Art nouveau : art and design at the turn

of the century
Edited by Peter Selz and Mildred Constantine, with
articles by Greta Daniel ... [et al.]

Date
1960

Publisher
The Museum of Modern Art: Distributed
by Doubleday

Exhibition URL
www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/2752

The Museum of Modern Art's exhibition history—

from our founding in 1929 to the present—is
available online. It includes exhibition catalogues,
primary documents, installation views, and an
index of participating artists.

MoMA © 2017 The Museum of Modern Art

ART NOUVEAU
 192 pages, 193 illustrations (color frontispiece) $6.50

ART NOUVEAU

edited by Peter Selz and Mildred Constantine

with articles by Greta Daniel, Alan M. Fern, Henry-Russell
Hitchcock and Peter Selz

What is Art Nouveau? A passing phase or a significant move

ment? This book tries to give the answer, based on a careful
and detailed examination of the underlying sources and the
works of art which, spread all over the world, carry this stylis
tic denomination.
It deals with the period at the turn of the century which
gave rise to one of the most controversial movements in art,
enthusiastically acclaimed at the moment of its inception and
then, soon after, emphatically denied any value.
But as often happens in the succession of art cycles, the period
cherished by the fathers is derisively scorned by the sons and
re-evaluated by later generations. Art Nouveau, the dominant
style of 1895-1905, which not only encompassed all branches
of artistic endeavor but also left its imprint on minute details
of daily life, is undergoing this very process today. The curi
osity concerning Art Nouveau is widespread and the revival
of interest in this period can be measured by the increasing
number of exhibitions and publications.
The authors follow the germination, growth and flowering
of a style heralded all over Europe and America in its own time
as a new art form, free of the traditional imitation of the his
torical past, new and revolutionary in its emphasis on the use
of decorative form, line and color, and rich in its symbolic
meaning.
In search of the antecedents for the great variety of art forms
in our own time, they point out the importance of basic ele
ments inherent in Art Nouveau as foreshadowing art and de
sign of the twentieth century.
They also deal with the extension into all realms of artistic
activity which Art Nouveau made it its gospel to unite: from
painting murals to embroidering pillows, from carving chairs
to fusing glass, from building castles to designing exquisite
jewelry and to printing beautiful books.
To do justice to the richness of the material, several experts
continued on back flap

THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART

11 West 53 Street, New York 19, N.Y.

Distributed by Doubleday & Co., Inc., Garden City, N.Y.

OFFICE COPY
bEPT.
All art is at oncesurfaceand symbol

Oscar Wilde: The Picture of Dorian Gray

TRUSTEES OF THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART FINE ARTS COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES
OF CARNEGIE INSTITUTE
Henry Allen Moe, Chairman of the Board; William S. Paley, Vice-
Chairman; Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd, President; Alfred H. Roy A. Hunt, Chairman; James H. Beal, James M. Bovard, Samuel
Barr, Jr., Mrs. Robert Woods Bliss, William A. M. Burden, B. Casey, Henry J. Heinz II, James F. Hillman, William R. Oliver,
^Stephen C. Clark, Ralph F. Colin, *Mrs. W. Murray Crane, Rene Charles J. Rosenbloom, John C. Warner
d'Harnoncourt, Mrs. C. Douglas Dillon, Mrs. Edsel B. Ford, A.
Conger Goodyear, *Mrs. Simon Guggenheim, Wallace K. Harri Honorary Members
son, Mrs. Walter Hochschild, *James W. Husted, Philip C. David L. Lawrence, Thomas L. Orr, A. L. Wolk
Johnson, Mrs. Albert D. Lasker, Mrs. Henry R. Luce, Ranald H.
Macdonald, Mrs. Samuel A. Marx, Porter A. McCray, Mrs. G. Term Members
Macculloch Miller, Mrs. Bliss Parkinson, Mrs. Charles S. Payson, Frederick J. Close, Mrs. James H. Heroy, Jr., C. McKenzie Lewis,
*Duncan Phillips, David Rockefeller, Nelson A. Rockefeller, Jr., Henry Oliver, Jr., Mrs. William C. Robinson, Jr., Mrs. George
*Paul J. Sachs, James Hopkins Smith, Jr., James Thrall Soby, Mrs. Magee Wyckoff
Donald B. Straus, *Edward M. M. Warburg, Monroe Wheeler,
John Hay Whitney Staff
*Honorary Trustee for Life Gordon Bailey Washburn, Director; Leon Anthony Arkus, As
sistant Director; Herbert P. Weissberger, Curator of Decorative
Arts; Emily J. Roberts, Executive Secretary; Anne K. Stolzenbach,
Registrar

TRUSTEES OF THE BALTIMORE MUSEUM OF ART

LOS ANGELES COUNTY MUSEUM

Frederick J. Singley, Jr., President; Robert G. Merrick, Vice-Presi
dent; Fred I. Archibald, Edward M. Benesch, George Boas, J. R.
Herbert Boone, Alexander S. Cochran, George W. Constable, Board of Governors
William A. Dickey, Jr., Laurence Hall Fowler, Alexander B. Gris- William T. Sesnon, Jr., President
wold, George B. Hess, Mrs. Arthur U. Hooper, Richard H.
Howland, Mrs. Harold Duane Jacobs, Francis H. Jencks, Adolf Board of Directors of Museum Associates
Katzenellenbogen, Trafford P. Klots, Mason F. Lord, Herman Howard F. Ahmanson, Sidney F. Brody, Richard F. Brown, Ed
Maril, Mrs. William McMillan, Francis D. J. Murnaghan, Jr., ward W. Carter, C. V. Duff, John Jewett Garland, Mrs. Freeman
Mrs. Reuben Oppenheimer, J. G. D. Paul, Philip B. Perlman, Gates, Ed N. Harrison, David W. Hearst, Roger W. Jessup, Joseph
John H. Scarff, Mrs. Harry R. Slack, Jr., W. Cameron Slack, B. Koepfli, Mrs. Rudolph S. Liebig, Charles O. Matcham, J. R.
Eleanor P. Spencer, Mrs. John C. Taliaferro, Jr., Alvin Thalheimer, Pemberton, Vincent Price, William T. Sesnon, Jr., William J.
Henry E. Treide, S. Bonsai White, Eloise H. Wilson, Mrs. Harold Sheffler, Norton Simon, Maynard J. Toll, Dr. Rufus B. von Klein-
H. Wrenn, Alan Wurtzburger Smid, Mrs. Stuart E. Weaver, Jr.

Frontispiece: Behrens: The Kiss. 1896-97. Color woodcut.

10% x 8V2". Private collection, New York
 ERRATA

page 6 Column 2: for James N. Wells read James M. Wells

page 13 Book of Kells is in the collection of Trinity College Library,

Dublin.

page 20 Moser and von Larisch illustrations are handlettering from

Beispiele Kiinstlerischer Schrift by Rudolf von Larisch.

page 30 The illustration for Sagesse should be that referred to in note

20 on page 149. The text on page 30 refers to that illustration.

page 32 Line 1: for 1899 read 1889

page 42 Last paragraph, line 2 should read: executed in sheet metal or

stone

page 163 Add 19a: Commemorative plaque of Justus Brinkmann.

c. 1902. Glazed ceramic. Museum fur Kunst und Gewerbe,
Hamburg

page 169 Gaillard, Lucien: born 1861

page 169 Cat. no. 95: date is 1898

page 175 Cat. no. 176: Both Frances Macdonald and Margaret Mac-
donald Mackintosh worked on The Iliad.

page 175 Add 180a: Handlettering from Beispiele Kiinstlerischer

Schrift by Rudolf von Larisch. 1902. The Museum of Modern
Art, New York

page 176 For cat. no. 200 read: Handlettering from the Beispiele Kiin
stlerischer Schrift by Rudolf von Larisch. 1900. The Museum
of Modern Art, New York

page 179 For cat. no. 236 read: Handlettering from Beispiele Kiinstler
ischer Schrift by Rudolf von Larisch. 1902. The Museum of
Modern Art, New York

page 182 Cat. no. 265: date is (1892-93)

page 185 Cat. no. 299: size is 19 x 21%"

sj^m
ART NOUVEAU 81©

Art and Design at the Turn of the Century

Edited by Peter Selz and Mildred Constantine

with articles by Greta Daniel, Alan M. Fern, Henry-
Russell Hitchcock and Peter Selz.

The Museum of Modern Art, New York

Distributed by Doubleday & Company, Inc., Garden City, New York

IWomA
A <o(5

Collaborating Museums and Exhibition Dates

The Museum of Modern Art, New York June 6 - September 6, I960

Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh October 13 - December 12, 1960

Los Angeles County Museum January 17 - March 3, 1961

The Baltimore Museum of Art April 1 - May 15, 1961

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 60-11987

© The Museum of Modern Art, 1959

11 West 53 Street, New York 19, N. Y.
Printed in the U.S.A. by The Plantin Press, New York.

Book design by Charles Oscar; cover design by Susan Draper

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments 6

Introduction by Peter Selz

Graphic Design by Alan M. Fern 18

Painting and Sculpture, Prints and Drawings

by Peter Selz 46

Decorative Arts by Greta Daniel 86

Architecture by Henry-Russell Hitchcock 122

Notes to the Text 148

Bibliography by fames Grady 152

Biographies and Catalogue of the Exhibition 162

Index 186

p :
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is important to note that as early as 1933, at a time when Design and the Department of Painting and Sculpture Ex
Art Nouveau was still considered little but the extravagant hibitions at the Museum of Modern Art. Special acknowl
conclusion of a tasteless era, Philip Johnson directed a small edgments are due to Arthur Drexler for his valuable sug
exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art, which, under the gestions and his brilliant installation of the exhibition in
title Objects 1900 and Today suggested an early re-evalua New York, and to Alicia Legg and Ilse Falk for their edi
tion of the style. torial assistance, and the preparation of the catalogue,
During the same spring a comprehensive Art Nouveau biographies, and index.
exhibition was proposed by Alfred Barr but aroused little The editors and authors of this book have benefited
response. Shortly after the War the Museum collection of greatly from the advice and courtesy of European museums
Art Nouveau objects began to grow with the encourage whose staffs worked tirelessly assisting us in our prelimi
ment of Edgar Kaufmann, and in 1949 the Museum ex nary research and making their collections and documents
hibited a special gallery of Art Nouveau accessions, includ available to us. We have, in addition, received the most
ing work by Guimard, Tiffany, Munch, Lautrec and others. generous help from a great many individuals in Europe and
Today the collection has increased to such an extent that it the United States, among whom the following deserve
has provided over forty loans for the present exhibition. special mention: Charles Alexander, Alfred H. Barr, Jr.,
Scholarly investigations on Art Nouveau began to be Leonard Baskin, Edgar Breitenbach, Bernard Dorival, Hans
published in the 1930s but it was not until 1952 that the A. Halbey, Thomas Howarth, Agnes Humbert, Harold
first all-inclusive exhibition of the movement was organ Joachim, Robert Koch, John Jacobus, William S. Lieber-
ized by the Kunstgewerbemuseum in Zurich. The recent man, Maurice Malingue, A. Hayatt Mayor, Carroll L. V.
turnabout in the evaluation of Art Nouveau calls for re Meeks, G. W. Ovink, Nicolaus Pevsner, John Rewald,
newed interpretation and, above all, a definition of this Willy Rotzler, Herwin Schaefer, Darthea Speyer, Gordon
elusive style. It is hoped that this collection of essays will Washburn, James N. Wells, and to Siegfried Wichmann.
stimulate further investigation and discussion toward defin For special assistance we owe thanks to Jacques Stoclet
ing this style in which a specific creative force broke with and L. Wittamer deCamps of Brussels, to J. Hembus
the historicism of the past to prepare the ground for the O. H. B. of Frankfurt and to Liberty & Co., of London.
art of this century. On behalf of the Trustees of the Museum of Modern
This book, issued in conjunction with the Art Nouveau Art and of the collaborating museums, I wish to express my
exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art, The Carnegie sincere appreciation to the museums, libraries, collectors,
Institute, Pittsburgh, The Los Angeles County Museum, and dealers who graciously lent to the exhibition.
and the Baltimore Museum of Art, is largely a result of the Peter Selz
collaboration between the Department of Architecture and Director of the Exhibition

6
 INTRODUCTION

In February 1894 Claude Debussy played his "Quartet in movement, whose aim Walter Crane defined as "turning
3 G Minor" and "La Damoiselle Elue" (after the poem "The our artists into craftsmen and our craftsmen into artists."
Blessed Damozel" by Dante Gabriel Rossetti) at the open Indeed during the late eighties and the nineties a good
ing of the first exhibition of La Libre Esthetique in Brussels. many painters such as Henry van de Velde and Peter
In the exhibition were paintings by Puvis de Chavannes as Behrens, turned from painting to architecture and design.
well as Camille Pissarro, Renoir, Gauguin, and Signac, and
also Redon, Toorop, and Ensor. In addition to the paint The Arts and Crafts Movement William Morris,
ings, selected with remarkable catholicity, there were shown painter, poet, craftsman, lecturer, and militant pamphleteer,
-—on the same level with "fine arts"-—William Morris' had been clamorous enough in his demand for a unifica
illuminated books of the Kelmscott Press, Aubrey Beards- tion of all the arts and crafts to bring about important re
ley's illustrations for Oscar Wilde's Salome, posters by forms in architecture, interior design, furniture, chintzes,
Toulouse-Lautrec, Cheret, and Eugene Grasset, tapestries carpets, wallpapers, and typography, to accomplish indeed
by Maillol, woodcuts by Vallotton, an interior designed by such a unification in his workshop. Similarly, Arthur
Gustave Serrurier-Bovy, spoons, cups, buckles, and bracelets Mackmurdo, who founded the Century Guild in 1880-81,
which Charles Ashbee had designed for the Guild and emphasized the indivisible unity of the arts and crafts, as
School of Handicraft in London. The guests at this opening did the Art Workers' Guild, established by Walter Crane
must have been struck by the diversity of the objects. Yet, and Lewis Day two years later. The Arts and Crafts Exhi
listening to Debussy's music, gazing at Gauguin's paintings, bition Society, founded in 1888 with Crane as president,
and examining Ashbee's metal craft, they may also have brought a comprehensive program to the attention of a
perceived a purposeful attempt on the part of the exhibitors wide public by means of its exhibitions, lectures and demon
to manifest a relationship between all the arts, an effort strations. An integral concept of the unity of art and life
which was soon to be spelled out in Henry van de Velde's was the belief, first expressed by John Ruskin and con
lecture "L'art futur" scheduled during the exhibition. stantly reiterated by Morris, that true art was the expression
Three years later, in May 1897, the German architect of man's pleasure in his work and that therefore the arts,
Alexander Koch called for "the need of a complete integra when honest, were simultaneously beautiful and useful.
tion of all artists, architects, sculptors, painters, and tech So they seemed to have been in the Middle Ages, and from
nical artists. They all belong intimately together in the the medieval period the men of the nineteenth century
same place, each thinking individually, yet working hand learned that high artistic achievement might best be accom
1 in hand for a larger whole." This appeal was published in plished by communal effort. The men of the Arts and
the first issue of the journal Deutsche Kunst und Dek ora Crafts movement would have fully agreed with Tolstoy,
tion, which almost immediately became the voice of a new who postulated in What is Art? (translated in 1899) that
movement in the visual arts. The statement using approxi it is "a means of union among men, joining them together
mately the same wording as the First Proclamation of the in the same feelings, and indispensable for the life and
2 Bauhaus, which it preceded, however, by twenty-two years, progress towards well-being of individuals and of hu
4 was largely the outgrowth of Morris' Arts and Crafts manity."

7
 The "Decadence" No greater contrast could be encouraged architects, painters, designers, and craftsmen
imagined than that between the old Tolstoy and the young to make similar efforts toward unifying all the arts of liv
Oscar Wilde. The latter had as little use for social reform ing. This unity of the arts was most evident in the com
as he had for utility. Artifice and affectation, perversity and prehensive design of the house. There the wallpaper de
egoism were the very essence of Wilde's world and of the sign is related to the light fixtures and the cutlery; and the
whole movement known as The Decadence. To Wilde, design of the book carefully echoes that of the cabinet. For
brilliant conversationalist and cultivated dandy, the artful their predominantly decorative qualities murals, tapestries,
attitude was more desirable than the work of art itself. He and stained glass are preferred to paintings and sculpture
had early announced the intention of living up to his blue- which, when introduced, are intended to be seen as part of
and-white china, and to him and his circle a doorknob could a larger whole. The jewelry corresponds to the furniture.
be as admirable as a painting; the necktie, the boutonniere, Henry van de Velde and Hector Guimard followed Wil
the chair, were of essential importance to the cult of living. liam Morris by actually designing their wives' costumes so
We find then a strange encounter in the 1890s: the that the very gesture would become an integral part of the
socialists and moralists of the Arts and Crafts movement environment (right). It even went so far that when
felt an ethical obligation to reconcile art and society and Toulouse-Lautrec was invited to a luncheon at van de
to create a better environment for themselves and for the Velde's house in Uccle, the choice of food, its color and
working classes with objects of more honest design and consistency was harmonized with table-setting, curtains,
6 production. The Decadents of the Aesthetic Movement of and the whole interior. Horta abolished any clear distinc
the fin de Steele, on the other hand, were eager to keep their tions among floor, wall, and ceiling by creating a fluid
sophistication far removed from popular culture by with baroque space based on plant ornament. The similarity be
drawing into an esoteric world in which art was to become tween the composition of a printed page and the facade of
the way of life. The Yellow Book, that great journal of the a building is remarkable, and the title page of a book may
7 Decadence with Aubrey Beardsley as its art editor, seems, easily be transposed into a portal (see page 44) .
however, related to Mackmurdo's Arts and Crafts publica
tion, The Hobby Horse, in its freshness of approach to The Search for the New The 1890s was a period
typography (page 26), its use of original illustrative ma of boldness in experimentation, a time which not only
terial, and in the combination of stories, drawings by new tolerated new ideas but was eager for novelty, if not the
artists, advanced poetry, and essays on music and other cul sensational. Disgusted with the old naturalistic formulas —
tural aspects catching the fancy of the editors. The two whether in the imitation of nature on canvas, or the imita
journals were strikingly different in purpose and appear tion of craftsmanship in cheap, machine-produced furnish
ance, but even so the Decadents seemed to agree with the ings—people seemed to have had their fill of the philis-
moralists that a synthesis of the arts was utterly desirable. tinism which characterized so much of life and taste of the
nineteenth century. The flagrantly inequitable social con
Synthesis of the Arts Motivated by this desire, both ditions made a great many artists and intellectuals turn
5 groups shared an admiration for Richard Wagner, who toward socialism and anarchism. The success of technology
combined a rather synthetic but nevertheless clearly pro as the great benefactor of the masses was questioned, and
nounced belief in folk art with the actual creation of the faith in materialism grew shaky.
Gesamtkunstwerk. Indeed the German composer's attempt There was also a move toward religion and mysticism.
at synesthesia of music and drama for the "total theatre" Both Beardsley and Wilde were penitent converts to the

8
 Roman Catholic Church before their deaths. Some of the
Nabis became ardent Catholics, Jan Verkade even joined a
monastery. Others turned toward Buddhism; the Rosicru-
cians and Theosophists had many followers among the
artists and writers.
i Symbolism Shunning narrative and disinterested in
quotidian affairs, writers and soon other artists became more
concerned with the veiled essence of reality, with the idea
behind the shape. In 1886 Jean Moreas had published the
8 Symbolist Manifesto, summarizing concepts which per
meated the poetry of Verlaine and Mallarme and the prose
of Huysmans. Realism in art and naturalism in poetry were
rejected in innumerable "little reviews of the avant garde.
The aim of art was not to describe observed reality, but
rather to suggest felt reality. "To name an object," said
Mallarme, "that is to suppress three-quarters of the enjoy
ment of the poem which comes from the delight of divining
9 little by little: to suggest it, that's the dream."
Verse dissociated itself from established patterns, and
instead of describing nature it attempted to externalize ideas
and sensations, to reveal the true meaning of life and nature
by evoking a direct response through the use of sounds,
rhythms and associations. The symbol gives concrete form
to the ideas— it is not didactic like the allegory; it addresses
itself to the emotion, not the intellect; it does not stand for
something else, it is close to myth; it is both the key to the
10 meaning and the meaning itself.
In France, Odilon Redon developed his personal dream
world in close association with the Symbolist poets. Their
program of expressing subjectively an idea by means of
BH evocative and decorative form was adopted by a group of
11 Van de Velde: Dress (c. 1896). painters at Pont-Aven dominated by Paul Gauguin. Soon
this attitude found its expression in the painting of the
Nabis in France, Ferdinand Hodler in Switzerland, Edvard
Munch in Norway, Gustav Klimt in Austria, and in the
drawings of Aubrey Beardsley in England and Jan Toorop
in Holland. Almost at once it appeared in the applied arts :
in the vases of Emile Galle — significantly called etudes—

9
 in which shape, color and texture created a symbolist decor, which mean or represent nothing, recall nothing, yet which
underlined further by aphoristic phrases from Baudelaire, can stimulate our souls as deeply as the tones of music have
16 Verlaine, or Maeterlinck that were fired into the glaze. We been able to do."
see it in the whole poster movement of France, and it is
noteworthy that the Symbolist periodical, La Plume, after Terminology This was the ultimate formulation of
devoting special issues to the work of Verlaine, Mallarme, the chief esthetic characteristic of a movement which de
Huysmans, and Baudelaire, in 1894 inaugurated poster ex veloped simultaneously all over Europe. By the late nineties
hibitions sponsored by the Salon des Cent, and devoted a "Art Nouveau" had achieved a remarkable international
special issue to the work of Eugene Grasset (page 39) , one success as the style of fashion and the avant garde. In the
12 of the chief exponents of the new poster movement. various countries it went by different names and was, in
The personal relationship between Symbolist writers and fact, ambivalently considered a national style or else an
artists was intimate. They published in the same journals import from a foreign country, depending on a positive or
in France, Belgium, Holland, England, and Germany. Fre negative attitude toward the mode. Only fairly recently has
quently the artists illustrated the poetry and prose of their it been generally recognized as an international movement.
13 avant-garde companions. At first, nobody seemed to know where it originated.
The English, not realizing the major contributions they
Symbolism of Line The place occupied by sound in themselves had made— especially in graphic design — and
Symbolist poetry was now held by line in the new art never really participating in the full-blown movement,
(frontispiece). Line became melodious, agitated, undulat called it Art Nouveau. In France, the country of the Sym
ing, flowing, flaming. The symbolic quality of line as an bolist movement, it was referred to occasionally as "Modern
evocative force was expressed as early as 1889 by Walter Style," and went under a great many names at first, such as
Crane, whose work, although in the William Morris tradi the graphic "Style nouille," or, even more literally, "Style
tion, anticipated many of the characteristics of the new de bouche de Metro." Hector Guimard, the man respon
movement: "Line is all-important. Let the designer, there sible for these subway entrances — this odd-looking street
fore, in the adaptation of his art, lean upon the staff of line furniture of Paris— preferred his own "Style Guimard."
—line determinative, line emphatic, line delicate, line ex Edmond de Goncourt, aware of the streamlined elements,
14 pressive, line controlling and uniting." At the same time pejoratively called it "Yachting Style." Eventually the name
Seurat and Signac, following the researches of Charles Art Nouveau was adopted. In Germany it was at first vari
Henry, spoke of complementary line as well as comple ously called "Belgische" and "Veldesche" after the Belgian
mentary color and then van de Velde, himself originally a Henry van de Velde, who, upon coming to Germany in
Neo-impressionist painter, wrote of the line as "a force 1897, had assumed leadership of the movement there. Or
15 which is active like all elemental forces." it was referred to as "Studio-Stil" after the English publi
This is the esthetic basis of Horta's abstractions of intri cation which reflected the work of the Arts and Crafts
cate linear loops in the Tassel House; it is the essential Exhibition Society. Other more whimsical names were
quality of the fantastic vegetative ornaments of Guimard's "Schnorkelstil" (flourish-style) and "Bandwurmstil" (tape
Metro stations, or of Endell's facade of the Atelier Elvira worm style) . It was, however, the term "Jugendstil," from
in Munich. Endell saw the ultimate meaning of the new the highly popular Munich magazine fugend, which entered
Symbolism of form when he wrote in 1898: "We stand at the vocabulary. The Austrians referred to it as "Secessions-
the threshold of an altogether new art, an art with forms stil" because of the Vienna Secession which, under the

10
 leadership of Klimt, Hoffmann, and Olbrich, was holding 1897 in Dresden, which was acclaimed as "The trumpet
19 highly cosmopolitan exhibitions in Vienna. The Scots, who call inaugurating a new time." The special pavilion, "Art
undoubtedly had a considerable influence on the Viennese, Nouveau Bing" at the Paris Exposition Universelle of
named their corollary "The Glasgow School." In Spain it 1900, stressed the work of Colonna, de Feure, and Gaillard,
was called "Modernismo," in Italy it went by the title of and though less epoch-making, showed a refined taste
"Stile floreale" but, generally, as "Stile Liberty" after Lib which seemed lacking in most of the exhibits.
erty's London store and the printed, often Oriental, textiles
it offered for sale. The Italians, no doubt, were fully aware Anti-Historicism In an article which Bing wrote
of the double meaning in this name. In Belgium it was about the term Art Nouveau, he says that it was "simply
called "Paling stijl" (Paling : Flemish for "eel") or "Le the name of an establishment opened as a meeting ground
Style des Vingt" or "La Libre Esthetique" to identify it for all ardent young artists anxious to manifest the mod-
20 with the names of these exhibition groups which, under ernness of their tendencies," and, taking issue with the
the brilliant guidance of Octave Maus, were the most ad historicism still so prevalent at the time, he continued:
vanced anywhere in Europe and were largely responsible "Amidst this universal upheaval of scientific discoveries
for the leadership Brussels assumed in the new movement. the decoration of the day continued to be copied from what
was in vogue in previous centuries, when different habits
Maison de l'Art Nouveau The term Art Nouveau, and different masters were current. What an astonishing
21 which was finally accepted in most countries, derives from anachronism!"
S. Bing's shop Maison de l'Art Nouveau, at 22, rue de The anti-historical attitude was as much an earmark of
Provence in Paris. Bing, a native of Hamburg, had previ Art Nouveau as was its striving toward the synthesis of the
ously been primarily concerned with Japanese art as con arts. As early as 1885 Louis Sullivan, whose work predicted
noisseur, publisher, and dealer. Vincent van Gogh was one so many characteristics of Art Nouveau, proclaimed: "Our
17 of his customers and Louis C. Tiffany patronized the New art if for the day, is suited to the day, and will also change
22
18 York branch of his establishment. as the day changes." And Otto Wagner wrote ten years
For his first Salon de l'Art Nouveau, which opened in later in Vienna that the new style was not a renaissance,
December 1895, Bing commissioned Bonnard, Grasset, but a naissance, that modern life alone must be the sole
Ibels, Roussel, Serusier, Toulouse-Lautrec, Ranson, Vallot- starting point of our artistic creation, and that all else is
23 ton, and Vuillard to make designs for stained glass executed archaeology. Wagner's student, Joseph Maria Olbrich,
by Louis C. Tiffany in the United States. The Salon itself inscribed in large letters on the building he designed for
2i included paintings by most of these artists as well as Car- the Vienna Secession in 1898: Der Zeit ihre Kunst,
riere, Denis, and Khnopff , sculpture by Rodin, and— plac and the preface to the Munich periodical Jugend, which
ing the applied arts on an equal basis—glass by Galle and indeed gave the name to the style in Germany, reads in
Tiffany, jewelry by Lalique, posters by Beardsley, Bradley, part: "We want to call the new weekly Youth. This really
and Mackintosh. In 1896 Bing presented the first Paris says all we have to say. 25 When in 1902 A.D.F. Hamlin
exhibition of paintings by Edvard Munch. He also intro published an article on Art Nouveau in the first critical
duced van de Velde to Paris by inviting him to send four series on the movement in the United States, he pointed out
completely designed rooms to the establishment. Less than that there was little agreement among its adherents and that
two years later Bing had van de Velde invited to Germany all they had in common was "an underlying character of
26 to participate in the large international art exhibition of protest against the traditional and the commonplace."
 Acceptance of Modern Technology As part of self said: "... try to pick up the thread of . . . grace, ele
this break with historicism and in contrast to the attitude gance, sound logic, and purity, and give it new develop
of the Arts and Crafts movement, van de Velde defended ments, just as if the thread [of the French tradition] had
29 the machine as an acceptable tool for the designer. He con not been broken. . . ,"
sidered the engineer "the creator of the new architec
27 ture," whose boldness has surpassed even the daring of Rococo Art Nouveau shared with the rococo a desire
the builders of cathedrals, and who now works in metal to make painting part of the general decor. Painters and
and glass instead of stone and wood. His Belgian con decorators showed a preference for a light, high-keyed
temporaries, Hankar and Horta, made wide use of iron in color scheme. Rococo characteristics can be observed in
their buildings, and Horta displayed the structural qualities Horta's flowing space, in his asymmetrical ornamentation,
of iron in his Tassel House with ornamental emphasis. his vigorous curves which, however, have substituted a
This is not to stay that iron construction was actually one more abrupt termination for the easy, elegant flow of the
28 of the sources of Art Nouveau. It would seem more likely eighteenth century. Aubrey Beardsley in his last drawings
that Horta's sense of design and esthetic feeling — and pos culled quite consciously from eighteenth-century draftsmen
sibly his familiarity with drawings and designs by Mack- like Saint-Aubin and Debucourt. Galle, Majorelle, and
murdo, Khnopff, Toorop, and Beardsley— determined his Vallin, however, probably came closest to the gracefulness
use of iron. But although the metal did not dictate his fluid, of rococo design, working in Nancy with its magnificent
organic forms, iron was a fitting material for the architect's eighteenth-century Place Stanislas.
purpose. One of the essential aspects of Art Nouveau was
the acceptance of technology and the machine as a means Celtic Art The marked individuality of Art Nouveau
toward creating a new style, without, however, elevating in different countries is partly due to revivals of specific
functionalism to an esthetic principle. traditions. If the Nancy School seemed inspired by the
In general, the Art Nouveau artists were convinced that rococo, the cult of the Celt attracted the Glasgow designers
they were evolving a new and contemporary style in which of the nineties in their search for an independent national
the flouting of convention— the attitude of epater le bour culture. The flat patterns of Celtic manuscript pages,
geois—was "advanced" and desirable. The scathing social brooches and chalices in which intricate linear design of
accusations of Ibsen's plays found, in a certain sense, a tangled interlace and coiled spirals is rigidly controlled by
parallel in the impudence of the unconventional Art Nou geometry is echoed in the early drawings and repousse de
veau whiplash ornament that appeared in the theatre pro signs by Mackintosh (page 19) and the Macdonald sisters
grams. (page 18 ) and appears again in the murals of the Buchanan
Street Tearooms of 1897 (page 69) and in the wrought-
Historicism Art Nouveau claimed to be the new art iron ornament of the Glasgow School of Art (page 145).
of the new time. Yet its avowed break with tradition was
never complete. In certain ways Art Nouveau actually be Gothic The fascination with the Celtic is part of the
longs with the nineteenth-century historical styles. The more comprehensive interest in the Middle Ages which
century had earlier run the gamut from the Egyptian revival spanned the nineteenth century. The Gothic Revival had
of the first Empire to the baroque revival of the second. begun in the 1750s with Sir Horace Walpole's Strawberry
Now at the end followed Art Nouveau which, in France Hill, and continued to flourish under the aegis of A.W.N.
at least, often merged with a rococo revival. As Bing him Pugin, Ruskin, Morris, and Viollet-le-Duc. The latter, in-

12
 deed, advocated the use of iron as a new building material,
and the unconcealed display of structural members in the
Gothic may well have inspired Horta's daring use of iron,
while van de Velde was proud to admit his conscious use
30 of Gothic space concepts. But in addition to their admira
tion for the rational nature of Gothic architecture, Art
Nouveau artists were also intrigued by the ornament,
especially in the late manifestations of the Gothic. These
late buildings with their observations of natural growth,
their flamelike and leaflike tracery, double curved ogee
arches and flowing shapes, are called Curvilinear in Eng
land and Flamboyant in France, and even their names are
descriptive of the very elements which appealed to the
Art Nouveau. Guimard's Castel Beranger and Horta's
Hotel Solvay, for instance, exemplify the relationship of
Art Nouveau to the Flamboyant Gothic.

Blake A similar flowing, undulating Gothic linearity

appears in the book illuminations and temperas of William
Blake, and there is no doubt that he exerted a major influ
31 ence on Art Nouveau, although the fervent feelings, condi
tioned by his visions, are not reflected. There is in The Songs
of Innocence (page 15), for example, not only the smoothly
flowing line, but also a comprehension of the page: the in
Initial for Book of Kelts. Celtic illumination, 8th or 9th
terrelationship of typography and ornament. Mackmurdo's century A.D. Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Hobby Horse had a good many references to Blake, and the
frontispiece of the first issue is "obviously a pastiche of
32 Blake motifs." It was Mackmurdo, the admirer of Blake,
who produced the first work which combined all the char
acteristics of Art Nouveau: the chair designed in 1881,33
and the second, the title page of his book Wren's City
Churches (page 27) published in 188 3.34

Exotic Art The nineteenth century, having managed

to exhaust nearly all sources of inspiration in the Western
past, turned at last beyond Europe and the Near East. Art
Nouveau designers, for example, became interested in the
flat batiks introduced by Dutch importers from Java. Afri
can sculpture was first reproduced as "art" when Dekorative

13
 tween Japanese art and Art Nouveau.
Whistler was followed in his interest in Japanese art by
Manet, Monet, Renoir, Degas, Gauguin, van Gogh, and
Toulouse-Lautrec; each took what he needed. Japanese tex
tiles, fans, lacquers, and prints began entering collections,
and it is noteworthy that men as intimately connected with
Art Nouveau as S. Bing, Arthur L. Liberty, Louis C. Tif
fany, Aubrey Beardsley, Otto Eckmann, and Toulouse-
Lautrec are to be counted among the important early col
lectors of Japanese art.
Most significant for Art Nouveau was the two-dimen
sional planar aspect of the Japanese color woodblock —
itself an expression of a late cultural phase; its absence of
central perspective in favor of broad, homogenous, reced
ing planes; the division of the picture space into large,
unified areas; the evocative quality of the line in establish
St. Severin, Paris. Window, 15th century
ing a linear rhythm; the expressive contour; the use of color
for flat pattern effect instead of illusionistic modeling; the
asymmetry of the composition and energetic diagonal move
ment of linear design, frequently originating in the corner
of the picture; and the simplification of natural forms for
35 Kunst published a number of Benin bronzes in 1899 — the sake of the picture.
some five years prior to its discovery by the Expressionists
in Dresden and the Fauves in Paris. Art Nouveau and Nature The Japanese were able
to deal intimately with nature without ever copying its
Japanese Art But of greatest importance especially surface appearance. The whole nineteenth century, of
in painting and the graphic arts was the impact of Japanese course, had great faith in the world of nature and the Art
36 art. Here was a completely new esthetic expression in Nouveau artist, going to nature for a major source of in
which each Western artist could find inspiration for his spiration, found in Japanese art a way to re-experience the
own individual style. Whistler was the first major painter very forces of nature in energetic, rhythmic line. Unlike
to show the direct influence of Japanese art. Japanese motifs the Impressionist, he was no longer concerned with momen
are used in La Princesse du Pays de la Porcelaine of 1863- tary visual stimuli on the retina. Nature was still "the in
37 64; the famous Peacock Room of 1876-77 is entirely deco fallible code of all laws of beauty," but he wished to
rated in a design inspired by Japanese interiors. Moreover, explore the forces of growth and to represent them sym
Whistler also often placed his models against plain light bolically. Art Nouveau artists were often careful students
walls and showed a similar preference for sophisticated of botany: Galle wrote scientific articles on horticulture,
simplicity in contrast to the burly heaviness of the arts and Grasset realized the applications of plant study for the new
38 crafts of the day. Whistler was extremely important to men ornament, Obrist started his career as a natural scientist.
like Beardsley and was perhaps the chief intermediary be Ernst Haeckel, the German biologist and explorer who con-

14
iTOte
ajfrC eP Im
"TT.rle^fMyjwtt# */«l L«v* .
lf?\ prjpmtn** 45*tr«fc: '—
|A»4 to tk&fc Mrtuiqt<jfddijjht *
ptrtwm tk<uiklUnJ»lk. ~*s
pn'MattyPlte' IVjm Mi !.«««»
« (t»i «ftr fimwr «MM't <*N_ 1
WfWW IV*#
*\ &«JW»rd<icK»M*»*# i?
For M«rcrlt^« aWiwrtltrsw*
r\j,y.* human fiioR; jP^g-T^-a
A»u!LrtVt.th# fcueumtorm dsw«
A/** iWr<r.weluiu>««italu Jk/

H 'jtwcit man <#t«v«nr «im«

Tm1 tnlwt Ai• #«&. —^
Ptfp* te w fwma*£«*<Aw\*

Arwi : d'l t£« tiuawmfcrm,

A» ,lt«A<*jew. '•" " '
jWlwm Mdfjr J 4r<tKg|MiC
3Bh<^^G(>fv»
*t*

Blake, author and printer: Plate 18, The Songs of Innocence.

