✬ ✩

chapter 2
complex functions
✫ ✪

Overview
The last chapter developed a basic theory of complex numbers. For the next few
chapters we turn our attention to functions of complex numbers. They are de-
fined in a similar way to functions of real numbers that you studied in calculus;
the only difference is that they operate on complex numbers rather than real
numbers. This chapter focuses primarily on very basic functions, their represen-
tations, and properties associated with functions such as limits and continuity.
You will learn some interesting applications as well as some exciting new ideas.

2.1 FUNCTIONS AND LINEAR MAPPINGS

A complex-valued function f of the complex variable z is a rule that assigns
to each complex number z in a set D one and only one complex number w.
We write w = f (z) and call w the image of z under f . A simple example
of a complex-valued function is given by the formula w = f (z) = z 2 . The set
D is called the domain of f , and the set of all images {w = f (z) : z ∈ D}
is called the range of f . When the context is obvious, we omit the phrase
complex-valued, and simply refer to a function f, or to a complex function f.
We can define the domain to be any set that makes sense for a given rule,
so for w = f (z) = z 2 , we could have the entire complex plane for the domain
D, or we might artificially restrict the domain to some set such as D = D1 (0) =
{z : |z| < 1} . Determining the range for a function defined by a formula is not
always easy, but we will see plenty of examples later on. In some contexts
functions are referred to as mappings or transformations.
In Section 1.6, we used the term domain to indicate a connected open set.
When speaking about the domain of a function, however, we mean only the set
of points on which the function is defined. This distinction is worth noting, and
context will make clear the use intended.

49

✐
50 Chapter 2 ■ Complex Functions

y v

•
w = f(z) = u + iv
Domain u = u(x, y) Range
D v = v(x, y) R

x u

Figure 2.1 The mapping w = f (z).

Just as z can be expressed by its real and imaginary parts, z = x + iy, we

write f (z) = w = u + iv, where u and v are the real and imaginary parts of w,
respectively. Doing so gives us the representation

w = f (z) = f (x, y) = f (x + iy) = u + iv.

Because u and v depend on x and y, they can be considered to be real-valued

functions of the real variables x and y; that is,

u = u (x, y) and v = v (x, y) .

Combining these ideas, we often write a complex function f in the form

f (z) = f (x + iy) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) . (2-1)

Figure 2.1 illustrates the notion of a function (mapping) using these symbols.

■ EXAMPLE 2.1 Write f (z) = z 4 in the form f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y).
Solution Using the binomial formula, we obtain

4 2 3 4
f (z) = (x + iy) = x4 + 4x3 iy + 6x2 (iy) + 4x (iy) + (iy)
   
= x4 − 6x2 y 2 + y 4 + i 4x3 y − 4xy 3 ,

so that u (x, y) = x4 − 6x2 y 2 + y 4 and v (x, y) = 4x3 y − 4xy 3 .

■ EXAMPLE 2.2 Express the function f (z) = z Re (z) + z 2 + Im (z) in the

form f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) .
Solution Using the elementary properties of complex numbers, it follows that
   
f (z) = (x − iy) x + x2 − y 2 + i2xy + y = 2x2 − y 2 + y + i (xy) ,

so that u (x, y) = 2x2 − y 2 + y and v (x, y) = xy.

 2.1 ■ Functions and Linear Mappings 51

Examples 2.1 and 2.2 show how to find u (x, y) and v (x, y) when a rule
for computing f is given. Conversely, if u (x, y) and v (x, y) are two real-valued
functions of the real variables x and y, they determine a complex-valued function
f (x, y) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y), and we can use the formulas
z+z z−z
x= and y =
2 2i
to find a formula for f involving the variables z and z.

■ EXAMPLE 2.3 Express f (z) = 4x2 + i4y 2 by a formula involving the vari-
ables z and z.
Solution Calculation reveals that
 2  2
z+z z−z
f (z) = 4 + i4
2 2i
 2 
= z + 2zz + z − i z − 2zz + z 2
2 2

= (1 − i) z 2 + (2 + 2i) zz + (1 − i) z 2 .

Using z = reiθ in the expression of a complex function f may be convenient.

It gives us the polar representation
 
f (z) = f reiθ = u (r, θ) + iv (r, θ) , (2-2)

where u and v are real functions of the real variables r and θ.

