5 The Periodic Table

LOOKING AHEAD
This chapter describes the organization and important features of
the Periodic Table of the Elements. From the arrangement of the
elements in the Periodic Table you can derive many relationships
in physical and chemical properties among the elements.

When you have completed this chapter you should be able to:
■ Describe the general organization of the Periodic Table; the
approximate location of metals, nonmetals, and metalloids in
the Periodic Table.
■ Correlate changes in atomic radii with changes in ionization
energy and in electronegativity; the number of valence-
electrons with typical bonding behavior.
■ Define periodicity, as it applies to the elements; metal, non-
metal, and metalloid; active metal; transition element.
■ Predict the properties of elements in Groups 1, 2, 13–18 from
the positions of the elements in the Periodic Table.

Origins of the Periodic Table

Chemists would be overwhelmed with isolated pieces of informa-
tion if they did not have some way of relating the facts they know

181
about the more than 100 known elements. The Periodic Table
provides a means of organizing information so that relationships
among elements can be clearly seen and understood.
Even before so many elements were known, scientists were
searching for relationships among elements. Three important
attempts to determine such relationships were made during the
nineteenth century by the English physician William Prout, the
German chemist Johann Döbereiner, and the English chemist
John Newlands. All three of these scientists based their work on
the model of the atom proposed in 1803 by the English scientist
John Dalton.

The Dalton Model

The Dalton model proposed the following:
1. All matter consists of simple bodies (elements) and com-
pound bodies (compounds). The smallest part of a simple
body is the atom. The smallest part of a compound body is
the compound atom (later called the molecule).
2. All atoms of the same element have the same properties, such
as shape, size, and mass. Atoms of different elements have
different properties.
3. When matter undergoes chemical change, atoms of different
elements either combine or separate from one another.
4. Atoms cannot be destroyed, even during chemical change.

Prout’s Hypothesis
In 1814, Prout suggested that all of the other elements are
developed from hydrogen. In other words, Prout proposed that
hydrogen is the fundamental element. Prout reached this conclu-
sion because he observed that the masses of atoms are whole-
number multiples of the atomic mass of hydrogen. The notion of
atomic mass as the relative mass of an atom on a scale where
hydrogen has a mass of one unit grew out of this idea. Later, oxy-
gen became the standard. Later still, the concept of atomic mass
unit (amu), with carbon-12 as a standard, was developed (pages
186–187).
At the time, Prout’s idea seemed revolutionary. Now, it
appears that Prout may have been close to the truth. Evidence
from studies of radioactive changes led modern scientists to

182 | Chapter 5: The Periodic Table

believe that all elements may be derived from hydrogen. You will
learn more about radioactive changes in Chapter 15.

Döbereiner’s Triads
In 1817, Döbereiner noticed that certain groups of three ele-
ments have related properties. Döbereiner called these groups tri-
ads. If the elements of a triad are arranged in order of increasing
atomic mass, the atomic mass of the middle element is the aver-
age of the atomic masses of the other two elements. Take the triad
chlorine, bromine, and iodine as an example. The atomic mass of
bromine (80) is close to the average of the atomic masses of chlo-
rine (35) and iodine (127).
The properties of the middle element of a triad are also
approximately midway between the properties of the other two
elements. Thus bromine is less reactive than chlorine but more
reactive than iodine.

Newlands’ Law of Octaves

In 1865, Newlands suggested that if the elements are arranged
in order of increasing atomic mass, the first and eighth elements
have related properties. Let’s take an example of the first 14 ele-
ments (except hydrogen) that were known at Newlands’ time. If
you arrange these 14 elements in order of increasing atomic mass
in columns of seven, this is what you get:
lithium sodium
beryllium magnesium
boron aluminum
carbon silicon
nitrogen phosphorus
oxygen sulfur
fluorine chlorine
Just as the first note in an octave of the musical scale resembles
the eighth note, so the first element—lithium—resembles the
eighth element—sodium. The second element resembles the
ninth; the third resembles the tenth; and so on. This relationship,
because of its resemblance to the musical scale, is called the law
of octaves. (Newlands was unaware of the existence of the

Origins of the Periodic Table | 183

elements neon and argon. If these elements are included, the rela-
tionship no longer resembles a musical scale.)