Wood engraving. 1789. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York

Utamaro (1753-1806) : Snow, Moon, Flowers

Compared to Women . Color woodcut, Publ.
Murataya
T
innM
il
mi
iiiiin
| ii
|ir inif'iir- i i riliiiliiiii iniiiiiiiiiii) i irrmiiitirnn
iti 'riiiniiriiipit i tiihiiiiiiiiibihhiii
n n i rm nu

tributed significantly to the theory of evolution and who gins to flow, partakes of constant movement. Almost to the
wrote a great many monographs on lower forms of life, exclusion of men, it is the woman who dominates the Art
published in 1899 his epoch-making Kunstformen der Nouveau world and the aspect of woman which pre-occu-
30 Natur . This work consisted mainly of greatly enlarged pies the artist is her hair — long, flowing hair which may
color drawings of amoebae, jellyfish, medusae, and polyps. merge with the drapery or become part of a general wavy
Forms in nature which had never really been seen before configuration. Loie Fuller's serpentine dances— "The But
were suddenly made available to the artist and were further terfly, The Orchid,'' "The Fire, "The Lily" — enjoyed
more presented in a layout and graphic style that was very the highest popularity and can be seen as the most apt ex
much in the visual idiom of the period. Haeckel says in his pression of certain art impulses at the time. Her veils per
introduction that esthetic considerations played a major formed the same erotic function as the flowing tresses of
role in the compilation of the book, and he expresses the the Art Nouveau female. This girl-woman, to a great ex
desire to be able to contribute motifs to the arts and crafts tent descended from the hothouse creature of the Pre-
of his time. Raphaelites, has the same ambivalent eroticism of a small-
Indeed, the Art Nouveau interior at its culmination — breasted, narrow-shouldered, virginal, indeed often boyish
Horta's house for Baron van Eetvelde, Mackintosh's Wil creature. Almost emaciated, her body is yet extremely
low Tearoom, Guimard's Humbert de Romans Building, languorous in its sexually suggestive poses. This is the
Endell's Atelier Elvira, with their sinuous shapes of iron, woman who appears in different disguises in the world of
wood, stone and plaster, suggesting climbing stalks and Beardsley, Toorop, Thorn Prikker, Bernard, Denis, Gras-
clinging tendrils —produces the effect of a suddenly fossil set, Macdonald, Mackintosh, and Klimt.
ized conservatory. The interest in the bud and the young girl suggests that
the ideal world of the Art Nouveau artist was far removed
Iconography It was nature in its most unexpected as from what is usually thought of as the "Gay Nineties." He
pects which appealed to the Art Nouveau artist. He wel seemed to prefer a melancholy, nostalgic expression to un
comed motifs of creatures found at the bottom of the sea, bridled gaiety or joy. Everything remains in a state of un-
especially if the shapes of their tentacles or general con fulfillment; there is perhaps eager expectation, but it never
tours corresponded to his own feeling for the flowing seems to go beyond the threshold. And indeed the whole
curves. If he used a flower, it was not the ordinary garden movement only makes beginnings. Toulouse-Lautrec,
or field variety but rather the languid, exotic hothouse plant, Beardsley, and Eckmann died early. Horta and Mackin
whose long stalks and pale blossoms he found exquisite. tosh, Toorop and Thorn Prikker, Bernard and Denis, even
Certain motifs keep recurring in Art Nouveau icono Edvard Munch, reverted to a conservative style and were
graphy: the lily, peacock and sunflower are adopted from never able to follow through on the brilliant promise of
the Aesthetic Movement, but the sunflower with its regular, their youth. Hector Guimard continued in his Art Nouveau
radial form is less frequent, the peacock's tail feathers occur style, but his buildings of the twenties and thirties are
more often than the whole bird, and soon the lily pad anachronisms. Some of the architects, like Hoffmann,
and stem take precedence over the flower. The tendril of the Behrens, and van de Velde, were able to develop beyond
vine is more interesting than its leaves, the bud more in Art Nouveau to become important in the "Modern Move
triguing than the blossom. The swan surpasses the peacock ment" which followed, while painters such as Bonnard,
in popularity. Equally a symbol of pride, he is also capable Vuillard, Kandinsky, and Picasso found their own unique
of gliding with the utmost grace, and now everything be expressive forms after their Art Nouveau apprenticeship.

16
 By 1900 the style had become generally accepted, even than to vegetative growth. Whenever used, ornament be
fashionably chic among the elite. Within the next two years comes geometric: the right angle takes the place of the
it filtered down, and the international exhibition of deco sinuous curve; the square, the circle, the rhomboid, the
rative arts held in Turin in 1902 showed the popular oval are preferred to the stalk, the wave, the hair. But
triumph and the concomittant decline in taste. Art Nouveau buildings such as Mackintosh's House of a Connoisseur or
was always an ornamental style, but at its best its ornament Hoffmann's Palais Stoclet (pages 142-143), while par
grew from a desire for symbolic-organic structure. But tially abandoning the wavy line for a more rectangular
when it was merely applied, it tried to make up in ornate- ornamentation, still adhere to the Art Nouveau principle
ness for what it lacked in conviction. of a two-dimensional decoration whose evocative power
Having been able to create a unified style and to shake rests on its linear rhythm.
off the heavy hand of nineteenth-century imitative compul Historically Art Nouveau fulfilled the liberating func
sion, the avant-garde designers began to look in a different tion of an "anti" movement. It discarded the old, outworn
direction. With almost sudden deliberation the inventive conventions and set the stage for the developments which
ness of ornament, the playfulness, the organic feeling comes followed with such extraordinary rapidity in the twentieth
to a halt. "Organic" will now refer to the nature of the century.
material, to fitness and to the function of the object rather Peter Selz

Ernst Haeckel: Palephyra Primigenia, from

Kunstformen der Natur, 1899. Bibl. 54. Col
lection New York Public Library

17

'
 Left, Frances Macdonald: A Pond.
1894. Book cover

Jan Toorop: Delftsche Slaolie. 1895.

Poster. 36% x 24%". Stedelijk Museum,
Amsterdam

AVE ATqve VALE

Left, Behrens: Dedication page for

DERKUNSTLER- Feste des Lebens und der Kunst, 1900

KOLONIE IN
DARMSTADT Beardsley: Ave Atque Vale from The
GEWIDMET Savoy No. 7. 1896. Ink. Collection the
Honorable and Mrs. John Hay Whit
ney, London

v-lW hli
 GRAPHIC DESIGN

In the graphic arts, Art Nouveau was a tremendously varied

style which encompassed a considerable diversity of ex
pression ranging from the spidery, linear work of Mackin
tosh (left) and the Macdonalds through the rectilinear
borders of Peter Behrens to the sinuous illustrations of
Beardsley (opposite). In the hands of Toorop and a few
other Dutch and Belgian artists, Beardsley' s whiplash line
proliferated and elaborated itself into a new expressive
element, and such designers as Koloman Moser and Rudolf
von Larisch (page 20) asserted the power of spatial and
value contrasts in their lettering.
Through the work of graphic designers Art Nouveau
extended beyond national boundaries into areas where, for
reasons of economy or taste, the more elaborate works of
the new style might never have been seen. The new posters,
shop signs, and lettering for buildings became so much a
part of the everyday scene that they could not fail to be
noticed even by those who might try to avoid the new
furniture and household objects. Books and magazines
could be circulated far more easily than paintings or sculp
THESCOTTISH ture, and through work such as van de Velde's designs for
MUSICAL
REVIEW the prepared food, Tropon (page 23), the artist entered
into the field of industrial design where a characteristic
pueurosmi-SiMNTH decorative concept was imposed upon everything associated
PRICE
TV/0
PENCE
with a product.
Considering the interest of the Art Nouveau artist in
transforming all things which might possibly be important
Mackintosh: Scottish Musical Re in the visual world, it is scarcely surprising that he should
view. 1896. Poster. 97 x 39". The
have turned his attention to graphic design. Moreover, the
Museum of Modern Art, New York
Symbolist writers who were admired by so many of the
artists of the 1890s had shown the expressive possibilities
inherent in graphic design. The stock-in-trade of Huysmans
and Oscar Wilde, for example, was the single object, ex
quisitely displayed, which served in their novels to elicit

19

JB
 extraordinarily deep responses from the finely attuned ner
vous system of the sensitive beholder. Time and again in
12 | ra«B-¥llLM?vJg05Kl A Rebours, or in The Picture of Dorian Gray, this single
Ih^PfflE-ZIUBKrK'xlMKI object— a jewel, a bowl, a flask, a flower, or a book— sets
®MrOMTlK%<IFW off a chain of reflection and activity which carries the prota
QUClLCIiSFiUlZiRUiE'CII! gonist far from the everyday world of philistinism.
TmciLRGCII! It is remarkable how often, in the works of the Decadent
PSRRCi^RornciT writers, this object is a book, and how often the binding of
rncTUMivyuHDcn@l the book is even more important than its contents in the
noRcn <mm>h process of evocation. In A Rebours, Huysmans has his hero,
td^&i f i&isr? Des Esseintes, concern himself with the typographical suita
l£S&WJ •rrerwm°MR« 2$IQ5T)
bility of the books in his library on the basis of the different
moods expressed by various type faces. Huysmans singled
out Civilite (left), with its swelling curves and curious
Moser: Type face. 1900
shapes, for special mention. The finicky Des Esseintes
fitted the typography of his specially printed books to their
texts according to a principle of aptness, so that Civilite
gleichen, der sich beim Buchstaben
in seiner Doppeleisjenschaft als
der gothischen
Antiqua.
Schrift aus der
o o o
. . . whose peculiar hooks and flourishes, curling up or
Zierde und als Zweck ergibt und
es wird in jedem einzelnen. Falle
Der ursprungliche Plan.diese Samm-
lung mit einem Anhange schul-
down, assume a satanic appearance," was used to print up
die Frage zu losen sein.ob der Zier- massiger Beispvele zu versehen.
oder ader Zweckgedanke zu betonen wurde im Interesse der Gesammt- a special edition of Barbey d'Aurevilly's Les Diaboliques.
ist. Obrigens ist die Leserlichkeit wirkung des Werkes einstweilen
ein mit der Zeit sich verandemder
Begnff. tine oder die andere Buch-
unterlassen. So ansehnlich auch die
Zahl der Kunstler ist . die dem
Huysmans conception in 1884 anticipated by several years
stabengestalt . die noch vor wenig
Jahren argen Anstoss erregle. hat
Werke ihre Kraft geliehen.so hoffe
ich doch noch auf seine weiterc the formulation of the principles of visual symbolism which
sich heute vollig eingelebt und lasst Ausgestaltung. Dann wird sich auch
sogar die damals gebrauchliche das Lehrhafte — uberdies auf einer underlay the whole art of graphic design in Art Nouveau.
Form Veraltet erscheinen. Das tnt- breiteren Grundlage methodischer
stehen einer neuen Schriftgattung
bringt geradezu zeitweilig die gerin-
trfahrungen — passender einfiigen.
Moge das Interesse der betheiligten
Oscar Wilde went so far as to have Dorian Gray procure
gere Leserlichkeit einzelner Buch Kreise bald die Moglichkeit bieten,
staben mit sich. Man versetze sich dicse Absichten zur That Werden no fewer than nine copies of his favorite book (obviously
z. B. in die Zeit der Gntwickelung zu lassen. o o o
A Rebours ), bound in various colors and fashions to suit
his changing moods and desires.
In this esthetic atmosphere, we can understand how it
von Larisch: Type face. 1900
was that the bindings of Art Nouveau books are among the
most lavish and impressive works of the style (right).
Here the designer could indulge himself to the fullest in
au fit-' — ^an^-* unc po|itio>| his love of expressive linear movement, elegant flat spacing,
(Wo'Se|Tc-' , coucjc |ut_ (e> cote ^troiL", IY-i9- fral?-, and masterful contrasts of color and materials, remaining
05 feiT" jai u6c<9— ft ft rcfTc "tii corpli cou£crt_>, uij pen quite free from the demands of textual reference or the
5 c'foupic ptrpiinclT' t|ui Com ^tauiS— fit.' limitations of advertising communication. The new de
pac- rcjpcct.- ft pouc_ /nc poiw fc — i«<mmo)cL, signs, moreover, were not restricted to the costly, separately
1 .t ^cparSc; eitij 'p parfcu- £ encore- commissioned handbinding (opposite above), so close in
conception to jewelry and other decorative objects, but were
conceived as well for edition bindings (opposite below)
La Civilite.Type face. French. 16th century to be done entirely by machine.

20
 Hi

Beardsley: Binding for Le Morte d'Arthur. Beardsley: Binding for Salome. 1907. Cobden-Sanderson: Binding for
1893. Klingspor Museum, Offenbach Klingspor Museum, Offenbach Areopagitica. 1907-08. Museum
fur Kunsthandwerk, Frankfurt

make-believe

«-I>LO»VKr<
•f-

Binding for Mulvaney Stories. Ricketts: Binding for In the Key of Robinson: Binding for Make
1897. University of Chicago Library Blue. 1893. The University of Chicago Believe. 1896. John Lane. Uni
Library versity of Chicago Library

21
 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF ART NOUVEAU a twisting, living thing, enclosing or even swallowing up
GRAPHIC WORKS whatever is nearby; the figure in the upper left of the illus
tration is engulfed by the curving branches which surround
What is it that makes a book or poster Art Nouveau? Some him, and each line in the border seems to loop in upon itself
3 observers have suggested that the serpentine or whiplash and then move out to entangle a neighboring form. Beards-
curve is the one thing which most clearly characterizes these ley has evoked a feeling of sensual weirdness and exoti
works. While this is tempting in its simplicity, and often cism; the German print, despite the curving lines it shares
is appropriate, the same kinds of curving lines are found with Beardsley, is remarkably straightforward in its emo
in many other works which cannot be called Art Nouveau tional effect and static in its composition. The mere presence
by any stretch of imagination or chronology. One example, of the serpentine curve is not sufficient to define the style.
out of many which might be cited, is the dotted print of After all, the work of Mackintosh clearly fits into Art
Christ as the Man of Sorrow with Four Angels (below), Nouveau (page 19) and yet the linear rhythms which he
done by an anonymous German printmaker of the fifteenth used are by no means similar to Beardsley's.
century. The serpentine curves are there, to be sure, but Mackintosh utilizes another of the characteristics which
somehow they do not evoke the same response as the lines has been cited as peculiarly Art Nouveau: the flattening of
in Aubrey Beardslev's illustration for the Morte d' Arthur space, and the consequent importance given (in two-dimen
(below) . The arabesques in the German print seem only to sional works, such as prints and paintings) to the surface
4 fill the spaces behind the figures of Christ and the upper two upon which the work is done. In the Beardsley page this
angels; although they are part of the over-all linear rhythm flattening of space can certainly be observed, especially in
of the work they remain apart from the other elements in the border which seems to be a screen of interlocking white
the picture. As Beardsley uses the curve, however, it becomes lines over a black background. In other works this is even

to 6 King Arthur.

I*a« fei» that team, mrnesl Ate fee Km that fee

.feotdd tnsa hte, . fe*i ye lew* titan if! lauds to fearo ess
agafe). Ah, said ifee feng, stst* ye know ef mketanre, pnm-y
for », usfi y«i sway by ymx srafes (feat ib»I.«wh. Kiy, said
it will m he ; a» fe* fes* the At* *afeta a
»kSe the damosei <rf eke tiiw departed, md Merfia wet* wfefeher
»k**e»WK*«** ske *m(. AfiAettl tSJeeMerlin taxadd feaee
lad htt pfnily sway feyfewsubtle cssfe ; ik«j ifeemade Itus to ««*«-
tfeathe fim!4 firm ttfiasm wsekaniato* upas htt (The would haw
his wilt And so he swat* ; «* .he and kSerfe»went user (feem
ante (fee land of »<**«*, »hm a, Sup Bin wai king that had
gtm wat against Satg Oaod»> wsd there Mwfe spafeewife 1%
W« w«e, * fcsdy aud a ge*>i ami her mtate was Elaine, sul
ibut ht saw yonng Uttoeefcu. There the tpiem ntade gtrt tame*
fee (fee tooml war that King CJauda. made oo has toed end <ssher
fends. Tilt* ttsna feeaetnm, tui ,Mer(m,fee this m tMd w-tfem
tfe« twwwy yew sfenS pm as Kssg Oaudsi, shis sUChris«»-
skafespeak ofttj aaaSthis «nw eltdd dull fee (feemem ma of
worshipd the wwid, and fett feat name i, Galahad, linn knew (
wed, aui Merlin, ind syne ye fear? tanifimted him
Hat » troth, said the his first name wa» Galafead. O
Merlin, aaid the queen, dail 1 lire to aee my w» such a mas id
promt* I Yea, lady, eo ay peril ye shaS see k, and itro nacy

22
 —-

Far left, Anonymous, German: Christ as

the Man of Sorrow with Four Angels.
15th Century. Dotted print. The Art In
stitute of Chicago
r
Left, Beardsley: Text and illustration
from Le Morte d'Arthur. 1892

eitss

Van de Velde: Tropon. c. 1899. Poster.

18% x 12%". Museum fur Kunst und
Gewerbe, Hamburg

23
 more evident, for example in Henry van de Velde's Tropon than are the serpentine line and flat spatial arrangement.
poster, where the powerfully repeated linear motifs pull It should be clear by now that the secret of Art Nouveau
the eye back and forth across the page without ever sug will not be yielded by formal analysis alone. The character
gesting that the design might occupy a third dimension. istics already enumerated are revealing for an understand
Yet even this is not the exclusive property of Art Nouveau, ing of the style, but there appears to be something in the
as a look at a Celtic illumination of the eighth or ninth particular way these are handled by the Art Nouveau
century (page 13) will establish. The Irish illuminator not graphic designer which depends upon a desire, shared with
only has rejoiced in the use of repeated linear motifs (with few of his predecessors, to evoke a peculiar sense of move
an abundance of serpentine lines), but has further con ment and mood in his work.
firmed the flatness of the design by using a whole series of Evocation, then, was of the utmost importance for the
small, over-all patterns to fill areas of his illumination. graphic designer of Art Nouveau, just as it had been a
Japanese prints often show the same tendency to sug primary concern for Huysmans and Wilde. Yet one of the
gest a shallow space, and to assert the integrity of the plane major figures in the revival of interest in the design and
of the picture, and in a woodcut of two women by Utamaro production of books was a man who was scarcely interested
(page 15) we can find still another formal characteristic in projecting this evocative content in his works.
in common with Art Nouveau graphic works. Some of the
most telling forms in the Utamaro are the negative spaces: THE REVIVAL OF ORIGINAL DESIGN
those white shapes, surrounded by lines or forms, which IN THE GRAPHIC ARTS
are nevertheless of more than accidental formal signifi No single person had been more influential in the re
cance. The use of this technique is evident in both the awakening of interest in the decorative arts during the
5 Beardsley and the van de Velde works; in the Beardsley nineteenth century than William Morris. Almost every
6 border the "lines" which intertwine are not really lines at Art Nouveau designer acknowledged a debt to him, so it
all but are actually the spaces left between dark areas, and is of some importance that in the course of his career Morris
similarly in the Tropon poster some of the most important turned his attention to the design and execution of printed
forms are really blank paper surrounded by closely related books. During his more than two decades of work as a
shapes and lines of contrasting value. There is a calculated designer of textiles, household objects, wallpaper, and
ambiguity about the drawn line— equally present in the furniture, Morris had been an enthusiastic collector of
Japanese woodcut and in Art Nouveau graphic works—- incunabula and medieval manuscripts. As a writer, he had
which makes it impossible for the observer to be sure of paid more than the usual attention to the form in which
what the artist has drawn and what he has left for our eyes his poems and stories were printed and, inspired by his
to construct. Moreover, in these works we constantly shift collection of books, he had even attempted some manuscript
our attention from the drawn shape to the empty space writing. Until 1888 these excursions into the graphic arts
(although not empty of visual meaning) which reinforces were for him little more than the avocation of a busy man;
the feeling of flatness, and emphasizes the importance of but when in that year he looked over his books to decide
the surface on which the work of art exists. In fact, the whether any were suitable for inclusion in the first exhibi
surface is no longer merely a support for the work of art tion of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, he was
but plays an active part in it. Again, this particular use of forced to the realization that none would qualify. He saw
negative space is not peculiar to Art Nouveau, any more for the first time that printing had lagged far behind the

24
 other crafts, and that the books of his time were as shoddy elaborate initial letters, and woodcut illustrations. Every
and poorly designed as furniture had been thirty years two-page spread in a Kelmscott Press book is composed as
before. a single unit. The book is a series of related units which
Under the guidance of his friend and fellow-socialist, combine into a total work of art.
Emery Walker, Morris designed a type face (below) (the Although Morris asserted that a book existed first of all
first of three he was to do) based on the Roman letter to be read, the lavish volumes which he designed and
of Nicolas Jenson, and set about purchasing a press, paper printed almost overpower the texts which they contain. But
7 and inks. In 1891 his first book appeared, bearing the im despite this inconsistency, and despite the interest which
print of the Kelmscott Press. Morris demonstrated in imitating the appearance of books
Morris' printing was very much in keeping with his of the fifteenth century, his work was extremely influential.
other work. His love of pattern and rich design was mani He had shown that it was proper for a designer to concern
fested in the flowered borders and dense areas of type, all himself with the appearance of books, and that by con
printed in rich black on roughened handmade paper of trolling the design of every element of the book, including
superlative quality. It is obvious that in designing his type, the type face, a book could become a work of art. It had
Morris had striven to bring the over-all value of picture taken years for artists and craftsmen to realize the neces
and text into harmony; the letters contain no striking thick sity for reform in the design of other decorative arts; but
and thin elements, but rather are of even weight through almost as soon as Morris and his contemporaries had begun
out. Composed with little space between words and lines, to work with books, the revival of printing spread through
the areas of type hold their own with the bold borders, out Europe and America.

GOLDEN TYPE
Kelmscott Press 1890
The first type designed by William Morris and a type of importance in the history of modern
typography, since it began the revolution which has taken place in the design of our types.
The punches were cut by E.P. Prince and the first book in which it was used was the Golden
Legend, 1892, hence the name. Morris tells us that there was only one source in which to find a
model for roman, the printers of Venice in the fifteenth century and especially Nicolas Jenson.
Wc have already described the characteristics of the Venetians. The golden type is not so
close a copy of jenson as some of those already described. Morris reinforced the type, made it a
blacker face and in particular weighted the serifs on the lower case. The g is a narrower letter
and has an incorrect ear. The American Typefounders made a copy of this type before 1900 and
called it nicolas jenson. All Morris's punches and matrices and some of the types are now in
the possession of the Cambridge University Press.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP Q_RSTUVWXYZ
JE CE& Qu fiffflffiffl
a b c d e f g h i j k 1m n o p q r s t u v w x y z ae ce
1234567890 C eeeeo
GOLDEN TYPE

Morris: Golden Type. 1890 Morris: Border decoration and text for The History of Godefry
of Boloyne.1893.KelmscottPress

25
 PROTO-ART NOUVEAU: BLAKE, he utilized some of these forms in a context where he felt
MACKMURDO AND OTHERS no need to suggest literary subject-matter, spacing the floral
forms in such a way as to give the viewer a strong sense of
During the nineteenth century, even before Morris had the rhythmic and linear harmonies which constitute the
started his "typographical adventure," a number of other decorative motifs.
artists were exploring the possibilities of new expressive Rossetti had deeply admired the work of William Blake,
means in the graphic arts. Some of them seem almost to which seems even more closely related to Art Nouveau, but
forecast the work of Art Nouveau. Dante Gabriel Rossetti, the first instance of real connection between Blake and the
9 with his friends of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, had Art Nouveau graphic arts must be found elsewhere.
undertaken a study of the ways in which objects of nature Artistic and literary journals played an important role in
might be given their maximum decorative meaning in a the development and spread of Art Nouveau; in the first of
work of art, and this had led him to become most sensitive these journals, The Hobby Horse, we can trace the impact
to the rhythmic distinctions which give plants their par of Blake's work on the later nineteenth century.
8 ticular forms. He explored the way in which the growth The Hobby Horse was the journal of the Century Guild
and abundance of nature might become a subject for the of Arts and Crafts, a group which was founded in 1880-81
arts. These lines of investigation, suggested to him by and grew out of William Morris' efforts in the decorative
Ruskin, give him a new foundation for his painting, but arts. The Hobby Horse was dedicated to the exploration of
Rossetti's paintings themselves, although admired by many significant work in the literary, visual and musical arts of
Art Nouveau designers, are scarcely in the spirit of Art all periods; in keeping with their interest in putting forth
Nouveau. However, in his bookbinding designs (below) the best and most meaningful work in a form which would

[CENTURA
GUILD
(fat#
m.

HOBBYBORJSE
LONDON.
KEGANPAUL,TRENCHANDCO:
^PATERNOSTER SQUARE.

VOUJM5

26
 dftttle CfOM die Settlor
>^f(hd does. ~tkenthe Ocean polsefe
Lfic promising . hrave . Idtie jpciith ,
Who, dsplaycl-uta, scene of cLstre/s
»Suck Tender neSS. Garage , and Truth. ?
Little Tom ls a Cottagers Sen ;
His years net anw anting tp ten, :
But the DaWn of Ids Mnnhcoct ptgf a
With a Soul Lke the noblest of Men .
In an Hospital .distant dom. Home ,
He. Cast Jus unfortunate so ir e ;
And his Mother was tempted to ream .
JBut to see that kind Father expire .
To depart from, her Cottage Was hard ;
To desert the dear dying was worse .
Thp! She had an. TcLeot to guard, ,
-And a. sick Little Infant to nurse -
He leave little Gout tried to dear
The Grief that He ahuddcr'd to see '
Go! Mother ( Ho said J Without tear . /
Go / and leave these poor Creatures to me ,
Go you my, sudc father restore .
-And J will take Care ot these two .* .
R H MflCK M U R D O, R R I B R,
1 8 8 3 i
J will not stir out of the Door . -
For what without me could they do .

Blake: Section from broadsheet, Little Lorn the Sailor. 1800 Mackmurdo: Title page for Wren's City Churches. 1883. Victoria
and Albert Museum, London

Opposite left, D. G. Rossetti: Binding for Atalanta in Calydon. 1865

Opposite center, Image: Cover for The Hobby Horse. 1887

Opposite right, Ricketts: Cover for The Dial. 1889

27
 express their feelings about the necessity of fine craftsman
ship, the editors decided to make their magazine attractive
in appearance as well as in content. Foreshadowing Morris'
active interest in designing for print, the editors of The
Hobby Horse commissioned a newly-designed type for the
text of the magazine, and issued it in a large format, printed
on handmade paper, with wrappers of new design (page
26).
In the second number of The Hobby Horse, which ap
peared in 1886, Arthur H. Mackmurdo published an article
by Herbert H. Gilchrist on Blake. Mackmurdo reproduced
a broadsheet poem (page 27), and Gilchrist wrote: "What
a marvelous sample of typewriting is the Ballad written out
with a brush, . . . while as legibile as ordinary types, every
letter has naive expression, capital letters flaunt capriciously
down the page each giving a defiant little kick of its own.
With all the charm of decorative fitness the print answers
10 directly its purpose as a broadsheet."
Mackmurdo, one of the founders of the Century Guild,
had designed some of the decorative vignettes for The
Hobby Horse, and even before his association with the
journal had designed a chair and title page (page 27)
which are astonishing anticipations of Art Nouveau con
sidering that they were made ten years before the style
11 itself became widespread. It seems obvious that in his
own work, Mackmurdo tried to incorporate some of the
vitality and expressiveness he had found in Blake's work,
while keeping within the framework of fitness and func-
tionalism to which all the followers of Morris had assented.
12 Mackmurdo knew Whistler more than casually, and it is
possible that Whistler showed him the way to achieve the
decorative power which he desired. Whistler was inter
ested in Japanese woodcuts, and his famous butterfly mark
(above) shows how well he had understood the Oriental
use of space and outline. By placing a few lines against a
few areas of tone, the insect is conjured up; it has character,
it has movement, it relates to the surface of the paper on
13 which it is drawn but also has a life of its own.
Whistler's influence upon Mackmurdo may possibly be
 seen in the latter's monogram (opposite) for the Century book as a whole. A book, Denis asserted, ought to be a work
Guild designed in 1884, which was used on the back covers of decoration and not simply a neutral (or even unpleas
of The Hobby Horse. As with Whistler's butterfly, Mack- ant) vehicle for transmitting a text. Books had been deco
murdo's vignette exists entirely in terms of the contrasts of rative in the distant past; the artist could again make them
black and white shapes, and also utilizes a rhythmically decorative if he took account of the true nature of art.
curving line which weaves through the design. The lines Decoration as we use the word today, tends to be a term
have a more purely decorative force than Whistler s, and of deprecation. For Denis and his associates it was pre
since the vignette is a woodcut (intended to accompany cisely the opposite, signifying the highest degree of unity
material printed on the letterpress) its contrasts of value and beauty possible in a work of art. Baudelaire once wrote,
17 are even more striking than those in Whistler's mark. "L'art est-il utile? Oui. Parce qu'il l'art." This statement,
As the Arts and Crafts movement came to be better much quoted by the artists of the nineties, indicates with
known, The Hobby Horse grew in reputation. In 1888 a economy the basis of Denis' esthetic. Meaning, like utility,
group of young Englishmen founded a journal, The Dial was a quality intrinsic to the work of art, not something
(page 26), which was based largely on The Hobby Horse brought to it from another aspect of life. The purpose of
but carried to the public the work of a very different group a work of art, for Denis, was to arouse feeling in the be
of artists. The guiding force of The Dial, Charles Ricketts, holder, but the feeling must result from something which
shared with the Century Guild people an admiration for is within the work and not from some literary allusion or
14 Morris. Like Whistler, Ricketts admired Japanese art, collection of subjects which the artist represents.
but his enthusiasms went far beyond that. He was interested In evaluating his predecessors, the Impressionists, Denis
in the art of the Greeks, the painting of Gustave Moreau objected to the absence of a formal method in their work.
and Sandro Botticelli, and he was intrigued with fifteenth- They had purposely avoided too strict a formulation of
century German woodcuts. Even in the work of his private fixed principles, fearing that in so doing they might com
press, he departed from Morris by introducing an element promise their independence and temperamental sincerity,
of visual poetry through the non-literal use of line and but Denis felt that this caused their work to lack meaning
15 form, a notion which followed naturally from his enthusi and coherence. He preferred the more rigorous technique
asms for earlier art. In this he came close to the ideas of a of Seurat and his group who, following Charles Henry and
group of Continental artists who more directly shaped the others, had evolved a linear language in which various
graphic art which we know as Art Nouveau. kinds of lines and forms served as equivalents for a few
rather general experiences. Upward-moving lines were ex
pressive of joy, downward-curving lines were inhibiting
MAURICE DENIS: SYMBOLISM IN THE and depressing, and so forth. Denis felt that this could be
GRAPHIC ARTS carried even further; elaborating on the ideas of Gauguin
In 1890 a group of young French painters called the Nabis and several of the Symbolist writers, he asserted that for
became interested in the decorative arts as an outlet for each emotion, each thought, there exists a plastic equivalent,
their talents. One of their most vocal and intellectual mem a corresponding beauty. This, suggested Denis, is what
bers, Maurice Denis, set down his ideas in a series of makes the work of a fifteenth-century book illustrator seem
16 essays in which he observed (as Morris had) that the so meaningful; unconcerned with exact representation or
pictures in most illustrated books competed unpleasantly with an overly strict attempt to put literary meaning into
with the text, and in so doing destroyed the feeling of the his work, the earlier artist had allowed the lines and forms

29
18 re-expansion of the artist's range." Denis was among
those who undertook this re-expansion, and he was one of
the first to attempt it systematically in the graphic arts. It
was precisely in Denis' conception of the decorative con
tent of the work of art that the way was shown for the Art
Nouveau artist to carry illustration and graphic design into
f \ <»t.v
tk rorg-M*
Dcs elites .£
a new range of expressiveness.
Oa t<kb*»ch<r k tra mtsenrfi
In 1890 when the first of his theoretical essays appeared,
Voix <lc la Hai»a: i-toehe eo roer. fauase, assot
Denis was at work on a series of illustrations for Verlaine's
Dc neigc feme, !i fait si froid! U>uak, affile
La vie a ptsur «t court sur !« sjuat, Sagesse (left), which embodied his ideas. The drawings
L<«»»etc fatcioche <jut 4evt«oi plus assautdk.
for Sagesse, which are among the earliest Art Nouveau
19 book illustrations, are daring in the simplicity of their
conception. The forms used are never round or massive, but
Vm* d'Aumtt : d«s l«i ntatns d are expressed entirely in flat shapes. Only the simplest
Vont ct viewwsnt, De* tas <T<
Et tout te cmjue des civlljsa contours are used, and no variation of value occurs within
3?
any shape. Since this method is applied to everything in the
picture, the distinction between near and distant objects is
obliterated; the image remains a part of the picture-plane,
Denis: Illustration for Sagesse,Vollard edition. and its value contrasts are scarcely more complicated than
1911 those of the accompanying printed text. In the illustration
reproduced, there is a sense of almost mystical peacefulness,
of quiet contemplation, and of harmony, which is evoked
of his initial letters and borders to carry an emotional mes without exact reference to the text but results instead from
sage to the viewer. our experiencing the shapes and values of the picture. In
20 When Denis stated that a line, a color, or a shape has the the poems of Sagesse, Verlaine glimpsed the peace and
power to arouse specific feelings in the observer, he was not comfort of deep religious feeling through the formlessness,
restricting himself to paintings; this power of form could sadness, and evil of everyday life, and aspired to join those
be present in a vase, or chair, or wallpaper just as well. To who have already found that peace. Denis has evoked the
the extent that painting became literary, it ceased to be depth of Verlaine's image of the religious experience with
painting; to the extent that a useful object was composed out depending upon story-telling details. The unity of the
of visually meaningful forms, it became a work of art. book thus occurs not only through the visual harmonization
Ideally, suggested Denis, there was no difference between of its parts but also through the similar processes of evoca
the fine and useful arts in this respect. tion used by both poet and illustrator.
William Morris may have been instrumental in estab This new concept of visual meaning is the basic charac
lishing this unity of the arts, but Graham Hough is correct teristic of Art Nouveau graphic design and illustration. A
in observing that Morris was in the position of ". . . one wide variety of expression is possible, but whatever the
who keeps alive an obsolete skill, which hardly seems likely expressive content of the work, it results from a recognition
to mean much to the world he lives in, but which may of the evocative power of the formal qualities which were
nevertheless be keeping the door open for some necessary isolated and described earlier in this essay. Significantly,

30
 this particular embodiment of meaning in form originated CATALOGUE
in graphic design and painting, where difficulties of pro
duction and cost were least vexing; later — although not
much later— the new style began to affect architecture and
other areas of design, and by the mid-nineties the dream
of a new style for all things was near to realization. As the
reader can see elsewhere in this book (pages 54-61), the DE LA VII' EXPOSITION ANNUELLE

work of Denis and his circle would have been impossible

without the guidance of Gauguin and Seurat, but even Khnopff: Cover for Les XX, 1890
more important for the development of Art Nouveau was
the impact of these French artists upon a small Belgian ex
hibition society called Les Vingt.

