Engine systems (part 1)

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The aircraft engine is installed with many systems

requiring electrical power. The predominant requirement
(in terms of current consumption) is for the starting
system. General aviation aircraft use electrical starter
motors for both piston and gas turbine engines; larger
transport aircraft use an air-start sys tem (controlled
electrically) derived from ground support equipment or by
air cross-fed from another engine. Electrical starting
systems on piston and gas turbine engines are very
different. The trend towards the all-electric aircraft will
see more aircraft types using electrical starting methods.
The engine also requires electrical power for the ignition
system. Once again, the needs of piston and gas turbine
engines are quite different. Although starting and ignition
systems are described in this section as separate
systems, they are both required on a co-ordinated basis,
i.e. a means to rotate the engine and ignite the air/fuel
mixture.
Electrical and electronic requirements for engines also
include the variety of indicating systems required to
operate and manage the engine. These indicating
systems include (but are not limited to) the measurement
and indication of: rotational speed, thrust, torque,
temperature, fuel flow and oil pressure.
Indications can be provided by individual indicators or by
electronic displays. This section describes engine
starting, ignition and indicating system for both piston
and gas turbine engines.
1. Starting and ignition
1.1 Piston engines
The original way of starting piston (internal combustion)
engines was by ' swinging ' the propeller; this involves
using the propeller as a lever to turn the engine shaft.
The method in widespread use on most engines now is a
starter motor powered by the aircraft battery. Basic
electrical starting systems comprise a series or
compound wound motor with engaging mechanism.
The simplest method of physically connecting the motor
to the reciprocating engine is via a pinion on the motor
that engages with a gear ring attached to the crankshaft;
this mechanism disconnects after the engine has started.
This pinion and gear ring provides a gear ratio in the
order of 100:1 to turn the engine at sufficient speed to
overcome compression and bearing friction.
Referring to FIG. 1 , the battery master switch is selected
on; this energizes the battery relay and power is applied
to the busbar and starter relay. When the starter switch
is closed, this energizes the starter relay and applies
power to the starter motor. As soon as the engine fires
and starts, the starter switch is released and power is
removed from the motor; this opens the starter relay
contacts.
1.2 Twin-engine (piston) starting system
The twin-piston engine aircraft is started in a similar way
to the single engine. Referring to FIG. 2, power is applied
from the battery to the battery relays.
When the battery master switch is turned on, power is
available at both the starter relay. Power is also made
available at the busbar and the starter circuit breaker is
fed to the dual starter switch. Each engine is started by
its own set of contacts. When an engine has been
started the switch is released and the spring-loaded
contacts return it to the center-off position.
1.2.1 Magneto ignition (high-tension type)
Ignition energy for piston engines is generated from a
magneto ; this provides pulses of electrical power via a
distributor to spark plugs in each of the engine cylinders.
The magneto operates on the principle of electromagnet
induction (FIG. 3); it is a combined four-pole permanent
magnet generator and autotransformer and can be used
where there is no aircraft battery. The engine drives the
input shaft of the magneto rotor via a gearbox; the
relative movement of trans former windings and the
poles of a permanent mag net can be arranged in one of
three ways:
1. The transformer coils are on the shaft and the magnet
is fixed to the housing (rotating armature type);
2. The permanent magnet is rotated by the shaft within
stationary coils of the transformer (rotating magnet type);
3. A soft iron inductor is rotated between the permanent
magnet and transformer windings (polar inductor type).
For every revolution of the shaft, a cam opens the
contact breaker, interrupting the primary current; this
causes the electromagnetic field in the primary coil
winding to collapse. As the field collapses there is a
voltage generated across the primary coil. A capacitor
connected across the contacts discharges when the
breaker contacts are closed and charges when they
open. When the capacitor discharges, a high current
flows through the primary coil, inducing high secondary
voltages. The capacitor also prevents arcing across the
breaker contacts, and determines the volt age across the
primary coil thereby controlling the rate at which the
electrical energy dissipates through the primary coil. The
magneto's output is directed to the spark plugs via a
distributor. The distributor shaft is connected via gears to
the magneto shaft; this ensures that energy is applied to
the spark plugs with the correct timing.
In the aircraft engine, each cylinder normally has two
spark plugs, each driven from a separate magneto. This
arrangement provides redundancy in the event of failure
of one of the magnetos. Two sparks per cylinder also
provides a more complete and efficient burn of the
fuel/air mixture. The magneto's simplicity and self-
contained design provides reliability as well as light
weight. An on/off switch controls the system; in the off
position, the primary winding is connected to ground, and
this prevents current from being induced in the primary
windings.
========