The Mendeleev-Meyer Periodic Classification

The ideas of Prout, Döbereiner, and Newlands were met with
doubt and, in some cases, scorn. Yet these ideas proved to be
forerunners of one of the most important schemes of organiza-
tion in all of chemistry—periodic classification.
In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, stated that
the properties of the elements are periodic functions of their
atomic weights (masses). This means that the properties of ele-
ments repeat regularly and are related to the atomic weights
(masses) of the elements. Mendeleev’s conclusion was based on
a study of the chemical properties observed in the elements
then known.
At about the same time, Lothar Meyer, a German chemist,
came to the same conclusion. Meyer’s conclusion was based on
studies of some of the physical properties of the same elements.
The observation by both chemists is called the periodic law.
The law states that if the elements are arranged in order of
increasing atomic weight (mass), the physical and chemical prop-
erties repeat themselves regularly. These repetitions are referred to
as periodic functions, or as periodicity. You will later learn that these
properties are periodic functions of atomic numbers. This means
that the properties of elements are repeated when the elements
are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
All the elements known at the time of Mendeleev and Meyer
were arranged in the form of a table. A portion of the table
appears below.

Groups

Series I II III IV V VI VII

1 H
2 Li Be B C N O F
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
4 K Ca   As Se Br
Cu Zn  Ti V Cr Mn
5 Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I
Ag Cd Y Zr Nb Mo 
 represents an element that was predicted but had not yet been discovered.

184 | Chapter 5: The Periodic Table

 This arrangement placed elements with similar properties in
chemical families called groups. The groups are the vertical
columns of the table, designated by Roman numerals. The prop-
erties of an element in any group are closely related to the proper-
ties of the elements directly above and below it.
Each group of the table has a subgroup written to the right of
the elements in the main group. Cu (copper) and Ag (silver), for
example, are in a subgroup of Group I. Elements in a subgroup are
more closely related to one another than they are to the elements in
the main group. Cu and Ag are more closely related to each other
than they are to Li (lithium) and Na (sodium) in main Group I.
The Mendeleev-Meyer table was also based on the Dalton
model of the atom. Because the Dalton model is imperfect, the
table based on it is too. The reasons for the periodicity of properties
are not apparent. The reasons for the subgroups cannot be
explained. Finally, when certain elements, such as argon and potas-
sium, cobalt and nickel, and tellurium and iodine, are arranged in
order of increasing atomic weight (mass), their properties do not
fall properly into place. In these cases, it seems that the order of the
two members of a pair of elements should be reversed.
Despite the limitations of the table, it was enormously useful.
The table enabled scientists to predict the existence of many ele-
ments that had not yet been discovered. These predicted, but
undiscovered, elements are indicated by the symbol  in the
table.
Predictions based on the table were remarkably accurate. For
example, notice that there is a symbol for a predicted element in
the square directly below Si (silicon). The properties that this pre-
dicted element was expected to have are shown in the following
table. The table also lists the properties that the element—germa-
nium—did, in fact, have when it was discovered in 1886.

Prediction for
Element Below Observed Property
Property Silicon of Germanium

Atomic weight 72 72.32

Specific heat 0.073 0.076
Specific gravity 5.5 5.47
Formula of oxide XO2 GeO2

Origins of the Periodic Table | 185

 In summary, the Mendeleev-Meyer table was a great step for-
ward in the task of classifying the elements, and it led to the dis-
covery of many new elements.