VAN DE VELDE AND THE BELGIAN CONTRIBUTION

In 1884-85 Henry van de Velde had come into contact
with the work of the Impressionists in Paris; in 1889, when
he first exhibited at Les Vingt, he became acquainted
with the work of Seurat, Signac, and the other French
painters who appeared in the international exhibition of
V
21 the society.
Like Denis, van de Velde came to admire Seurat's theo
retical principles, and in his own painting adopted the
formal techniques which the Neo-Impressionists had de Lemmen: Cover for Les XX. 1891
veloped. The other members of Les Vingt, not all of whom
were followers of Seurat, brought other new ideas to bear
on the work they did for the society. A catalogue cover by
Khnopff (above), for example, done in 1890, shows a DonjjvjCAL^
new aspect of the influence of Oriental art in the decorative
handling of the lettering (especially the word "Bruxelles )
and in the massing and overlapping of the several rec
tangular areas of the composition. Much closer to Mack-
murdo's work is Lemmen's catalogue cover (right) for
the exhibition of 1891 in which sea and sun are rendered
as swirling curves with swelling and shrinking lines. Com
ing before the Beardsley illustrations of 1892 for the
Morte d' Arthur, and at the same time as Robert Burns's
22 Natura Naturans, Lemmen's catalogue is among the earli Van de Velde: Illustration for Domini
est truly Art Nouveau works. cal. 1892

31
 In 1899, van de Velde himself had been forced by a
mental breakdown to stop painting for a time; during his
period of convalescence, he developed a strong and decisive
interest in the decorative arts. His first work in graphic
design was done in 1892, even before he showed his first
designs for tapestries and furniture; this was a title vignette
for Max Elskamp's Dominical (page 31). In contrast to
most of the other works we have examined so far, the
forms of this vignette are scarcely explicable in terms of
natural objects. We sense that we are invited to experi
ence a reference to sea, sky, and shore, but as in the Lemmen
catalogue cover the abstract quality in the Dominical
vignette is such that we cannot tell exactly what force it is
that penetrates into the composition. We respond more and
more to the rhythmic repetition of actively curving lines—
an activity in which the lettering also plays a part — and are
less concerned with the recognition of the objects repre
sented. Roland Hoist: Cover for van Gogh catalogue. 1892.Museum
Boymans van Beuningen,Rotterdam

Van de Velde: Ornaments for Deblaiementd'art Van de Velde: Initials for Van Nu En
Straks, 1893
 Like Denis, van de Velde was concerned with the unity artists who worked in the new style turned their attention
of form and meaning in the work of art, but he carried towards a more obvious kind of evocation and relied upon
this even further in his writing than Denis did, asserting a more literary sort of symbolism. For example, R. N.
that through these means a new decorative totality of the Roland Hoist's catalogue cover for a memorial exhibition
arts would result which would provide a new and healthier of van Gogh's work (opposite) contains the most simple
23 environment for contemporary life. Ruskin and Morris and direct kind of literary reference to the deceased painter,
were his heroes, for they had shown the way towards a in the drooping sunflower and halo. Clearly Hoist did not
formulation of the relationship between art and life, and expect the reader of his van Gogh catalogue to respond to
Denis and Seurat had led him to realize the significative the subtle visual suggestion of his forms alone. This prob
qualities of line and form. lem of the accessibility of content seems not to have con
The excessive refinement and sensibility so much a part cerned van de Velde and Denis, but there are situations
of the world of Decadent writers such as Huysmans was such as poster design in which more direct appeal of a
deeply offensive to van de Velde, particularly because he literary sort seems indicated.
found their dependence upon past works of art lazy and
24 enervating. Van de Velde was concerned with the creation POSTERS AS A SOURCE FOR ART NOUVEAU
25 of the "healthy human understanding" of the world
through the visual arts. In his essay, Deblaiement d'art, Considering van de Velde's importance as a graphic artist
written in 1894, he urged the formulation of a new art it is most revealing that he should have mentioned Cheret
( "un art nouveau" — perhaps the first use of the phrase in as one of the sources for the new style; for Cheret did more
reference to the work we are discussing) which would be than any other artist towards originating the modern art of
29 vital and moral, in the spirit of the great decorative art of poster design.
26 the past without copying older forms. About fifteen years before Mackmurdo or Morris or
Looking about him for inspiration in this new art, he Denis had turned to the graphic arts, Cheret had started
cited a number of works in the graphic arts: the illustra to use the infant art of poster design as his vehicle for
tions of Walter Crane, the posters of Jules Cheret, which personal expression. By its nature, the poster does not take
captured a childlike gaiety and flamboyance, and the type its part in a harmonious and unified scheme of things, but
faces of William Morris "... which surpass all the older calls out for particular attention — demanding to be seen
27 Roman characters in decorative beauty." in contrast with all that surrounds it.
For a reprinting of Deblaiement d'art van de Velde de Even in one of Cheret's early posters (page 34), it is
signed a series of initial letters and page ornaments (oppo obvious that he realized how effectively this could be ac
site) which are perfectly consonant with Denis' demand complished by the use of strong color harmonies, vibrant
that such work provide ". . . an embroidery of arabesques linear rhythms, and bold, free lettering. The process of
28 on the page, an accompaniment of expressive lines." In color lithography was ideal for this kind of work; the artist
the Tropan poster of c. 1899 (his only poster), and in the could work unrestrained by technical problems, almost as
designs for Van Nu en Straks of 1893 (opposite) we see if he were drawing on paper, and he need not restrict him
van de Velde carrying this as far as it can go, swallowing self to using the available type faces if he felt that his own
letter forms in the compelling linear rhythm of the work, hand-lettering would be more harmonious and effective.
and creating almost entirely non-objective shapes. Cheret did not derive his poster style directly from any
30 At the other extreme from van de Velde and Denis, some of the other arts; he, and the other men who made posters

33
 bureaupi representations
8. RUE
DEt'lSLY P
Cheret: Folies-Bergere, Les Girard. 1877. Poster. Bibliotheque Bonnard: France-Champagne. 1891. Poster. 30% x 19%". Cleve
Nationale, Paris land Museum of Art
 TOUS LES SOIRS

Tousles
A
SoirsalOITeures
Cheret: Yvette Guilbert. Poster. 48% x
34V2". Private collection, New York

Toulouse-Lautrec: Yvette Guilbert. Lithograph. Dumont: Tous les soirs . . . Poster. 1900. 80% x 31%'
1894. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Rogers fund The Museum of Modern Art, New York

35
 of exhibitions, articles, and collections through the late
1880s and into the nineties. There were few national
boundaries of poster art; Toulouse-Lautrec designed a
poster for an English bicycle maker; Grasset was commis
sioned by an American magazine publisher to design both
covers and posters. Furthermore, many artists who were
primarily interested in other things turned to poster de
sign (beginning around the end of the 1880s) as a means
:
of earning extra money, and in this way became familiar
with the work of Cheret and his colleagues.
T5imte\)ocjcl Bonnard's first poster, France Champagne (page 34),
»0no <uttfinR4lent>erbu<t>
von <S>stc-
jul;u j mit is obviously a direct outgrowth of Cheret' s work. Where
: i1 txntfV«r Brfctwns
m Bei adoffflft m Cheret had delighted in using complicated shapes which
Berlinun&
move out from the figures in his posters to activate the
background spaces, Bonnard translated these rhythms into
twisting lines which enclose areas of texture or flat tone.
The movement in Cheret is around the form of the figure
i ... \ • ' .
and into a background which we sense as existing in depth
Behrens: Title page for Der Bunte Vogel. (page 34) ; the movement in Bonnard's poster is across the
1899. Klingspor Museum, Offenbach
surface of the design, as we follow the rolling activity of
the heavy lines which at once simplify and complicate the
before 1885, seem to have evolved their formal language shapes of objects depicted.
as they worked, without apparent adaptation of style from Since Bonnard was closely allied with Denis and the
painting or print making. Thus, the fact that Art Nouveau Nobis at the time he did France Champagne, it is likely
elements are present in poster designs cannot be explained that this modification of Cheret' s style was partly the result
by reference to any theories on the total design of arts and of the influence of his friends upon Bonnard; at least, we
crafts, or by a search for the relationship between form and can observe in his work the next stage in the movement
meaning in book illustration. As the formal language of from the posters of the 1880s towards a fully-developed
Art Nouveau developed, it naturally found expression in Art Nouveau style. Bonnard may have introduced Tou
33 the poster as in everything else; but on the other hand, louse-Lautrec to the art of poster making; Lautrec began
some of the formal elements of Art Nouveau entered into to make posters in 1891, shortly after Bonnard had done
the style from posters, where they had long been evident. his first. With Lautrec the art of the poster perhaps reached
And since it is possible to show that the actual influence of its highest point of development. No other artist had dared
posters on the other arts could scarcely have been strong to simplify so far, to depend so much upon a few lines and
before 1890, 31 it seems clear that we have a case of an shapes to command the viewer's attention.
independent development which later joins, and reinforces, The full force of Lautrec's power can be experienced
Art Nouveau. most directly by comparing one of his lithographs of Yvette
32 Goldwater and Koch have discussed the international Guilbert (page 35) with posters for her by two other
character of poster styles, and have chronicled the spread artists. Both Cheret and Dumont (page 35) have relied

36
 parait CHApue AtoiS
N u VAAISOKS °«I00^6ES
p *« | bo*iavj* i <-
en veNtf PAH*o«T

IfeA.A '

JANE.
Avril

tJ*. toon

Toulouse-Lautrec: ]ane Avril. 1899. Poster. 22 x 14". The Bonnard: La Revue Blanche. 1894. Poster. 29% x 23". The Museum of
Museum of Modern Art, New York Modern Art, New York

37
 upon the singer's famous black gloves to suggest the per ART NOUVEAU TYPE FACES AND LETTERING
sonality they advertise, and Dumont has even made a visual
pun out of the skirt of Yvette's costume which at the bot One aspect of the book, as well as poster design, which had
tom of the design elongates into the tail of a black cat. to be controlled was the appearance of the type face itself,
The transformation of objects is characteristic of Art Nou- which in 1890 had not yet yielded to the new style. Morris
veau and another instance is found in Peter Behrens' title and the Century Guild had shown that it was possible to
page for O. J. Bierbaum's Der Bunte Vogel of 1899 (page re-design types, but their work seemed conservative com
36) in which the tail of a peacock changes into a border pared to the letter-forms which were being used in posters
for the type on the page. The Art Nouveau artist was able and on hand-lettered title pages. One of the first new style
to do this without destroying the unity of his composition, designers to show the way towards an Art Nouveau type
34 by rendering typographical border and illustration with the face was another famous poster designer, Eugene Grasset.
same strong linear rhythms. But in Lautrec's portrayal of Grasset had been at work since 1880 evolving the style
Yvette Guilbert, she assumes a personality totally different which burst forth in his first poster of 1885. In his designs
from anything suggested by the other artists. Her gloves for the Histoire des Quatre Fils Amnion (opposite) , Grasset
become part of a tense system of strong linear movements; displayed his virtuosity in the use of spatial division as an
her face is no longer conventionally pretty, but is twisted expressive element; an overlapping rectangular panel,
grotesquely by her arching eyebrows and the footlighting clearly in imitation of Oriental scrolls, cuts across the whole
of the stage. design. Behind it, and almost completely independent in
Lautrec's art celebrated the demi-monde of Paris, and movement, the flattened pattern of horses, riders, and
his world is populated by strong personalities powerfully clouds surges to the right of the composition. Weaving
depicted. Nothing could be more different from the elegant over and under the long panel and the main illustration,
decoration of van de Velde, or the vaguely unhealthy borders with Celtic and classical motifs close in the entire
sensualism of Beardsley, than Lautrec's virile art, yet in its design, and assert the proportion of the page on which it is
transformation of content by form it clearly belongs to placed. Grasset's lettering is closely tied in with the com
Art Nouveau. positional movement of his design; the artist has used letter
More even than Bonnard, Lautrec used the silhouetted forms derived from Celtic models, which allow him to
shape to give impact to his posters (page 37 ) , and he often echo in the letters themselves the linear movements (hori
took an unusual viewpoint in order to give maximum free zontal, and from lower left to upper right) of the pictorial
dom of combination to the various shapes he was using design. In his posters, Grasset was somewhat more re
and to make depth one of the expressive qualities of his strained in his use of lettering, but remained keenly aware
design. It is perhaps worth noting here that both Lautrec of the necessity to relate the bold, clear lines of his pictorial
and Bonnard were deeply concerned with harmonizing matter with a comparable kind of lettering. His work was
35 lettering in the total scheme of their posters; compare Bon- exceedingly influential; a poster-like cover for Harper's
nard's France Champagne with his La Revue Blanche Magazine in 1889 was one of the milestones in the devel
(page 37) to see how different kinds of proportions and opment of poster art in the United States. The American
rhythms in letters themselves can be made to reinforce the artist, Will Bradley, was one of the earliest and most force
composition and become part of the visible poetry of the ful exponents of the new style in his country, and Grasset's
whole work, not just the message-carrying part of a poster. work served as an influence. The young Bradley was also
 tremendously impressed by the work of Lautrec, Bonnard,
and Beardsley (page 40) , and in his book designs his inter
est in the work of Morris, Ricketts, and the other private |gl HisTome T)€s
press designers can be seen. By 1894 about the same time
that Bradley did his first Art Nouveau designs, Grasset's
reputation had spread so far that he was given a one-man
show of posters (below) in Paris by La Plume, the Sym
bolist magazine, which also published an issue devoted en
36 tirely to his work.
The year before, in 1893, Grasset was commissioned by
the publishers of the Revue illustree to design a drawn title
for the journal. This first effort towards evolving a letter
style which would be appropriate for an Art Nouveau type
37 face was further refined, and in 1898 the casting of this
38 type began. The Grasset type (page 41 ) is only a subtle
departure from previous type faces; it is closely related to Grasset: Cover for Histoire des Quatre
Old Style types in that it does not utilize strong contrasts of Fils Aymon. 1879-83. Rijksmuseum
Library, Amsterdam
thick and thin lines (a characteristic possibly suggested by
Morris' types), but in its sloping lines atop the lower-case
d, 1, i, etc., it is clearly related to hand lettering. ALQ\ ...CHNT
The informality we sense in Grasset's type is seen even
more strongly in a type design of c. 1901 (page 41) by
Georges Auriol, which obviously was meant to imitate
brush lettering. The rhythmic freedom and swelling lines
of Auriol's types made them particularly useful to the Art
Nouveau designer, and for many years after Art Nouveau
had ceased to be a living style, they were among the stand
ard faces for French compositors who wished to appear
"up-to-date."
As Grasset and Auriol must have discovered, there are
considerable difficulties in the way of the artist who wishes
to transform letters into new forms, not the least of which
is that the alphabet is made up of highly traditional forms,
admitting of little variation, if the process of communica
tion through words is to occur at all. In a poster, where Exposition E.GRASSET
only a few words are used, this problem may be relatively
Grasset: Poster for Exposition, Salon
unimportant; Grasset ranged far afield in his search for de Cent. 1894. 21 x 14%". The Mu
unusual and expressive display letters, as in his cover for seum of Modern Art

39
 Histoire des Quatre Fils Aymon; but when he came to de
sign a type face, which would appear in massed form on a
page, he seems to have realized that he could not expect his
readers to struggle with unfamiliar letter forms.
The Art Nouveau letter designer looked with envy at his
Oriental colleague, who had the option of radically altering
WHITINGS
the rhythms and forms of his written symbols for purely llEDGER
PAPERS!
expressive purposes, as in "grass writing" (opposite), pro
vided only that he preserve a fundamental relationship of
strokes in each ideogram. Khnopff had specifically imitated
the Oriental extension of strokes to enliven his letters, but
clearly this would not do for a type face intended for use
in the printing of textual matter. Huysmans' concern for
the expressive character of typographic design helped focus
attention on some of the most intriguing type faces of the
past. But now the need was for contemporary forms in type
as well as in illustration; the new types had to be at once
more readable than the obsolete Civilite and more harmoni
ous with Art Nouveau borders and illustrations than Mor
ris' types were.
Yet another ancestor of Art Nouveau types is the Ger
man Centralschrijt (page 42) of 1835 which was an early
attempt to modify the traditional Fraktur so that it was
39 not so different from Roman letter forms. The Central
schrijt had considerable expressive character, with its swell
ing lines, rhythmically ascending and descending elements,
and heavy color. As the work of designers from other [intheir clear Surface and]
in theirPerfectErasingand
countries penetrated into Germany, the need for replacing wearing Qualities these
the spiky and debased Fraktur became more pressing; in are the Finest Papersmade
Askto have WHITINGS
iQ 1888, Konig produced the Romische Antiqua types, based LEDGERSused in your
[next lot of Blank Books]
on the same materials which Morris and The Hobby Horse
designers had used, and from this time on, the way was
clear for newly designed German types.
In France, Grasset and Auriol had led the way; in Ger
many a few years after Grasset's Revue illustree design was
published, a young German artist named Otto Eckmann Bradley: Whiting's Ledger Papers, (c. 1900.) Adver
began to publish vignettes and borders in the magazines tisement. 20 x 914". The Art Institute of Chicago
fugend and Pan. Eckmann, like many of his contemporaries

40
 abcdefghijklmnopqrs
IfuOjo?/- eaeuaeiou
oi :;-()«»""? 1234567890
MBCDEFGHIKJ LJL
JVTM^YNOPQKRSTV
YKYZEEEgW
abcdifghijklmnopqrshrtX
yz fifljfffiffl (t'yftxce
iciiiid
ewu.,:;-()!?«» 123456 789 o
ABCDEFGHIJK
L"KNOPQRSTU
VKVZ EEE&rfifc > ,y y -? ;f
pd/ECE »
Auriol: Type face. (c. 1901) Part of a Japanese scroll showing "grass writing,"
an elongated, cursive style. 18th-19th century.
Kunstgewerbe Museum, Basel

LE GRASSET

H^®1ans l'evolution actuelle des arts de la deco-

[IPvO ration, la plus importante lacune restant a
combler etait celle d un caractere typogra-
phique synthetisant, pour I'lmprimerie, le gout
moderne, comme jadis les Aide, les Elzevir, les
Didot furent, typographiquement, 1'emanation de
1'art de leur epoque.

Grasset: Type face. 1898

41
 in Germany, had enthusiastically admired the work of
Beardsley, and furthermore had become deeply interested Jlad)uielfad)en
ber|\id)en
l|t es mic
41 in Japanese woodcuts. Around 1896, just when he was ffelungen,
diefeneueSd)dftgattunff511
beginning to work in the graphic arts, Eckmann made his erflnxJen,
undfop conponiren, i)a{{
first studies for a type face which was utterly different from dlefelbe
ebenfodeutlld)
alstfracturisic
anything ever done before. His lettering became famous intlquap ertennen undp lefenifl
after he executed the title page for Die Woche in 1900 undelpet(Id)sorpgrlid)
alslUelfdjrift
(below), and as a result of this he was commissioned by
42 Karl Klingspor, the head of the Rudhard'schen Schrift-
Schoppe: Centralschrijt. 1835
giesserei in Offenbach-am-Main, to design a type face
which would be appropriate for the printing of books in
the new style. Eckmann's type (opposite) could only have
been produced in Germany. Clearly based on the Roman
alphabet, it shared with the Centralschrijt a few borrow Hell20
ings from other alphabets; notice, for instance, that to
maintain rhythmic activity in every letter, Eckmann used
a lower-case a, h, m, and n in the upper-case alphabet. He
also took over the upper-case T from unical lettering. Most
of the letters are not closed forms, but contain a channel
DiewocH
which connects the white paper of the page with the smaller
open spaces within the letters, a play of positive and nega
tive spaces exactly comparable to what is found in Art Nou-
veau posters and illustrations. The shapes of the letters,
once based on regularly curved and straight lines, are here
undoubtedly derived from the serpentine curves of Beards-
ley and van de Velde. The swelling and thinning of Eck
mann's line in these types adds further to the linear activity
he desired, and stands in striking contrast to the regular MODCRNSILLUSTRieRTeZSITSCHRIPT
lines of even the most distorted earlier type faces such as -flllt sitb«nTagt «in Hffl-
Ebony and French Antique (opposite). BeRun 1900
l—
Hiih Z iii hh Prels:25Pf-
Obviously letters such as Eckmann's could be just as well
Drocfc
unt V«r1ag
w« Aiigul
executed in sheet metal and used for lettering on buildings
(opposite). With their broad flat forms, the type designs
provided no problems of translation into different ma Eckmann: Title page for Die Woche. 1900
terials, and harmonized perfectly with Art Nouveau archi
tecture. This translation was not limited to letter forms
either; the borders designed by Behrens (page 18) and
Mackintosh were conceived in a way which would allow
them to be executed equally well in wrought iron. Even

42
 ITALIENNE
Fonderie TypographiqueFranfaise
A revival of an early reversed Egyptian. The founders give the date as 1820. The English

CIBCB
founders called the design French Antique and theearliest English fount, according to Mrs. Grey s
Nineteenth Century Ornamental Types, was considerably later than 1820.

furieuse
temp&te
danslesmersdusud
IMPRESQCOMERCIAL.
PUBLICITARIO
ef6£> INTELLIGENZBLATT ITALIENNE

JACJ Type face, French Antique. 1820

JTl71 ChicagoTyp?
Eckmann: Letters from alphabet. 1896 Type face, Ebony. 1890

Horta: 224. Numerals for Hotel Sol- Eckmann: Studies for type face Eckmann Schmuck
vay, Brussels

43
 * Cm!

Behrens: Doorway for house at Horta: Maison du Peuple, Brussels. 1897-99. Fagade
Mathildenhohe, Darmstadt. 1901

mm\
ir-im

Pankok: Border illustration

44
 Horta's portal of the Maison du Peuple in Brussels might ity" lacking in the esthetic and moral meaning it should
44 have been a design for a title page rather than a part of an have had.
architectural scheme. The artist of Art Nouveau, whatever his views on the
Van de Velde's initials for Van nu en Straks (page relation of art to society, began his work with the desire
32) are intimately related to his jewelry (below) in their to evoke meaning and intense feeling through the forms
use of coordinated positive and negative spaces and ex of the work itself. William Morris' dictum, "Have nothing
45 pressively swelling areas, and even Macmurdo's chair and in your houses which you do not know to be beautiful,"
book cover display this interchangeability of the design might have been rewritten by the Art Nouveau designer,
elements. "Have nothing in your world which you do not feel to be
Thus, the graphic arts do not follow an independent meaningful."
course through Art Nouveau. Through the formal innova To a certain extent the Art Nouveau designers succeeded
tions worked out in the graphic arts, the arts of design and in doing this; but especially in the graphic arts the mean
architecture were enriched. Just as Pankok had surrounded ingful use of new forms soon degenerated into mere styl-
an illustration utilizing traditional spatial organization with ism. However, the "straight line" style of Behrens and
a radically different border, so the same conception of Mackintosh and the Viennese Secessionists seems to con
framing by contrast was used in architecture (opposite). nect directly to the architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright and
46 The unity of the arts went further in Art Nouveau than to the Dutch work of the 1920s.
just the adaptation of decorative motifs; the whole sense But perhaps it is a mistake to see in the graphic arts of
of composition and feeling seemed to spring from similar Art Nouveau only a few outmoded forms which seem, to
sources in architecture, furniture design, jewelry, and the day, to be delightful or horrible or redolent of a period
graphic arts. long past. Actually, the positive contribution of Art Nou
Some of the innovators of Art Nouveau were soon to veau far surpasses this; through the work of these artists
repudiate it. Walter Crane, whose work had impressed came an expansion of the range of expressive possibilities
van de Velde, saw nothing healthy about what he called available to the graphic artist. Through Art Nouveau, the
48 "that strange decorative disease." Maurice Denis, within graphic artist was encouraged to re-examine the function
a few years after writing his essays setting forth a basis for of materials and forms he used. This is still going on today,
the new art, decided that in the form it had taken Art and may be one of the main sources of the vitality of the
Nouveau had become only a display of "pretentious facil graphic arts in our time. . ,, ^
° r Alan M. Fern

Van de Velde: Design

for a pendant. 1899
,..
Ttrint
n
'1ir
iiii
;iii
iiii
iiH
iiiji
nn
i',"rT
|l'"
|iiiiiiiii|i
j(|H
>
iii|iiiiiiii
)|ii
iiii
iiiii
ji|jjf
)i|i|ii
ii' "liriitm>i|iiii|iii|iitiiiiiift^ tr . . .., ^iii|n i

Redon: "La Mort: Mon ironie depasse toutes les autres !" (After 1905). Oil on canvas,
2 2iy x I8V2". Collection Mrs. Louise R. Smith, New York

46
 PAINTING AND SCULPTURE, PRINTS AND DRAWINGS

'Art Nouveau," "Jugendstil," "Secessionsstil," "Stile colored pastels of his maturity. They no longer narrated
floreale," — whatever one calls the style, it belongs to the but evoked a mood: in this they became important pre
decorative arts. It was largely a way of designing, not of cursors of the style of the nineties.
painting, sculpting, or building. Yet many Art Nouveau Less evident but equally important was the contribution
elements — the emphasis on the evocative power of an un of Seurat, who exhibited his first masterpiece, The Bathers,
dulating line, the insistence on creating a two-dimensional at the Independents in 1884. In this as in his later work he
decorative surface, the affinity to Symbolism in the artist's used a quasi-scientific method to investigate the structural
desire to suggest rather than to describe— were anticipated elements of color and line for the sake of constructing
in painting before being used in the applied arts. Moreover, pictures which, instead of producing an effect of verisimili
if there was no Art Nouveau painting as such, the style was tude, would make the viewer conscious of a deliberately
so encompassing that it did have a great impact on a good tectonic organization. Impressionism, the sensitive but
many painters born in the sixties and seventies, no matter literal recording of visual data, was transformed by the
what direction their work was ultimately to take. application of these analytic theories into a more rational
Impressionism was no longer the unchallenged prota investigation of visual experience. Art was no longer Zola's
gonist of the avant garde when in 1884 two highly conse "corner of nature seen by a temperament," but a conscious
quential exhibition societies were formed: Les Vingt in attempt to stimulate a predetermined emotion by the direc
Brussels and the Societe des Artistes Independents in Paris. tion of lines and the juxtaposition of color. This deliberate
The Independents was broad enough to include both use of line and color and the geometric arrangement of
Odilon Redon and Georges Seurat in its leadership. Redon forms in a flattened space in Seurat's late canvases—La
was on intimate terms with the Symbolist poets and, like Parade, Le Chahut, Le Cirque — seemed to provide a solu
them, used the dream for inspiration. While still working tion to the prevalent search for a new style.
with the visible world, he endowed his reality with fantasy, In 1884, the same year as the foundation of the Inde-
proposing to "use the logic of the visible in the service of pendants, Les Vingt was formed in Brussels under the per
1 the invisible." Redon felt that the Impressionists were ceptive leadership of the lawyer, Octave Maus, who sought
"parasites of the object." As Mallarme was concerned with out advanced work in all countries of western Europe. The
the "mysterious meaning of life" and Lautreamont and exhibitions of Les XX provided meeting places for the
Rimbaud with the exploration of the irrational world, so innovators of the time. Ensor, Toorop, and Khnopff were
Redon was fascinated by the "little door opening on mys charter members who exhibited regularly. Seurat's A Sun
2 tery." Still in touch with Romantic sensibility, he created day Afternoon on the Island of La Grande fatte had been
a visionary imagery in his graphic work. There he intro shown as early as 1887, arousing violent opposition from
duced black as an essential color and established his form the public but an enthusiastic response from the artists.
by definite contour. His drawings and lithographs, on the The adoption of the Neo-Impressionist technique by Theo
frontier of reality and fantasy with their combination of van Rysselberghe and Henry van de Velde dates from this
the precise and the vague, were to lead him to the glowing event. Redon' s drawings and lithographs had appeared in

47
Seurat: Le Cirque. (1891). Oil on canvas, 73% x 59%". Musee Gauguin: Still Life ivith Three Puppies. 1888. Oil on
du Louvre, Paris wood, 36% x 24%". The Museum of Modern Art, New
York, Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund

48
 1886; Toulouse-Lautrec exhibited in Brussels in 1888. In founded and edited by Edouard Dujardin, writer, musician,
1889 Gauguin showed twelve canvases, including his Aesthete, and close friend of Mallarme and Debussy. The
Symbolist Vision after the Sermon. The following year whole period points in many aspects toward an integration
Cezanne, who had not shown in Paris since 1877, sent pic of all the arts.
tures to Brussels, and van Gogh had the one important Bernard's painting and probably even more his ability
show of his lifetime at Les XX. In 1892 and 1893 the deco for theoretical formulation made a great impression on the
rative arts were shown, probably for the first time, on equal older Gauguin, who was moving in the same direction.
terms with painting and sculpture, a policy which was em The two men admired each other's work. Like the Symbolist
phasized even more strongly by La Libre Esthetique, the poets they believed that ideas and emotional experiences
successor to Les XX. could be suggested by "equivalents'' or "correspondences
The enterprising spirit of these exhibitions, together in sound and rhythm, or in color and line, respectively.
with the process of industrialization then sweeping Bel They evolved a style of painting which was first called
gium and the accompanying awareness to new building Synthetism but became known as Symbolism after 1890
needs and materials, were largely responsible for Brussels and which must be recognized as one of the important com
taking the lead in the Art Nouveau movement. It was ponents of the Art Nouveau movement..
there, indeed, that in 1893 the first full-fledged Art Nou Among Gauguin's paintings, the Still Life with Three
veau building, Victor Horta's Tassel House (page 129) Puppies (opposite) shows the transition from his earlier
was erected. style to his Symbolist manner of this period. The fruit and
tablecloth in the lower part of the canvas with the visible
brushmarks and the use of advancing and receding color
DEVELOPMENTS IN FRANCE
still show Cezanne's influence, whereas in the upper part
Paul Gauguin, whose Vision after the Sermon had made of the painting, the three goblets, three apples, three pup
such a strong impression on the Belgian public in the pies, set against the steep plane of the tablecloth are simpli
Les XX exhibition of 1889, had the great advantage — fied in a child-like fashion. In a disarmingly naive way a
rare in the nineteenth century— of having never suffered flower on the tablecloth is repeated in the head of a dog.
an academic training. Starting to paint at a mature age, he Gauguin and his friends developed an art of bold, abstract
had worked in the most advanced style, Impressionism, al outline. They abandoned local colors in favor of non-
most from the beginning. Early in 1888 he returned from naturalistic color harmonies. They allowed no foreshorten
Martinique to Pont-Aven in Brittany where the rural sur ing, no modeling, and when shadows were used, they were
roundings allowed him to work in comparative isolation employed for their ornamental interest. They reduced depth
from the Paris art world and where it was possible for him of composition to a flat plane on which a decorative pattern
to indulge in his romantic craving for a more primitive way was applied in rhythmic lines. "Don't copy nature too
of life. In the summer he was joined by the youthful Emile much," Gauguin wrote to his friend Schuffenecker, "Art
Bernard who, together with his friend Anquetin, had been is an abstraction; derive this abstraction from nature while
working in a rigorously simplified and boldly patterned dreaming before it, but think more of creating than of
style, called "Cloisonisme" after the medieval enamel tech actual result. The only way to rise towards God is by doing
3 nique. Bernard was in close touch with the Symbolist poets as our divine Master does, create. . . ."
and critics and familiar with their artistic program as it was In 1888 and 1889 Gauguin affirmed the principle of
expressed, for instance, in the Revue Wagnerienne, two-dimensionality in the Symbolist Vision after the Ser-

49
 ; ' '
QeJjm5 «-•
fm-l -) 3/
mhhhhrhhhhhrhhhhbiih^^^^^^^^^

Gauguin or School of Pont-Aven: Decorative Landscape.

(1889). Oil on wood, 33% x 22%". Nationalmuseum,
Stockholm

Above right: Gauguin: Leda. 1889. Design

1^ for a plate. Lithograph, ll x 10%6"- The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund.