FIG. 1 Electrical starting system

Battery relay; Ammeter; Battery master switch; Starter
switch; Motor; Starter relay; Electrical busbar
========
FIG. 2 Twin-piston engine aircraft starting
Left starter motor; Right starter motor; Starter switch;
Battery relay; Ammeter; From battery; Battery master
switch; Left engine starter relay; Right engine starter
relay; Ignition system; Electrical busbar
==========
1.2.2 Magneto ignition (low-tension type)
A larger piston engine has more cylinders and is
designed to operate at higher altitudes. Decreased
atmospheric pressure means that the high-tension
magneto system is prone to electrical insulation
breakdown in the distribution cables. The low-tension
magneto system is based on the polar inductor method.
The output from the magneto is a low volt age; this is
increased to a high voltage by secondary transformers
located near the plugs. This reduces the length of high-
tension cable and reduces the risk of insulation
breakdown in the distribution cables.
Brushes and commutators form the low-tension magneto
distributor. Ignition cables carry the high energy from the
magneto to the plugs. The single core of stranded
conductors is insulated by a substantial thickness of
material.
========
FIG. 3 Magneto ignition principles
On; Off; Distributor; Segments; Rotor; Plugs; Contact
breaker; Primary winding; Secondary winding; Rotor;
Ignition switch
========
FIG. 4 Spark plugs (new and used)

FIG. 5 Spark plug installation

1.2.3 Spark plugs
These conduct the high-energy output from the magneto
across an air gap, see FIG. 4 . The fuel/air mixture
across the gap is an insulator; as the voltage from the
magneto increases, it alters the structure of the fuel/air
mixture between the electrodes. Once the voltage
exceeds the dielectric strength of the fuel/air mixture, it
becomes ionized. The ionized fuel/air mix ture then
becomes a conductor and allows electrons to flow across
the gap. When the electrons flow across the gap, this
raises the local temperature to approximately 60,000 K.
The electrical energy is discharged as heat and light
across the air gap, thereby appearing as a spark with an
audible ' clicking ' sound. This energy ignites the fuel
mixture in the cylinder.
The plug is fitted into the cylinder head's combustion
chamber and is therefore exposed to high pressures and
temperatures; plugs have to operate with minimal
deterioration over long periods of time in this harsh
environment. The outer shell of the plug is made from
high tensile steel with close tolerance threads to locate
the plug in the cylinder head; a cop per crush-washer
completes the seal against high gas pressures. The
outer shell is connected electrically to the cylinder head
through its body. The center electrode carries the high
tension energy to the spark gap; this is formed from a
material that is resistant to the repetitive arcing, typically
nickel, platinum or iridium. An insulator separates the
inner and outer sections of the plug, typical materials
include mica, ceramic, aluminum oxide ceramic.
Examples of spark plug installations, together with
ignition cables, are shown in FIG. 5 .
Key point
Two spark plugs per cylinder provides redundancy in the
event of magneto failure and an efficient burn of the
fuel/air mixture.
1.3 Turbine engine starting
Starting a turbine engine requires a higher-duty motor
compared with piston engines; the motor has to
overcome higher inertia and needs to achieve higher
cranking speeds. The general features of a gas turbine
engine are illustrated in FIG. 6 . Air is com pressed
through a multi-stage system before entering the
combustion chamber where it is mixed with fuel and
ignited. The expanding exhaust gases are then directed
through a turbine to produce thrust. The turbine also
turns shafts to drive the compressor stages.
The starter motor has to overcome the inertia of the
compressor; a large volume of air has to be drawn
through engine and then accelerated and compressed
until the engine's self-sustaining speed is reached.
Self-sustaining speed is when sufficient energy is being
developed by the engine to provide continuous operation
without the starting device. When the turbine engine is
driving a propeller (commonly called a turboprop) the
starter has to overcome the additional inertia of the
propeller (helicopter engines are normally connected to
the rotor via a clutch).
A typical turbine engine starter circuit is illustrated in FIG.
7 . Current from the busbar is connected to the coil of a
starter relay via a push-button switch. This makes a
circuit to a timer switch and starter motor via a limiting
resistor. (The resistor limits excessive currents that
would otherwise occur in overcoming the initial torque of
the motor.) Once the motor speed has reached its
nominal operating speed , its starting torque reduces and
the timer switch operates contacts for the shorting relay.
With the relay energized, current from the busbar is
switched directly into the motor, i.e. bypassing the
resistor.
Ignition is switched on when self-sustaining speed is
reached; power to the motor is removed.
===============