The Modern Periodic Table

The work set in motion by the Mendeleev-Meyer system of classi-
fication led to further developments during the latter half of the
19th century. By 1900 the noble gas elements, helium, neon,
argon, xenon, and krypton, had been discovered and added to
the table. One problem, however, was as yet unresolved. Why did
a few elements, when grouped by atomic mass, fail to appear in
their proper place?
This problem was finally resolved in 1913, when a 26-year-old
English physicist, Henry Moseley, was able to determine the
atomic number of each of the elements. When the elements were
grouped by atomic number, instead of by atomic mass, every ele-
ment fell into its proper group, with elements of similar proper-
ties. Thus the periodic law was revised, and the development of
the modern periodic table was possible.
The revised periodic law states: The properties of the ele-
ments are periodic functions of their atomic number. In other
words, when the elements are arranged in order of increasing
atomic number, the properties of the elements repeat regularly.
Notice that in this arrangement, argon (atomic number 18) pre-
cedes potassium (atomic number 19), which has a lower atomic
mass than argon. The same reversal of order occurs with cobalt
and nickel and with tellurium and iodine. The properties of these
pairs of elements now fall into place.
Recall that the atomic number indicates the number of pro-
tons (and also of electrons) in an atom. You will see why periodic-
ity is a function of atomic number when you consider some
examples of properties that repeat regularly. First, though, you
should become familiar with the basic organization of the
Periodic Table.

Organization of the Periodic Table

In the revised Periodic Table, the elements are arranged in order
of increasing atomic number. The elements fall into horizontal

186 | Chapter 5: The Periodic Table

rows and vertical columns. Horizontal rows, called periods, are
labeled 1, 2, 3, . . . . Vertical columns, called groups, or families,
were labeled with Roman numerals and letters, such as IIA and IIB.
The subgroups, described on page 168, became the Group B ele-
ments, while the main groups became the Group A elements.
A final change in the Periodic Table was made recently, by the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The
A and B designations were discarded entirely, and the groups were
simply numbered consecutively, from 1 to 18. The elements in
Groups 1, 2, 13–17 are now often called the “representative ele-
ments,” while the elements in Groups 3–12 are called “transition
elements.” The modern Periodic Table is shown in Appendix 5.
Atomic masses are shown above atomic numbers in the table.
Atomic masses are based on the carbon-12 standard—that is, the
masses are determined on a scale in which the most common
isotope of carbon is assigned a mass of exactly 12.00. The mass
numbers reflect the weighted average of the naturally occurring
isotopes.
The electron configuration of an atom is also given for each
element. In this table, the common oxidation states are also pro-
vided. This information applies to some of the periodic properties
of the elements, as you will see.
In this table, as in most Periodic Tables now in use, the row of
elements 58–71 (lanthanides) and the row of elements 90–103
(actinides) appear separately at the bottom of the table. This
placement makes it easier to follow the regularities of all the other
elements. Let’s now look at examples of periodicity.

Atomic Radii
A clear example of a periodic trend is the regularly repeating
decreases and increases in the atomic radii of elements when they
are arranged according to increasing atomic numbers. Recall that
the atomic, or covalent, radius is one half of the bond length Rc
(see Figure 3-1, page 116). If you examine the atomic radii shown
for each element in the Periodic Table, leaving out the transition
elements, Groups 3–12 and the noble gases Group 18, you will find
a regular pattern within both periods and groups. Within periods,
atomic radii decrease. Within groups, atomic radii increase.
Let us examine the reasons for these trends in atomic radii. As
we move left to right, within a period, the number of principal

The Modern Periodic Table | 187

energy levels stays the same, while the number of protons and
electrons increases. The attraction of the protons for the electrons
is much stronger than the repulsion between the electrons within
the same energy level. As the positive charge of the nucleus
increases, due to additional protons, we would expect the elec-
tron cloud to be pulled closer to the nucleus. Thus, the atomic
radius decreases across a period.
As we go down a group, the number of protons increases, as
does the number of occupied energy levels. The increased number
of protons tends to pull the electron clouds closer to the nucleus.
However, each principal energy level is “screened” or “shielded”
from the nucleus by the inner energy levels. Each new outer
energy level is farther from the nucleus than the inner level was,
so the radii generally increase as we go down a group.
The periodic increases and decreases can be shown by a graph,
as in Figure 5-1. Notice that the elements at the peaks of the
graph form Group 1. The elements at the lowest points of the
graph form the beginning of Group 17. Within these groups,
atomic radii increase as atomic numbers increase. These changes
in atomic radii are consistent with trends in ionization energy