3/s" Gauguin: Vase. Glazed stoneware, ll

high. Musees Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire,
Brussels
 Gauguin: Manao Tupapau ( Watched by the Spirits of the Dead), (c. 1893-95). Woodcut, printed in black and colored by hand, partly
with stencils, 9 x 20%". The Art Institute of Chicago

mon and the Yellow Christ. It becomes even more evident was conditioned by the technique, may have affirmed in
4 in the Decorative Landscape, originally a door panel in him the wish to extend this new style into his painting.
Gauguin's studio at Le Pouldu and probably painted by In his woodcuts, too, he abandoned the conventional
himself. Here decorative flatness is carried to an extreme. method of making prints and began to cut and gouge his
There is no horizon, the surface is piled up with tree trunks, blocks to give them a coarse, hard-hewn appearance, re
outlined trees and houses, and the seemingly arbitrary sulting in designs of unusual expressive power. Gauguin's
choice of colors helps to emphasize the effect of the plane, craftsman-like preoccupation with the material in these
relating the whole to Art Nouveau in spirit. At this time prints relates him as closely to Art Nouveau as does his
Gauguin made, in fact, designs for decorative plates and starkly formalized stylization.
painted bucolic scenes on vases, among them the one made There was a tendency among the painters at Pont-Aven
by the famous ceramist Ernest Chaplet, whom he knew to extend their activities beyond easel painting. Emile Ber
well. A convincing argument has been advanced that Gau nard, for instance, was designing glass windows and carved
guin's work in this field, where the simplification of form polychrome furniture (page 52). Often the subject matter

51
 for the decoration of these objects was derived from local
peasant motifs. By redesigning their physical environment
and distorting figures and landscapes, the artists responded
to their inner need of expressing states of mind. Bernard s
painting, Bathers, of 1889 (opposite) reminds us of the
sixteenth-century Florentine Mannerists with its piling up
of figures whose stance is not defined in space; with the
repoussoir of cut-off figures in the frontal planes; with the
elongation of bodies, the use of the lost profile, the erotic
symbolism. Objects change their meaning in this picture:
a root or garment becomes an erotic symbol. We observe in
amazement that the lawn on which the nudes stand or re
cline suddenly becomes a wall for the figure in the upper
margin of the painting. A similar flattening of space takes
place in Gauguin's Still Life ivith Three Puppies in which
the tablecloth is interchangeable with wallpaper. There is
an ambiguity, or rather, a conscious desire on the part of
Bernard to play with dichotomies of depth and flatness,
horizontality and verticality, lightness and darkness; a
tendency to suspend definition of an object in order to ex
press the purely decorative value of its two-dimensional
shape. These factors become extremely important in Art
Nouveau decoration, while figures like the seated woman
in the upper right make their reappearance in the early
work of Matisse who will, however, recast the scene in a
more joyous, less constrained manner.
The esthetics of Gauguin and Bernard were carried on
by Paul Serusier, to whom the purpose of art was the "evo
5 cation of an idea without expressing it." He did not arrive
at this concept independently. In the summer of 1888 he
returned from Brittany with a landscape painted on a cigar
box lid, which he called his "talisman." It represented for
him the product of a lesson by Gauguin who had demon
strated to him the importance of the free reign of the artist's
thought in which emotions and impressions were trans
lated into constructions of simplified forms, eloquent out Bernard: Bretonnerie. Corner cabinet.
lines, structural color, slow movement. The pictures painted (1888). Carved polychromed wood, 9' high.
following these rules, rather than repeat visual impressions, Collection Mr. and Mrs. Samuel Josefowitz,
evoked the spectator's quiet contemplation and led to what New York

52
Bernard: Bathers. (1889). Oil on canvas, 36 x 28" Wildenstein & Co., New York
 Denis: April. (1892). Oil on canvas, 14% x 24". Rijksmuseum Kroller-Muller, Otterlo,
The Netherlands

Gauguin called "the mysterious centers of thought." It is true that a painting like April (above) is still very
Serusier, who, together with Denis, Bonnard, Ibels, and close to the allegorical symbolism of Puvis de Chavannes,
Ranson, had been a student of Bouguereau at the Aca- and Puvis was indeed greatly admired by the younger gen
demie Julian, was instrumental in forming upon his return eration. But Denis, whose importance as a theorist for the
to Paris a group which called itself the Nabis. They were new style has already been pointed out (pages 29-31 ) , went
soon to be joined by Vuillard, Roussel, Seguin, Vallotton beyond the literal allegory of the older master by composing
and Maillol. Nabi is derived from the Hebrew word for a scene which expressed a major mood through a decorative
Prophet, and the Nabis considered themselves a pure equivalent. Wfiite-clad ladies walk quietly, bending, gath
brotherhood of initiated artists who felt the need to renew ering flowers— restful white shapes set against a joyous
art in their time. In the beginning they deliberately courted yellow-green lawn— along a broad, amply curved path. A
the influence of Gauguin. They also admired Redon, contrast is created by the complementary orange color of
Cezanne, and the Japanese printmakers. In the famous the horizontal fence, zigzagging sharply across the paint
formulation by Denis, "a picture— before being a battle ing, and by the linear agitation of the bush in the lower
horse, a female nude or some anecdote — is essentially a flat left. But these are only minor disturbances that point up
6 surface covered with colors assembled in a certain order." more effectively the essential meaning of the painting,

54
 which is pastoral, measured harmony.
Denis stressed the primacy of the flat surface, and it
actually mattered little whether this was a canvas or a
screen, a low relief, designs for stained glass, mosaics,
tapestry, posters or stage sets. In fact, most of the Nabis
made stained glass designs for S. Bing's L'Art Nouveau,
which were executed by Louis C. Tiffany in 1895. When
ever possible, they wished to go beyond the limitations of
easel painting in their endeavor to make painting part of a
total environment. This desire was vividly expressed by
one of the Nabis, Jan Verkade: "About the beginning of
the year 1890, a war cry was issued from one studio to the
other. No more easel paintings! Down with these useless
objects! Painting must not usurp the freedom which isolates
it from the other arts. . . . Walls, walls to decorate. . . .
7 There are no paintings, there are only decorations."
Largely because of their close connection with the Sym
bolist writers most of the Nabis were passionately involved
in the small, experimental theater of their time. They made
marionettes for the avant-garde puppet theatres and they
designed scenery and programs for plays by Rimbaud and
Maeterlinck, Ibsen and Strindberg, Hauptmann, Wilde,
and Gide. Perhaps the climax of their concern with the
stage was the performance of Alfred Jarry's Ubu Roi
with Claude Terrasse's music at Lugne-Poe's Theatre de
L'Oeuvre in 1886: Serusier, Bonnard, Ranson, Vuillard
and Toulouse-Lautrec — all worked on the decor and cos
8 tumes of this extraordinary play.
Bonnard, in his activities as a painter, sculptor, book
illustrator, lithographer, and designer of decorative screens
and posters, is perhaps typical of the all-embracing attitude
towards the arts of this period. An early painting such as
Le Peignoir (right) is primarily a piece of wall decora
tion, painted thinly on heavy cloth. The gold robe is em
bellished with a repeat pattern of brown crescents, which
merge at the top of the garment into the background, sug
gesting lily pads floating on water. Its sumptuous jewel-like
Bonnard: Le Peignoir, (c. 1892). Oil
execution, held to the plane without any depth, and the on velvet, 60% x 21%". Musee Na
motif of the white flower petals are close to Japanese tional d'Art Moderne, Paris

55
II I! II IMIIMHHI

;:'' .. .

.
Bonnard: Screen. Color lithograph
(published in 1899). Four panels,
54 x 18%" each. The Museum of
Modern Art, New York, Mrs. John
D. Rockefeller, Jr. Fund
 decoration. The Nabis had nicknames for their members
Denis was called the Nabis aux Belles Icones and Bon- MRMMHBMMN

nard was the "Nabi Japonard." Bonnard, following a long

line of painters since the 1860s to come under Japanese
influence, had a profound understanding of the esthetic
sense of Japan. While his first poster for France Cham
pagne (page 34) still shows Cheret's influence, the famous
one for the Revue Blanche of 1894 (page 37) is closely
related to Japanese woodcuts. In the decorative screen,
(published in 1899), which is composed of four mounted
color lithographs, the geometrically ordered design is sparse
and leaves large areas blank. Color is subdued and spaced
with incredible sensitivity. The verticality comes to a subtle
but definite stop with the horizontal frieze of the carriages.
This screen no longer relates to a single Japanese print, but
in its restraint and understatement it gives the viewer the
effect of an entire Japanese interior.
A close kinship to the earlier work by Bonnard is found
in the four decorative panels which Armand Seguin painted
for the inn at Le Pouldu (opposite). These panels are
especially interesting in this context because here Art
Nouveau characteristics are pronounced so emphatically. A
free arabesque is the essential element: the figures of the
women, the skaters on the ice, the sheet of music, the fowl,
leaves, lampshade, hats. Flowing water and cigarette
Ranson: Women Combing Their Hair. 1892. Distemper, 63 x
8 smoke, usually associated with fleeting transparency, have 511/ ". Collection Mme Sylvie Mora-Lacombe, Paris
become curvilinear shapes, firmly embedded in the deco
rative scheme. All forms relate to each other much like the
wildly indented, yet carefully cut out pieces of a picture
puzzle. Within these contours, Seguin has applied bright Ranson's work, but here the curves move more slowly, are
and strong colors in a rather improvised fashion. A few less nervous, and suggest a perpetual serpentine movement
years after these panels were painted, on the occasion of which extends beyond the picture frame. These undulating
an exhibition of Seguin' s work in 1895, Paul Gaugin wrote lines, like running water or burning flames, keep moving
in the preface to the catalogue that Seguin is above all a apart and coming together again, but never rest. Fully con
cerebral — I do not say 'literary' — artist, that he expresses scious of the decorative quality of his work, Ranson as early
not what he sees but what he thinks by means of an original as 1890 made cartoons for tapestries which were executed
harmony of line which becomes part of an over-all ara in embroidery by his wife, France Ranson.
9 besque." Maillol, who was also primarily engaged in tapestry de
The arabesque is also the predominant factor in Paul sign before 1895, achieved the desired flatness but gave

58
 Seguin: The Pleasures of Life.
(1890-91). Two of four panels.
2" Oil on canvas, 60 x 22Y each.
Hirschl & Adler Galleries, Inc.,
New York
 his wall hangings a richer surface with more resonant color.
His space, much more complex than Ranson's, consists of
a series of overlapping and autonomous planes. Much like
late medieval mille-fleurs tapestries which he must have
studied, he assigns his figures to a space quite separate from
the flowered background and relies on color and texture
for his unifying effect (opposite).
Trouble with his eyes forced Maillol to abandon tapestry
design and painting. His first sculptures — reliefs carved
in wood— were similar to his tapestries. When he began
modeling in the round at the turn of the century, he radi
cally simplified his forms. His small bronze Washerwoman
(right) is conceived in large, basic planes. These planes
with their definite curvature and undulating rhythm recall
Art Nouveau, but even more important is the stress on the
clearly outlined, negative space enclosed by the girl's arms,
head and garment which becomes as essential an element
Maillol: Washerwoman, (c. 1893). Bronze, 8" high. Collection
in the sculpture as the solid mass, acting as its necessary The Hon. and Mrs. John Hay Whitney, London
complement. The firm but swinging curve of the contour
formed by the back and skirt of the kneeling woman seems
to have been particularly dear to Maillol since it also oc
curs almost identically in a painting of the same year (op bed with human life as its symbolic theme. Birth forms the
posite) . subject of the footboard, copulation and death the sides,
Sculpture of a very different kind was produced by the headboard provides a "dream," indicating, no doubt,
Georges Lacombe, known as "Nabi sculpteur. Also eager the belief that the irrational and mysterious preside over life.
to extend his activities beyond the confines of Vart pour The Dream (left) is represented by the ancient meta
I'art, he carved, around 1892, four decorative reliefs for a phor of the serpent biting its own tail. The serpent rolls
itself into a face by forming the eyes in a great double loop.
Nose and mouth are fitted in below to complete the mon
ster face, which is surrounded by linear and wavy decora
tions. Influenced directly by Gauguin — particularly Gau
guin s sculpture — this low relief is one of the earliest pieces
of sculpture which shows the awakening interest in primi
tive art during the last decade of the nineteenth century.
We know that the Councillor Coulon, close friend and
patron of the Nabis, had brought a collection of Pre-
Columbian art from South America as early as 1880. 10Pre-
Columbian art was again seen— still as a curiosity, to be
sure— at the Paris World's Fair of 1889- All this confirmed
Lacombe: The Dream. Headboard of bed (1892). Carved wood.
4" 27i/ high x 55" long. Musee National d'Art Moderne, Paris the anti-classical attitude of Gauguin and his friends: the

60
 Maillol: Women Playing Guitars, (c. 1897).
Tapestry. Det Dansk Kunstindustrimuseet, Copen
hagen Will

Maillol: The Washerwomen. (c. 1893). Oil on

J/4 canvas, 25 x 31V2". Collection Mr. and Mrs.
Samuel Josefowitz, New York
 exotic forms are used in a decorative way almost immedi his paintings Lautrec modeled his figures more solidly than
ately— they become part of a feeling for flat and linear in his posters and lithographs, and the paintings usually
ornament which, although very different in style, is yet re retain a more tonal quality.
In his graphic work he was able to suggest the total
lated to Art Nouveau.
The undulating movement of Art Nouveau appears character of an individual, or the quickest gesture, by the
again in Vallotton's Waltz. Felix Vallotton, who was born slightest modulation of line. Here the line, precise and
in Lausanne in 1865 and came to Paris in 1882, was drawn delicate, becomes an almost independent carrier of the
into the Nabi circle around 1890. This painting of 1892, emotion. The lithograph of Loie Fuller (page 64) indi
done in a pointilist technique of rather large dots, abstracts cates her dance by a contour which is distilled to the essence
the dancers into rhythmic S-curves, which keep gyrating of movement. At first glance the viewer seems to be looking
in a continuous whirl. The head, placed off center in the at a flame or a puff of smoke rather than at a dancer. Indeed,
lower right-hand corner, as well as the dancing couple Loie Fuller in her long iridescent veils, which she would
sliced off by the right margin, proves again the strong hold swing while multicolored lights played on their serpentine
which Japanese composition had on these artists. movements, must have appeared to be a phantom of the
Never a Nabi, Toulouse-Lautrec was studying in 1887 dance rather than an actual performer. Loie Fuller's phe
in the private studio of Fernand Cormon together with van nomenal success on every European stage during the nine
Gogh, Bernard, and Anquetin. The four painters had a ties may be due to the fact that in her performances the
small joint exhibition in a little restaurant on the Avenue dance seems no longer a physical act, but the embodiment
Clichy during that year and referred to themselves as the of arabesque, of sinuous decoration. When she danced,
"Ecole du Petit Boulevard." The following year van Gogh "sculptured by the air, the cloth rose and fell, swelled and
left for Aries and Bernard for Brittany, while Lautrec contracted . . . recalling the fluid, tenuous lines of art
nouveau designers with their predilection for goblets
steeped himself ever more deeply in the life of Paris, more
interesting to him than earnest discussions about the pur shaped like tulips, grills like ramblers, and frames of desks
11 pose of art and the language of form. His unprejudiced and screens like espaliered trees."
Soon the sculptor Pierre Roche was to make a small
mind and incisive eye cut through taboos and depict the life
bronze of La Fuller in which her scarfs pour upward in
of this period which gave birth to Art Nouveau.
an irregular billowing rush, transforming the object into
Like his friends, like most of the important painters of
his generation, Lautrec became absorbed by the expressive a symbol of movement.
The world of Loie Fuller and the art of Toulouse-Lautrec
possibilities of line. Indeed he went further than most of
were no surprise to Picasso when he arrived in Paris in
his contemporaries. In his At the Nouveau Cirque: The
1900. He had been part of the Barcelona avant garde which
Dancer and the Five Stiff Shirts he yields completely to an
discussed Nietzsche and Wagner, recited French Symbolist
Art Nouveau arabesque, which moves here with a spirited
poetry and was familiar with the most progressive art of
and vivacious flow. Hat, hair, and dress of the lady have
the time. Gaudi had been working on the Church of the
taken on bizarre shapes, as has the dancer bending her body
Sagrada Familia since 1884. Picasso's first drawings were
backwards to create a sharply exaggerated curve. The broad
published in Joventut , a magazine modeled after the
handling of the flat areas and the highly decorative pattern
Munich Jugend, and he was a friend of Ramon Casas, the
of this painting lead us to the conclusion that it was prob
man who successively edited Quatre Gats, Pel y Ploma,
ably a design for a stained glass window or for a poster. In

62
si; v
*%

*•.
jr/
<
BSSSIS
111aSK *^
eggSH

.
^:f " -* ***» A

Vallotton: The Waltz. (1893). Oil on canvas, 24 x 19%". Toulouse-Lautrec: At the Nouveau Cirque: The Dancer
Private collection, Paris and the Five Stiff Shirts. (1891). Oil on paper on canvas,
1/2". 45% x 33 Philadelphia Museum of Art

63

fSiSHSSiSSSi ^ .
Toulouse-Lautrec: Loie Fuller. (1893). Color lithograph, 14% x Roche: Loie Fuller, (c. 1900). Bronze, 21%" high. Musee des
x 10%". The Ludwig and Erik Charell Collection Arts Decoratifs, Paris

Opposite: Picasso: The End of the

Road. (c. 1898). Watercolor, 17% *
11%". Mr. and Mrs. Justin K. Thann-
hauser Collection, lent through The
Thannhauser Foundation
 and Forma, and whose own portraits resembled those by
Lautrec and especially Steinlen. Picasso's friends, Isidor
Nonell and Carlos Casagemas, worked in this manner and
it is not surprising that Picasso pinned Lautrec's poster of
Jane Avril to the wall of his Paris studio in 1901.
His Courtesan with jeweled Collar (left) has this bold,
linear, decorative character and shows the great interest in
the play of positive and negative areas typical of Art Nou-
veau. Yet we can consider this early work as being only
peripheral to Art Nouveau. The form is still the same but
the purpose, it seems, has changed. While he must have
enjoyed the daring curve of the feather, Picasso was also
occupied with the human solitude of the woman and with
the statuesque, plastic forms of her head, shoulder, and
arms.
Picasso: Courtesan with jeweled Collar. The earlier End of the Road (below), however, is in
1/2". (1901). Oil on canvas 25% x 21 the full spirit of the Art Nouveau movement with its steep
Los Angeles County Museum. Mr. and
Mrs. George Gard de Sylva Collection
two-dimensional plane, its great emphasis on the curvilinear
contour, and its heavy symbolic content. It is out of this
feeling for universal tragedy, expressed here before the end
of the century, that the somber figures of Picasso's Blue
Period were to grow.

THE BRITISH CONTRIBUTION

England lacked the brilliant expressions of French Sym
bolist poetry and painting. The Aesthetic Movement in
London occurred later, was less original and certainly less
virile. Yet, there is no minimizing the influence of the
English Pre-Raphaelites after their first exhibition in Paris
at the World's Fair of 1855. The Symbolists, and especially
Mallarme and Verlaine, showed much interest in their
work, while Huysmans was most enthusiastic. They most
admired Edward Burne-Jones who had discarded the
minute naturalism of the early Pre-Raphaelites in favor of
an elaborated surface design. His gentle melancholy and
languid silences were esteemed on both sides of the Chan
W.iih nel, and as late as 1911 Burne-Jones and his teacher Dante
roll ste! Gabriel Rossetti are mentioned by such an advanced artist
as Wassily Kandinsky as "searchers for the inner life by
12 way of the external."

65
 Burne-Jones was the outstanding connecting link be indulgence of the fin de siecle. And, as his contemporary
tween the Pre-Raphaelites and the new style. Life-long Arthur Symonds had already recognized, Beardsley trans
friend and collaborator of William Morris and partner of figured "sin" by the abstract beauty of his line. He intel-
Morris & Co., he was a painter who, in the spirit of the lectualized evil and made degradation seem attractive in
time, made cartoons for stained glass and designs for these sardonic drawings where a stunning facility and a
tapestry and needlework, painted wall panels, did mosaic penetrating archness act to exclude emotion.
decorations and illustrated books, the most important of In 1894 the young artist became successively art editor
which was the Kelmscott Chaucer. of The Yellow Book, which he left after one year because
In 1892, Aubrey Beardsley, then a nineteen-year old in of the tensions resulting from the Wilde trial, and the
surance clerk, showed a series of drawings to Sir Edward newly founded Savoy, contributing drawings to these bril
Burne-Jones and was so delighted by the older artist s liant and sophisticated journals of Aesthetes, Symbolists,
encouragement that he referred to him as the greatest and Decadents.
13 living artist in Europe." He then managed to complete His style underwent several more changes. Always an
350 illustrations for Sir Thomas Malory's Morte d' Arthur, eclectic, he continued to incorporate elements of past styles,
which were still to some extent in the medievalist style of such as Greek vase painting or eighteenth-century illustra
Morris and Burne-Jones. Yet the liberating influence of the tions into his work, which by the time of his early death
Japanese print is already visible. Soon Beardsley was also in 1898 had already become less typically Art Nouveau.
to see and use the most recent work of Whistler and Lautrec. Beardsley's illustrations were quickly known throughout
By 1893 when he did the drawings for Oscar Wilde's Europe and the Western world. He had given visual defi
Salome he had matured into an accomplished draftsman in nition to The Decadence, or, as Max Beerbohm called it,
complete command of both line and concept. His drawings "The Beardsley Period." Almost simultaneously the impact
no longer illustrate specific scenes in the play but are com of his drawings was felt by Klimt in Vienna, Bradley in
mentaries which start where the text ends. His cold, biting Chicago, Horta in Brussels, Toorop in Antwerp, Vallotton
line no longer delineates realistic forms, but leads a life of in Paris, Bakst in St. Petersburg, and by a few adventurous
its own. The disposition of the white areas of the paper in young men and women in Glasgow.
relation to the filled-in black areas creates a most intriguing This latter group, "The Four," as Charles Rennie Mack
interrelationship of negative and positive shape. This intosh, Herbert MacNair, and their future wives, the Mac-
formal meaning of the voids, creating an abstract pattern donald sisters, were called, were evidently also familiar
of black and white as a vital part of the composition, had with the work Toorop was doing in Holland, and the illus
never before been so important. Its significance in Art trations by Carloz Schwabe for Zola, besides sharing the cur
Nouveau typography has already been noted (page 42), rent interest in Celtic and Japanese art. All these elements
and it was an essential phenomenon of Art Nouveau prints had repercussions in their work which, however, develops
beginning with the woodcuts of Felix Vallotton. a remarkably independent and original character. Their
Beardsley's work, like that of his French contemporaries, drawings, book plates, gesso panels, repoussoir metal work,
consists primarily of flat decorative patterns, but it differs murals, all show a stylized linear pattern which must be
14 in content. Beardsley was a satirist who loved the grotesque. seen as an integral part of a total ensemble. The Beardsley
Preoccupied with eroticism, he unmasked the suppressed line recurs in their work, but while it is virulent with
aspects of late Victorian culture, not exposing its corrup Beardsley, it has become coolly sophisticated in the work
tion so much as entering more fully into the intellectual of the Scots. The line is stretched vertically, making the

66
 it
XA! BASSE TABOVCHE
/ iO^ANAA.N
jJAI BASSE " .A .BOVCHE—
V.

AvbreyBeardsle/
Burne-Jones: The Pelican. (1881). Beardsley: "J'ai baise ta bouche Jokanaan." Preliminary drawing
Pastel, 5' 71/2" x 22". The William for Salome by Oscar Wilde. (1893). Ink and watercolor, 10% x
Morris Gallery, Walthamstow, England 5 Princeton University Library, Princeton, New Jersey
 figures quite abstract; indeed, it seems that the female fig
ures themselves often derive from the ornamental line.
The attenuation is due to a strong sense of vertically within
the rectilinear design. The same elongation appears in
Mackintosh's furniture, and a representation of the human
figure becomes simply a part of the linear pattern.
When Mackintosh designed the first of a series of tea
rooms,— in themselves nuclei of the Reform Movement
for Miss Cranston on Buchanan Street in Glasgow, he sten
ciled on the wall large murals in which tall, stern women,
with roses and other conventionalized flowers as their at
tributes, are surrounded by an entrelac line and carefully
spaced so as to leave a major part of the wall blank. Identi
cal figures appear at regular intervals in a rhythmic repeat
pattern which reminds us of the "parallelism developed
by Ferdinand Hodler (page 76) .
The light colors— "The Four" preferred pale olive,
mauve, and especially white— are an essential part of the
delicacy of the murals and the whole interior, an ensemble
which arouses a feeling that can best be described as a
measured austerity. A visitor to one of Miss Cranston s tea
rooms designed by Mackintosh must have responded also
to the extraordinary grace and refinement of the space a
total decorative effect of the kind alluded to by another
contemporary Glasgow designer, Jessie Newbery, who
wrote in 1898: "I believe in everything being beautiful,
15 pleasant, and if need be, useful."

BELGIUM AND HOLLAND

Henry van de Velde, who, more than any other single

individual, was responsible for both the theory of the Art
Nouveau style and for its dissemination throughout Europe,
began his career as a painter. After a brief period of study
at the academy of his native Antwerp, where Vincent van
Gogh was his fellow student, he went to Paris. There he
studied painting with the academic portraitist Carolus-
Duran but established personal contact with the Symbolist

68
 1

Charles Rennie Mackintosh: Preliminary design for mural decoration of Miss Cranston's Buchanan Street Tearooms, Glasgow. (1897).
Watercolor on tracing paper, 14 x 291/4"- University of Glasgow, Department of Fine Arts
 and more exploited by self-interest or prostituted to the
poets and the Impressionist painters. When, after his re
satisfaction of human vanity. In the form of 'easel pictures
turn to Antwerp in 1885, he began painting on his own,
and 'salon statuary', both were now being executed as often
he followed the most recent trend of Neo-Impressionism.
as not without the least regard to their eventual destination
No doubt this style appealed to him because it seemed to be
17 as with any other kind of consumer goods."
based on a rational system, and while van Gogh s dynamic As a matter of fact, it was not long before van de Velde
line did impress him, he tried to reconcile it with his own gave up easel painting altogether. A social moralist he
rational outlook. All his life van de Velde believed in the followed the example of William Morris and entered the
power of reason and man's ability to solve the problems of
field of the industrial arts in almost all its aspects. He
creating a better environment by applying his logical mind worked as architect, educator, writer, and designer. His
to the creation of better forms. importance as the international ambassador and spokesman
A prodigious reader, van de Velde was undoubtedly
for the new style (van de Velde preferred not to call it
familiar with Charles Henry's hypotheses on the direct psy Art Nouveau) cannot be overestimated. Working in Bel
chological effects of color and line (see page 29) . He soon gium, France, Germany and later also in Switzerland and
abandoned the demanding technique of pointillism, and as
Holland, he devoted his life to designing objects, or rather
early as 1892 he seems to have arrived at almost total ab an environment, which would lead to a more liberal and a
straction. The Abstract Composition in the Kroller-Muller
more rational life (see page 95) .
Museum (opposite) still appears to derive from nature and When, in 1900-1902 van de Velde designed the interior
suggests gourd and bulb motifs. It is a pastel in strong for the Folkwang Museum for Karl Ernst Osthaus in
shades of orange-yellow, purple, green, black, blue, and
Hagen, he had Georges Minne's Fountain with Kneeling
pink, yet these colors have no descriptive function. The Boys installed in the main gallery where the attenuated
relationship of elliptical planes and sinuous rootlike forms
lines and geometric structure form an integral part of van
creates a picture suggesting organic growth. Abstract shapes
de Velde's design.
shift in an ambiguous space. Here, as in the almost totally A comparison of one of these kneeling figures of 1898
non-objective woodcuts he contributed to the Flemish peri
with an earlier bronze by Auguste Rodin, The Sirens of
odical Van Nu en Straks in 1893 (page 32) , van de Velde 1889 (page 72), dramatically points at two seemingly op
achieves the culmination of the Symbolist attitude of evok
posite aspects of Art Nouveau: the earlier, curvilinear and
ing an emotion without resorting to literal statements or
the slightly later rectilinear or "counter-Art Nouveau. 18
allegorical description, and indeed, this was the furthest
The almost rigid angularity of Minne's figure seems to be
the Art Nouveau group moved toward non-objective art.
in complete contrast to the fluid, light-reflecting bronze of
In his theoretical writings, also, he declared his opposition Rodin. Yet both sculptures share an essential linearity, a
to naturalistic decoration and championed a new abstract
great emphasis on the contour which outlines an unbroken
ornament, which he felt to be intellectually and emotionally
mass. It is precisely this linearity which evokes a specific
10 invigorating. emotional response in the viewer. Both Rodin and Minne
While almost totally abstract, the Abstract Composition
left the naturalism of their predecessors in their concern
and certainly the vignettes for Van Nu en Straks still be
for expressing a symbolic idea. While this idea may be
long in the realm of decoration rather than of pure paint sensuousness in Rodin's group and ascetic austerity in
ing. "Little by little," he recalls, "I came to the conclusion
Minne's adolescent boy, they do share a mood of weariness
that the reason why the fine arts had fallen into such a
and passivity, so typical of the fin de siecle.
lamentable state of decay was because they were being more

70
Van de Velde: Abstract Composition. (1890). Pastel, 18% x 20". Rijksmuseum Kroller-Miiller,
Otterlo, The Netherlands
 Minne, who illustrated plays by Maeterlinck and poetry
by Verhaeren, was, like his compatriot van de Velde, inti
mately connected with the Symbolist movement emanating
from Paris. In contrast, the Dutch painters of the period
owe their greatest debt to England: the work of Toorop
and Thorn Prikker would be unthinkable without Blake,
the Pre-Raphaelites, and Beardsley.
Jan Toorop, who was born in Java in 1858, divided his
time in the eighties between London, where he was subject
to the same influences as Aubrey Beardsley, and Brussels,
where he exhibited with Les XX as early as 1884 and be
came a friend of Maurice Maeterlinck, who inspired him
to work in a Symbolist manner.
His drawings of the early nineties — perhaps his greatest
contribution and certainly the most important in this con
text suggest the mood of melancholy mystery achieved
by ambiguously combining an elaborate literary metaphor
with evocative form. Renouncing color almost entirely, his
powerful drawings might almost be a programmatic lllus
Minne: Kneeling Boy at the Fountain. tration of Symbolism. In the most significant of these, the
(1898). Bronze, 30%" high. Musee des large Three Brides (opposite) of 1893, in chalk and pencil
Beaux-Arts, Ghent, Belgium on brown paper, line is used not only to delineate the
figures but also to denote sound and at the same time to ex
press its own abstract force. In order to read the mystic
content of this picture, representing the contrast between
good and evil, an almost literal analysis is necessary.
The three brides stand for the nun bride of Christ on
the left, the lilies as attribute; the human, innocent, virgin
bride in the center, surrounded by roses; and the bride of
Satan on the right with a collar of skulls and a basin of
blood. Below, female figures with closed eyes—clearly de
rived from Javanese shadow puppets — are shown as if
floating around a stylized chrysanthemum. Above in the
background a frieze is formed by heads of young girls —
a chorus of disembodied spirits — and in the corner the ring
ing bells from which long skeins of maidens hair are flow
ing, seem to allude to the prophetic tolling of the bells in
the writings of Maeterlinck and Poe whose work Toorop
Rodin: The Sirens. (1889). Bronze, 17" was illustrating at the time. But the hair strains translate
high. The Cleveland Museum of Art
>_ Jan Toorop: The Three Brides. 1893.
e Black chalk and pencil, 30% x 38%".
il RijksmuseumKroller-Miiller,Otterlo,
The Netherlands

»n
in
3f into visual terms the waves of sound: softly rounded and fluence on its time. Its strictly symmetrical composition,
af rising on the left they indicate "the good, while on the attenuated curves, all-over pattern, sparse use of color,
e- right the dropping, shrill, angular "noise lines' embody slender bodies, unrealistic grouping of figures and objects,
if "the evil" in an apparently downward falling movement. and mysterious mood corresponded well with the demands
ae The iconography of a medieval Last Judgment representa- of the Art Nouveau movement. It was illustrated in the
19 tion clearly finds its echo in this pedantic Symbolist com- first volume of the The Studio, and the early drawings of
g- position. Frances Macdonald and C. R. Mackintosh are directly
w-
20 The picture as a whole — which certainly strikes us today traceable to this source.
in as both too sentimental and too literal, particularly when The younger Thorn Prikker who painted in a dark Im-
op contrasted with the simple directness of van de Velde's pressionist vein before turning to religious symbolism in
ite Abstract Composition, — had, however, an immediate in- the winter of 1892-93 he painted The Bride, which relies
considerably less on figurative allegory than did Toorop's
painting and depends upon the suggestive use of form. The
clustered shapes in the background are not actually candles,
but suggest them; there is no bridal wreath, but twining
lines infer it. There are no facial expressions, and the bride
herself is implied by a long shape in a veil-like garment
patterned with decorative forms derived from flowers. A
spiral line connects her on the one hand with the larger
form symbolizing the crucified Christ and on the other
with the flanking group of oversized bud shapes. The pic
ture is painted in soft greys and greens and light violets,
and a gentle sensuality is evoked by the melodiously curving
lines and budding shapes. Its undefined growing forms, its
rotating motion, subdued color, and general mood, suggest
the paintings which Marcel Duchamp was to do some
twenty years later.
There were strong cross-influences amongThorn Prikker,
Toorop, and van de Velde. Thorn Prikker was the last of
these artists to exhibit with Les XX in 1893, when he
first met van de Velde and contributed drawings to
Van Nu en Straks. Van de Velde also stimulated him to
engage in the applied arts: he did batik designs as well as
wallpapers and furniture. In his paintings and drawings at
the turn of the century, however, he renounced what he
considered the Symbolist fallacy. In 1904 he moved to
Germany and began to devote himself primarily to work
for the Catholic Church, designing stained-glass windows .
and painting murals. Jan Toorop also became more con
servative in his later work, was converted to Catholicism Thorn Prikker: The Bride. (1892-93). Oil on canvas,
57V2 x 34%"• Rijksmuseum Kroller-Miiller, Otterlo,
in 1905, and turned to more conventional liturgical
The Netherlands
painting.