Remark 2.1 For a given function f , the functions u and v defined here are
different from those defined by Equation (2-1) because Equation (2-1) involves
Cartesian coordinates and Equation (2-2) involves polar coordinates. ■

■ EXAMPLE 2.4 Express f (z) = z 2 in both Cartesian and polar form.

Solution For the Cartesian form, a simple calculation gives
2  
f (z) = f (x + iy) = (x + iy) = x2 − y 2 + i (2xy) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y)

so that

u (x, y) = x2 − y 2 , and v (x, y) = 2xy.

For the polar form, we refer to Equation (1-39) to get

   2
f reiθ = reiθ = r2 ei2θ = r2 cos 2θ + ir2 sin 2θ = U (r, θ) + iV (r, θ) ,

so that

U (r, θ) = r2 cos 2θ, and V (r, θ) = r2 sin 2θ.

52 Chapter 2 ■ Complex Functions

Once we have defined u and v for a function f in Cartesian form, we must use
different symbols if we want to express f in polar form. As is clear here, the
functions u and U are quite different, as are v and V. Of course, if we are working
only in one context, we can use any symbols we choose.

■ EXAMPLE 2.5 Express f (z) = z 5 + 4z 2 − 6 in polar form.

Solution Again, using Equation (1-39) we obtain

 
f (z) = f reiθ = r5 (cos 5θ + i sin 5θ) + 4r2 (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ) − 6
   
= r5 cos 5θ + 4r2 cos 2θ − 6 + i r5 sin 5θ + 4r2 sin 2θ
= u (r, θ) + iv (r, θ) .

We now look at the geometric interpretation of a complex function. If D is

the domain of real-valued functions u (x, y) and v (x, y), the equations

u = u (x, y) and v = v (x, y)

describe a transformation (or mapping) from D in the xy plane into the uv plane,
also called the w plane. Therefore, we can also consider the function

w = f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y)

to be a transformation (or mapping) from the set D in the z plane onto the
range R in the w plane. This idea was illustrated in Figure 2.1. In the following
paragraphs we present some additional key ideas. They are staples for any kind
of function, and you should memorize all the terms in bold.
If A is a subset of the domain D of f , the set B = {f (z) : z ∈ A} is called
the image of the set A, and f is said to map A onto B. The image of a single
point is a single point, and the image of the entire domain, D, is the range, R.
The mapping w = f (z) is said to be from A into S if the image of A is contained
in S. Mathematicians use the notation f : A → S to indicate that a function
maps A into S.
Figure 2.2 illustrates a function f whose domain is D and whose range is
R. The shaded areas depict that the function maps A onto B. The function also
maps A into R, and, of course, it maps D onto R.
The inverse image of a point w is the set of all points z in D such that
w = f (z). The inverse image of a point may be one point, several points, or
nothing at all. If the last case occurs then the point w is not in the range of f .
For example, if w = f (z) = iz, the inverse image of the point −1 is the single
point i, because f (i) = i (i) = −1, and i is the only point that maps to −1. In
the case of w = f (z) = z 2 , the inverse image of the point −1 is the set {i, −i}.
 2.1 ■ Functions and Linear Mappings 53

y v

w = f(z) = u + iv

A B

Domain Range
D R
x u

Figure 2.2 f maps A onto B; f maps A into R.

You will learn in Chapter 5 that if w = f (z) = ez , the inverse image of the point
0 is the empty set—there is no complex number z such that ez = 0.
The inverse image of a set of points, S, is the collection of all points in the
domain that map into S. If f maps D onto R, it is possible for the inverse image
of R to be function as well, but the original function must have a special property:
A function f is said to be one-to-one if it maps distinct points z1 = z2 onto
distinct points f (z1 ) = f (z2 ). Many times an easy way to prove that a function
f is one-to-one is to suppose f (z1 ) = f (z2 ) , and from this assumption deduce
that z1 must equal z2 . Thus, f (z) = iz is one-to-one because if f (z1 ) = f (z2 ) ,
then iz1 = iz2 . Dividing both sides of the last equation by i gives z1 = z2 . Figure
2.3 illustrates the idea of a one-to-one function: Distinct points get mapped to
distinct points.
The function f (z) = z 2 is not one-to-one because −i = i, but f (i) =
f (−i) = −1. Figure 2.4 depicts this situation: At least two different points get
mapped to the same point.
In the exercises we ask you to demonstrate that one-to-one functions give
rise to inverses that are functions. Loosely speaking, if w = f (z) maps the set
A one-to-one and onto the set B, then for each w in B there exists exactly one
point z in A such that w = f (z). For any such value of z we can take the

y f v

x u

Figure 2.3 A one-to-one function.