260
Rb
240
K
220
Atomic radius (in picometers)

200
Na Sr
180
Li
160

140

120

100
CI Br
80

60
F
40
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Atomic number

Figure 5-1 Periodic trends in atomic radii (transition elements and

Group 18 omitted)

188 | Chapter 5: The Periodic Table

and electron affinity. They are also consistent with the change
from metallic to nonmetallic character of the elements.

Ionization Energy
Recall that ionization energy is the energy required to remove
the most loosely held electron from a gaseous atom. Trends in
ionization energy are shown by the graph in Figure 5-2. The val-
ues of ionization energy increase and decrease regularly as atomic
numbers increase.
Ionization energy generally increases across periods and
decreases down groups. If you compare the graphs in Figures 5-1
and 5-2, you will see that trends in ionization energy are inversely
related to trends in atomic radii. As atomic radii decrease, it
becomes more difficult to remove an electron—that is, ionization
energy increases. As atomic radii increase, it becomes easier to
remove an electron—ionization energy decreases.

Electron Affinity and Electronegativity

Electron affinity refers to the energy released when an
atom receives an electron and becomes a negative ion. Electro-

2500
He

Ne
2000
First ionization energy (kJ/mol)

Ar
1500
Kr
Xe

1000

500
Li Na
K Rb

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Atomic number

Figure 5-2 Periodic trends in ionization energy

The Modern Periodic Table | 189

negativity refers to the tendency of an atom to attract elec-
trons.
Electronegativity and electron affinity are also periodic prop-
erties of atoms and can be related to the trends in atomic radii. As
atomic radii decrease within a period, outer electrons are held
more tightly and become harder to remove. Thus, in general,
electron affinity and electronegativity increase across a period. As
atomic radii increase down a group, outer electrons are held less
firmly and become easier to remove. Thus electron affinity and
electronegativity decrease as atomic radii increase within a group.

Valence Electrons
The number of valence electrons repeats periodically across a
period, if the transition elements are omitted. For example, the
number of valence electrons changes from 1 to 8 in Period 2 (Li to
Ne), goes back to 1 with Na, changes from 1 to 8 in Period 3 (Na
to Cl), and so forth.
Within the representative elements (Groups 1, 2, 13–17),
every element in a group has the same number of valence elec-
trons. For example, every element in Group 15 has five valence
electrons; every element in Group 17 has seven. This constant
number of valence electrons explains the chemical similarity
among elements in the same group.

PRACTICE
5.1 As you move across a period, left to right, describe what
generally happens (decreases, increases, or remains the
same) to
(a) the number of valence electrons
(b) the ionization energy
(c) the atomic radius.
5.2 As you move down a group, describe what generally hap-
pens to
(a) the number of valence electrons
(b) the ionization energy
(c) the atomic radius

190 | Chapter 5: The Periodic Table

 5.3 Identify the element from the clues given below:
(a) This element has the same number of valence elec-
trons as calcium and the same number of occupied
principal energy levels as carbon.
(b) With a smaller atomic radius than phosphorus, this
element has a smaller ionization energy than fluorine
and is chemically similar to iodine.
(c) This element has the smallest ionization energy of any
element in Period 4.