74
 HODLER, KLIMT, AND MUNCH emphasis on the repeat pattern of the stylized figures. Hod
ler saw in man and nature a constant recurrence of the
The general revival in religious feeling and the turn toward same phenomena which led him to develop his theory of
mysticism in the nineties accounts for the success of the parallelism." According to this concept, the repetition of
Rosicrucian movement under the leadership of the Sar forms serves to intensify emotion by creating a unified
Peladan. With the financial backing of the Count de la rhythm and thus give an image to his idea of human soli
Rochefoucauld, the Sar Peladan brought together transcen- darity within a pantheist cosmos. "We know and we all
dentalists and Aesthetes, spiritualists and charlatans and feel in certain moments that that which unifies us human
21 succeeded in holding his Salon de la Rose-Croix at Durand- beings is stronger than that which separates us."
Ruel's in 1892, mingling paintings by the Nobis and Often Hodler's large figure compositions strike us as
Symbolists with more academic exercises. Ferdinand Hod- overburdened with rhetorical, passive gestures. The idealist
ler, born of Swiss peasant stock in Berne and active in purpose and allegoric imagery still relate Hodler to the
Geneva, painted, after naturalistic beginnings, the large world of the Pre-Raphaelites. They are essentially an ex
Symbolist composition The Night in 1890. When he fol pression of a philosophy of life, rather than an intensely-
lowed his canvas to Paris in 1891, he was greatly admired felt visual experience. Yet, like his Art Nouveau contempo
and feted by the Rosicrucians for his allegory of sleep, love, raries, Hodler worked in terms of the plane enriched with
and death, and, in turn, came briefly under their spell. a decorative pattern, where a tense line becomes the impor
Philosophically inclined, Hodler strove for a transcendental tant carrier of emotion. The Chosen One was placed in the
22 art that, he felt, should express his mystical feelings of Hohenhof, which van de Velde designed for Karl Ernst
pantheism in the universe.
Osthaus in Hagen, where it acted as an integral part of a
Hodler created several large figure compositions, such as unified Art Nouveau composition. His large, mural-like
The Chosen One (page 76) which may be interpreted as a compositions with their severe symmetry and precise linear
cryptic commentary on the "Adoration of the Child." Like structure tried, in fact, to transpose Art Nouveau from the
van de Velde's earlier tapestry, Angels' Guard (page 94) realm of the decorative into that of the monumental.
which was on the same theme, Hodler wanted to avoid any
A retrospective exhibition of Hodler's large figure pieces
reference to a specific time or place, even to the Biblical
at the Vienna Secession in 1904 was so successful that
event. A small nude boy is seen kneeling in a symbolic
thereafter his fame was assured. The way for his great
garden, planting a small tree and praying for its growth.
triumph in Vienna had been prepared for him by Gustav
He is fenced in by a group of angels, standing sturdily on
Klimt and his other friends of the Secession. The Vienna
the air, who seem almost to be fastened to their columnar
Secession was founded in 1897, and the following year its
garments. They hold tender flowers as if in answer to the
brilliant and colorful official organ, Ver Sacrum, began
supplication of the 'chosen" boy before the leafless tree.
publication. From then on developments in Austria, start
The ritualistic figures and their garments are simplified
ing later than in Western Europe, succeeded one another
to the utmost, eliminating everything that is accessory, with great rapidity. In the mid-nineties Austrian design
transitory, or accidental. The landscape background elicits was still in the grip of heavy-handed eclecticism. A few
no feeling of atmosphere, avoids all naturalistic space con years later, at the Universal Exposition in Paris in 1900,
cepts, and is used only as a foil to set off the rhythmic pat the Austrian pavilion, designed by Hoffmann and Olbrich,
tern of the figures. The light color serves merely to fill in was the best example of the new style and in itself a re
the clearly delineated contour which again puts supreme markably elegant structure. Klimt, the president of the Se-
2" Hodler : The Chosen One. (c. 1903, replica of painting of c. 1894). Oil on canvas, 7' 2i/ x 9' 10". Karl Ernst Osthaus
Museum, Hagen, Germany

Opposite: Klimt: Salome. (1909). Oil on

8". canvas, 70y x 18y Galeria Internazionale
d'Arte Moderna, Venice

76
 cession, had worked originally in the fashionable academic
manner of Hans Makart and had not become familiar with
contemporary European art until 1895. The foundation of
the Secession immediately opened the doors to advanced
European artists. Klimt was especially impressed by Jan
Toorop, the Belgian Symbolist Fernand Khnopff, and Franz
von Stuck, who worked in a similar vein in Munich. Most
important, however, was the influence from Britain: Burne-
Jones, Beardsley, and especially Mackintosh.
By 1900 Klimt had established his own style. He was
famous well beyond the borders of his own country . . .
an artist so typical of art nouveau that a more characteristic
example of that international style could hardly be found.
If art nouveau was an art of the surface— and a beautifully
ornamented surface— of flowing curves and delicate figures,
of ephemeral beauty and rich ornamentation of poetical,
sometimes symbolic subjects, a feminine and decadent art—
23 Klimt was its quintessence."
Klimt was in great demand as a painter of mutedly
elegant portraits; and he painted allegorical pictures of
voluptuous young women set off against richly textured
backgrounds, often applying gold and silver sequins to the
canvas. This application of metal to the picture plane was
probably inspired by Byzantine mosaics, but in some ways
it anticipates the modern collage. He did landscapes and
flower pieces, covering the picture with a linear, strongly
colored carpet in which representational elements are in
terwoven with freely invented geometric ornaments — the
whole canvas being executed with a festive ornateness sug
gestive of the handicraft products of the other Secessionists.
Klimt had ambitions for making large wall decorations.
Between 1900 and 1903 he created imposing murals for
the faculties of philosophy, medicine, and jurisprudence at
the University of Vienna, which met with severe popular
disapproval because of the radical character of their sym
bolism. Then, to surround Klinger's Beethoven Monument
at the Secession in 1902, Klimt made an allegorical frieze
whose sentimentality is as refined as Klinger's is bombastic.
His most successful work, however, was the frieze he de-

77
Klimt: Decorative frieze for dining room of Palais Stoclet, Brussels, (c. 1905-08). Mosaic and enamel on marble.
 signed for Josef Hoffmann's Palais Stoclet (opposite). In only the general melancholy of the fin de siecle, but an
keeping with the quiet elegance of Hoffmann's designs, additional intense anxiety, whether of man-woman rela
Klimt's murals for the dining room possess a restrained tionships fraught with desire and suffering, or of individual
and graceful repose achieved through the rhythmic repeti figures threatened by the forces of life and confronted by
tion of geometric forms. To stress the value of the wall as the terror of death.
wall, Hoffmann framed his plain white surfaces with a "Perhaps Edvard Munch came closest to a pictorial reali
heavy gold border. Similarly, there is no longer any three- zation of the symbolist's endeavor to evoke an immediate
dimensional illusion in Klimt's mural. The motifs — tree of response through the use of the plastic form itself without
life, dancer, lovers— are subordinated to a flat, ornamental the intermediary factor of didactic allegory. The Cry (page
structure of triangles, ovals, curves, volutes, and free ara 80) of 1893 uses a minimum of descriptive or narrative
besques. The designs were executed in a mosaic of glass elements. A writhing figure emerges from the picture plane,
and semi-precious stones, majolica, white marble, metal, and its convoluted form is repeated throughout the land
and enamel. They approach the decorative splendor of scape in the sinuous line of the shore and the equivalent
Byzantine mosaics and, indeed, the stylized tree with its rhythm of the clouds. The curved line is strongly empha
spirals brings to mind the work of the Orthodox Baptistry sized by its contrast to the straight, rapid diagonal cutting
in Ravenna. But compared with the majestic dignity of the through the imaginary space of the painting. The cry that
Ravenna mosaics, Klimt s beautiful and delicate frieze the central figure seems to be uttering pervades the land
hardly rises beyond arts-and-crafts embellishment. scape like a stone creating centrifugal ripples in water.
The decorative nature of Art Nouveau was not truly Munch has painted what might be called sound waves, and
conducive to a monumental conception. However, there these lines make the human figure merge with the landscape
were examples in which the emotional quality of the whip to express a total anxiety that evokes an immediate response
24 lash line could rise beyond the purely decorative to a genu from the observer."
ine expression of deep psychological involvement. This was Unlike Toorop's Three Brides of the same year, The Cry
true of the work of Edvard Munch. was able to communicate emotion through the visual ele
As a young man, Munch was part of the intellectual ments themselves. Munch then proceeded to exploit these
fermentation and libertine radicalism of Oslo's bohemia. elements by repeating the same themes in various painted
Then, coming to Paris in 1889, he made contact with the versions or by turning to graphic reproduction. He began
most advanced painting in France. He saw the work of experimenting with the different print media in 1894 and,
Seurat and Lautrec and at Theo van Gogh's gallery he impressed by Seguin's prints, he made drypoint and aqua
looked at van Gogh's paintings, and was especially im tint etchings in which he managed to recapture the atmos
pressed by Gauguin. He began working on a series of pheric quality of his oils. In his woodcuts he profited by
paintings the Frieze of Life— dealing with man's emo the pioneer work of Vallotton and Gauguin, became greatly
tional life and his suffering. In 1892 he traveled to Berlin intrigued by the nature of the medium itself, and, stressing
for an exhibition of these paintings, only to see the show the grain of the woodblock, he reached a remarkable virtu
close within a few days after precipitating one of the great osity. The breadth and freedom of lithography, however,
controversies of this period which is notorious for the permitted him the closest approach to recasting the flowing
number and the intensity of its art scandals. Munch, how qualities of his paintings.
ever, remained to become a central figure of the progressive The Madonna —certainly a startling title for the languid
cultural life of Berlin. His paintings and prints express not nude painted in 1894— was repeated in a color lithograph

79
2". Munch: The Cry. (1893). Oil on cardboard, 33 x 26]/ Nasjonalgalleriet, Oslo
 the following year. But in the lithograph a border is added
in which a foetus and spermatozoa appear shockingly to
allude to the role of the Madonna as the creator of life.
The sperms, while resembling the cells seen under the
microscope, serve to form the decorative border and have
assumed the sinuous line of Art Nouveau. When Munch
returned to Paris in 1896, it was S. Bing who exhibited his
paintings at his new gallery, L' Art Nouveau, and it seems
significant that Munch's friend August Strindberg wrote a
review of the show in the most important organ of the
25 Nabis, the Revue Blanche.

THE SITUATION IN GERMANY

Germany produced no truly outstanding painting or sculp

ture during its Jugendstil period. This is probably because
the Germans took certain principles of Art Nouveau too
literally and too seriously. Much in the manner of the
earlier Arts and Crafts Movement in England, the German
artists in the nineties felt a great moral responsibility for
the creation of objects of fine workmanship and individual
value to counteract the cheap products of a debased mass
culture. Historicism, which had remained firmly entrenched
in Germany so much longer than it had across the Rhine,
was finally rejected and academic convention repudiated.
Functional and beautiful objects were made which would
Munch: Madonna. (1895). Color lithograph, 23% x I7V2". The
Museum of Modern Art, New York. Purchase
carry the personal imprint of the artist's hand. The arts
and crafts, therefore, became the center of interest for
some of the best German artists— Peter Behrens, Otto
Eckmann, August Endell, Hermann Obrist, Bernhard Pan-
kok, Richard Riemerschmid — most of whom had begun
their careers as painters. The level of the applied arts, to
which they devoted most of their activities, was raised to
meet the highest standards. Painting itself was to become
mostly embellishment of a well-appointed space, and was
28 to "fit into a room like a gem into a ring."
Periodicals which covered literature, politics, and social
satire as well as art became the rallying points of the new

81
 Barlach: Cleopatra. (1904). Ceramic, 9" high. Collection
Kurt Reutti, Berlin

Wilke: Ueberbrettl. Drawing for Simplictssimus,

15
/ie Kirchner: Before the People. (1900). Woodcut, 7 x
1903. Ink, tempera and watercolor, I8V2 x 11V2"•
i5/
".
16 7 Allen Art Museum, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio
Staatliche Graphische Sammlung, Munich

82
 movement. The erudite vanguard quarterly Pan, which simplified her forms and hardened her structure but never
Julius Meier-Graefe founded in Berlin in 1895, was fol lost her understanding of symbolically decorative form.
lowed in 1896 by the more popular Munich weeklies Typical of the Jugendstil artists of Munich, which had
Jugend and Simplicissimus. These magazines sponsored a become the center of the movement, was the tendency to
whole group of extraordinary illustrators, among whom restrict every form to a two-dimensional plane, reducing
Thomas Theodor Heine, Olaf Gulbranson, Bruno Paul, even the human figure to nothing but an ornamental de
and Rudolf Wilke produced some of the most vigorous sign. The Kiss by Behrens (frontispiece) of 1898 is a good
work. Many of the talented artists of the time contributed example of this. The two severe, almost classical pro
cartoons, illustrations, and ornaments, and it was in Jugend, files, surrounded by a dense arabesque of hair, are drawn
for example, that Ernst Barlach began his career. Soon in a delicate rhythm of dynamic balance. Nothing of the
after his Jugenstil drawings and covers for Jugend, Barlach warm, life-like embrace of Rodin's Kiss of 1886 remains;
began doing sculpture, designing plaques, small fountains, all that is left is an intricate interlace of lines in which the
and decorative ceramics. His Cleopatra (opposite) of 1904, pointed meeting of the mouths forms the abstraction of a
with its typical Art Nouveau kidney shape, is a sensuous kiss.
nude completely surrounded by a sweeping cloak in which It was in Munich in the nineties that the philosopher
the busy movement of its delicate ripples opposes the Theodor Lipps, advocate of the theory of empathy, held
smooth surface of the figure. These early decorative Art lectures at the University on the evocative meaning of line
Nouveau sculptures, however, bear little resemblance to and performed experiments on the effect of linear move
the monumental carvings of archetypes for which Barlach ments on the human psyche. There Hermann Obrist, who
is remembered and which began after his trip to Russia had been trained as a natural scientist, used organic forms
in 1906. abstractly in his embroideries, like The Whiplash (page
Many of the German painters who like Barlach became 113), and then again in his sculpture designs for fountains
leading figures in the German Expressionist movement and funerary monuments. He made the declaration, revo
had their start in Jugendstil. For example, Ernst Ludwig lutionary for 1901, that the human form is no longer the
Kirchner's early woodcuts— which he later refused to end-all of sculpture and urged sculptors to parallel nature
acknowledge —were typically Art Nouveau. In his Bejore in creating growing forms. His Design Jor a Monument
the People (opposite) the man and woman are dancing on (page 84) is a diagonally rising wedge with a swift con
a ridge above the crowd. This scene finds a symbolic linear tinuous spiraling movement. The figures—the angel on the
equivalent on the left side of the print in the abstract forms summit of the spiral, for instance— are banal literary
suggesting dance movement and a group of staring eyes. vestiges which the next generation (cf. Tatlin) could easily
Isolated in the artists' colony of Worpswede, yet in close eliminate.
contact with the art of Paris, Paula Modersohn-Becker August Endell, a student of Lipps in philosophy and
evolved her own personal Art Nouveau forms in this Ger under Obrist's influence as an artist, designed the imagina
man Pont-Aven. In her Still Lije of c. 1900 (page 84) she tive relief on his Atelier Elvira (page 138). Based on a
had already gone far beyond the regional lyric naturalism dragon motif, the purple form floats with exuberant fury
of Worpswede and was describing objects with what she re on its green wall. It is still architectural decoration — not
ferred to as "runic writing." In her enthusiastic treatment yet free abstract sculpture — but Endell already foresaw the
of the decorated tablecloth, the convoluted curves of the development of a new non-representational art form (see
embroidery take on an organic life of their own. Later she page 10).

83
 Modersohn-Becker : Still Life. (c. 1900). Oil on cardboard, 14% x Obrist: Design for a Aionument. (Before 1902). Plaster.
2". lll/ Collection Stephen Radich, New York Kunstgewerbemuseum, Zurich
 It was a great time of artistic renewal when I came
to Munich to study in 1901," Gabriele Miinter remembers.
'Jugendstil began in its own way to destroy the old natural
28 ism and to devote itself to pure line."
Gabriele Miinter's friend and teacher, Wassily Kandin
sky, made a series of woodcuts based on romantic, medieval
fairy-tales. In these he must have been influenced by the
ballet design and stage decor of Bakst, Benois, and Somov,
whose work he saw on his frequent return visits to Russia.
In The Mirror of 1903, the two-dimensionality of the pic
ture plane is predominant; almost all vestiges of perspec^
tive are eliminated. But an intricate play between fore
ground and background is stressed by the use of positive and
negative forms. The white of the paper, for instance, serves
at the same time to shape the clouds in the sky behind the
fairy-queen and the long veil floating down in a zigzag line
advancing in front of the figure. Yet the small broken-up
curvilinear forms of its folds tie up with the grey ones on
the hanging sleeves, located somewhere between veil and
clouds. Again, an all-over pattern of white flowers spreads
evenly over skirt and lawn; it is only by means of these
flowers that the shape of the skirt is recognizable since no
line separates its black from the black of the sky. It is this
interpenetration of multiple space values creating suspen
sion of space and tension of surface which is so characteris
tic of Art Nouveau design from Vallotton to Kandinsky.
Kandinsky: The Mirror. (1903). Wood
8". cut, 12% x 6y Stadtische Galerie und This was one of the means of visual expression which
Lenbachgalerie, Munich Kandinsky was to explore further in his breakthrough from
Art Nouveau to Non-Objectivism.
Many of the Art Nouveau artists of Germany made con
tributions to this unified style. As in the rest of Europe,
there were those who came to their peak during their par
ticipation in the movement, but sank back again into
mediocrity, after the hold which the vital elements of the
new style had on their talents had weakened. But there
were also those who, beginning their careers, took aspects
of Art Nouveau as a starting point, to leave the movement
itself far behind them on their way to artistic maturity.

Peter Selz

S5

mm
Victorian drawing room. Residence of the Hon. Hamilton Fish, Riemerschmid : Music room. German Art Exhibition, Dresden.
New York. (c. 1880) 1899

86
DECORATIVE ARTS

In the 1880s a living room of the upper bourgeoisie in Dresden, must have appeared bare and cold to the average
almost any European or American home was likely to con visitor; to the followers of the New Style it revealed, as it
tain an odd assortment of upholstered, heavily carved furni does to us today, an uncommon degree of coherence
ture. A large table draped with a tasseled rug, and a set of through the coordination and interrelation of its elements.
high-backed chairs, dominated the center of the room (op Riemerschmid, a Munich painter who had become a de
posite). One corner might be transformed by a balustrade signer of furniture and decorative objects, was eventually
into a romantic "room within a room" draped with shawls. well known as an architect.
The windows, sheathed in velvet and lace, allowed only a This New Style, an outcome of a great process of re
trickle of diffused light. Vases, potted palms, assorted juvenation affecting attitudes towards all the arts, had be
lamps, and copies of Greek statuary filled the empty spaces. gun simultaneously in several European countries in the
This mixture of all periods and styles formed the basis for early 1890s. Its specific characteristics differed from country
High Victorian design. to country, but certain generalities were to be noted. In
A decade later a visitor to one of the influential inter essence, it was a style of ornament; its center of gravity
national exhibitions, in which new tendencies in design was the applied arts. Because it was basically planar, its
and decoration were shown to an eager public, would find purest manifestation appeared in graphic design and sur
a room of quite different character: in a large, compara face decoration. It was for this reason that wallpapers,
tively bare space, the table and chairs had been moved from stencils, stained glass, mosaics, inlaid woods, tapestries,
the center to a large, undraped window which flooded the and embroideries, all important elements in the furnishing
room with clear, even light (opposite). The window had of a room, received much attention. However, their use
been set into a deep, softly curved wall embrasure, its shape differed basically from that in earlier "period" rooms. Pre
accentuated by parallel wood frames and thin lead strips viously they had served to create an illusion of depth
gracefully following the fan-shaped upper section. The through overlapping. In the New Style, they heightened
table was not a separate element but was instead part of a the sense of the two-dimensional — an effect achieved
wide window sill extended deeply into the room. Arm through continuous curvilinear movement and through a
chairs around the table contributed elegantly flowing lines combination of shadowless flat shapes.
to the total composition. Wallpaper patterned with hori These shapes, given a highly evocative outline, cut into
zontal swirls covered the lower part of the wall; the upper the surrounding space in such a way that the space too be
section carried a stenciled frieze of gently swaying vertical came a shape. Color played an important role; flat and con
lines. Designed for this particular room, like all the other trasting color tones were placed next to each other without
elements in it, was the lighting fixture suspended from the shading. Form was often indicated by a mere outline or by
center of the ceiling: a circle of individual bulbs swung two parallel lines of different weights. In fact, parallel
from thin brass rods. Hanging from their electric wires, lines became a common device serving equally well for
they seemed like the ribs of a tent. abstract embellishment or the evocation of a specifically
This room, created by Richard Riemerschmid for the poetic content.
applied arts section of the 1899 German Art Exhibition in Since these efforts to develop a new and unified style
were to affect every aspect of man's environment, the con
ditions for urban living were probed and re-examined.
Here were the roots of the return of the decorative or
"minor" arts to the level and importance which the fine
arts had occupied. It helps to explain why painters were
willing to leave their easels to turn craftsmen, using their
talents to design the objects and environment of daily life.

ENGLAND

Industrialization in the nineteenth century provided goods

which previously few people had been able to own. Easily
produced in quantity by machines, such things as textiles
and household furnishings, heretofore reflecting the crafts
man's close contact and personal understanding of his cus
tomer's needs and tastes, were now generally available. The
visual form of these objects continued in the manner of
earlier styles. The wealthier part of the new population
the substantial bourgeoisie who owned the factories and
directed industry —used more costly versions of the same
prototypes in furnishing their elaborate homes.
In protest against this insensitive imitation and mixing
of styles, John Ruskin had declared that such imitation is
the destruction of all art and that the foundation of art is
truth. William Morris, the first to translate Ruskin's
philosophy into action, aimed at the re-establishment of the Mackmurdo: Two-sectioned screen. 1884. Embroidered silk
artist-craftsman as a member of the community. He wished panels, satinwood frame, 28 x 24". Made by the Century Guild.
William Morris Gallery, Walthamstow
to reunite all the arts much as had been done in the Middle
Ages.
Ruskin and Morris recoiled from what they regarded as
the destructive effects of the industrial revolution, but they
failed to see the advantages to the arts made possible by
the new technology. To them, salvation from what they
considered a debased civilization lay in the return to the
principles of hand craftsmanship. In their preference for
historic styles— the arts of the Middle Ages and the early
Renaissance— they remained true to the esthetic conceptions
of the early nineteenth century.
The artists of the next generation were prolific writers on

88
Mackmurdo: Cromer Bird. (c. 1884.) Printed cotton fabric. Voysey: Woven silk and wool fabric. 1897. Victoria and
William Morris Gallery, Walthamstow Albert Museum, London

89
these problems. In interminable discussions, they eventu
ally denounced Ruskin and Morris for having withdrawn
from the present, but they accepted Morris' theories for the
unification of the arts. These ideas soon led to the estab
lishment of craft guilds, among them Arthur H. Mack-
murdo's Century Guild in 1880-81 and C. R. Ashbee s
Guild and School of Handicrafts in 1888.
Mackmurdo remains one of the most surprisingly origi
nal personalities of his time. While traveling on the Con
tinent he had made extensive studies of plants, which he
drew from nature, and of the stylized foliage of Gothic
and Romanesque decoration. His art reached an unconven
tional freedom of expression. In his design for a chair back
in 1881, followed by a similar design for the title page of
Wren's City Churches (page 27), he anticipated the
maturity of the New Style, which on the Continent would
come to full flowering a decade later. Similarly unprece Ashbee: Bowl. (c. 1893.) Silver,8" high. Made
by the Guild of Handicrafts. Victoria and Al
dented in its free rhythmic feeling is his embroidered
bert Museum, London
screen decoration of 1884 (page 88). Exaggeratedly long
flower stalks with thin leaves and wind-swept petals are
set within narrow framed panels, where they undulate like
tongues of flame. smoothly dynamic in its elements (page 89). Flat outlines
The 1884 Cromer Bird textile design (page 89) has of birds and leaves are arranged in wide horizontal bands
perhaps the strongest quality of fantasy. Its strangely proto- against a striated background, dissected by the tips of leaves
surrealist motif produces an air of excitement unexpected in reaching out from each band to flow together across the
so modest an object as a simple cotton cloth and marks striated area. Voysey, one of the pioneers of modern archi
Mackmurdo as a prophet of one of the most significant tecture, created for his homes graceful, undecorated furni
aspects of the New Style. The design recalls the spirit of ture which greatly inspired Continental artists by its new
the Pre-Raphaelites, and is also an example of his extraordi uncluttered "English" character.
nary talent for decoration. Over a light-toned background Equally well known on the European continent was the
of geometrically arranged flower patterns, rows of darker- architect C. R. Ashbee. How closely the continent followed
colored seaweed float from left to right, accompanied by developments in England can be seen in the many exhi
groups of small swift birds. However, the blossoms of the bitions held during the last decade of the nineteenth cen
floating plants strain in the opposite direction, providing a tury and from the constant flow of articles in European
disquieting counter- rhythm. The design is organized on magazines. In the Dekorative Kunst of 1898, Herman
two planes: a swaying but stationary background and a Muthesius, attached to the German Embassy in London to
moving foreground pattern with its own internal rhythm. study and report on English housing, described a visit to
Another textile, by the architect Charles F. Annesley Ashbee's Guild and School of Handicrafts where students
Voysey, is much more simplified in detail and perhaps more were trained as craftsmen to execute his designs under his

90
 personal supervision. Muthesius remarked on the fact that Voysey. Mackintosh's furniture (below) was primarily rec
through such guilds the long existing gap between studio tilinear, simple, squarish, and subordinate to the ensemble
and workshop had been closed. In his appraisal of Ashbee's concepts underlying his room designs. The character of his
work, he commented on Ashbee's preference for forms furniture distinctly stems from Gothic chairs and cabinets,
based on the actual function of the object (opposite) . prototypes which had also served as inspiration for the
The English Arts and Crafts movement acted as a cata furniture designs of William Morris. But in Mackintosh's
lyst on the creative forces in Europe and America, where in hands these designs underwent fascinating transformations.
fact subsequent work seems unthinkable without the Eng Some of them were painted white and adorned with a kind
lish impetus. Continental commissions received by English of decoration for which no precedent existed. Supporting
architects and designers contributed significantly to the elements, joints, and the centers of doors were often ac
spread of a new style. Baillie Scott, an important architect centuated by the spare but unerring use of white orna-
who had received many commissions on the Continent, also
designed furniture for the Grand Duke of Hesse in Darm
stadt in 1898. This much-publicized commission was prob
ably responsible for the Duke's invitation to seven German
and Austrian artists to form an artists' colony in Darmstadt,
called Mathildenhohe (page 116).
At the time of the great Paris 1900 Exhibition, the Eng
lish public was unaware of the fact that a New Style, now
fully matured, was sweeping the Continent. For this reason
George Donaldson, an English member of the Paris jury,
made a considerable bequest of money to the Victoria and
Albert Museum for the purchase of furniture from the
exhibition, because he felt that it displayed a "superior in
genuity and taste" which he wanted to bring to his coun
1 try's attention.

SCOTLAND

A small group of artists in Glasgow, working independ

ently of the English movement, produced an original in
terpretation of the arts and crafts idea. Through them an
element of pure geometry was added to the New Style's
floral and abstract-linear trends.
Of this Glasgow group, the architect Charles Rennie
Mackintosh emerged as the most powerful, imaginative
personality. Not only his architecture, but with equal
Mackintosh: Cabinet, (c. 1903.) Wood, painted white, decorated
lucidity his interiors, furniture, and decorative objects re with carvings and inlaid figures of enamel and leaded glass, 5'
call that sense of fitness" which permeated interiors by high. The Universityof Glasgow Art Collections,Glasgow

91
 ments, rising from a flat white surface, trefoil or softly
oval in form. Rectangular chairs are like thrones, over-
scaled in size, often decorated with stenciled flowers, and
designed for formal elegance rather than comfort. To
gether with subtly colored mural decorations, light fixtures
suspended from beaded strings, and vitrines with doors
which, like those of shrines, conceal their delicate ornamen
tation on their insides, they contributed to the symbol-
laden, fairy-tale atmosphere of Mackintosh's interiors.
Most of the decorative elements were the work of the
Macdonald sisters— Margaret, who married Mackintosh,
and Frances, who became the wife of his partner, Herbert
McNair. The sisters executed, in glass, gesso, and repousse
metal, strange thin figures from a dream world, with small
enigmatic faces and expressively clasped hands. Their sty
listic origin reaches back to the Pre-Raphaelites, but their
literary content is diffused and vague (pages 68-69) . Ubiq
uitously found in Mackintosh interiors, these figures in
thinly flowing draperies move among stylized rose bowers
and trickling fountains symbolically dripping tears or
blood. The glittering decorations suggest precious gems
but were achieved with commonplace, often cheap ma
terials. Gilded and sculptured gesso was inlaid with string,
jet beads, and metal plaques and tinted with soft greys,
pinks, apple green, olive, and shades of rose and blue. Yet
these rooms in their severely architectonic arrangement and
sophisticated color combinations revealed a continuity and
control of means. Even with all their rich detail, they re
tained a delicate, carefully controlled linearity, which fused
each part into a unified whole. This sense of unity was per
haps the one characteristic found in each of the national
versions of the new style.

BELGIUM

Like a stepping stone between England and continental

Europe, Belgium became for a time a moving force in the
Horta: Electric light fixture from a fireplace,
Hotel Solvay, Brussels. 1895-1900. Gilded
development of the New Style. One of the first to arrive
bronze. L. Wittamer-de Camps, Brussels at a fully developed mastery of the New Style was the

92
 architect Victor Horta (see 125-135). In the staircase of
the Tassel House (page 129), completed in 1893, Horta
achieved an intensity of expression comparable to the
equally unprecedented Mackmurdo title-page design of
ten years before. The stair hall is framed on all sides by
exuberantly curving and snapping ribbons which rise like
flames from the bottom of the stairs, asymmetrically cov
ering a section of the wall and reaching up to the next
landing. This painted decoration is paralleled in the open
wrought-metal stair rail of similar design, and echoed in
clusters of lines painted on the ceiling and repeated in a
mosaic pattern on the floor. The supporting cast-iron center Horta: Inkstand from the Hotel Solvay, Brussels. 1895-
column sprouts cast iron tendrils intertwined with the 1900. Gilded bronze. Collection La Baronne Horta, Brussels
ceiling decoration. All materials are subordinated to the
demands of a linear decoration. This continuity suggestive
of organic growth eventually became Horta's chief interest.
In the Hotel Solvay even stone relinquished its natural
reticence, bending and softening at the architect's com
mand. The interior shows a remarkable unity inasmuch as
the completely furnished house reflects a single creative
impulse even in the smallest details.
All the lighting fixtures were consistently designed as
flowering plants; they climb up and wind themselves
around stair rails, rise gracefully from the sides of fire
places, or droop in elaborate clusters from ceilings, pouring
light over the carved wood furniture and walls (opposite) .
Horta's decorative elements are like bundles of individual
strands bound together by interwoven ribbons. A footstool,
a photograph stand, and an inkwell (right) become orna
ments of complex abstract design. Their function is almost
completely subordinated to the expression of willful ele
gance and sophisticated whimsy.
The work of the architect and furniture designer Gus-
tave Serrurier-Bovy provided a link between Belgium and
England. In his furniture shop in Liege he sold English
designs as well as his own. The latter, unlike Horta's plas
tically conceived inventions, were flat two-dimensional
surfaces into which he inserted tensely drawn curved
arches ( right ) . The visual tension thus expressed was a Serrurier-Bovy: Dining room buffet. 1898

93
 Van de Velde: Side chair from the
Van de Velde: Angels' Guard. 1893. Wall hanging: wool and silk embroidered appli
artist's house in Uccle. 1895. Mu
que. 55 x 91%". Kunstgewerbemuseum, Zurich
seum of Modern Art, New York

Van de Velde: Desk. 1897. Ashwood. Osterreichisches Museum fur Angewandte Kunst, Vienna
 feature taken over by van de Velde and transformed by of utilitarian pursuits, he designed and exhibited in 1893
him into one of his most characteristic design elements. an applique wall hanging, Angels' Guard (opposite),
Van de Velde rightfully considered Serrurier a precursor which is still essentially a picture. Simplified flat planes
of Belgian interior design. The latter's studies in London with strong areas of unbroken color are used to intensify
in the fields of wallpaper, textiles, etc., seriously influenced the meaning of the story. The winding road is a fore
2 his work after he returned to Belgium. shortened curve of color, contrasting with other areas of
An article in Dekorative Kunst, one of the magazines so flat color. This curved shape is filled with vibrating parallel
important in the propagation of the New Style, made the lines which completely envelop the kneeling figures. There
observation that Serrurier, like Horta, had been trained as are stylistic resemblances which can be traced to Gauguin
an architect; this training, although technically of great and the Symbolists. The dynamic play of lines and surfaces,
advantage, created difficulties in terms of esthetics. On the however, foretell much of van de Velde's mature work.
other hand, van de Velde, Alfred William Finch, and In 1895 van de Velde built his first house, Bloemenwerf,
Georges Lemmen, who were well-trained painters, origi in Uccle near Brussels. In this house he created an all-
nally lacked technical understanding. The article went on encompassing style of living, new in spirit and free from
to say, "It will be difficult to decide which of these two is inherited conventions. Life at Bloemenwerf was a complete
the more valuable background. No doubt, it is only by unit designed by its owner, even to the styling of his wife's
combining both elements that something worthwhile can clothes (page 9). The interiors created for Bloemenwerf
be created, and at this moment to do so appears to be as are his first interiors which indicate the New Style. The
necessary as it is rare. It is to this combination that van de chairs, for instance, are a characteristic example of the fur
Velde, who with great forcefulness has appropriated the nishings (opposite). Made entirely from individual staves
3 technical basis, owes his brilliant development." with rush seats, their somewhat harsh form goes back to
Henry van de Velde was a gifted painter who became a peasant prototypes; each line and joint exists because of
designer and architect because he felt that in this way he structural necessity. These skeletal shapes already possess
could best fight against what he considered the world's the characteristic springiness and energy of his later de
ugliness. Deeply absorbed in the doctrines of Ruskin and signs. In this chair the eye perceives the surrounding
Morris, he found a personal fulfillment in the creation of space as a complementary form, fusing the solid members
an environment made liveable with beautiful furniture, and voids into a complex entity. The furniture is undeco-
objects, even clothing. Calling for new esthetic ideas in the rated; its ornamental quality is inherent in the movement
avant-garde of Les XX and Le Libre Esthetique , he became of the lines.
one of the pioneers in the complete renewal of form and These same principles are more forcefully expressed in a
ornament in the applied arts. Van de Velde's gifts were large ashwood desk of c. 1897 (opposite). Here, too, no
twofold: his creative talents were matched by his intel surface ornamentation has been applied. The large struc
lectual abilities. His work cannot be separated from his ture consists of two inner consoles with outer open shelf
theories. In emphatic and emotion-charged language, he sections at each end; a sweeping oval top is surmounted by
projected ideas which carried the organic away from the tapering shelf-boards at both ends and forces unity by a
imitation of nature toward the abstract. He became the sculptured heavily flowing outer band. This curving outline
proponent of the curvilinear abstract variation of the New not only holds all parts together but also serves as brace
Style. Although he had discarded easel painting in favor and support to carry the shelves while it models the shape.
Van de Velde: Candelabrum, (c. 1902.) Silver-plated bronze. 21%" high. Nordenfjeldske Kunstin-
dustrimuseum, Trondheim

96
 Van de Velde's silver candelabrum of c. 1902 (opposite)
is almost a pure sculptural arabesque, with flowing, curv
ing and upward-thrusting elements. Exploding outward
from the stem are six individual candle holders which are
an integral part of the design.
Bloemenwerf attracted wide attention, and van de Velde
found himself in the center of an internationally spreading
movement. Introduced by Julius Meier-Graefe to S. Bing,
van de Velde was invited in 1895 to design four complete
room settings for the newly opened shop. Bing was one of
the men instrumental in spreading knowledge of the New
Style to a Europe which was ready to absorb its message.
For several years Bing's Paris shop in the rue de Provence
Galle: Shell-shaped crystal bowl engraved with seaweed and shell
(remodeled by the architect Bonnier) was the center of
designs. 1899. HV2" diameter. Musee de l'Ecole de Nancy
the new movement and, in fact, its activities became so
completely symbolic that the shop's name, L'Art Nouveau,
was finally given to the movement.
The rooms which van de Velde created for Bing had with its glass industry dating back to the fifteenth century
nothing of the sparse lightness of his Bloemenwerf de —where it developed around the work of Emile Galle. In
signs. They were rich and sonorous in their ornamentation the eighteenth century under the reign of Stanislas Leczin-
and of a unity which was completely new and extraordi ski the center of Nancy had been transformed by rococo
nary. Stained glass decorations which Bing commissioned facades and gilded iron grill work into a beguiling maze
from the Nabi painters (see page 55) became a part of of linear fantasies. This architectural setting became a
the design. The rooms at Bing's galleries shocked the stimulating background for the new movement. Galle's
ultra-conventional upper bourgeoisie. De Goncourt's term, studies included work in philosophy, literature, and
"Yachting Style" with which he described the rooms in botany; his training included the sketching of plants and
his newspaper reviews was quoted to ridicule the Belgian practical experience in his father's workshop for ceramic
imports. As a matter of fact, the term was well taken since and glass and in the Meisenthal glass factories in the Saar
the rooms had a striking resemblance to ship interiors, Valley. Returning from further studies in Germany and
where as a result of a logical appraisal of functional re England, he opened his own workshop in Nancy in 1874.
quirements furniture had become an inseparable part of Art Nouveau was one of the last great craft movements
the wall. in which the skill of execution matched and enhanced
artistic invention. Galle had studied the technique of Chi
FRANCE nese and Japanese glass snuff bottles during his visit to the
Victoria and Albert Museum in London. He further de
Many French artists had been working in the new idiom veloped and refined this technique, known as overlay glass.
before van de Velde arrived in Paris. Two distinct centers The top layer of colored glass was cut away in parts to
of the New Style were formed in France— one in Paris become a raised decoration on the surface of the bottom
around Bing's L'Art Nouveau and the other in Nancy — layer. Galle used many layers of glass to achieve various

97
color combinations. The cutting was done with small
wheels, or layers were eaten away by acid. This simpler
technique was largely used in his later production when
his shops employed well over 300 workers. A third tech
nique consisted of fusing onto the multi-colored layers
small drops of glass, or bits of metal or mother-of-pearl,
treated further by engraving and polishing to create im
mensely rich and variegated surfaces. Galle's plant forms,
insects, and floating seaweeds seem to have a life of their
own, as if responding to a force outside the viewer's realm.
Executed in delicate tones they are completely blended
within the shapes to which they are applied (page 97).
Unlike the abstract arabesques of van de Velde's designs,
Galle's pieces create a poetic mood. Often evocative words
are engraved on the surface and float like tendrils attached
to the organic images whose moods they parallel.
Less daring in concept than his glass, Galle's furniture
in general follows the French styles of the eighteenth cen
tury— it is always precious and fragile (right). But he
reveals his originality by the way in which he uses the
decorative quality of the background wood, combining
raised, carved, and flat inlaid patterns of plants in freely
asymmetrical arrangements.
Galle's style was soon adopted by other Nancy glass fac
tories. Daum Freres produced designs which in shape and
decoration closely approximated those of Galle but were
often sentimental in feeling and coarser in execution. How
ever, their painted vases with long drawn necks and sculp
ted asymmetrically-shaped bodies are surprisingly bold and
Galle: Screen.1900.Ashwood,carved and inlaid with various
original. They resemble in form and in their textured woods. 3'6" high. Victoria and Albert Museum, London
surfaces the natural rock from which they seem to be hewn.
Louis Majorelle, the other noteworthy furniture designer
in Nancy, produced neo-rococo adaptations and began to
work in the Galle idiom about 1897. However, the shapes
Majorelle employed were less traditional, and in the sculp
tured, smoothly flowing silhouettes of his furniture, braces
and structural elements became shoots and branches (op
posite) . Metal details were purely ornamental, and in these

98
Majorelle: Bannister, (c. 1900.) Forged iron. Musee des Arts Deco Charpentier: Revolving music stand, (c. 1900.)
ratifs, Paris Carved hornbeam. 48" high. Musee des Arts
Decoratifs, Paris
1