FIG. 6 Gas turbine engine features

LP compressor (N1); HP compressor (N2); Combustion
chamber; Fan; Nozzle LP turbine HP turbine; HP shaft;
Exhaust air; LP shaft; Nacelle; Air intake
===============
FIG. 7 Turbine engine starter circuit
DC busbar; Master switch; Starter switch; Start; Time
switch; Starter motor; M; Shorting relay; Limiting resistor;
Starting relay
==============

FIG. 8 Ignition unit installation

Key point
The initial current through the turbine engine starter
motor is in the order of 1000-1500 A, hence the need for
a limiting resistor and timing circuit.
Direct-cranking electrical starting systems are similar to
those used on piston engines. A typical 28 V DC four-
pole motor produces 15-20 lb/ft of torque.
The output shaft is clutched into a gear mechanism via
the accessory gearbox. Typical duty cycles for motors in
small- to medium-size engine requires speeds of 3800
r.p.m. for up to 90 seconds with current peaking at 1000
A. The motor must transmit sufficient torque to the
engine's rotating assembly to provide smooth
acceleration from rest up to the self-sustaining speed; at
this point, the motor is disengaged.
Some aircraft are installed with a combined starter-
generator. This involves a permanent coupling of the
starter-generator shaft to the engine via a gearbox drive.
The dual-purpose machine is compound-wound and the
field is connected via a changeover relay. During engine
start it acts like a conventional motor until the engine is
up to speed.
The changeover relay then automatically connects the
field windings to a voltage regulator and it becomes a
conventional generator. The starter-generator system
has reduced weight and component parts compared with
having a separate starter motor and generator, thereby
reducing overall operating costs.
1.3.1 High-energy ignition unit (HEIU)
High-energy ignition is required for starting gas turbine
engines; a dual system is normally installed for the main
engines. The system comprises two HEIUs and two
igniter plugs per engine. A typical HEIU installed on an
engine is shown in FIG. Turbine ignition systems are
switched off after the engine has reached self-sustaining
speed; the system is used as a precaution during certain
flight conditions e.g. icing, rain or snow. In-flight start
uses the wind-milling effect of the engine within the
specified flight envelope of air speed and altitude. High
voltages are required for the igniter plugs to
accommodate the variations in atomized fuel over the
range of atmospheric conditions. Electrical energy is
stored in the HEIU and then dissipated across the igniter
plug.
Key maintenance point
The very high voltage output from an HEIU is potentially
lethal. The HEIU can remain charged for several
minutes; always refer to the maintenance manual for
operating procedures.
1.3.2 Igniter plugs
Referring to FIG. 9, the end of the igniter plug is formed
with the outer casing insulated from the center electrode.
The end of the igniter is coated with a semi-conductive
ceramic material. The output from the HEIU heats the
surface of the ceramic material and lowers its resistance.
This creates a high-intensity flashover from the center
electrode to the outer casing. (Note this is a surface
discharge, not a spark across an air gap.)
================