54 Chapter 2 ■ Complex Functions

y f (z) = z2 v

x u

Figure 2.4 The function f (z) = z 2 is not one-to-one.

equation w = f (z) and “solve” for z as a function of w. Doing so produces an

inverse function z = g (w) where the following equations hold:

g (f (z)) = z for all z ∈ A, and

f (g (w)) = w for all w ∈ B. (2-3)

Conversely, if w = f (z) and z = g (w) are functions that map A into B

and B into A, respectively, and Equations (2-3) hold, then f maps the set A
one-to-one and onto the set B.
Further, if f is a one-to-one mapping from D onto T and if A is a subset
of D, then f is a one-to-one mapping from A onto its image B. We can also
show that if ζ = f (z) is a one-to-one mapping from A onto B and w = g (ζ) is a
one-to-one mapping from B onto S, then the composite mapping w = g (f (z))
is a one-to-one mapping from A onto S.
We usually indicate the inverse of f by the symbol f −1 . If the domains of f
and f −1 are A and B, respectively, we can rewrite Equations (2-3) as

f −1 (f (z)) = z for all z ∈ A, and

 
f f −1 (w) = w for all w ∈ B. (2-4)

Also, for z0 ∈ A and w0 ∈ B,

w0 = f (z0 ) iff f −1 (w0 ) = z0 . (2-5)

■ EXAMPLE 2.6 If w = f (z) = iz for any complex number z, find f −1 (w) .

Solution We can easily show f is one-to-one and onto the entire complex
plane. We solve for z, given w = f (z) = iz, to get z = wi = −iw. By Equations
(2-5), this result implies that f −1 (w) = −iw for all complex numbers w.

Remark 2.2 Once we have specified f −1 (w) = −iw for all complex numbers
w, we note that there is nothing magical about the symbol w. We could just as
easily write f −1 (z) = −iz for all complex numbers z. ■
 2.1 ■ Functions and Linear Mappings 55

We now show how to find the image B of a specified set A under a given
mapping u + iv = w = f (z). The set A is usually described with an equation or
inequality involving x and y. Using inverse functions, we can construct a chain
of equivalent statements leading to a description of the set B in terms of an
equation or an inequality involving u and v.

■ EXAMPLE 2.7 Show that the function f (z) = iz maps the line y = x + 1
in the xy plane onto the line v = −u − 1 in the w plane.
Solution (Method 1): With A = {(x, y) : y = x + 1}, we want to describe
B = f (A). We let z = x + iy ∈ A and use Equations (2-5) and Example 2.6 to
get

u + iv = w = f (z) ∈ B ⇐⇒ f −1 (w) = z = x + iy ∈ A
⇐⇒ −iw ∈ A
⇐⇒ v − iu ∈ A
⇐⇒ (v, −u) ∈ A
⇐⇒ −u = v + 1
⇐⇒ v = −u − 1,

where ⇐⇒ means “if and only if ” (iff ).

Note what this result says: u + iv = w ∈ B ⇐⇒ v = −u − 1. The image of
A under f , therefore, is the set B = {(u, v) : v = −u − 1} .
(Method 2): We write u+iv = w = f (z) = i(x+iy) = −y +ix and note that
the transformation can be given by the equations u = −y and v = x. Because A
is described by A = {x + iy : y = x + 1}, we can substitute u = −y and v = x
into the equation y = x + 1 to obtain −u = v + 1, which we can rewrite as
v = −u − 1. If you use this method, be sure to pay careful attention to domains
and ranges.

