVC may be obtained from this view, and/or the sonographer may switch
In patients with poor sound transmission in the mid-SC window (i.e., to the nonimaging CW transducer after locating the best window for
abdominal bowel gas) or postoperative bandages, IVC imaging may obtaining a Doppler signal (Tables 12.10a–12.10c).
60 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
(Continued )
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 61
Volume 32 Number 1
Table 12 (Continued )
Anatomic image Echocardiographic image When used
(Continued )
62 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 12 (Continued )
Anatomic image Echocardiographic image When used
12.9. Subcostal short-axis sweep from the level of the great arteries through the apex of the heart (see Videos 106 and 107)
Subcostal window
Sweep for LV morphology and function
In individuals with difficult parasternal
and apical windows, the subcostal
window is an alternative for completing
LV function assessment.
12.10. High right parasternal view of aorta (see Videos 108 and 109)
Right parasternal upper window
Asc Ao
This view is used to demonstrate flow in
the Asc Ao. Often the aorta is imaged at a
good Doppler angle from this view. and
therefore this view may provide the
highest Doppler velocities for
assessment of aortic pathology.
(Continued )
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography Mitchell et al 63
Volume 32 Number 1
Table 12 (Continued )
Anatomic image Echocardiographic image When used
12.11. SSN view left innominate vein, SVC, and right PA (see Video 110)
SSN window
Short axis orientation
Used to evaluate the left innominate vein,
SVC, and PA.
12.12. SSN view innominate veins and SVC (see Videos 111 and 112)
SSN window
SVC, R innom vn, L innom vn
Used to evaluate the structure and flow of
the R innom vn, L innom vn, and SVC.
(Continued )
64 Mitchell et al Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
January 2019
Table 12 (Continued )
Anatomic image Echocardiographic image When used
K. SSN Innominate Veins view. The color M-mode box should be set to include the area
The standard longitudinal view may partially demonstrate a structure from mitral annulus to the LV apex (Table 12.14). The color baseline
anterior to the aortic arch. This is usually the innominate vein. To fully should be moved toward the direction of flow to create aliasing in the
demonstrate this vein, rotate the transducer into a transverse plane of forward flow direction so that the central highest velocity jet is blue.
the aorta (Table 12.11). Tilt the transducer inferior to demonstrate the The slope is measured along the red first aliasing line of the signal
left and right innominate veins draining into the SVC (Table 12.12a). in early diastole, which should have the same timing as the E wave.
Color flow imaging can be used to further demonstrate the venous Measure from the mitral annulus to $4 cm into the left ventricle.
anatomy and demonstrate patency of the veins (Table 12.12b). Divide the distance into the left ventricle by time in seconds to obtain
A variation of this view, tilting the transducer toward the sternum the slope in centimeters per second.2,3
and slightly rightward, shows the SVC entering the right atrium with
the proximal Asc Ao to the left. The AV can be seen in the far field.
REFERENCES
L. SSN Short-Axis LA and Pulvn View (‘‘Crab View’’)
From the SSN transverse position, lay the tail of the transducer almost 1. Brown LM, Duffy CE, Mitchell C, Young L. A practical guide to pediatric
parallel with the sternum. The left atrium with the four Pulvns drain- coronary artery imaging with echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr
ing into it can be demonstrated inferior to the right PA (Table 12.13). 2015;28:379-91.
This view is good to demonstrate anatomy of the right PA and pulmo- 2. Brun P, Tribouilloy C, Duval A-M, Iserin L, Meguira A, Pelle G, et al. Left
nary venous drainage into the left atrium. ventricular flow propagation during early filling is related to wall relaxation:
a color M-mode Doppler analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 1992;20:420-32.
3. Garcia MJ, Smedira NG, Greenberg NL, Main M, Firstenberg MS,
M. Color M-Mode Flow Propagation Odabashian J, et al. Color M-mode Doppler flow propagation velocity is
Color M-mode imaging has been used to measure the early diastolic a preload insensitive index of left ventricular relaxation: animal and human
flow propagation velocity from the slope of the linear isovelocity con- validation. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000;35:201-8.
4. Stewart KC, Kumar R, Charonko JJ, Ohara T, Vlachos PP, Little WC. Eval-
tour to assess the rapid filling phase of diastole. The display shows
uation of LV diastolic function from color M-mode echocardiography.
time on the x axis and spatial distance, mean velocity of inflow, and JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2011;4:37-46.
the timing of this inflow on the y axis. This measure may be helpful 5. Takatsuji H, Mikami T, Urasawa K, Teranishi J-I, Onozuka H, Takagi C, et al.
in the evaluation of diastolic dysfunction. A normal propagation ve- A new approach for evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function:
locity is >50 to 55 cm/sec; propagation velocity of <45 cm/sec has spatial and temporal analysis of left ventricular filling flow propagation by
been associated with impaired relaxation.2-5 To acquire this image, color M-mode Doppler echocardiography. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996;27:
the M-mode cursor is aligned with the mitral inflow jet in the apical 365-71.