Wolfers: Medusa. Pendant on gold

chain. 1898-99. Carved ivory, enam
eled gold and opal. c. 4" high. Collec
tion L. Wittamer-de Camps, Brussels
 he revealed his debt to Japanese stylization as well as to
common local flora.
On the whole, French Art Nouveau had two major
roots: the art of Japan and its own eighteenth-century
form. While in other centers of the new movement the
battle for the rejuvenation of the applied arts involved
moral as well as esthetic re-examination, Paris was more
concerned with a new expression of beauty in the applied
arts rather than with their social values. Without ever
relinquishing completely the formal elegance and sophisti
cation of eighteenth-century design, the new form proved
to be equally elegant and much more sensuous. The
dynamic world of organic growth introduced by the theo
retical writings of Grasset and others was used in a manner
that stemmed from Japanese art: seemingly distributed at
random, plant forms were controlled with care for fresh,
poetic, and visually graceful effects. Traditional craftsman
ship made it possible to embody the most evanescent
images in any medium. Such extreme refinement also at
tracted those fin-de-siecle tendencies through which the
period, not without justification, became known as "the Lalique: Shallow bowl. 1900. Opal glass with silver mounting,
mauve decade." opals. 9" diameter. Osterreichisches Museum fiir Angewandte
Kunst, Vienna
Designs of entire rooms and their accessories by de
Feure, Gaillard, Colonna, Selmersheim, and Plumet were
produced in Bing's workshops to be sold later in his gal
lery. In the same way that French Impressionists had cre
ated pure painting, French Art Nouveau artists had pro
duced some of the purest examples of the style in the field Jewelry permitted another pure expression of the New
of applied art. Sophisticated and sensuous, their work has a Style. Purpose and scale allowed the most intricate and
lyric quality unhampered by the edifying and occasionally fanciful play of lines. Plant and insect motifs were used
overwrought content with which it was charged in other with the greatest freedom. Materials were chosen for their
countries. Furniture and objects remained individual artis subtle colors and because they lent themselves to symbolic
tic statements and never merged completely into a unity. imagery. In many instances jewelry was also treated like
Charpentier's music stand is a good example of this miniature sculpture (opposite).
complete mastery of the New Style (page 99). The prob The most original jewelry designer was Rene Lalique.
n gold lem of providing slanting shelves for music scores at a At the age of twenty-five he opened a workshop in Paris.
enam- fixed height was solved with powerful, furrowed strands, Although he had exhibited anonymously at the 1889
Collec- like the stalks of a plant, rising from a coil to hold aloft World's Fair in Paris, his first real recognition came at the
Brussels the double shelves. 1895 Salon du Champ de Mars, where since 1891 the ap-

101
 plied arts had been shown side by side with painting and
sculpture. From 1895 on, Lalique's exhibitions, like Tif
fany's, were vital attractions in the international shows
which were so characteristic at the turn of the century.
In response to the opening up of the new African dia
mond fields, jewelry design of the Second Empire had con
centrated exclusively on the massing of brilliantly cut dia
monds. Lalique re-introduced the beauty of semi-precious
colored stones, particularly the shimmering opal. He used
gold in many shades, enamels, both opaque and trans
lucent, irregularly shaped pearls, as well as the modest
horn which he handled with the same imagination as ivory
(abundantly supplied by the African colonies) . Combining
these materials Lalique created designs whose emotional
quality may be compared to Galle's work. Unconventional
freedom of expression is combined with formal arrange
ment of fantastic images and depends on complete mastery
of a technique to make each piece an entity. This may be
seen in one of Lalique's decorative combs (left), a favorite
ornament of the period.
In contrast to Lalique's fanciful naturalism, van de
Velde created jewelry based on abstract form. His pieces,
three-dimensional translations of his flat ornament, are
powerful plays of lines occasionally broadening into fur
rowed bands. They exercise an almost hypnotic attraction
by the relentlessness with which they suggest motion (op
Lalique: Decorativecomb. (c. 1900.) Carved horn, gold posite) . His work created a style of abstract linear jewelry
and enamel. 6V&"long. Det Danske Kunstindustri-
which spread throughout Europe.
museet,Copenhagen
France's most important Art Nouveau architect was
Hector Guimard whose powerfully expressive cast-iron
orchid-like stalks for the Paris Metro stations were a part
of the street scene in the late 1890s and today still form
the entrances of several stations (page 136).
In an article in the June 1902 Architectural Record (a
special issue acknowledging the New Style and introducing
it to American readers), Guimard cited Horta and van de
4 Velde next to himself as the co-founders of Art Nouveau.
This selection of artists is interesting considering the fact
that all three employed as an essential structural element

102
 the energetically flowing, tensely coiling line charged with
power and force. Guimard, however, added exaggeration.
Legs and braces of a casual side table, for example, no
longer remain the simple plant forms carrying an Art Nou-
veau table top; they have become botanical specimens, a
heightened expression of energy and tension (page 104).
Two pieces, designed for Guimard's own house in Paris,
are especially noteworthy. The frame of a desk chair has
completely shed traditional characteristics; branches thrust
out from a center spine to form a bold curve for back and
arm supports and continue downward to form the legs. The
large top of the desk is an asymmetrically shaped plane of
wood. The squarish left side narrows down into a center
bridge, widening into an oval tongue at the extreme right.
This early version of "free form" seems to be kept in end Van de Velde: Belt buckle, (c. 1898.) Silver, amethyst.
less rhythmic flow. The top rests on two free-standing CollectionStikforth, Gars am Inn
pedestal cabinets which face each other at right angles.
Their paneled walls in branch-like frames seem to be made
of some ductile material pulled into a wave pattern which
outlines the shape of the panel (page 104).
In the design of his upholstered furniture, Guimard also
openly acknowledges inspiration from French eighteenth-
century tradition. Uniquely his own, however, is the kind
and degree of transformation: the voluptuously sculptured
upholstery and the flowing quality of his wood frames and
decorations. Guimard's furniture is eminently functional,
"a complement of logic and harmony which leads by emo
5 tion to the highest expression of art."
By 1900 -the New Style had reached its zenith and domi
nated the enormous Exposition Universelle in Paris. Many
countries were represented with national exhibitions clearly
showing their variegated involvement with the new form
language. It was obvious that the New Style had become
generally accepted and indeed reached a popularity which
made mass production profitable. Holding out for the prin
ciples of craftsmanship, S. Bing had built a small pavilion
which was pure decoration rather than an architectural ex
pression, a jewel case in which he exhibited the elegant, Stamp: Hatpin (detail). 1908. Silver. Made by Charles
luxurious products of the artists around him. Horner. Ltd., Halifax. Private Collection,New York

103
 Guimard: Detail of side table from the artist's
house in Paris, (c. 1908.) Carved pearwood. 43^2"
high. The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
Gift of Mme Hector Guimard

Below, Guimard: Desk from the artist's house in

Paris, (c. 1903.) Carved ashwood. 28%" high x
8'5" long. The Museum of Modern Art, New
York. Gift of Mme Hector Guimard

104
AMERICA John La Farge, in the Heidt glass factories in Brooklyn.
His early experiments with glass date from 1873; his first
actual products were decorative windows, subtly opalescent
At the turn of the century Europe had already seen the most in color. Eventually one branch of his expanding firm was
important American expression of the New Style. Bing had devoted exclusively to the manufacture of memorial, re
shown Tiffany glass in his Paris shop as early as 1895, and ligious, and decorative windows. The quality of his glass
Tiffany was also prominently represented in the 1900 expo was considered superior to that produced in Europe. Win
sition. dows executed in the Tiffany shops from designs by
In the United States, heads of industry, banking, and Toulouse-Lautrec, Bonnard, Vuillard, and other French
trade still commissioned the design and furnishings of their painters were commissioned by Bing and shown at his shop
town houses and country estates in neo-Gothic, neo-Renais- in 1895.
sance, and neo-rococo styles. In office buildings, depart Beyond the effect of opalescence he tried to achieve those
ment stores, and warehouses for which the new materials glowing colors that erosion and exposure to mineral salts
(steel and reinforced concrete) were used, a new architec had caused on the surface of glass buried in the ground
ture was coming into being. for centuries. In his shops and under his direction a com
Louis H. Sullivan, an exponent of this new architecture, plicated process of simultaneously blowing the glass and
used ornament importantly, placing it on his buildings in
carefully selected areas. His horizontal bands of ornament,
placed between the vertical elements of structure, were
composed of scrolls, leaves, flower clusters, all symmetri
cally arranged within a defined space. But in spite of this
symmetry, they were strangely alive in detail; they pos
sessed a kind of organic flow and flourish which enlivened
their deceptively traditional appearance (page 122). Sulli
van arrived, in the 1880s, at a type of decoration which I2 2,"ti.de "Provence|
prophetically heralded European trends of a decade later. hp&gJSji
Closer to the European trends, yet wholly original, is the
work of Louis Comfort Tiffany. Beginning his career as a %^£<ODERNES
UfL nach
student of George Inness, Tiffany studied further in Paris ' ' ^ElCENEN ZEICHNUNCEN^
TEppietiE, sTorrE.<ttt.
and traveled in the Near East. A close association with the DEKOR.AT1VE
•KUNSTCECSNSTANBS
crafts (his father's firm, Tiffany & Company, produced and A1AJBA ART E1CENS TVR»
» t-'Anf -NouveaU"
sold silverware and decorative objects) and fascination CEEERTlcr.
with the inherent beauty of materials led him to abandon VERTRCWNC. VON"
I^C/TIFFANY
painting for the decorative arts. In the 1876 Centennial Ex FUR.EUROPA.

hibition in Philadelphia, Tiffany saw decorative objects

•CBAVAEDB •SCVW»TtJ«.lSN-
from many countries and found himself at this early date
attracted by English and Japanese design. Tiffany's art,
like Galle's, originated with technique. He studied the Lemmen: Advertisementfor Bing's L'Art
chemistry of glass and worked with his friend, the painter Nouveau. 1898.From DekorativeKunst

105
 exposing it to chemicals and fumes from molten metals
resulted in brilliant hues and a ravishing iridescence.
Unlike Galle, who cut decorations from various layers
of colored glass superimposed on each other, Tiffany's
technique was to control the way in which the layers of
color were made to flow either transparently or opaquely
over each other, bringing about an abstract play of line and
color (left). He would often go back to traditional
oriental and European prototypes for the shapes of bowls
and vases, but most forms he used were uniquely his
own and as extraordinarily inventive and unconventional
as the iridescent colors with which they were decorated.
Graceful images of exotic flowers on attenuated stems,
twisted fruit forms or lumps of oddly shaped glass with
casual openings created a dream world in which propor
tion and detail had been strangely transformed. In Tiffany
glass the exotic and the irregular became the norm. When
Tiffany combined metal with glass, he produced objects in
which structure and decoration were eloquently integrated
(opposite). Tiffany's work affects the viewer's sensibilities
through an evocative sophistication. His colors and forms
suggest the quality of a mood as summer is suggested by
the pearly iridescence on the wings of a butterfly. The
idiom of the New Style was reflected in the products of
many workshops like those of Rookwood in Cincinnati and
Tiffany: Group of vases, (c. 1900.) Left: Favrile glass and silver- Grueby in Boston, but Tiffany remains the American
plated bronze. Center and right: Favrile glass. The Museum of master of the style.
Modern Art, New York

HOLLAND
The work of the Dutch artists who formed the nucleus of
the New Style in The Hague and Amsterdam was ex
pressed mainly in painting and graphic design. It was dif
ferent in character from other expressions on the Conti
nent and so were its sources.
The nineteenth century was shaped not only by scientific
discoveries and industrialization, but also by the enormous
wealth which poured into Europe from colonial posses
sions. This wealth included rare African and eastern woods,

106
Tiffany: Table lamp. (c. 1900.)
Favrile glass and bronze. 27" high.
Lillian Nassau Antiques, New
York
 Colenbrander: Plate. 1886. Glazed pottery, abstract
plant design. 10%" diameter. Made by Rozenburg,
The Hague. Gemeentemuseum, The Hague

Kok (form) and Shelling (decoration): Bottle-

vase. Made by Rozenburg, The Hague. Osterreich-
isches Museum fur Angewandte Kunst, Vienna

108
opals from India, and ivory from the Congo. The influx
of foreign cultures was equally evident, and soon the mu
seums of archeology and anthropology at home became
storehouses for artifacts from the colonies.
The old Dutch colonies, particularly Java, provided for
Dutch artists a new idiom in the ancient technique of batik
printing on textiles. This technique produced flat patterns
with wavy outlines of markedly abstract quality streaked
over with an erratic network of thin veins formed by the
folding lines where the fabric had been sectioned off for
the dyeing process. These batik designs corresponded to
the concepts of the New Style and inspired fresh varia
tions. Workshops and group enterprises styled after the
English craft guilds of the post-Morris period sprang up
in various Dutch centers. Among them were a number of
pottery firms whose decorated wares became one of Hol
land's most characteristic contributions. Best known of
these companies was Rozenburg in The Hague which
was in operation from 1894 until 1916 and had its first Van de Velde: Lounge. Decorative Arts Exhibition, Dresden.
foreign showing in the Paris 1900 Exhibition. T. A. C. 1897. Executed by S. Bing, Paris
Colenbrander, the company's most important designer, was
the first to realize that the batik style could also be applied
to the decoration of objects. His pottery consists of heavy
forms and strongly colored exotic decoration on white
glaze (opposite). His ornament combines solid abstract J. Shelling further stresses the fluidity of the total form.
shapes with trailing and tapering strands which merge Strands of plant forms glide up from the bottom and are
with each other in complicated patterns. These forms range like feathery trails of smoke.
freely over the white surface causing the white to appear
as form rather than background.
GERMANY
Another derivation is represented by a type of bottle-
vase which J. Juriaen Kok designed for Rozenburg. It is In 1897 Bing exhibited at the Decorative Arts Exhibition
made of extremely thin and glassy ceramic which had to be in Dresden the four rooms which van de Velde had origi
blown rather than poured into the mold and is character nally designed for his Paris Art Nouveau shop. There they
istic of an entire group of pottery (opposite). These de received the enthusiastic response they had missed at their
signs depart from traditional Far Eastern forms by the first showing in the more tradition-bound Paris. For the
addition of flat handles which seem to be pulled away from Dresden exhibition a central lounge was added which em
the main body in a convex curve. They flow back into the bodied many of the basic ideas of the New Style as van de
central form and the empty space between body and handle Velde had conceived them (above) . Around the walls ran
becomes part of the sculptured shape. The decoration by a stenciled frieze divided into identical rectangles. Above

109
 the doors the rectangles were filled with colored glass
panels separated from each other by protruding ribs which
curved into the ceiling. The main motif of the room was
a fireplace boldly projected from the wall. All furnishings
were subject to the general scheme; the curves of the sofas
corresponded to those of the ribbed frieze, the undulating
pattern of their upholstery to the abstract ornament of the
stenciled pattern. The curving walls led to a decorated
skylight which shed an even light over the entire room.
There had already been many signs of the new movement
in Germany, but van de Velde's lounge was the first ex
ample seen in that country of a room conceived as a unified
whole. It was not until 1899 that the earlier mentioned
music room by Riemerschmid achieved an even greater
harmony, in which controlled daylight was an important
part (page 86) .
While the Dresden exhibition made the German public
fully conscious of the New Style, it was Munich which was
the center of the new movement in Germany. There at
about 1895—two years before van de Velde's introduction
to Dresden — a group of young artists had been working to
achieve similar results. The nucleus of this group was
formed by Otto Eckmann, Hermann Obrist, August Endell,
Richard Riemerschmid, Bruno Paul, Bernhard Pankok,
and Peter Behrens. Many of them had been painters who,
escaping from the decline of easel painting in Germany,
had turned toward the applied arts, thus repeating a phe
nomenon of the period we have already observed in other
countries.
To mark the turning point in his career, Otto Eckmann
had auctioned off his paintings in 1894. He became one of
Germany's foremost graphic artists of the New Style (see
page 43), but during his short lifetime he was equally
prolific as a designer of textiles, wallpapers, metal work,
rugs, and furniture. His ornamental style, based on natural
Eckmann: Five Swans. 1896-97. Wall- forms, differs radically from that of van de Velde or Horta
hanging. 7' 10" x 30". Webschulein Scher- but is also impressive and original. Often identified as the
6 rebek. Det Danske Kunstindustrimuseet, purest example of Jugendstil, Eckmann's narrow vertical
Copenhagen wall-hanging (woven in 1897 in the north German tapestry

110
 signers, especially through the example of his rooms at the
1897 Dresden exhibition. Above all, the desire these Ger
man artists felt to participate in all aspects of life could be
expressed through interrelated design. To conceive a room,
the space it encloses, and all the furniture and objects be
longing to it— the most modest part being as important as
the whole— gave a new meaning to their vocation as artists.
The 1897 Dresden exhibition was followed by one in 1899
where, in addition to the already discussed Riemerschmid
music room (page 86), there were important rooms by
Pankok and Bruno Paul. These examples of interrelated
design took their place alongside similar accomplishments
by van de Velde and the Glasgow group.
The large smoking room which Pankok created for the
Paris 1900 Exposition, and which was later shown in the
Decorative Arts Exposition in Turin in 1902, was heavily
sculptural (left). Its paneled walls with carved decora
tions of plant motifs were tightly bound into the compo
sition of the room, as was the ribbed ceiling. Light fixtures,
suspended by chains and wires from carved ribs, added to
the effect of fantasy.
An armchair by Pankok illustrates his preference for
sculptural, undulating shapes with all elements flowing
Pankok: Smoking room, International Exposition, Paris 1900.
into one another (page 112). The sides are laced through
Executed by the Vereinigte Werkstatten fur Kunst und Handwerk, and in part formed by carved plants. The front legs flow
Munich into the arms, on whose surface is carved ornamentation.
The back has two large tear-shaped openings whose pointed
ends slant toward the center. This is another example of
workshops of Scherrebek) uses a serpentine form as the that characteristic Art Nouveau shape, suggesting growth
central motif (opposite). Whereas in van de Velde's ap and organic life, so often used by the Glasgow group
plique tapestry the winding road becomes a bold abstract (page 91).
form, here the image is more literally conceived. The poetic August Endell, best known for the bold, completely free
mood in Eckmann's silent forest interior with its color decoration of the facade of the Atelier Elvira (1897)
harmonies of autumn yellows and browns comes close to (page 138), designed furniture which is basically simple
the sentimentality which is a recurring element in German in shape but made fantastic through heavily sculptured
art of this period. elements (page 112). An example is an armchair in which
Even before van de Velde had moved permanently to these elements are ostensibly used to mark the joints. But
Germany in 1900, his convictions about the relationship of each detail is symbolic: the joints become claws and knees.
art to daily life had considerable influence on German de This disquieting aspect of an otherwise rational design is

111
Pankok: Armchair. 1899. Mahogany, woven tapestry seat. Made by Endell: Armchair. 1899. Carved elmwood, wool upholstery.
the Vereinigte Werkstatten fur Kunst und Handwerk, Munich 331/2" high. Collection Dr. Siegfried Wichmann, Starnberg

112
Obrist: Whiplash. 1895. Wall hanging, silk embroidery on wool. 46% x Munchner Stadt-
museum, Munich

Endell: Decorative metal mounting on a

bookcase. 1898
 characteristic of Endell's proto-surrealist work.
The same resemblance to the rhythmically moving ma
rine world that characterizes his Elvira "dragon" pervades
his extraordinarily animated furniture mountings, which
often made the furniture itself become merely a back
ground (page 113). Here the inventiveness of the artist
was matched by the craftsman's skill in executing designs
that seem two-dimensional but are in fact alive with intri
cately sculptured detail.
Closer to naturalistic forms are the energy-laden em
Von Debschitz: Inkstand. 1906. Bronze. 2" high. broidered plant fantasies which the Swiss Hermann Obrist
Landesgewerbemuseum, Stuttgart developed as early as 1892. Originally trained as a sculptor,
Obrist had turned to embroidery as a means of expression
before returning to sculpture in his later years. In 1894 he
moved his embroidery workshops from Florence to Munich
where his unusual work soon drew the attention of the
younger generation of artists. His large wall-hanging
(page 113) depicting a winding cyclamen plant (called
"The Whiplash" by a critic) is an impressive example of
naturalistic detail used to form an abstract composition.
Like the springy curves of van de Velde's abstract line pat
terns Obrist's "Whiplash" is tense with an energy not to be
found in the plant on which the design is based.
In 1902 in Munich, Obrist, together with the sculptor
Wilhelm von Debschitz, opened workshops devoted to
training and experimentation in the fine and applied arts.
While this school based much of its design on a dynamic
stylization of nature, it could also include such abstract
work as a bronze inkwell by von Debschitz, which is less a
decorative object than a sculpture in the round (left).
The Seventh International Art Exhibition of 1897, fol
lowing the Paris example, devoted two small rooms in the
Munich Glaspalast to the applied arts. Richard Riemer
schmid was one of the thirty artists represented. Originally
a painter he too turned to designing furniture, metal, glass,
textiles, wallpapers, and typography. His lettering for the
German Reichsbahn is still in use today.
Riemerschmid: Side chair. 1899. Oak, leather up
holstery. 30%" high. The Museum of Modern Art, In the spirit of the English arts and crafts reform move
New York. Gift of Liberty & Co., Ltd., London ment, workshops were formed in Munich and later in other

114
 Riemerschmid: Table flatware. 1900. Silver. Landesgewerbe- Van de Velde: Table flatware. 1902-03.
museum, Stuttgart Silver. Made by Theodor Miiller, Wei
mar. Karl-Ernst-Osthaus-Museum, Hagen

parts of Germany where artists, craftsmen, and manufac was exceptional for the period. In this respect it may be
turers joined in the production of everyday goods. Riemer compared with such later solutions as the cantilevered tubu
schmid, who was one of the founders and a most active lar steel chair of the 1920s and the molded plywood chair
contributor to two of these organizations, possessed artistic of the 1940s.
sensitivity but also a sober mind. To him design was a mis Riemerschmid's 1900 silver flatware, with its rounded
sion. The period's tendencies toward functional design and knife handles and flat, bevel-edged spoon and fork handles,
honesty of materials led him to the study of peasant furni seems plain when compared to the set designed by van de
ture. The unself -conscious "rightness" and functional logic Velde in 1902-03 (above). In the latter design, low relief
inherent in these designs became the basis for his own abstract ornamentation is modified to the size and shape of
work. Riemerschmid 's solutions are straightforward and the individual piece. The van de Velde flatware appears
sometimes original, as for example the small side chair-— to offer traditional solutions while the Riemerschmid de
designed in 1899 for the Dresden exhibition and subse sign is surprisingly functional as well as decorative. It
quently used in room settings in the Paris 1900 Exhibition anticipated the contemporary analysis of use. Riemer
(opposite) . The chair has a deep but traditional seat and a schmid's dinner fork with short tines and bowl, the cake
highly unconventional broadly curving back which the rear fork with a cutting edge, the squared-off spoon, the hal
legs slant upward to support. The front legs turn and berd-shaped cheese knife, and the grip-handled dinner
frame the entire seat. The back flows down to become the knives correspond to contemporary concepts.
bracing which acts like a vise and holds the structure to With the spread of the movement throughout Germany
gether. The emphasis on clarity of structure in this design the Munich group gradually dispersed; teaching assign-

115
 designed the building for the Vienna Secession.
The Mathildenhohe group showed publicly for the first
time at the Paris 1900 Exhibition, for which Olbrich had
designed a reception room with furnishings by the other
artists. Their formal presentation, however, occurred in
1901 when the Mathildenhohe colony was officially opened
with an exhibition called "A Document of German Art."
Instead of still another international exposition in specially
designed temporary buildings, it was the colony's perma
nent villas at the outskirts of the town which stood review.
Olbrich, the only professional architect in the group, was
responsible for the architecture of all the buildings with
one exception, while the other members had shared in the
design of the interiors. Only Peter Behrens had both de
signed and furnished his own house. The work of Behrens
and Olbrich differs significantly from the curving, richly
floral style characteristic of Jugendstil.
Behrens: Dining room in the house of the artist, Darmstadt. 1901
Peter Behrens' house— the work of an untrained archi
tect— shows him in marked contrast to the elegant and
imaginative Olbrich. Behrens, like the others, was a painter,
a designer of furniture, metal, glass, graphics, and typogra
phy (frontispiece, pages 18, 36, 44). He still used flow
ments called many of the artists to other cities. Berlin, ing lines in the design of his interiors, but these were con
where van de Velde worked from 1898 to 1900, became tained in areas sharply defined as rectangles, squares, and
an important center. In the important industrial towns of circles, and they no longer moved onto adjacent areas.
Hamburg and Krefeld, museum directors encouraged the There is unity in the design of his dining room (left) , but
dissemination of the New Style through exhibitions and it is a unity of a modular nature. The straight-sided wall
lectures. In 1901 van de Velde was invited by the Grand cabinets were painted white, as were the doors and chairs.
Duke of Saxe-Weimar to head the Weimar School for Arts Made of flat rectangular boards, these chairs assumed a
and Crafts, the immediate predecessor of the Bauhaus strangely affected stiff grace which pointed back to van de
which opened under the direction of Walter Gropius in Velde's 1895 Uccle chairs (page 94) .
1919 in the building which van de Velde designed. This other pole of the New Style— designing with pre
A special place in the history of the movement was oc cise geometric elements in rhythmic patterns —had already
cupied by the city of Darmstadt (page 91). In 1899 the proved its attraction to the Glasgow group as it did to the
young Grand Duke Ernst Ludwig of Hesse called together artists of the Vienna Secession where Mackintosh exhibited
seven young artists to work and live as a group. Among with acclaim in 1900. Behrens's rich and somewhat pon
those invited to the artists' colony at Mathildenhohe were derous style, although similarly geometric, seems to have
Peter Behrens who came from Munich and Joseph Maria developed simultaneously and to have led him toward the
Olbrich who came from Vienna where in 1898 he had restraint and clarity of the modern movement.

116
 AUSTRIA

The modern movement in Austria was almost entirely

concentrated in Vienna. As early as 1897 Arthur von Scala,
Director of the Austrian Museum for Art and Industry,
exhibited copies of recent English furniture made by local
craftsmen under his direction, in an effort to break with
tradition and inspire enthusiasm for the new style. In re
viewing these exhibitions Adolf Loos wrote his scathing
exhortations comparing the technically perfect and func
tionally sound examples of English and American design
to the ornamental fantasies of his Viennese contempo
raries, with whom nevertheless he shared the same princi
7 pal ideas about the regeneration of life through the arts.
The architect Otto Wagner, in his publication Moderne
Architektur (1895), had expounded on the interrelation
ship between modern life and architecture and his students,
among them Josef Hoffmann, Joseph Maria Olbrich,
Alfred Roller, and Koloman Moser, responded with en
thusiasm to his theories and work. They were among the
founders of the Vienna Secession, which in 1897 united
the avant-garde artists into a central organization and ex
hibited local and international art in carefully designed
installations reflecting the Viennese taste.
The elegance characteristic of this Viennese corollary of
the New Style appears not only in Olbrich's architecture
but also in his decorative objects. His pewter candelabrum
has a tapering silhouette embellished only by abstract line
decoration (page 118). This is a revealing example of the
way in which Olbrich arrived at a fresh formal solution of
a design problem that van de Velde was to solve perhaps
more brilliantly (page 96) but also more traditionally. Moser: Woven silk and wool fabric. 1899.Made by Back-
Gertraud von Schnellenbuhel offered a solution (page 119) hausen & Sohne, Vienna. OsterreichischesMuseum fur
AngewandteKunst, Vienna
which was a peculiarly Germanic exaggeration of the New
Style's fantasy.
The Vienna Secession, with its headquarters in Olbrich's
cube-shaped building, and its publication, Ver Sacrum, dis
tinctive for its square format as well as its advanced use of
graphics, became an international center of new directions
8" Olbrich: Candlestick, (c. 1900.) Pewter. l4y high. Museum fur
Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg
Von Schnellenbiihel: Candelabrum. (After 1911.) Silver-plated brass, c. 19" high. Miinchner Stadtmuseum. Munich
Moser: Liqueur glass, (c. 1900.) Clear Kopping: Decorative flower glass. Lotz Witwe: Bottle-vase. (c. 1902.) Gold
glass bowl, red stem and base. 6%" 1895-96. Tinted blown glass, c. iridescent glass. 14%" high. Osterreich-
high. Osterreichisches Museum fiir 12" high. Det Danske Kunstin- isches Museum fiir Angewandte Kunst,
Angewandte Kunst, Vienna. Gift of dustrimuseet, Copenhagen Vienna
R. Steindl
in art and design. Koloman Moser, a talented designer of the curvilinear vein, Josef Hoffmann's work is on the whole
posters and decorative objects, was Austria's closest parallel geometric. His interior spaces are rectangular; there is no
to the French and Belgian exponents of curvilinear form, evidence of the characteristic Art Nouveau device by which
as is evident in his suave textile design (page 117). An the wall glides into the ceiling or curves into another wall
other Moser design, a liqueur glass, is stripped of orna by omitting right-angled intersections (page 143). Hoff
ment but made decorative by the shallowness of its clear mann's furniture also is angular in design; the fronts of
bowl perched on an attenuated stem rising from a flat, sideboards or vitrines are articulated by flat rectangular
burgundy-red base (opposite). This amusing form may be planes and decorated with rows of identically framed glass
compared to a similarly undecorated but delicately tinted squares. His wall decoration consists of small geometric
decorative glass by the Berlin graphic artist Karl Kopping forms placed in rows on otherwise white walls. His fabrics
(opposite). With its unexpectedly twisted stem erratically are usually striped, and the decoration of his famous jew
sprouting leaves, Kopping's too-fragile glass shows a per elry and silver is often a grid of rectangles framing char
sonal inventiveness characteristic of the New Style. At the acteristically heart-shaped leaf patterns (below).
turn of the century the European glass industry tried to The rich ornamentation of so much of Art Nouveau de
emulate the shapes and colors of Tiffany glass. Only the pended on a continuous flow of invention, with each object
factory of Lotz Witwe in Klostermiihle, Bohemia, arrived being treated as a unique event. The simpler relationships
at interesting solutions (opposite) which, however, did not of flat surfaces, such as Hoffmann favored, pointed the
quite measure up to Tiffany's free-flowing fantasies. way to the next generation's esthetic of unembellished geo
Although his early work included beautiful examples in metric form.
Greta Daniel

Hoffmann: Brooch, (c. 1908.) Gold, moonstones,

opals, pearls. I%x2%". Made by Wiener Werkstatte,
Vienna. Collection Mrs. F. Beer-Monti, New York

121
Sullivan: Carson Pirie Scott & Co., Chicago.
1903-04. Main entrance

Sullivan: Carson Pirie Scott & Co., Chicago.