Bonding Behavior
Bonding behavior, you recall, is related to the number of
valence electrons in an atom. Bonding behavior is another recur-
ring, or periodic, trend that can be observed. Looking at Period 2
and Period 3, you will notice the following:
1. Li and Na each have one valence electron. They tend to lose
this electron and form 1 ions in ionic compounds.
2. Be and Mg each have two valence electrons. These elements
tend to lose both electrons and form 2 ions in ionic com-
pounds.
3. B and Al have three valence electrons. Boron has a very small
atomic radius, and holds its valence electrons too tightly to
permit the formation of ionic compounds. Aluminum, with
its larger radius, is able to lose electrons to form 3 ions in
ionic compounds.
4. C and Si have four valence electrons. These elements form
covalent bonds only.
5. N and P have five valence electrons. It is difficult to gain
three electrons. Hence these elements form mostly covalent
bonds. In special cases, N and P may form ionic bonds, as in
K3N. In these cases, N and P become 3 ions.
6. O and S have six valence electrons. They form covalent
bonds with other nonmetals, and ionic bonds with many
of the metals. In forming ionic bonds, both S and O become
2 ions.

The Modern Periodic Table | 191

 7. F and Cl have seven valence electrons. They often gain one
electron and form 1 ions in ionic compounds. They can
also share electrons with related elements, as is the case in
the compound OF2.
8. Ne and Ar have eight valence electrons. As far as is known,
neon does not form bonds with other elements. Its neighbors
Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn do form compounds. Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn
have larger atomic radii, and their outer electrons are farther
from the nucleus. Thus the electrons are less firmly held and
can be involved in bond formation.
The trends outlined here for Period 2 and Period 3 repeat in
the other periods, with the exception of the transition elements.
Valence electrons and bonding behavior are the basis for the sim-
ilarities in chemical properties of elements within groups, or fam-
ilies. In most cases, elements are most similar when they are
directly above or below one another in the Periodic Table.

Metals and Nonmetals

Most of the elements in the Periodic Table are metals. The
metals include all the elements of Group 1 except hydrogen, all of
Group 2, all of the transition elements, and a few others: alu-
minum (Al), tin (Sn), and bismuth (Bi).
Metallic activity is related to the tendency to lose electrons.
Hence the most active metals are in Group 1 and Group 2. Across
a period, outer electrons are held more tightly as atomic radii
decrease. Metallic activity therefore decreases across periods.
Down a group, outer electrons are held less firmly as atomic radii
increase. Metallic activity therefore increases down a group.
Again, a periodic trend is evident: from strong metallic character
on the left side of the Periodic Table to nonmetallic character on
the right, back to strong metallic behavior on the left, and so on.
As free elements, metals are good electrical conductors.
The nonmetals appear on the right side of the Periodic Table.
All the elements in Group 17 are nonmetals. In addition, carbon
(C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), oxygen (O), sulfur (S), and sele-
nium (Se) are nonmetals. One measure of the activity of a non-
metal is its ability to gain one or more electrons. In this sense, as
atomic numbers increase, nonmetallic activity or character
increases across a period and decreases down a group. Periodicity

192 | Chapter 5: The Periodic Table

is evident in the recurring trend from metal to nonmetal in the
periods. As free elements, nonmetals are nonconductors of elec-
tricity.
The properties of a few elements lie somewhere between those
of metals and those of nonmetals. These elements, called metal-
loids or semimetals, are found in Group 13 through Group 16
and include boron (B), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As),
antimony (Sb), and tellurium (Te). When they are free elements,
the metalloids are semiconductors—they conduct an electric cur-
rent under some conditions but not under others.
Aluminum (Al) clearly has the properties of a metal, including
conductivity, luster, and a tendency to form 3 ions or to assume
a 3 oxidation state. However, in certain compounds, aluminum
acts like a semimetal. Therefore, although aluminum is more fre-
quently included with the metals, it may sometimes be referred to
as a semimetal.