We now look at some elementary mappings. If we let B = a + ib denote a

fixed complex constant, the transformation

w = T (z) = z + B = x + a + i (y + b)

is a one-to-one mapping of the z plane onto the w plane and is called a transla-
tion. This transformation can be visualized as a rigid translation whereby the
point z is displaced through the vector B = a + ib to its new position w = T (z).
The inverse mapping is given by

z = T −1 (w) = w − B = u − a + i (v − b)

and shows that T is a one-to-one mapping from the z plane onto the w plane.
The effect of a translation is depicted in Figure 2.5.
56 Chapter 2 ■ Complex Functions

y v

w = T(z)

w=z+B
B = a + ib B = a + ib
u=x+a
v=y+b
z = x + iy
x u

Figure 2.5 The translation w = T (z) = z + B = x + a + i (y + b).

y v

w = R(z) φ=θ+α
α w = rei(θ + α)
r
ρ=
ρ=r
z = reiθ φ=θ+α
r θ r θ
x u

Figure 2.6 The rotation w = R (z) = rei(θ+α) .

If we let α be a fixed real number, then for z = reiθ , the transformation

w = R (z) = zeiα = reiθ eiα = rei(θ+α)

is a one-to-one mapping of the z plane onto the w plane and is called a rotation.
It can be visualized as a rigid rotation whereby the point z is rotated about
the origin through an angle α to its new position w = R (z). If we use polar
coordinates and designate w = ρiφ in the w plane, then the inverse mapping is

z = R−1 (w) = we−iα = ρeiφ e−iα = ρei(φ−α) .

This analysis shows that R is a one-to-one mapping of the z plane onto the w
plane. The effect of rotation is depicted in Figure 2.6.

■ EXAMPLE 2.8 The ellipse centered at the origin with a horizontal major
axis of four units and vertical minor axis of two units can be represented by the
parametric equation

s (t) = 2 cos t + i sin t = (2 cos t, sin t) , for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

 2.1 ■ Functions and Linear Mappings 57

1
2
0.5
1.5

–2 –1 0 1 2 1
–0.5 0.5

–1 0
(a) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
(b)

Figure 2.7 (a) Plot of the original ellipse; (b) plot of the rotated ellipse.

Suppose that we wanted to rotate the ellipse by an angle of π6 radians and shift
the center of the ellipse 2 units to the right and 1 unit up. Using complex
arithmetic, we can easily generate a parametric equation r (t) that does so:
π
r (t) = s (t) ei 6 + (2 + i)
 π π
= (2 cos t + i sin t) cos + i sin + (2 + i)
 6  6
π π π π
= 2 cos t cos − sin t sin + i 2 cos t sin + sin t cos + (2 + i)
6 6  6 6
  √
√ 1 3
= 3 cos t − sin t + 2 + i cos t + sin t + 1
2 2
 √
√ 1 3
= 3 cos t − sin t + 2, cos t + sin t + 1 , for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
2 2

Figure 2.7 shows parametric plots of these ellipses, using the software program
Maple.

If we let K > 0 be a fixed positive real number, then the transformation

w = S (z) = Kz = Kx + iKy

is a one-to-one mapping of the z plane onto the w plane and is called a magni-
fication. If K > 1, it has the effect of stretching the distance between points
by the factor K. If K < 1, then it reduces the distance between points by the
factor K. The inverse transformation is given by

1 1 1
z = S −1 (w) = w = u+i v
K K K

and shows that S is one-to-one mapping from the z plane onto the w plane. The
effect of magnification is shown in Figure 2.8.
58 Chapter 2 ■ Complex Functions

y v

Ki Ki

w = Kz
u = Kx
i v = Ky i

x u
1 K 1 K

Figure 2.8 The magnification w = S (z) = Kz = Kx + iKy.

Finally, if we let A = Keiα and B = a + ib, where K > 0 is a positive real

number, then the transformation

w = L (z) = Az + B

is a one-to-one mapping of the z plane onto the w plane and is called a linear
transformation. It can be considered as the composition of a rotation, a mag-
nification, and a translation. It has the effect of rotating the plane through an
angle given by α = Arg A, followed by a magnification by the factor K = |A|,
followed by a translation by the vector B = a + ib. The inverse mapping is given
by z = L−1 (w) = A1 w − B A and shows that L is a one-to-one mapping from the
z plane onto the w plane.