SHIsi
•aste"-
1903-04. Detail

-nS3SLi:-;-
 ART NOUVEAU ARCHITECTURE

1 For all the fragility of its fluttering forms the rococo of the torical studies.
eighteenth century was a sturdy plant, surviving for half a A precise definition of Art Nouveau is difficult to set
century. In comparison, Art Nouveau, although initiatory down nevertheless, especially as it was known in its own
of a major change in architectural style, had a very brief day by a great variety of names in different countries and
and uncertain life. The architects involved in this fin de each of those names suggests a somewhat different aspect.
siecle episode, which lasted only for some fifteen years Among the more descriptive designations, usually applied
( 1890-C.1905 ) or even less in most of the countries of in derision, such as "Paling (eel) stijl" in Belgium and
western Europe, shared with other contemporary innovators "Style nouille" in France, or "Schnorkelstil" and "Band-
little but a general desire to break with the past. Many of wurmstil" in Germany, only the Italian "Stile floreale" has
them, moreover, soon came to regard their early work as retained any general currency, while the genetically more
the wild oats of youth. accurate terms, "Ligne beige," "Belgische stil," or "Stile
It is actually possible to recount the history of modern inglese," have long been forgotten. Except in Belgium,
architecture over the last seventy or eighty years without which was certainly the locus of birth if not of conception
paying much attention to Art Nouveau (and until a few of Art Nouveau architecture, the contemporary critics in
years ago most writers did just that). The individual con each country seem, in naming what they early recognized
tributions of Voysey in England, of Berlage in Holland, as a novel and original artistic manifestation, to have em
of Wright in America, of Perret in France, of Behrens in phasized the feeling that it was alien to their own national
Germany, and of Loos in Austria, beginning around 1890 traditions by using terms such as "Art Nouveau" in Eng
and especially after 1900, certainly seem more relevant land, "Modern Style" in France, and "Stile inglese" (or,
to the architecture that was to become widely accepted in more usually, "Stile Liberty") in Italy. The Spanish and
the western world by the mid-thirties of this century. Even Catalan term "Modernismo," however, has no such conno
the rather similar architecture of Sullivan in America (op tation. The situation is also rather different and also more
posite), almost contemporaneous in its major phase with complex as regards Germany and Austria. One cannot
Art Nouveau, and that of Gaudi in Spain (pages 124-125) simply accept the local names "Jugendstil" and "Seces-
whose peak of achievement came somewhat later, are paral sionsstil" as alternative terms identical in meaning to Art
lel to, not an integral part of, the international Art Nouveau Nouveau, nor even as mere national variants like the Italian
movement. "Stile floreale."
However, no matter how circumscribed the Art Nouveau Eels, noodles, and tapeworms do all serve to suggest,
episode in architecture is considered to be, there exist a cer however, if in a humorous and pejorative way, the charac
tain number of buildings of real distinction which belong teristically sinuous linearity of Art Nouveau. Eels and tape
exclusively to that stylistic category. Yet a full generation worms, moreover, suggest also the biomorphic qualities of
passed before anyone could look again at the architectural the semi-naturalistic, semi-abstract decorative elements that
productions of Art Nouveau with either pleasure or ap generally affected certain structural elements as well. The
proval. Serious interest, both scholarly and popular, has floral, if it is considered to refer to the total forms of plants
increased notably since World War II, leading to a series including leaves, stalks, and roots and not merely to their
of exhibitions in several countries and also to detailed his blooms, still better epitomizes conceptually (if not always

123
 visually) the sort of organic expression that was always
aimed at and fairly often achieved.
In contrast to the static qualities of most traditional nine
teenth-century architecture, Art Nouveau was, both in in
tent and in form, an art of growth. In writing about Art
Nouveau one is torn between two approaches: to pre
sent this floral-eel-and-noodle style in its purest state as an
architectural episode that was very brief and very confined;
or to look forward to what happened a bit later. Around
1900 many European architects who had been more or less
deeply involved in Art Nouveau in their youth turned
sharply away— both in their handling of large architectural
forms and in their attitude toward decoration — from the
linear to the planar, and from the sinuous to the geometric.
Wright's organic architecture of the "Prairie" years after
1900 is "organic" in a sense very different from Art
Nouveau even though he still used rather rich curvilinear
ornament derived from Sullivan as late as 1899 in his
Husser house in Chicago. Behrens in his youth, before he
became an architect, was a painter and a distinguished Art
Nouveau designer of decorative and graphic art. Yet very
soon after settling in Darmstadt in 1901 he went well be
yond his Austrian mentor, Olbrich, in rejecting organic
curves in favor of plane-surfaced cubic forms in his build
Gaudi: Casa Mila, Barcelona. 1905-07.Detail of facade ings. In justice to the complicated and often ambiguous life
stories of many of the protagonists it is wiser, therefore, to
allow a fuller definition of Art Nouveau to develop from
a description of a few characteristic monuments rather than
to attempt to set down verbally anything of the sort at this
point.
In evaluating the general importance of Art Nouveau
its wide and long-continued survival down to World War I
should not be ignored. Such survival balances to a consid
erable extent the serious failure of Art Nouveau to win
convinced adherents among the architects of England and
America, despite the notable contribution that the graphic
and decorative work of at least one Englishman, Mack-
murdo (pages 26, 27), made in the 1880s and the closely
related approach of the American, Tiffany, whose activity

124
 was also largely restricted to the fields of design and deco
ration (seepages 106, 107).
The small selection of Art Nouveau buildings discussed
and illustrated in this essay are among those that may be
considered to have equal rank, say, with the Casa Mila of
1' Gaudi of 1905-07 in Barcelona or even with Sullivan's
Guaranty Building of 1894-95 in Buffalo.
With the exception of the department stores in Brussels
and other European cities (pages 126-128) , which are most
readily measured against Sullivan's big buildings, the larg
est and the most prominent architectural monument of Art
Nouveau is Horta's Maison du Peuple of 1897-99 in Brus
sels. Although not perfectly maintained, this still serves its
multiple purposes as the headquarters of the Belgian Social
ist Party. It also makes evident that Art Nouveau was not
considered suitable only for millionaires' mansions, as
Horta's houses for the head of a great chemical enterprise
and for the entrepreneur of the Belgian interests in the Gaudi: Casa Mila, Barcelona. 1905-07. General view
Congo might seem to indicate.
The ideals of Morris appealed strongly to most of the
innovators of Art Nouveau, both as regards the inclusive-
5 ness of his principles and his emphasis on the social purpose Belgian magazines by van de Velde, was actually used by
of design. So also did the ideals of a Viollet-le-Duc as re Horta in the Tassel dining room. This fact proves no more
gards the frank use of modern materials and the develop than that Horta was familiar with English proto-Art
ment of new forms of expression appropriate to those Nouveau design, although to the art historian it is sug
materials. But theory alone rarely creates an architecture; gestive of a major source of influence. But otherwise Horta,
nor do the implications of theory have much to do with the who had been trained by the Brussels Academy professor
quality of that architecture's visual aspects— at least as that Balat, and for some years actually employed by him, seems
quality is evaluated by later generations. to have owed his inspiration more to Viollet-le-Duc than
The multiple ingredients of Art Nouveau have been to the English. The stair hall of the Tassel house follows
much analyzed of late years and most of them specifically Viollet-le-Duc in the emphasis given to the metal elements,
identified, particularly by the Norwegian art historian which are at once structural and decoratively elaborated
3 Madsen. Its essential novelty is attested, however, by the (page 129). But the character of the linear decoration in
4 fact that no amount of analysis can wholly explain how the stair rail, on the floor, and especially on the wall, is
Art Nouveau came into being in architecture, five years quite beyond the mid-nineteenth-century medievalist's crea
before the Maison du Peuple was begun, when Horta de tive range. Here we must accept that something quite new
signed his epoch-making Tassel house. An English Century began.
Guild wallpaper by Heywood Sumner, one of those shown Close relationship to Viollet-le-Duc's ideas for a new
in Antwerp that winter of 1892-93 and praised in two architecture —conceptual, fortunately, rather than visual—

125
Horta: Grand Bazar Anspach, Brussels. 1895 Saintenoy: Old England Store, Brussels, 1899
[ft

Horta: A 1'Innovation, Brussels. 1901 Jourdain: Samaritaine Store, Paris. 1905

Messel: Wertheim Store, Berlin. 1896
Horta: Tassel house, 6 rue Paul-Emile
Janson, Brussels. 1892-93. Stair hall
 is still very evident in the frankness with which exposed that it is not an architectural "style," but only an interior
6 metal construction is used both on the facade and in the mode; and two, that it is only a form of applied decoration.
auditorium of the Maison du Peuple. As is generally true Yet it also provides answers to these contentions. However
of Art Nouveau buildings, the auditorium (opposite) in justly they may be applied to much of the production of
side is more successful than the exterior. There the slanting the period, there is no other way to define the architecture
supports, carrying the side galleries at half their height, of such a large-scale work, outside as well as inside, except
bend gracefully across the top in curves that are even more as Art Nouveau; and the same is a fortiori true of Horta's
structurally expressive and boldly decorative than the metal other large building in Brussels, the department store
elements in the Tassel stair-hall. Yet there is a clear dis A l'lnnovation of 1901 (page 127) in the rue Neuve.
tinction between the firm lines of these major architectural Here the structural elements of the metalwork, externally
members and the lusher and more foliate patterns of the as well as internally, are even more considerably affected
balcony railing. The actual enclosure of space is handled by a curvilinear esthetic.
very simply with what is, in effect, the ' curtain-wall, It is nevertheless true that except for these two examples,
destined to become such an architectural commonplace sixty the Art Nouveau of Horta is seen at its best not in whole
years later. Thus the emphasis, visually as well as struc buildings but in particular features, such as the early stair
turally, is on the openwork metal principals, and solid hall of the Tassel house (pages 92, 129), the salon of the
elements play no part in the general composition. van Eetvelde house (page 132), or the balcony and the
Compared to the only other large building of this period studio windows of his own house of 1898 in the rue Ameri-
which incorporates similar curves in the external periphery, caine (page 133). Moreover, when he ceased to use metal
Gaudi's Casa Mila (page 125), Horta's facade is far less externally and drastically restrained his use of curvilinear
arbitrary and also far more open (opposite) . Even granted detail, as in the Gros Waucquez Building of 1903-05 in the
the unusual site, Viollet-le-Duc would hardly have known rue du Sable (page 133) or the Hallet house of 1906 in
how to exploit the irregular sequence of curves provided by the avenue Louise, the inventor of Art Nouveau architecture
a section of the circular Place van de Velde and two entrant himself seemed already to be leaving Art Nouveau behind.
streets in the positive way of Horta. Here Art Nouveau, Some architects of distinction outside Belgium were more
generally considered to be linear and two-dimensional, loath than Horta to desert Art Nouveau. Gaudi may not
becomes wholly plastic; not plastic in the decorative sense be, strictly speaking, an Art Nouveau architect; yet cer
but at full architectural scale. If the whole fagade is a con tainly his most extreme use of curved forms dates from
tinuous undulant curve in plan, few curves interrupt the precisely these years well after the opening of the new
matter-of-fact structural pattern of metal stanchions and century (pages 124, 125). Guimard, the leading exponent
girders or the narrow but solid stone-and-brick piers that of Art Nouveau architecture in France, continued faithful
mark the major subdivisions of the facade. The main en to it as late as 1911 in the apartment houses he built at
trance, it is true, has a clumsy arch of metal awkwardly 17-21 rue Fontaine in Paris. These are, however, consider
rising out of plant-like carved stone imposts, and the longer ably chastened compared to his finest Art Nouveau work,
horizontal metal members have a slightly rising bottom the Metro entrances of 1898-1900 and the interior of 1902
line; but elaborate Art Nouveau decoration is restricted to in the demolished Humbert de Romans Building in the
the railings and the entrance grill (see page 44) . rue St. Didier.
Thus this major work of Horta lends some support to The latter rivaled Horta's auditorium in the Maison du
two negative contentions concerning Art Nouveau: one, Peuple. With its centralized plan and markedly curved

130
Horta: Maison du Peuple, Place Van de Velde,
Brussels. 1897-99. Auditorium

Horta: Maison du Peuple. Place Van de Velde,

Brussels. 1897-99. Fagade

131
Horta: Van Eetvelde House, 4 Avenue Palmerston, Brussels. 1895. Salon
Horta: Own house, rue Americaine, Brussels. 1898. Balcony Horta: Gros Waucquez Building, rue du Sable,
Brussels. 1903-05. Fagade detail
- : l t

Guimard: Humbert de Romans Building, rue St. Didier, Paris. 1902. Auditorium (demolished)
 supports, it was perhaps a more striking manifestation of the Munich School. But what is as true of the missionary
Art Nouveau (opposite). The exterior, however, was from Brussels and Paris as of native practitioners like
clumsy and ambiguous, like his earlier Castel Beranger at Eckmann, Obrist, Pankok, and Riemerschmid is that the
16 rue la Fontaine completed in 1897, which shared with most characteristic production of all of them in the nineties
Bing's Maison de l'Art Nouveau the responsibility for in was in the field of the decorative and graphic arts, not in
troducing the Belgian "Modern Style" into France. architecture. Several of them were quite active as architects
Although some of the finest of them have disappeared, after the height of the Art Nouveau movement was over;
and one at least has reached America to rise again in New Behrens and Olbrich, whose background in the nineties
7 York (below), Guimard's claim to fame as an Art Nou was similar, became real leaders of advanced German archi
veau architect rests on his Metropolitain stations. These are tecture after the opening years of the twentieth century.
certainly not primarily interiors, yet the larger of them, Their buildings of those later years, although usually de
such as that still at the Place de la Bastille and the one scribed as Jugendstil, bear little resemblance to the deco
which used to be at the Place de l'Etoile (page 136) , were rative work of the nineties that imitated and rivaled — and
definitely buildings. As in Horta's work, construction in may even in some instances have preceded — the Art Nou
metal and glass encouraged full exploitation of Art Nou veau production of Brussels and Paris. Such German de
veau ideals; while at this modest scale a close integration signers have a place in the general story of Art Nouveau
of structural and decorative forms was more feasible than
in Florta's larger buildings.
Similar qualities are present, if less consistently devel
oped, in two Paris department stores of the opening years
of the century, Jourdain's Samaritaine on the rue de la
Monnaieof 1905 (page 127) and Gutton's Grand Bazar de
la rue de Rennes (now Magasins Reunis) . The Samaritaine
combines colored faience marquetry with the metal-work,
thus employing a material especially popular in Paris, not
only among vulgarizers of Art Nouveau such as Lavirotte
and Schoellkopf, but even used on one notable occasion by
8 Perret. Moreover, the relative lushness and realism of the
floral decoration on the Samaritaine links this Parisian work
with that variant of the Art Nouveau known as "Stile
floreale" in Italy. This flourished very widely in the first
decade of the new century and achieved considerable
autochthonous distinction at the hands of such architects as
D'Aronco, Sommaruga, and Campanini.
The situation is rather different and also more complex
as regards Germany and Austria. Some aspects of the
Jugendstil and of the "Secessionsstil" are certainly true
manifestations of Art Nouveau, whether represented by Guimard: Metropolitain entrance gate. c. 1900. Collection The
the work of the Belgian van de Velde or by the work of Museum of Modern Art, New York

135
Guimard: Metropolitain Station, Place
de la Bastille, Paris. 1900

Guimard: Metropolitain Station, Place

de l'fitoile, Paris. 1900 (demolished)
 because of their early contribution, but as architects they
belong rather to the next phase of the history of modern
architecture.
Very much the same must be said of the Viennese. Al
though Otto Wagner was a long-established academic
architect by the nineties and even a professor at the Akade-
mie, he was strongly though briefly influenced by Art
Nouveau. Among his Stadtbahn stations in Vienna, that at
the Karlsplatz (right) with its light metal frame, thin
panels, curved outlines, and floral stencilings is especially
comparable to Guimard's in Paris and even a year or two
earlier in date. The bold floral ornament on the facade of
his Majolika Haus is also Art Nouveau; but the smooth
flat plane that the shiny faience tiles produce (so different
from the plasticity of the glazed terra cotta facades by
Wagner: Karlsplatz Stadtbahn Station. Vienna, c. 1897
French architects around 1900 with neo-rococo and neo-
baroque leanings ) , not to speak of the rectilinearity of the
ironwork, are premonitory of the later style of his major
works of 1904-06, the Postal Savings Bank in Vienna and
Sankt Leopold in Hietzing.
Quite naturally the young men associated with the revolt
of the Secession against the academy went much further
than Wagner. The pages of their magazine V er Sacrum,
which first appeared in 1898, are full of evidence of the
acceptance of Art Nouveau by such men as Olbrich, Hoff
mann (right), and Moser, and even perhaps by Loos,
but very little of it is architectural. Like their German con
temporaries, these young men were still primarily design
ers and decorators, not yet architects. When they began to
build, they left Art Nouveau behind — Loos completely in
his Goldmann haberdashery shop as early as 1898, Olbrich
more gradually just before and just after his move to Darm
stadt in 1900, and Hoffmann and Moser a year or two later.
There is one German work of architecture of the nineties
that deserves more extended discussion, if as much for its
ambiguities as for its virtuosity, the Atelier Elvira of 1897
in Munich by Endell (page 138). Remove the enormous
decorative relief, abstract and yet strangely suggestive of Hoffmann: Project for an entrance. Ver
several sorts of natural forms and forces, and the smooth Sacrum, July 1898

137
:-^|Ti
i......,«Tr;}:-:-:'^;:i-{^r:ri_u;f>':-:nt:_uii.iij^
IBB ;

»'

• .

Endell: Atelier Elvira, Munich. 1897. Fagade (destroyed)

Endell: Atelier Elvira, Munich. 1897
Stair hall (destroyed)
 Germany, offers an even more cogent example than Wag
ner's slightly later Majolika Haus in Vienna of how the
new modes of the nineties in Germany and Austria, Jugend-
stil and "Secessionsstil," both overlapped and also moved
rapidly away from the international style of the day as
centered in Brussels and Paris. Schmalenbach in 1935 re
ferred to the Jugendstil in his title as "Flachenkunst," that
is, an art of surfaces. What the Germans and Austrians
certainly retained for about a decade in architecture from
their early Jugendstil of the nineties was an emphasis on
flat surfaces. But very shortly they dropped from those
surfaces the large-scale curvilinear ornament that links
such things as the Atelier Elvira and the Majolika Haus so
tightly to Art Nouveau. Considered as architecture, there
fore, even early manifestations of Jugendstil differ in their
basic conception from Belgian and French work in which
the structural elements themselves are always organic and
often curved as well.
Yet the relief on the facade of the Atelier Elvira, al
though developed from modest embroidery patterns by
Endell: Buntes Theatre, Berlin. 1901
Obrist of some years earlier under the reinforcing influence
of Brussels and Paris, is fully architectural in scale and cer
flat stucco surface with its crisp cornice and sharp-cut open tainly pulls that building well within the orbit of Art
ings asymmetrically disposed is far more characteristic of Nouveau. In Endell's Buntes Theater (left) in Berlin of
a certain stage of what is broadly called the Modern Move four years later the Art Nouveau relationship remained
ment" than of the Art Nouveau of Horta and Guimard. clearly evident. After that, influence from Brussels and
The decorative panels on the Castel Beranger by Guimard Paris rapidly disappeared, even in the work of those most
may well have inspired the decoration here but inside, involved in importing that influence into Germany such
with the eyes half closed, one seems to see in the stair hall as van de Velde.
(page 139) the spiky rococo of the mid-eighteenth century Although Wagner was responsible for the major Aus
in Germanic lands, despite the specifically Art Nouveau trian architectural monuments of the early years of the
characteristics of particular elements such as the lighting twentieth century, his pupil Hoffmann was the continuing
fixture. But this was a tour-de-force all the same, much leader of the "Secessionsstil." His executed architectural
superior to the conspicuous works of the day by French work, beginning soon after 1900, seems at first sight to
architects who attempted to make their revival of the rococo offer no such potent links with Art Nouveau as are so evi
fresher and more piquant by introducing coarse reflections dent in the Atelier Elvira and the Majolika Haus. Yet the
of certain aspects of Art Nouveau. basic conception of the decorative workshops that he
The facade of the Atelier Elvira, which has long been founded in 1903, the Wiener Werkstatte, in continuing
recognized as the most striking example of Art Nouveau in the line of the English Art and Crafts movement, continued

140
 also the similarly derived Art Nouveau ideal of extending years, however, notably the murals executed in collabora
the sanctions of art to all fields of design. As regards archi tion with his wife in Miss Cranston's Tearooms (pages 68-
tecture, however, Hoffmann offered in his first large-scale 69) from 1897 on, is closer to the continental Art Nouveau
work, a Convalescent Home at Purkersdorf of 1903-04, even though it seems to derive in the main from various
an even more stripped example of "Flachenkunst" than British sources.
anything by Wagner. This, one might say, is what the Whether a few major works, such as those selected for
Majolika Haus would be like if the Art Nouveau floral discussion and illustration in this essay, will persuade any
patterns were removed from its flat geometrical surface. one not already interested in and familiar with Art Nou
Yet Hoffmann's finest work, the Palais Stoclet (pages veau of the importance of this brief episode in the early
142, 143) which he began in Brussels a year later, is less history of modern architecture is hard to guess. The early
ascetic by a long shot. The flat surfaces consist of marble rejection of what seemed after 1900 only a fashion or fad;
plates, like those Wagner was also using at this point, but the more considered rejection in the 1920s of what was
they are framed by rather rich moldings of gilded bronze judged a false turning from the straight path "vers une
modeled in small curvilinear patterns even though their architecture"; the Surrealist acceptance by a few in the
bounding lines are rigidly straight. But what most defi thirties of an architecture reputedly instinct with Freudian
nitely links this house back to Art Nouveau are various undertones; the more scholarly acceptance of the 1940s and
aspects of the interior decoration, particularly the mosaics fifties of a phase of recent art history considered worthy of
inset in the smooth marble walls of the dining room which objective and unemotional study— none of these attitudes
are perhaps the masterpiece of Klimt (pages 78, 143 ) . The is quite relevant any more.
more revolutionary architecture of Loos during these years, The march of time has carried Art Nouveau through the
and even his richest interiors, include no such continuing valley of disrepute that follows almost every artistic episode
echoes of the curvilinear decoration of the nineties. and given it the prestige of at least relative age. Moreover,
Mackintosh in Glasgow is a figure whose development we are on the whole less puritanical and singleminded
is at once parallel to and divergent from Art Nouveau in a about architecture today than we were in the twenties and
fashion quite as embarrassing to critics and historians as less naively Freudian than in the thirties. The historians
that of the Germans and Austrians whom he influenced; are perhaps still ahead of the public in their acceptance of
for that influence on the Continent, from about 1900, was Art Nouveau but current developments in architecture are
all against the continuance of Art Nouveau in architecture. lending a new relevance to a re-examination and re-evalua
Mackintosh's Glasgow School of Art (page 145), precisely tion of Art Nouveau.
contemporaneous with Horta's Maison du Peuple, has very The relationship of these trends to Art Nouveau lies
few points in common with the Brussels building. Built of more in a mere rejection of the International Style of the
stone, with concrete lintels over the regular ranges of large thirties than in any consistency of ideals or real similarity
matter-of-fact studio windows, the architectural treatment of forms. One may note in many recent buildings the return
of the entrance recalls not Horta's work but rather Webb's of curves in section, in plan, and even in elevation, and the
in its semi-traditionalism. Only the ironwork, of which preference for types of expressive structure more organic in
there is very little, has a positively Art Nouveau flavor, appearance, if not in fact, than the reticulated cage. In this
especially the curious curved members with knotted tops looser and more eclectic climate of taste that has come with
that lean inward from the sills against the windows. the mid-century it should be possible to appreciate more
Mackintosh's more purely decorative work of these early fully the virtues of Art Nouveau architecture. But it is well

141
 SKgSPg

Hoffmann: Palais Stoclet, Brussels. 1905-11. Street fagade

 J*"
•«
BillIn

Hoffmann: Palais Stoclet, Brussels. 1905-11

View from rear

Hoffmann: Palais Stoclet, Brussels. 1905-11

Dining room with Klimt mosaics on walls
to consider why it was so brief an episode and also why so specifically Art Nouveau character at all. This interior was,
few major works were produced; otherwise Art Nouveau however, rather exceptional so late as the mid- 1900s. The
may easily be dismissed as no more than an irrelevant his more characteristic articulation of Hoffmann's two-storied
hall in the Palais Stoclet of 1905-11 is in terms of solid, if
torical fluke.
It is a commonplace of modern theory, curiously inap slim, marble piers; and in the other interiors a link with
plicable to the greater part of the advanced production of Art Nouveau remains only in the mosaic or other decoration
the last thirty-five years, that architecture is primarily an of some of the solid, if smooth and flat, surfaces of marble
art of space. This can justify a high esthetic evaluation of (page 143).
the larger Art Nouveau interiors — not only those of lead As to Art Nouveau exteriors, only those largely of metal
ing designers such as Horta and Guimard, but of more and glass offer an external expression parallel to and, as it
commercial architects such as Rene Binet— and not as were, symbolic of the new spatial qualities of the interiors.
mere "interior decoration' (like the rooms contributed to Even the largest of Guimard's Metro stations (page 136)
various exhibitions by Art Nouveau artists in the late nine hardly have interiors of independent consequence; but
ties and early 1900s) but as architecture in the fullest sense. taken as a whole they are certainly closely related in their
The spatial qualities of the auditoriums of the Maison du prime visual effects— that of the glass marquees, for ex
Peuple (page 131) and the Humbert de Romans Building ample —to Horta's interiors. This is equally true of the best
(page 134) or even of the salon in the van Eetvelde house department stores, if somewhat less so of the Maison du
(page 132) are not tentative or premonitory of later mod Peuple (page 131).
ern architecture but wholly mature and assured in their own If one thinks forward to the glass and metal industrial
right, more satisfying to the observer than most comparable work of Behrens and of Gropius dating from the years
later interiors. The thin lines of the isolated metal struc 1909, 1910, and 1911, the notable difference in esthetic
tural elements, curving organically where they are joined principle will be evident. That difference does not lie
at the top, the transparent or patently screen-like elements merely in the disappearance of decoration and of all curves,
of enclosure stretched like membranes at the outer confines but much more in the diminution of organic emphasis in
of a volume that the structural elements penetrate — these the scaling and the profiling of the structural elements of
novel and essential features combine to create a kind of metal.
space unexploited earlier and not repeated since. The tall Granted that Art Nouveau was capable on occasion of
light-courts of the department stores, even though they had creating monuments almost wholly sui generis, neither to
a technical lineage of two generations and more, share these be passed off as late examples of nineteenth-century ferro-
novel qualities; they are also present in more dilute form in vitreous construction nor as premonitions of later modern
most of the interiors of Horta's houses. architecture, why are there so few that stand the test of
Even in a building otherwise more representative of the time? It is in this respect that the transitional character of
Viennese reaction against Art Nouveau, Wagner's Postal the episode is most apparent. Art Nouveau could be, and
Savings Bank of 1904-06, the principal interior space con most often was, used even by the most conscientious de
tinues to manifest these qualities (page 146) . The tapered signers merely as a superficial stylization of traditional
aluminum supports penetrate the transparent planes of the structure when they were obliged to build largely in
glazed roof which rise in delicate curves to mold the space, masonry. Unlike the Late Gothic masters, the Art Nouveau
and the surrounding walls are flat and apparently weight architects had no talent for etherealizing stonework. It was
less. Yet the minimal decoration is all geometric, with no the undeniable evidence of the unsuitability of Art Nou-

144
 Mackintosh: School of Art, Glasgow. 1897-99

Horta: Hotel Solvay, 224 avenue Louise. 1895

1900. Dining room
 ' . V-/inmi vv- *
V - ^ r <
V--,' » ' i , $: S ~C- r-v.

Wagner: Postal Savings Bank, Vienna. 1904-06. Court

 veau to stone and brick, still the most widely used building the organic ideal of their esthetic, and a mode that con
materials, that logically led to its early rejection. Solid sidered the smallest elements of domestic furnishing —
wai.> could be most effectively made to appear light and silverware, glassware, pottery — capable of highly expres
thin by using plaquage (page 143, top) or some other de sive treatment could hardly consent to deprive larger archi
vice that stressed the flatness and smoothness of the surface tectural elements of equal invention in design and equal
as was, of course, to be done even more consistently a bit perfection of execution. Most architects evidently grew
later in the twenties and thirties. rapidly tired of a method of design so inapplicable to much
Equally important, perhaps, was the excessive amount of the actual building they were required to do; while at
of invention that even a modest Art Nouveau structure the same time they were discovering that their capacity for
required. Guimard, using members of metal cast in series, invention had flagged after only a few years of practice.
could produce his Metro stations in considerable quantity Such considerations are necessarily hypothetical, but they
without any loss of quality. But one of Horta's houses, and suggest that the early abandonment of Art Nouveau was
a fortiori large buildings such as the Maison du Peuple or only partly a reaction to the faddish vulgarization that set
L Innovation, required a tremendous amount of special de- in around 1900. It may equally have been the extreme diffi
signing. Art Nouveau inevitably implied in the hands of culty of living up to their own highest aspirations that led
devoted designers a custom-made, if by no means neces men like Horta and van de Velde to turn away from it so
sarily a handmade, method of production. The traditional early. At least, in looking at Art Nouveau architecture, it is
architects and decorators of the period, although they had well to consider the enormous difficulties that its integral
to adapt and not merely to copy the stylistic detail they production entailed, however easy it was to slap on to essen
borrowed from the past, nevertheless had little need to tially traditional work a few quirks and squiggles that
originate. Those architects of the period who were to be passed muster for a few years as in the latest fashion.
the spiritual fathers of later modern architecture were One must finally conclude that Art Nouveau, like certain
vowed almost from the first to simplicity, relative though style-phases of the earlier past—the Manoeline in Portugal
that simplicity was to appear to later critics in the twenties and of course the French rococo—very rarely reached full
and thirties in the case of everyone but Loos. Even if such fruition in architecture, despite its extensive success in the
men had to design afresh every element of one of their minor arts. But there was an Art Nouveau architecture, and
early buildings, they were on the whole able to do it once that architecture was capable of distinguished achievement,
and for all— at least that was increasingly the ambition of as the few buildings dealt with in this essay certainly illus
most of the new leaders after the opening years of the trate. For all the relatively greater profusion of decorative
century, and even more of the next generation that came design of the period in interiors, in furniture, in objets
to the fore in the twenties. d' art, and in the graphic arts, the major monuments of that
But Art Nouveau architects had to design each element architecture at its best had qualities not seen before nor
from a stanchion to a door-frame — not to speak of all the since. It therefore takes its proper place among the minor,
furniture and accessories— every time they undertook a new but significant, phases of the art maitresse.
commission. Standardization would have been contrary to Henry-Russell Hitchcock

147
NOTES TO THE TEXT

INTRODUCTION

1 Alexander Koch, "Aufruf an die Deutschen Kiinstler und the 1885 Sorbonne lectures of Charles Henry. The paintings
Kunstfreunde," Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration, Vol. 1. of Seurat and Gauguin also antedate van de Velde
16 August Endell, quoted in Selz, op. cit. p. 55-56
1897-1898, p. 1
17 Van Gogh "was permitted to roam through Bing's entire
2 First Proclamation of the Weimar Bauhaus, in Bayer, Gropius
building, including cellar and attic, and his enthusiasm knew
and Gropius, Bauhaus, New York, Museum of Modern Art,
no limits." Rewald, op. cit. p. 72
1938, p. 16
18 Robert Koch, "Art Nouveau Bing," Gazette des Beaux- Arts,
3 Walter Crane, Transaction of the National Association for
Ser. 6, Vol. 53, March 1959, p. 179-190
the Advancement of Art and Its Application to Industry,
19 Karl Ernst Osthaus, Van de Velde, Hagen, Folkwang Verlag,
Liverpool, 1888, p. 216
1920, p. 19
4 Leo Tolstoy, What Is Art? Translation from the Russian by 20 S. Bing, "L'Art Nouveau," The Architectural Record, Vol.
Aylmer Maude, New York, Crowell, 1899, p. 43 12, No. 3, August 1902, p. 281
5 One of the important Symbolist reviews in Paris was the 21 Ibid. p. 283.
Revue W agnerienne, founded in 1885 by Edouard Dujardin. 22 Louis Sullivan, "Characteristics and Tendencies of American
Among its famous contributors were Stephane Mallarme, Architecture," Inland Architect and Builder, 6, Nov. 1885,
Stuart Merrill, and Theodor de Wyzewa. p. 58
6 Gerstle Mack, Toulouse-Lautrec, New York, Knopf, 1938, 23 Otto Wagner, Moderne Architektur, Vienna, 1895 (4th edi
p. 319-320 tion published as Die Baukunst unserer Zeit, Vienna, 1914)
7 See p. 44 24 "Each time its art."
8 Jean Moreas, "Le Symbolisme," Figaro Litteraire, Sept. 18, 25 Preface to Vol. 1, No. 1 of fugend, 1896
1886 26 A. D. F. Hamlin, "L'Art Nouveau: Its Origin and Develop
9 Stephane Mallarme, "Reponse a une enquete," in J. Huret, ment," The Craftsman, Vol. 3, Dec. 1902, p. 129. The other
Enquete sur I' evolution litteraire, Paris, 1891, reprinted in articles in this series are: Irene Sargent, "The Wavy Line,"
L' Art moderne, Aug. 9, 1891 The Craftsman, Vol. 2, June 1902, p. 131-142; Jean Schopfer,
10 For a more thorough discussion of Symbolist theory see Guy "L'Art Nouveau: An Argument and Defence," The Crafts
Michaud, La Doctrine Symboliste (Documents), Paris, 1947 man, Vol. 4, July 1903, p. 229-238; S. Bing, "L'Art Nouveau,"
and Jacques Letheve, Impressionistes et Symbolistes devant The Craftsman, Vol. 5, Oct. 1903, p. 1-15; see also Hector
la presse, Paris, Armand Colin, 1959 Guimard, "An Architect's Opinion of L'Art Nouveau," The
11 G. Albert Aurier, "Symbolism en peinture: Paul Gauguin," Architectural Record, Vol. 12, June 1902, p. 127-133.
Mercure de France, March 1891 27 Van de Velde, "Die Rolle der Ingenieure in der Modernen
12 Robert Koch, "The Poster Movement and 'Art Nouveau'," Architektur," Die Renaissance im modernen Kunstgeiverbe,
Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Ser. 6, Vol. 50. November 1957, pp. Berlin, Cassirer, 1903, p. Ill
285-296 28 cf. to the contrary: Sigfried Giedion, Space, Time and Archi
13 For a discussion of the relationship of Symbolist literature and tecture, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1946, p. 224-
painting: John Rewald, Post-Impressionism from van Gogh 225
to Gauguin, New York, Museum of Modern Art, 1956, and 29 S. Bing, "L'Art Nouveau," Architectural Record, op. cit. p. 285
Peter Selz, German Expressionist Painting, Berkeley and Los 30 Van de Velde, "Das Ornament als Symbol," Die Renaissance
Angeles, University of California Press, 1957, Ch. VI im modernen Kunstgewerbe, op. cit., p. 94-96
14 Crane, lecture delivered before the National Association for 31 The spirit of Blake's work was carried on by Samuel Palmer.
the Advancement of Art, 1889, Transaction of the Art Con Blake's illuminated books were exhibited in the Print Room
gress, Edinburgh, 1889, p. 202-220 of the British Museum from the 1850s on. Dante Gabriel
15 Henry van de Velde, "Prinzipielle Erklarung," Kunstgewer- Rossetti acquired Blake's Notebook (formerly in Palmer's
bliche Laienpredigten, Leipzig, Hermann Seemann, 1902, p. possession) in 1847, and prints by Blake were reproduced in
188. Van de Velde's theory of the expressive forces and emo Alexander Gilchrist's Life of William Blake (2 vols., London,
tional values of the line is preceded by the researches and 1863). Swinburne's William Blake (London, 1868) must also
 have had a considerable influence on writers and artists of the Velde's article, "Formes: de la forme pure utilitaire," Das
time. The influence of Blake on Art Nouveau is clearly traced W erk, Vol. 36, No. 8, August 1949, p. 244; Julius Rodenberg's
in a recent article by Robert Schmutzler, "Blake and Art article, "Karl Klingspor," The Fleuron Number Five, 192 6,
Nouveau," Architectural Review, Vol. 118, No. 704, August p. 3; and L. W. Rochowanski, Josef Hoffmann, Osterreichische
1955, p. 90-92 Staatsdruckerei, Vienna, 1950, p. 23.
32 Schmutzler, op cit. p. 92 7 Hammersmith, The Story of the Glittering Plain, The Kelm-
33 Reproduced in Stephan Tschudi Madsen, Sources of Art scott Press, 1891
Nouveau, New York, Wittenborn, 1956, p. 276, fig. 151 8 William Gaunt, The Pre-Raphaelite Dream, London, The
34 Nikolaus Pevsner, Pioneers of Modern Design, New York, Reprint Society, 1943, p. 33. On Rossetti and the Pre-
The Museum of Modern Art, 1949, p. 55, and other scholars Raphaelite Brotherhood, see Robin Ironside, Pre-Raphaelite
following Pevsner, such as Henry-Russell Hitchcock, Archi Painters, New York, Phaidon, 1948.
tecture: Nineteenth and Tiventieth Centuries, Baltimore, 9 For a comprehensive treatment of the Proto-Art Nouveau,
Penguin Books, 1958, p. 285, and R. Schmutzler, op cit., seem and the relationship of Blake to Art Nouveau, see Robert
to indicate that the book, rather than the earlier chair is the Schmutzler's two articles: "The English Origins of Art Nou
first Art Nouveau object. veau," Architectural Review, Vol. 117, No. 698, February
35 Dekorative Kunst, Vol. 4, No. 8, 1899, p. 81 ff. 1955, p. 108-117, and "Blake and the Art Nouveau," Archi
36 For an early treatment of the Japanese influence on Art tectural Review, Vol. 118, No. 704, August 1955, p. 90-97.
Nouveau see Ernst Michalski, "Die entwicklungsgeschicht- See also Note 31, Introduction
liche Bedeutung des Jugendstils," Repertorium fur Kunst- 10 Herbert H. Gilchrist in The Century Guild Hobby Horse,
ivissenschaft, Vol. 46, 1925, p. 133-149. For a more recent and No. 1, 1886, Nescio Quae Nugarum, p. 160
thorough treatment: Clay Lancaster, "Oriental Contributions 11 This book, and its relationship to Art Nouveau, was first
to Art Nouveau," Art Bulletin, Vol. 34, No. 4, 1952, p. 297- noticed by Nikolaus Pevsner, "A. H. Mackmurdo, a Pioneer
310 Designer," The Architectural Review, Vol. 83, 1938, p. 142.
37 S. Bing, "L'Art Nouveau," The Craftsman, Vol. 5, Oct. 1903, 12 Roswitha Riegger-Baurmann, "Schrift im Jugendstil," Borsen-
p. 3 blatt fur den Deutschen Buchhandel (Frankfurter Ausgabe)
38 Eugene Grasset, La Plante et ses applications ornamentales, Vol. 14, No. 31a, April 21, 1958 p. 495-7. Dr. Riegger-Baur
Paris, Libraire Centrale des Beaux-Arts, 1897-1899 mann cites Pevsner's article on Mackmurdo which appeared
39 Ernst Haeckel, Kunstformen der Natur, Leipzig and Vienna, in the Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects,
Bibliographisches Institut, 1899-1904. Vol. 49, 1942, p. 94.
13 Clay Lancaster, "Oriental Contributions to Art Nouveau."
The Art Bulletin, Vol. 34, No. 4, 1952, p. 300-301
GRAPHIC DESIGN 14 Charles Ricketts and Lucien Pissarro, De la typographic . . .
William Morris et son influence sur les arts et metiers, Paris,
1 J. K. Huysmans, A Rebours 1884 translated by Robert Baldick Floury; London, Hacon and Ricketts, 1898
as Against Nature, Penguin Books, 1959. This book was aptly 15 Ibid., p. 16-17
called "The breviary of the decadence" by Arthur Symons. 16 Maurice Denis, Theories, 1890-1910, Paris, Rouart et Watelin,
2 Oscar Wilde, The Picture of Dorian Gray, London, Ward, 1920, p. 10-11
1891; reprinted in Penguin Books 17 Quoted as the epigraph to Ricketts and Pissarro, op. cit.
3 Notably Henry F. Lenning, The Art Nouveau, The Hague, 18 Graham Hough, The Last Romantics, London, Duckworth,
Nijhoff, 1951, and Stephan Tschudi Madsen, Sources of Art 1949, p. 133
Nouveau, New York, Wittenborn, 1956. 19 Eleanor M. Garvey, "Art Nouveau and the French Book of
4 This point is made most forcibly by Dr. Fritz Schmalenbach, the Eighteen-Nineties," Harvard Library Bulletin, Vol. 12,
in his pioneering study, Jugendstil; Ein Beitrag zu Theorie No. 3, Autumn 1958, p. 379. As printed in the 1911 edition
und Geschichte der Flachenkunst, Wiirzburg, Triltsch, 1935. of Sagesse, Denis' illustrations are rendered as woodcuts by
5 See J. W. Mackail, The Life of William Morris, New York, Beltrand. John Rewald, in Post-Impressionism from van Gogh
Oxford University Press, 1950, and H. Halliday Sparling, to Gauguin, New York, Museum of Modern Art, 1956, p. 519,
The Kelm scott Press and William Morris Master-Craftsman, reproduces one of the illustrations as a lithograph. The colo
London, Macmillan, 1924, for the best accounts of Morris's phon of the 1911 book states that Denis originally made the
life and work. drawings in 1889.
6 Three of the many examples which could be cited are van de 20 The illustration reproduced is for the poem "Sagesse d'un
 Louis Racine," number IX of the first series in Verlaine, 43 Walter Crane, William Morris to Whistler, London, Bell,
Sagesse, Paris, Vollard, 1911. p. 19 1911, p- 232.
21 Van de Velde had shown with Les Vingt along with Walter 44 Denis, op. cit., p. 149
Crane in 1891. Robert Koch, "A Poster by Fernand Khnopff," 45 William Morris, "The Beauty of Life" (1880), quoted in
Marsyas, Vol. 6, 1950-53, p. 74 Selected Writings of William Morris, ed. William Gaunt,
22 For a reproduction of the Burns illustration, see Madsen, London, Falcon, 1948, p. 42
Sources of Art Nouveau, p. 243. 46 Robert Koch, "Art Nouveau Bing," Gazette des Beaux-Arts,
23 Van de Velde, Deblaiement d'art, Brussels, Monnom, 1894, Ser. 6, Vol. 53, March 1959, p. 187
p. 15
24 Ibid., p. 17
25 Van de Velde, Personlichkeit und Werk, p. 14 PAINTING AND SCULPTURE, PRINTS AND DRAWINGS
26 Van der Velde, Deblaiement d'art, p. 18
27 Ibid., p. 20, 24 1 Odilon Redon, A Soi-Meme, Paris, Floury, 1922, p. 30
28 Denis, op. cit., p. 11 2 Ibid., p. 89
29 For example, see Charles Hiatt, Picture Posters, London, Bell, 3 Paul Gauguin to Schuffenecker, August 14, 1888. Quoted in
1895, Ch. Ill, and Robert J. Goldwater, " 'L'Affiche moderne': John Rewald, Post-Impressionism from Van Gogh to Gau
A Revival of Poster Art After 1880," Gazette des Beaux-Arts, guin, New York, The Museum of Modern Art, 1956, p. 196
Ser. 6, Vol. 22, December 1942, p. 173-182 4 Merete Bodelsen, "The Missing Link in Gauguin's Cloison-
30 Goldwater, op cit., p. 182 ism," Gazette des Beaux Arts, Vol. 53, May 1959, p. 329-344
31 Ibid., and Robert Koch, "The Poster Movement and 'Art 5 Paul Serusier, ABC de la peinture, correspondance, 3rd ed.
Nouveau' ", Gazette des Beaux- Arts , Ser. 6, Vol. 50, Novem Paris, Floury, 1950, p. 164
ber 1957, p. 285-296 6 Maurice Denis, Theories 1890-1910, Paris, Bibliotheque de
32 Koch, "The Poster Movement and Art Nouveau," op. cit., l'Occident, 1913, p. 1
p. 285-296; Koch, "A Poster by Fernand Khnopff," p. 72-74; 7 Jan Verkade, Le T ourment de Dieu, Paris, Librairie de 1'Art
Goldwater, op. cit. Catholique, 1923, p. 94
33 The date of Bonnard's poster is in question. Goldwater, op. 8 Agnes Humbert in her book, Les Nabis et leur epoque,
cit., p. 181, suggests that the poster may date from 1889 and Geneva, Cailler, 1954, evokes the life of the artists in a vivid
not 1891 as commonly believed. manner.
34 Ibid., p. 180. As Robert Koch points out, in his article "The 9 Gauguin, Preface to exhibition catalogue, Armand Seguin,
Poster Movement and 'Art Nouveau'" (p. 287), Grasset Paris, Bare de Boutteville, February-March 1895, p. 9-10
opposed Art Nouveau on the grounds that it represented a 10 Humbert, op. cit. p. 106
break with historical tradition; yet his works partake so 11 Lincoln F. Johnson, Jr., "The Light and Shape of Loie Fuller,
strongly of the stylistic qualities of the period that they seem The Baltimore Museum of Art News, Vol. 20, No. 1, Octo
to deserve mention here. Besides, like so many of the other ber 1956, p. 13
men who denied a connection with Art Nouveau, Grasset 12 Wassily Kandinsky, Uber das Geistige in der Kunst, Munich,
deeply impressed a number of artists who were more central Piper, 1912, p. 30
to the movement. 13 Letter by Aubrey Beardsley to A. W. King. Quoted by Robin
35 Koch, op. cit., p. 286, note Ironside, "Aubrey Beardsley," Horizon, Vol. 14, No. 81, Sep
36 Ibid. tember 1946, p. 193
37 F. Thibaudeau, Manuel francais de typographie moderne, 14 For an excellent recent analysis see Thomas Howarth, Charles
Paris, Au Bureau de l'Edition, 1924, p. 119 Rennie Mackintosh and the Modern Movement, London,
38 This is the date given by Berry and Johnson, Encyclopaedia Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1952
of Type Faces, London, Blandford, 1953, p. 75, presumably 15 Quoted by Gleason White, "Some Glasgow Designers and
from information furnished by the typefounder. Their Work," Part III, The Studio, Vol. 12, 1898, p. 48
39 Riegger-Baurmann, op. cit., p. 486, pi. 3 16 Van de Velde, "Prinzipielle Erklarungen," in Kunstge-
40 Rodenberg, op. cit., p. 6 werbliche Laienpredigten, Leipzig, 1902
41 Schmutzler, "The English Origins of Art Nouveau," op. cit., 17 Van de Velde, "Extract from His Memoirs: 1891-1901,"
p. 110, and Schmalenbach, op. cit., p. 25 Architectural Review, Vol. 112, No. 669, September 1952,
42 Karl Klingspor, Uber Schdnheit von Schrift und Druck, p. 146
Frankfurt-am-Main, Schauer, 1949, p. 17-20 18 The term "counter-Art Nouveau" was suggested by John M.