FIG. 9 Igniter plug features

Electrical connector; Threaded section; Outer casing;
Center electrode; Semi-conductor coated ceramic; Wire
locating holes
================
FIG. 10 Auxiliary power unit (APU) start and ignition
DC bus; DC bus; Start relay; Start; A.P.U control; 2 1
Start motor; Start; Control relay; 1 2 3 35% 110%; Oil
pressure; 3 P.S.I Fuel solenoid hold relay; Booster
pump; Igniter; HEIU H.P. fuel shut off valve 95%
================
1.4 Auxiliary power unit (APU) start and ignition
The APU on large transport aircraft is started electrically;
air is then bled into the air distribution sys tem for the
main engines. The APU starter motor is engaged and
disengaged automatically as part of the starting system.
Referring to FIG. 10, a centrifugal switch connected to
the APU shaft controls the start sequence via three sets
of contacts that operate at 35%, 95% and 110% of
maximum speed. An oil pressure switch ensures that the
system cannot start until the lubrication oil pump builds
up sufficient pressure.
With the system circuit breaker closed, and the start
switch selected, the start and control relays are supplied
via the closed 110% switch contacts; the starter motor is
now connected to the electrical supply via the start relay.
The starting sequence is confirmed via a green
annunciator light on the control panel; the light is
connected to the power supply via contacts on the
control relay. The fuel solenoid holding relay (FSHR) is
operated via the control relay, and the 35% switch
contacts; the low-pressure (LP) fuel pump motor is
connected to the power supply via the FHSR. The start
switch is now released; the starter circuits are
maintained via the FHSR, 100/35% switch contacts and
control relay. When the oil lube pump builds up sufficient
pressure, this closes a switch that provides a retaining
supply for the FSHR. The high pressure fuel shut-off
valve is then energized open (allowing fuel to be
delivered under pressure into the APU) and the ignition
system is supplied via the 95% contacts. The APU
continues to accelerate; at 35% engine speed, the start
and control relays open; the starter motor is disengaged,
and the 'start' light is switched off. At 95% of maximum
speed, the contacts open and the ignition is switched off.
The APU start sequence is now completed, and the
engine runs constantly at 100% r.p.m. (There is no
throttle control on the APU.)
The APU can be shut down either manually (by selecting
the APU to off) or automatically. Loss of oil pressure at
any time will automatically shut the APU down. An
overspeed condition (sensed by the 110% switch
opening its contacts) will de-energize the fuel solenoid
holding relay, close the high-pressure fuel shut-off valve
and remove power from the low pressure booster pump.
1.5 Main engine start
The main engines are normally started via air-driven
motors; there are three sources of air for starting the
main engines:
- APU
- ground air supply cart
- another engine
A typical air distribution system is illustrated in FIG. 11.
Valves, controlled either manually or automatically, are
operated by motors. With the APU started and running at
normal speed, a switch on the start control panel opens
the APU bleed valve. Air is directed through the isolation
valve and engine bleed valve to the engine start valve.
When using the ground air supply cart, an external
connection is made and air is directed through the
engine bleed valve to the start valve, or through the
isolation valve and engine bleed valve to the start valve.
When using another engine (that is already running), air
is supplied from its bleed valve, through the isolation and
bleed valves of the engine to be started and through to
the start valve.
For illustration purposes, a twin-engine aircraft starting
and ignition system is described; refer to FIG. 12 . There
is a combined start and ignition control panel located in
the overhead panel; in the illustration, this is fitted with a
rotary switch for each engine.
The operation and functions of this switch are identical
for each engine. The switch has to be pushed in before
any selections can be made; this is to prevent accidental
movement of the switch. Selecting ground (GRD)
connects 28 V DC to energize the start switch holding
coil.
=============
FIG. 11 Typical air distribution system
Isolation valve; Left engine distribution and control; A/C
pack valve; A/C pack valve; Left A/C system; Right A/C
system; Engine start valve; G/B M APU bleed valve;
Auxiliary power unit (APU); Right engine; Bleed air
control valve; Wing anti-icing system; Ground
connection; M Air motor; Key; Motorized valves;
Pressure switches omitted for clarity A/C G/B; Non-return
valves (NRV); Air conditioning; Accessory gear box valve
==============
The circuit is completed through the cut-out contacts in