Bases and acids Metals and nonmetals form compounds called

hydroxides, which can be symbolized as XOH. The X stands for a
metal or a nonmetal. When the bond between X and OH is bro-
ken, the hydroxide acts as a base. Hydroxides of metals behave in
this way. In this case, X is a metal. An example is NaOH, which
forms Na and OH ions in water. When the bond between XO
and H is broken, the hydroxide acts as an acid. Hydroxides of
nonmetals behave in this way. In this case, X is a nonmetal. An
example is Cl(OH), which forms H and ClO ions in water.
Because the hydrogen is the least electronegative element in the
compound, ClOH is more correctly written as HClO.
Hydroxides of metalloids can act as either acids or bases,
depending on the chemical environment. They are often called
amphoteric hydroxides. Al(OH)3 reacts as a base with HCl, but
reacts as an acid with the strong base, NaOH.

The Transition Elements

As you have noticed, the transition elements have been omit-
ted from all the preceding considerations of the Periodic Table.
This is because regularities in periods and groups are interrupted
whenever the transition elements appear. Recall that in a transi-
tion series, the number of valence electrons is virtually constant
as an inner sublevel receives additional electrons. This means that

The Modern Periodic Table | 193

such properties as atomic radius, ionization energy, and bonding
behavior change very little among the transition elements.
Some common transition elements are scandium (Sc) through
zinc (Zn) in the fourth row of the Periodic Table.

The lanthanide and actinide series Elements 58–71 and 90–103

belong to the lanthanide and actinide series, respectively. The
lanthanides are filling the 4f sublevel, and the actinides, the 5f.
Since an f sublevel can hold 14 electrons, there are 14 elements in
each series. The lanthanide series contains some of the rarest of
all the stable elements. For this reason they are sometimes
referred to as the “rare earths.” The addition of 14 protons to the
nucleus, across the lanthanide series, pulls the electron cloud
closer to the nucleus. As a result, the transition elements in Period
6, from Hf to Hg, have smaller radii than would otherwise be
expected. This “lanthanide contraction” causes many of the ele-
ments in Period 6 to be very similar in radius to those in Period 5.
The actinides, elements 90–103, are chemically quite similar to
the lanthanides. However, they are all radioactive, and so cannot
be put to ordinary chemical use. Uranium, element 92, is the last
naturally occurring element on the Periodic Table. All of the ele-
ments beyond uranium do not occur naturally, and are man-
made.
Elements 104–109 are in the 6d transition series. Elements
with still higher atomic numbers have been discovered.
According to theory, these new elements should fit into the 6d
transition series.

Period 1
Period 1 contains only two elements, hydrogen and helium.
Hydrogen is usually placed above the metals of Group 1 in the
Periodic Table, but it bears little or no resemblance to these met-
als. It is a gas at room temperature and is the least dense (the
lightest) of all the elements. An atom of hydrogen, unlike an
atom of a Group 1 metal, loses its s electron with great difficulty
because it is in the first principal energy level. Hydrogen may be
placed above Group 17, instead of above the Group 1 metals.
But hydrogen is also very unlike the nonmetals of Group 17,
except that hydrogen, fluorine, and chlorine are all gases at room
temperature. Hydrogen and the Group 17 elements require a sin-

194 | Chapter 5: The Periodic Table

gle electron to complete their outermost shells. Hydrogen does
not acquire electrons readily, but the Group 17 elements do.
Helium (1s2) is a representative member of the noble gas fam-
ily, which is usually labeled Group 18. Helium is the least dense
of the noble gases. To date, it has not formed any chemical com-
pounds.

Periods 2 and 3
Periods 2 and 3 are the last two periods that do not contain
transition elements. Each of these periods is made up of eight ele-
ments, starting with an alkali metal (lithium, Li, in Period 2; sodi-
um, Na, in Period 3) and ending with a noble gas (neon, Ne, in
Period 2; argon, Ar, in Period 3). As you go from left to right
across these periods, the metallic character of the elements
decreases and the nonmetallic character increases. Valence elec-
trons increase regularly from one to eight as the 2s, 2p or the 3s,
3p sublevels fill with electrons. Other properties of the elements
in these periods, such as trends in atomic radii and ionization
energies, were described in Chapter 2.