■ EXAMPLE 2.9 Show that the linear transformation w = iz + i maps the

right half-plane Re (z) ≥ 1 onto the upper half-plane Im (w) ≥ 2.
Solution (Method 1): Let A = {(x, y) : x ≥ 1}. To describe B = f (A), we
solve w = iz + i for z to get z = w−i
i = −iw − 1 = f −1 (w) . Using Equations
(2-5) and the method of Example 2.7 we have

u + iv = w = f (z) ∈ B ⇐⇒ f −1 (w) = z ∈ A
⇐⇒ −iw − 1 ∈ A
⇐⇒ v − 1 − iu ∈ A
⇐⇒ (v − 1, −u) ∈ A
⇐⇒ v − 1 ≥ 1
⇐⇒ v ≥ 2.

Thus, B = {w = u + iv : v ≥ 2}, which is the same as saying Im (w) ≥ 2.

 2.1 ■ Functions and Linear Mappings 59

(Method 2): When we write w = f (z) in Cartesian form as

w = u + iv = i (x + iy) + i = −y + i (x + 1) ,

we see that the transformation can be given by the equations u = −y and

v = x + 1. Substituting x = v − 1 in the inequality Re (z) = x ≥ 1 gives
v − 1 ≥ 1, or v ≥ 2, which is the upper half-plane Im (w) ≥ 2.

(Method 3): The effect of the transformation w = f (z) is a rotation of the plane
through the angle α = π2 (when z is multiplied by i) followed by a translation
by the vector B = i. The first operation yields the set Im (w) ≥ 1. The second
shifts this set up 1 unit, resulting in the set Im (w) ≥ 2.
We illustrate this result in Figure 2.9.

y v

w = iz + i

x u

Figure 2.9 The linear transformation w = f (z) = iz + i.

Translations and rotations preserve angles. First, magnifications rescale dis-

tance by a factor K, so it follows that triangles are mapped onto similar triangles,
preserving angles. Then, because a linear transformation can be considered to
be a composition of a rotation, a magnification, and a translation, it follows
that linear transformations preserve angles. Consequently, any geometric object
is mapped onto an object that is similar to the original object; hence linear
transformations can be called similarity mappings.

■ EXAMPLE 2.10 Show that the image of D1 (−1 − i) = {z : |z + 1 + i| < 1}

under the transformation w = (3 − 4i) z + 6 + 2i is the open disk D5 (−1 + 3i) =
{w : |w + 1 − 3i| < 5}.
60 Chapter 2 ■ Complex Functions

w−6−2i
Solution The inverse transformation is z = 3−4i , so if we designate the
range of f as B, then

w = f (z) ∈ B ⇐⇒ f −1 (w) = z ∈ D1 (−1 − i)

w − 6 − 2i
⇐⇒ ∈ D1 (−1 − i)

3 − 4i

w − 6 − 2i

⇐⇒
+ 1 + i

< 1.
3 − 4i

w − 6 − 2i

⇐⇒
+ 1 + i

|3 − 4i| < 1 · |3 − 4i|

3 − 4i
⇐⇒ |w − 6 − 2i + (1 + i) (3 − 4i)| < 5
⇐⇒ |w + 1 − 3i| < 5.

Hence the disk with center −1 − i and radius 1 is mapped one-to-one and onto
the disk with center −1 + 3i and radius 5 as shown in Figure 2.10.

y v

w = S(z)

x u

Figure 2.10 The mapping w = S (z) = (3 − 4i) z + 6 + 2i.

■ EXAMPLE 2.11 Show that the image of the right half-plane Re (z) ≥ 1
under the linear transformation w = (−1 + i) z −2+3i is the half-plane v ≥ u+7.
Solution The inverse transformation is given by

w + 2 − 3i u + 2 + i (v − 3)
z= = ,
−1 + i −1 + i
which we write as
−u + v − 5 −u − v + 1
x + iy = +i .
2 2
Substituting x = (−u+v−5)
2 into Re(z) = x ≥ 1 gives (−u+v−5)
2 ≥ 1, which
simplifies to v ≥ u + 7. Figure 2.11 illustrates the mapping.
 2.1 ■ Functions and Linear Mappings 61

y v

w = f(z)

x u

Figure 2.11 The mapping w = f (z) = (−1 + i) z − 2 + 3i.