the engine starter valve. The start switch is now held in
the GRD position and the ground start sequence is
initiated. The 28 V DC supply also energizes the start
valve solenoid and this opens the valve, supplying air to
drive a small turbine in the starter motor. The turbine
connects through an accessory gearbox onto the
engine's HP compressor shaft.
At approximately 16% of maximum rotational speed, the
start lever is moved from the cut-off position to ' idle ' .
This applies 28 V DC through a second pair of contacts
of the start switch and ignition switch to supply the HEIU.
Each igniter plug discharges at a high level, typically 20
joules of energy, at 60-90 discharges per minute. (This
can be heard outside the engine as an audible ' clicking '
sound.) At a pre determined cut-out speed, the
centrifugal switch in the starter motor opens: the start
switch is de-energized and returns (under spring force)
to the off position.
The 28 V DC power supply is removed from the HEIU
and the start valve motor drives to its closed position.
The engine continues to accelerate to the ground idle
speed; this is slightly above self-sustaining speed and
occurs when the engine has stabilized. For a twin-shaft
axial flow engine, ground idle is typically 60% of the high-
pressure (HP) compressor speed.
Low-energy ignition (typically 4 joules of energy, at 30
discharges per minute) is used in certain phases of flight
including take-off, turbulence and landing.
Furthermore, if the aircraft is flying through clouds, rain
or snow, continuous low-energy ignition is selected on
the control panel. This closes a contact on the rotary
switch and applies power to a second HEIU input.
In the event of an engine flameout during flight, the crew
will attempt an in-flight start of the engine; this requires a
modified procedure to that of the ground start. The
engine will be wind-milling due to the forward speed of
the aircraft. The starter valve and motor are not selected
as with the ground start.
Low ignition (LOW IGN) and flight (FLT) are manually
selected on the control panel until the engine reaches
flight idle speed. In-flight restarts can only be attempted
within certain airspeed and altitude limits.
FIG. 12 Turbine starting and ignition system
Key maintenance point
The starting sequence for a gas turbine engine is to: (i)
develop sufficient airflow to compress the air, (ii) turn on
the ignition, and (iii) open the fuel valves.
This sequence is critical since there must be sufficient
airflow through the engine to support combustion before
the fuel/air mixture is ignited.
Key maintenance point
Facing the aircraft into the wind augments gas turbine
engine starting; this assists with engine acceleration,
particularly for turbo-prop engines. The propellers are
normally designed with a fine-blade angle for starting
and ground running.
Gas turbine engines sometimes suffer from a starting
problem that results in fuel entering the combustion
chamber, but no ignition; this is sometimes referred to as
a wet start. Engine indications would be the engine
turning at the correct starter speed, with indications of
fuel flow, but no increase in exhaust gas temperature
(EGT). Observers outside the aircraft could see atomized
fuel or vapor from the engine exhaust.
Test your understanding
Explain the term 'self sustaining speed'.
The cause of a wet start is most likely to be a defective
HEIU and/or igniter plug. The net result is no ignition in
the combustion chamber and the accumulation of fuel. If
compressor outlet air gets hot enough, it could ignite the
fuel, causing a rapid expansion of the fuel/air mix
(effectively an explosion) that could lead damage of the
turbine section and eject flames from the engine
exhaust. The procedure is to shut off the fuel supply to
the engine and continue turning over the engine with the
starter motor to clear (or blow out) out the fuel. Some
starter panels have a selectable blow out position to
achieve this procedure.
Test your understanding
What is the difference between a flameout and a wet
start?
2. Indicating systems overview
Engine indications can be broadly divided into primary
and secondary systems. Some indication systems are
unique to gas turbine, turboprop or piston engines, some
are common to all types. Primary indicators include:
- speed
- temperature
- thrust
- fuel flow
Secondary indicators include (but are not limited to):
- oil temperature
- oil quantity
- oil pressure
- vibration
Measurements are made by a variety of transducers ;
these are devices used to convert the desired parameter,
e.g. pressure, temperature, displacement etc. into
electrical energy. The locations of engine instruments is
normally between the two pilot's panels, see FIG. 13 .

FIG. 13 Typical engine instruments

cont. to part 2 >>
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