Period 4
Period 4 has a total of 18 elements. The period begins with the
active metals potassium (K) and calcium (Ca), whose valence elec-
trons are in the 4s sublevel. These elements are followed by the 3d
transition series of 10 elements, from scandium (Sc) through zinc
(Zn). In these elements, the 3d sublevel becomes lower in energy
than the 4s sublevel as soon as the 3d sublevel contains one or
more electrons. Once the 3d sublevel is filled, the 4p sublevel
receives electrons. The period ends with the noble gas krypton
(Kr).
The 3d transition elements, all metals, can use both 4s and 3d
electrons to form chemical bonds. In many chemical environ-
ments, the orbitals within the d sublevel have different energies.
Electrons can then absorb light energy and move from one d
orbital to another. When this happens, the wavelengths of light
that are not absorbed are reflected. Hence most transition ele-
ments have a color in solid compounds and in water solutions.
You may have seen the blue color of water solutions containing
copper ions (Cu2) and the green color of solutions containing
nickel ions (Ni2).

The Modern Periodic Table | 195

 CHAPTER REVIEW

The following questions will help you check your understanding

of the material presented in the chapter.
1. Which period contains elements that are all gases at STP?
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4
2. Which group contains atoms that form 1 ions having a
noble gas configuration? (1) 1 (2) 7 (3) 11 (4) 17
3. The element with an atomic number of 34 is most similar in
its chemical behavior to the element with an atomic number
of (1) 19 (2) 31 (3) 36 (4) 52.
4. A pure compound is blue in color. It is most likely a com-
pound of (1) sodium (2) lithium (3) calcium (4) copper.
5. Which represents the correct order of activity for the Group
17 elements? ( means “greater than.”) (1) bromine 
iodine  fluorine  chlorine (2) fluorine  chlorine 
bromine  iodine (3) iodine  bromine  chlorine  fluo-
rine (4) fluorine  bromine  chlorine  iodine
6. All elements in Period 3 have (1) an atomic number of 3
(2) 3 valence electrons (3) 3 occupied principal energy levels
(4) an oxidation number of 3.
7. Which group contains two metalloids? (1) 2 (2) 5 (3) 12
(4) 15
8. When the atoms of the elements of Group 18 are compared
in order from top to bottom, the attractions between the
atoms of each successive element (1) increase and the boiling
point decreases (2) decrease and the boiling point increases
(3) increase and the boiling point increases (4) decrease and
the boiling point decreases.
9. The atoms of the most active nonmetals have (1) small
atomic radii and high ionization energies (2) small atomic
radii and low ionization energies (3) large atomic radii and
low ionization energies (4) large atomic radii and high ioniza-
tion energies.

196 | Chapter 5: The Periodic Table

10. Which of the following elements has the smallest atomic
radius? (1) K (2) Ca (3) As (4) Br
11. The oxide of metal X has the formula XO. Which group in
the periodic table contains metal X? (1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 13 (4) 15
12. Which period contains elements in which electrons from
more than one principal energy level may be involved in
bond formation? (1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4
13. Which chloride is most likely to be colored in the solid state?
(1) KCl (2) NiCl2 (3) AlCl3 (4) CaCl2
14. The element whose properties are most similar to those of tel-
lurium is (1) Be (2) S (3) O (4) Po.
15. A sulfide with the formula X2S3 would be formed if sulfur
combined with any element in Group (1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 13 (4) 14.
16. As you go from fluorine to astatine in Group 17 the elec-
tronegativity (1) decreases and the atomic radius increases
(2) decreases and the atomic radius decreases (3) increases
and the atomic radius decreases (4) increases and the atomic
radius increases.
17. Elements that generally exhibit multiple oxidation states and
whose ions are usually colored are classified as (1) metals
(2) metalloids (3) transition elements (4) nonmetals.
18. If X is the atomic number of an element in Group 12, an ele-
ment with the atomic number (X  1) will be found in
Group (1) 11 (2) 2 (3) 13 (4) 3.
19. All the elements in Group 13 have the same (1) atomic
radius (2) number of occupied principal energy levels (3) elec-
tronegativity (4) number of valence electrons.
20. What is the basis for the arrangement of the present Periodic
Table? (1) number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
(2) number of nucleons in the nucleus of an atom (3) atomic
number of an atom (4) atomic mass of an atom
21. As you go from left to right across Period 3 of the Per-
iodic Table, there is a decrease in (1) ionization energy
(2) electronegativity (3) metallic characteristics (4) valence
electrons.
22. As the elements in Group 2 are considered in order of increas-
ing atomic number, the tendency of each successive atom to

Chapter Review | 197

 form a positive ion generally (1) decreases (2) increases
(3) remains the same.
23. Which is an example of a metalloid? (1) Fe (2) La (3) Mg
(4) Si
24. Which of the following ions has the smallest ionic radius?
(1) Cl (2) S2 (3) K (4) Ca2
Base your answers to questions 25 through 27 on the partial
Periodic Table that follows.

Group

Period 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18

2 A E
3 J D M R
4 L G

25. Which two elements are least likely to react with each other
and form a compound? (1) A and G (2) D and G (3) J and M
(4) L and R
26. What is the probable formula for a compound formed from
elements L and M? (1) L4M (2) LM3 (3) L2M3 (4) L3M2
27. Which element has the lowest melting point? (1) R (2) J
(3) G (4) D
28. Elements with low electronegativities would most likely have
(1) large atomic radii and high ionization energies (2) small
atomic radii and high ionization energies (3) large atomic
radii and low ionization energies (4) small atomic radii and
low ionization energies.
29. How many electrons occupy the outermost principal energy
level of most transition metals? (1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 7

CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE
1. Very little is known about the recently discovered element
with the atomic number 104. Predict a probable atomic
radius for this element, and explain your prediction.

198 | Chapter 5: The Periodic Table

2. The table of ionization energies in Appendix 4 does not list a
value for astatine, element number 85 (At). Suggest a possible
value for this ionization energy and explain your answer.
3. A certain element “X” forms a compound with the formula
XCl2. Because this compound is blue when dry, but pink
when wet, it can be used to measure humidity. Element X is
unusual, in that its atomic mass is greater than that of the
elements on either side of it on the Periodic Table. What is
element X? Explain how you arrived at your answer.
4. How many elements are there in Period 6? Explain how you
arrived at your answer.

It’s Elementary!
Born in 1778, the English chemist Sir Humphrey Davy began, at
the age of 19, investigating the properties of gases, including
nitrous oxide, or “laughing gas.” He persuaded his friends in sci-
entific and literary circles to inhale the gas and report its effects.
His subjects included Samuel Taylor Coleridge, the poet who
composed The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Davy nearly died after
inhaling “water gas,” a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monox-
ide, which was sometimes used as a fuel.
Fortunately, Davy survived, and in 1800 published the results of
his investigations. This established his reputation as a scientist, and
he was given a post in chemisty at the Royal Institution in London.
Davy investigated the relation between electricity and chemistry.
He concluded that since substances with opposite charges chemi-
cally combined to form compounds, an electric current could be
used to break apart compounds into their component elements.
Using this process, called electrolysis, Davy isolated for the first time
in history the Group 1 elements sodium and potassium, and the
Group 2 elements magnesium, calcium, and barium.
In 1807, Davy presented the initial results of his work with
electrolysis. He went on to lecture throughout Europe and made
many more discoveries, such as proving that diamond is a form
of carbon. Davy was knighted in 1812 and made a baronet in
1818. In 1815, responding to a plea from coal miners, he
devised the Davy lamp, which would not cause an explosion if
exposed to methane gas, a common hazard in mines. Sir
Humphrey Davy died in Geneva at the age of 50.

It’s Elementary! | 199