150
m
'uini
"in
iii|iiniin
nr
1
ilililjUjJ'i'
nn in'iTniii
iiiii ii iin i H iiiii"i'iHTi||i'ii i 'iii i nu ir irt'iiii

Jacobus, Jr. in his review of Madsen's Sources of Art Nou- p. 199-206

veau ( The Art Bulletin, Vol. 40, No. 4, 1958, p. 371). It 3 Ibid., p. 201
seems to be a very useful term for the rectilinear and later 4 Hector Guimard, "An Architect's Opinion of TArt Nouveau'."
aspects of the style especially the work coming from Glasgow The Architectural Record, Vol. 12, 1902, p. 127-133.
and Vienna, but it would also refer to a sculptor like Minne. 5 Ibid.
19 W. S. Sparrow, "Herr Toorop's: The Three Brides," The 6 Gabriele Howaldt, "Bildteppiche," in Helmut Seling, ed.,
Studio, Vol. 1, 1893, p. 247-248 / ugendstil, Der W eg ins 20. fahrhundert, Heidelberg, Keyser,
20 Thomas Howarth, op. cit., p. 228. Toorop himself, as well as 1959, p. 370-371
the Scots, were probably also influenced by Carloz Schwabe's 7 Adolf Loos, Ins Leere Gesprochen (a collection of articles writ
illustrations to Zola's he Reve, which appeared in Paris ten between 1897-1900). Paris, Cres, 1921.
in 1892.
21 Ferdinand Hodler, quoted in Fritz Burger, Cezanne und
Hodler, Munich, Delphin, 1919, Vol. 1, p. 50 ARCHITECTURE
22 The Chosen One was completed in 1894 and shown at the
Champ de Mars in Paris that year. It was exhibited again in
1 In England and America the turn of the tide came with
Vienna in 1901 where it was greatly admired, and as the
Pevsner's Pioneers of the Modern Movement, published in
original version, now in the Kunstmuseum in Berne, was then
London in 1936. Pevsner's active interest reflected Schmalen-
in poor repair, Hodler made a replica for a Vienna patron
bach's J ugendstil, published the previous year in Germany.
about 1903, which soon reached the Osthaus collection and
2 See H. R. Hitchcock, Gaudl, New York, The Museum of
now belongs to the Karl-Ernst-Osthaus Museum in Hagen.
Modern Art, 1957, and George Collins, Gaudl, New York,
23 Edith Hoffmann, Kokoschka, Boston, Boston Book and Art Braziller, I960
Shop, 1947, p. 30
3 Stephen Tschudi Madsen, Sources of Art Nouveau, New York,
24 Peter Selz, German Expressionist Painting, Berkeley and Los Wittenborn, 1956.
Angeles, University of California Press, 1957, p. 52
4 A humble culinary analogy may help to explain this point:
25 August Strindberg, "L'Exposition d'Edward Munch," Revue
If you wish to describe the taste of curry, it does not help very
Blanche, Vol. 10, 1896, p. 525-526
much to know the ingredients. The flavor of curry is the flavor
26 Arthur Rossler, Neu-Dachau, Bielefeld and Leipzig, Velhagen
of curry; and Art Nouveau has a similar idiosyncratic identity:
& Klasing, 1905, p. 85
the whole is certainly something different from the sum of its
27 Gabriele Miinter, from "Bekenntnisse und Erinnerungen,"
parts.
quoted in Miinchen 1869-1958 Aufbruch zur Modernen Kunst,
5 L' art moderne, 13, 1893, p. 193-195; L'Emulation, 18, 1893,
Munich, Haus der Kunst, 1958, p. 304
p. 150-151. The title of the article was in English: "Artistic
wallpapers."
6 In Architecture: 19th and 20th Centuries, I wrote, "The Art
DECORATIVE ARTS Nouveau is not primarily an architectural mode." For correct
emphasis, the word "primarily" and not, by implication, the
1 In the letter with which George Donaldson made his gift offer, word "architectural" should be italicized there. The question
he also stated: "However much this New Art may conflict whether in architecture the Art Nouveau is a true "style" or
with our Classical standards or ideas of architectural basis, I merely a "mode" need not be explored here. It can most accu
am forced to the conclusion that we are in the presence of a rately be considered, I believe, as a style-phase, more specifically
distinct development. Where it will lead to none can foretell. a subcategory of that long-continuing "Modern Style" of which
But, in these competitive days, ... it occurs to me that it is of it is an initiatory episode.
great importance to our people that the best models of the 7 An original portion is installed in the garden of the Museum
style called 'New Art' should be purchased and placed before of Modern Art in New York.
them." Victoria and Albert Museum, Registry 1900. File No. 8 His epoch-making apartment house of 1903 at 25 bis rue
130, as quoted in Stephan Tschudi Madsen: Sources of Art Franklin employs plain faience elements to clad the structural
Nouveau, New York, Wittenborn, 1956, p. 299 frame of reinforced concrete, but the foliate marquetry of
2 "Belgische Innendekoration," Dekorative Kunst, Vol. 1, 1898, faience that fills the wall-panels still suggests Art Nouveau.

151
A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ART NOUVEAU

by James Grady

PREFACE

Modernista Catalan, produced with all the richness of an original

A bibliography of Art Nouveau is complex despite the short period
Art Nouveau book.
of the movement. It must contain material that shaped the varied Section II lists monographs on and writings by leading figures
expressions of Art Nouveau, publications of the period, and an
of Art Nouveau and its precursors. Many of these were written
increasing number of studies which began appearing about thirty
during the period, and the majority concern painters or decorati\e
years ago after an interlude of some twenty years of indifference
artists. Major publications on Art Nouveau architects are few. A
to the style. notable exception is the excellent study of Mackintosh by Dr.
The following bibliography has been grouped in three sections.
Howarth. Such important men as Horta and Guimard have had
The first indicates sources of Art Nouveau, and recent studies of
only outline investigations.
these influences, as well as surveys of the movement and articles
Section III is devoted to a listing of the periodicals of the move
on specific aspects of Art Nouveau. ment. These publications formed an essential part of Art Nouveau,
Several items, particularly those of the Secession, are contempo
not only from the point of view of graphic design itself, but also
rary with the movement. Perhaps of more interest are the assess
as exponents of the style. Here discussions about the nature of the
ments of Art Nouveau which began with Dali s courageous and
new style were carried on, there were essays on the artists and
perceptive article, "The Terrifying and Comestible Beauty of the
reports on the multifarious national and international exhibitions.
'Modern Style'," of 1932, when most advanced esthetic opinion
In fact, it was largely the magazines which spread the style be
was concerned with the geometries of Constructivism, Suprema-
yond local and national boundaries.
tism, and de Stijl, which by then had been given academic dispersal
Exact temporal and esthetic limits have not yet been defined for
by the Bauhaus. Art Nouveau seemed a dead and completely un
Art Nouveau, and this bibliography is in no sense comprehensive.
important episode of no interest to future developments. Dali, in
Rather, it is set within the framework of the exhibition to give a
opposition to this, declared that he was the first to consider Art
Nouveau architecture as the most original and the most extraordi survey of the movement.
James Grady
nary phenomenon in the history of art. Art Nouveau slowly at- School of Architecture
tracted the serious attention of scholars. Schmalenbach s doctora Georgia Institute of Technology
thesis Jugendstil, of 1934, and Henry Hope's Harvard dissertation,
Atlanta
Sources of Art Nouveau, of 1942, became essential documents in
future research. Unfortunately, Dr. Hope's study has not been
published. The chapters on Art Nouveau in the surveys of modern
architecture by Pevsner and Giedion had a wider and more popu
As the first anthology in English treating the subject on a major
lar influence. By 1950 Art Nouveau was assuming an importance
scale, this publication has been fortunate to have its basic docu
that would have seemed impossible thirty years before. Fels' L'Art
mentation prepared by an American scholar of Art Nouveau.
Vivant is a comprehensive survey of Paris during the period and
Mr. Grady has already made available a comprehensive report on
gives the ambiance of the style in most manifestations except
his literature in the fournal of Architectural Historians (bibl. 49)-
architecture. Lenning's The Art Nouveau was the first book in References used by the authors of this book and other relevant
English given to the movement. It is disappointing, with the illus
books and articles in the Museum Library have been added to his
trations of more interest than the text. The most complete investi evaluated listing. Such addenda, as well as technical supervision
gation, within the limits set by the author and with architecture of the bibliography, have been the responsibility of Mrs. Annahese
receiving minor attention, is Sources of Art Nouveau, by S. T.
Munetic, Reference Librarian.
Madsen. A comprehensive study of Art Nouveau architecture is in Bernard Karpel
Hitchcock's Architecture, Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Librarian, Museum of Modern Art
The most lavish recent publication is Cirici-Pellicer s La Arte

152
I SOURCES AND SURVEYS

1 Abbott, Thomas K. Celtic Ornament from the Book of 19 Cherbuliez, Victor. L'Art et la Nature. 324 p. Paris:
Kells. 100 p. 50 pi. 9 parts Dublin: Hodges, Figgins, 1893- Hachette, 1892.
1895. 20 Cheronnet, Louis. A Paris . . . vers 1900. 89 p. ill. Paris:
2 L'Affiche international illustree. Plume no. 155: 409-462 Chroniques du Jour, 1932.
ill. Oct. 1, 1895. 21 Christ, Yvan. Faut-il classer le modern'style? Arts (Paris)
3 Ahlers-Hestermann, Friedrich. Stilwende, Aufbruch der no. 727:16, ill. June 17-23, 1959.
Jugend um 1900. 137 p. ill., pi. Berlin: Mann, 1941. 2d ed., 22 Cirici-Pellicer, A. El Arte Modernista Catalan. 475 p.
1956.
ill. (4 col.) Barcelona: Ayma, 1951.
4 Alexandre, Arsene and others. The Modern Poster. 117
23 Citroen, K. A. Collectie Citroen. Arnhem: printed by
p. ill. New York: Scribner, 1895.
Jan Houtman, 1959. Unpaged booklet, ill. (pt. col.) plus 2
5 L'Art Decoratif aux Expositions des Beaux-Arts, 1903. 4e supplements. Catalog to the exhibition of the collection at
serie: le Mobilier. 71 ill. in folio. Paris: Guerinet, 1903. the Gemeentemuseum Arnhem and the Boymans van Beunin-
6 L'Art Nouveau — what it is and what is thought of it— a gen museum, Rotterdam.
symposium. Magazine of Art (New York ) March — June 24 Cobden-Sanderson, J. T. The Arts and Crafts Movement.
1904. 39 p. London: Chiswick, 1905.
7 Ashbee, Charles Robert. An Endeavour towards the 25 Crane, Walter. The Claims of Decorative Art. 191 p. ill.
Teachings of J. Ruskin and W. Morris. 52 p. London: Essex London: Laurence & Bullen, 1892.
House, 1901.
26 Crane, Walter. Ideals in Art. Papers ... of the Arts and
8 Bahr, Hermann. Sezession. 266 p. Vienna: Wiener Verlag, Crafts Movement. 287 p. ill., pi. London: Bell, 1905.
1900.
27 Crane, Walter. William Morris to Whistler. 277 p. ill.
9 Bajot, Edouard. L'Art Nouveau — Decoration et Ameuble- London: Bell, 1911.
ment. Ser. 1-2. 48 pi. in 2 folios. Paris: Schmid, 1898.
28 Dali, Salvador. The terrifying and comestible beauty of
10 Bayard, Jean Emile. El Estilo Moderno. 367 p., 170 ill. the "modern style." Minotaur e no. 3-4: 69-76 1932. Re
Paris: Garnier Hermanos, 1919. printed in: Dali on Modern Art, p. 31-45, 113-127 (New
11 Behrens, Peter. Ein Dokument Deutscher Kunst: die York: Dial, 1957).
Ausstellung der Kiinstler-Kolonie in Darmstadt, 1901. 47 29 Day, L. F. Anatomy of Pattern. 4th ed. 56 p. ill., 41 pi.
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ill., pi. (pt. col.) London: Low, 1886. 31 Destree, Olivier Georges. Les Preraphaelites. Ill p. Brus
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printed by Chamerot & Renouard, 1895. Unpaged booklet, 32 Das Deutsche Kunstgewerbe 1906. 303 p. ill. Munich:
662 exhibition items. Bruckmann, 1906. 3- Deutsche Kunstgewerbeausstellung,
15 Bing, S. L'Art Nouveau. Architectural Record 12 no. 3: Dresden 1906.
279-285 Aug. 1902. 33 Dingelstedt, Kurt. Jugendstil in der Angewandten Kunst.
16 Bini, Vittorio, and Trabuchelli. L'Art Nouveau. 123 p. 46 p. ill. Braunschweig: Klinckhardt, 1959.
ill. (pt. col.) Milan: Silvestri, 1957. Bibliography. 34 Dorival, Bernard. Les fitapes de la Peinture Francaise
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Catalog to the exhibition. Art Manufacture. 467 p. ill. London: Longmans, Green,
18 Chasse, Charles. Le Mouvement Symboliste . . . 215 p., 1882.
pi. Paris: Floury, 1947. Chapters on Denis p. 147-170; 36 Edwards, Tudor. Art Nouveau, Art (London) 1 no. 9:5,
Rodin p. 183-195. Mar. 17, 1955.

153
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39 Ferriday, Peter. The Peacock room. Architectural Review Twentieth Centuries, p. 281-306. Baltimore: Penguin, 1958.
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40 Fierens-Gevaert, H. Essai sur l'Art Contemporain. 174 p. in Art Bulletin 41 no. 4: 339, Dec. 1939.
Paris: Alcan, 1897. 62 Hope, Henry R. The Sources of Art Nouveau. Harvard
41 Fontainas, Andre. Mes Souvenirs du Symbolisme. 4th ed. University, 1952. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis in typescript.
220 p. Paris: Nouvelle Revue Critique, 1928. 63 Hough, Graham. The Last Romantics. 284 p. London:
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ill. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1951. Bibli 65 Huysmans, Joris Karl. A Rebours. 284 p. Paris: Char-
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44 Fuller, Loie. Fifteen Years of a Dancer's Life. 288 p. ill., 66 Ironside, Robin. Pre-Raphaelite Painters. 49 p. ilk, 3 col.
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45 Garvey, Eleanor M. Art Nouveau and the French book of Benn, 1953. p. 33-63: L'Art Nouveau and Some Commercial
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68 Jung Wien: Ergebnisse aus der Wiener Kunstgewerbeschule.
379 Autumn 1958.
46 Gaunt, William. The Pre-Raphaelite Dream. London: 71 p. ill. Darmstadt: Koch, 1907.
69 Klingspor, Karl. Uber Schonheit von Schrift und Druck.
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155 p. ill. (pt. col.) Frankfurt/Main: Schauer, 1949-
47 Giedion, Sigfried. Space, Time and Architecture. 3d ed.
70 Koch, Alexander. Aufruf an die deutschen Kiinstler . . .
601 p. ill. Cambridge: Harvard University, 1954.
Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration 1:1 1897-1898.
48 Goldwater, Robert John. L'affiche moderne; revival of
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Decoratifs Modernes a Turin 1902. Text by G. Fuchs and
Dec. 1942.
F. H. Newbery. 340 p. ill. Darmstadt: A. Koch, 1903.
49 Grady, James. A bibliography of the Art Nouveau. Journal
72 Koch, Robert Alan. Art Nouveau Bing. Gazette des
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Riemerschmid, Richard.
Camera Work April 1906. Special Steichen supplement,
246 Muthesius, Hermann. Die Kunst Richard Riemerschmids. unnumbered.
Dekorative Kunst 7:249-283 ill. 1904. 259 Gallatin, A. E. The paintings of Edward J. Steichen. In
247 Obrist, Hermann. Die Zukunft unserer Architektur. Deko ternational Studio 40:40-43 ill. 1910.
rative Kunst 4:329-349 1901. Illustrations, p. 329-373
passim. Thorn-Prikker, Jan.
260 Creutz, Max. Jan Thorn-Prikker. 32 pi. Munchen-Glad-
Rodin, Auguste. bach, 1925.
261 Hoff, August. Johan Thorn-Prikker. 54 p. ill. pi. (pt. col.)
248 Grappe, Georges. Le Musee Rodin. 151 p., pi. Monaco: Recklinghausen: Bongers, 1958. Bibliography.
Documents d'Art, 1944. Bibliography.
249 Mauclair, Camille. Auguste Rodin. 147 p., pi. London: Tiffany, Louis Comfort.
Duckworth, 1909. Translated jrom the French; bibliography. 262 Kaufmann, Edgar. At home with Louis Comfort Tiffany.
See also bibl. 18. Interiors 117:118-125 ill. Dec. 1957.
263 Koch, Robert. Louis Comfort Tiffany 1848-1933. 47 p.,
Roussel, Ker Xavier see bibl. 234. 30 ill., 3 col. pi. New York: American Craftsmen's Council;
Museum of Contemporary Crafts, 1958. Catalog of exhibi
Seguin, Armand. tion; chronology; bibliography.
264 Speenburgh, Gertrude. The Arts of the Tiffanys. 116 p.
250 Barc de Boutteville. Paris. Exposition . . . Armand ill., pi. Chicago: Lightner, 1956.
Seguin. Preface by Paul Gauguin. 21 p. Paris: Renaudie, 265 Tiffany, Louis. The Art Work of Louis Tiffany. 90 p., pi.
1895. (pt. col.) Garden City: Doubleday, 1914.
251 Seguin, Armand. Gauguin. Occident no. 16-18 1903.
Toorop, Jan.
Serusier, Paul see bibl. 122, 234. 266 Plasschaert, A. Jan Toorop. 8 p., 40 pi. Amsterdam:
Vorst & Tas, 1929.
Sommaruga, Giuseppe.
Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de.
252 Sommaruga, Giuseppe. L'Architettura di Giuseppe Som
267 Joyant, Maurice, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, 1864-1901.
maruga. ill., 59 pi. Milan: Preiss & Bestetti, 1908.
2 v. ill., col. pi. Paris: Floury, 1926-1927.
253 Sommaruga, Giuseppe. The Palazzo Castiglioni, Milan. 268 Mack, Gerstle. Toulouse-Lautrec. 370 p., 58 ill. New
Architektur des XX. ]ahrhunderts 5:22-23 ill. 1905. York: Knopf, 1938. Bibliography.
254 Tentori, Francesco. . . . Giuseppe Sommaruga. Casabella
Continuita no. 217:70-87 ill. 1957. Vallotton, Felix Edouard see bibl. 234.

Velde, Henry van de.

Sullivan, Louis.
269 Casteels, Maurice. Henry van de Velde. 16 p., 29 pi.
255 Morrison, Hugh. Louis Sullivan, Prophet of Modern Brussels: Cahiers de Belgique, 1932.
Architecture. 391 p. ill., pi. New York: Museum of Modern 270 Osthaus, Karl Ernst. Van de Velde. Hagen: Folkwang,
Art, 1935. Bibliography. Also reprint: New York: Peter 1920.
Smith, 1932; supplementary bibliography. 271 Velde, Henry van de. Amo. 25 p. Leipzig: Inselverlag,
256 Sullivan, Louis. Characteristics and tendencies of Ameri 1912. Insel-Biicherei, 3.
can architecture. Inland Architect and Builder 6:58 ff. Nov. 272 Velde, Henry van de. Deblaiement d'Art. 33 p. ill. Brus
1885. Reprinted in his Kindergarten Chats, New York 1947. sels: Monnom, 1894.

160
273 Velde, Henry van de. Extracts from his memoirs: 1891- 286 Wick-Wagner, Louise. Der Freiheit eine Gasse. Baukunst
1901. Architectural Review 112:143-155 ill. 1952. und W erkjorm 9:476-484 ill. Sept. 1959- Preceded by Rich
273a Velde, Henry van de. Kunstgewerbliche Laienpredigten. ard Neutra: Erinnerungen an Otto Wagner.
Leipzig: Herman Seemann, 1902.
274 Velde, Henry van de. Der Neue Stil. 101 p. Leipzig: WolJers, Philippe.
Inselverlag, 1907. Laienpredigten, pt. 2. 287 Pica, Vittorio. Philippe Wolfers. Emporium 27:1-23 1908.
275 Velde, Henry van de. Die Renaissance im Modernen 288 Pierron, S. Philippe Wolfers. Revue des Arts Decoratifs
Kunstgewerbe. 147 p. Berlin: Cassirer, 1903. 21:153-160. 1900.
276 Zuerich. Kunstgewerbemuseum. . . . Henry van de Velde.
83 p. ill., pi. Zurich, 1958. Exhibition catalog; bibliography.
Ill SELECTED PERIODICALS
Verkade, ]an see bibl. 234.
L'Art Decoratif, Paris, 1898-
Villon, Jacques.
Art et Decoration, Paris, 1897-
277 Paris. Bibliotheque Nationale. Jacques Villon: L'Oeuvre
L'Art Moderne, Brussels, 1881-
Grave. Preface by Jean Vallery-Radot. 75 p. ill. Paris, 1959.
Exhibition catalog with bibliography. The Chap Book, Chicago, 1894-1898
278 Vallier, Dora. Jacques Villon; oeuvres de 1897-1956. 120 The Craftsman, Eastwood, N.Y., 1901-
p. ill. (pt. col.) Paris: Cahiers d'Art, 1957. Text also in Dekorative Kunst, Munich, 1897-
English; bibliography. Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration, Darmstadt, 1897-
The Dial, London, 1889-1897
Voysey, Charles Francis Annesley.
Die Graphischen Kiinste, Vienna, 1879-
279 Betjeman, John. Charles Francis Annesley Voysey: the
Hobby Horse, London, 1884 (no. 1), 1886-1892, n.s. 1893
architect of individualism. Architectural Review 70:93-96
Die Insel, Berlin/Leipzig, 1899-1902
1931.
280 Jones, John Brandon. C.F.A. Voysey. Architectural As Jugend, Munich, 1896-
sociation Journal (London ) 72:239-262 ill. May 1957. Die Kunst, Munich, 1897-
Chronology; bibliography. Kunst und Kunsthandwerk, Vienna, 1898-
Pan, Berlin, 1895-1900
Vuillard, Edouard see bibl. 234.
La Plume, Paris, 1899-1913
Wagner, Otto. Revue des Arts Decoratifs, Paris, 1880-1902
281 Lux, Joseph August. Otto Wagner: eine Monographic. La Revue Blanche, Paris, 1891-1903
167 p. ill., 79 ph Munich: Delphin, 1914. Revue Wagnerienne, Paris, 1885-1888
282 Tietze, Hans. Otto Wagner. 16 p., pi. Vienna: Rikola, The Savoy, London, 1896
1922. Simplizissimus, Munich, 1896-
283 Wagner, Otto. Einige Skizzen, Projekte und Ausgefiihrte
The Studio, London, 1893-
Bauwerke . . . 4 v. ill., 216 pi. Vienna: Schroll, 1892-1922.
Van Nu en Straks, Brussels, Antwerp, 1892-1901
284 Wagner, Otto. Moderne Architektur. 138 p. ill. Vienna:
Schroll, 1895. 4th ed.: Die Baukunst unserer Zeit , 1914. Ver Sacrum, Vienna, 1898-1903
285 Wagner, Otto. 1902 Wagner-Schule. 84 p. ill. Leipzig: The Yellow Book, London, 1894-1897
Baumgartner, 1902. Zeitschrift fur Innendekoration, Darmstadt, 1890-

161
 LENDERS TO THE EXHIBITION

Mrs. Alfred H. Barr, Jr., New York; Leonard Baskin, Northamp Kunsthandwerk, Frankfurt-am-Main; Musee des Beaux-Arts,
ton, Massachusetts; Mrs. F. Beer-Monti, New York; Mile H. Ghent; The Glasgow School of Art; The University of Glasgow;
Boutaric, Paris; Stephan L. Bruce, New York; Dominique Denis, Karl-Ernst-Osthaus-Museum, Hagen; Gemeentemuseum, The
St. Germain-en-Laye, France; Joseph H. Heil, New York; H.R.H. Hague; Museum fur Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg; Victoria and
Ludwig, Prince von Hessen u.b. Rhein, Wolfsgarten-Langen, Albert Museum, London; Los Angeles County Museum; Miinch-
Germany; Mme La Baronne Horta, Brussels; Thomas Howarth, ner Stadtmuseum, Munich; Stadtische Galerie und Lenbachgalerie,
Toronto; Louis James, New York; Mrs. Sidney Janis, New York; Munich; Staatliche Graphische Sammlung, Munich; Musee de
Mr. and Mrs. Samuel Josefowitz, New York; R. Stewart Kilborne, l'Ecole de Nancy; Butler Library, Columbia University, New
New York; Dr. and Mrs. Robert Koch, South Norwalk, Connecti York; Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, New
cut; Mme Sylvie Mora-Lacombe, Paris; Mr. and Mrs. Hugo Perls, York; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Morgan
New York; Robert Pincus-Witten, Chicago; Easton Pribble, Utica, Library, New York; Museum of the City of New York; The Mu
New York; Stephen Radich, New York; Kurt Reutti, Berlin; John seum of Modern Art, New York; New York Public Library, Berg
Rewald, New York; Gerd Rosen, Berlin; Hans Schmithals, Collection; Allen Art Museum, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio;
Munich; Mrs. Louise R. Smith, New York; Theodoros Stamos, Klingspor Museum, Offenbach; Nasjonalgalleriet, Oslo; Rijks
New York; Herbert Stuart Stone, Jr., Wallingford, Connecticut; museum Kroller-Miiller, Otter lo, The Netherlands; Musee des
Mr. and Mrs. Justin K. Thannhauser, New York; Mr. and Mrs. Arts Decoratifs, Paris; Musee National d'Art Moderne, Paris;
Harold Uris, New York; Mrs. Charles Vidor, Beverly Hills, Cali Philadelphia Museum of Art; Princeton University Library; Mu
fornia; Carl Weinhardt, New York; The Hon. and Mrs. John seum Boymans van Beuningen, Rotterdam; Nationalmuseum,
Hay Whitney, London; Dr. Siegfried Wichmann, Starnberg, Ger Stockholm; Landesgewerbemuseum, Stuttgart; Nordenfjeldske
many; Mr. and Mrs. Harry Lewis Winston, Birmingham, Michi Kunstindustrimuseum, Trondheim; Galerie Internazionale d Arte
gan; L. Wittamer-de-Camps, Brussels. Moderna, Venice; Osterreichisches Museum fur Angewandte
Kunst, Vienna; The William Morris Gallery, Walthamstow, Eng
Rijksmuseum Library, Amsterdam; Stedelijk Museum, Amster land; Kunstgewerbemuseum, Zurich.
dam; Bibliotheque Royale de Belgique, Brussels; Musees Royaux
d'Art et d'Histoire, Brussels; The Art Institute of Chicago; New Peter Deitsch Gallery, New York; Hirschl and Adler Galleries,
berry Library, Chicago; Cleveland Museum of Art; Deutscher Inc., New York; Lillian Nassau Antiques, New York; Wilden-
Kunstrat, Cologne; Det Danske Kunstindustrimuseet, Copen stein & Co., New York.
hagen; Hessisches Landesmuseum, Darmstadt; Museum fur

BIOGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUE OF THE EXHIBITION

Works marked with an asterisk are illustrated. In the dimensions Anonymous

2"- of the objects, height precedes width. Architecture photographic 3 Cafe sign. (c. 1900.) Bronze. 16 x 25V Collection Joseph
enlargements are listed on page 185. H. Heil, New York
Anonymous
4 Figurine; girl throwing ball. (c. 1900.) Bronze. 5V&" high.
Anonymous Signed "Burger." Collection Joseph H. Heil, New York
1 Belt buckle, (c. 1900.) Abstract arabesque of silver-plated
Anonymous (United States?)
ng. metal, decorated with multicolored enamel. 5VV I° Col
5 Necklace, (c. 1900.) Gold, enamel, pearls, diamonds, aqua
lection Mrs. Sidney Janis, New York
marines. 15" long x 5V2" wide. Collection Dr. and Mrs.
Anonymous Robert Koch, South Norwalk, Connecticut
2 Letter opener, (c. 1900.) Ivory, with maple seed decoration
Anonymous (Austria?)
in green enamel. 9Vs" long. Collection Joseph H. Heil,
6 Wall hanging, (c. 1900-10.) Applique embroidery of
New York

162
 silk metal and silk cord on grey satin. 871/2 x 49 %". Oster School of Handicraft, of which he was chief designer, and
reichisches Museum fiir Angewandte Kunst, Vienna in 1904 the School of Arts and Crafts which continued
Anonymous (Austria) until 1914. He ran the Essex House Press, for which he
designed a type face. From 1919-23 he was Civic Advisor
7 Miniature chest. (1905-06.) Inlayed wood with enamel
to the Palestine Administration.
plaques showing two women seen in profile. 16%" high x
17%" wide. Osterreichisches Museum fiir Angewandte *16 Bowl. (c. 1893.) Silver, embossed and chased with a leaf
Kunst, Vienna design, and with cast legs. 8" high. Made by the Guild of
Handicraft. Victoria and Albert Museum, London. III. p. 90
Anonymous (Austria)
17 Mustard spoon, (c. 1900.) Silver, decorated with semi
8 Table lamp. Iridescent glass. 21%" high. Collection Easton
precious stone. 4" long. Made by the Guild of Handicraft.
Pribble, Utica, New York
Kunstgewerbe Museum, Zurich
Anonymous (Birmingham, England)
Audiger & Meyer, Krefeld
9 Sconce, (c. 1900.) Gilded brass with three faience plaques.
18 Pillow case. 1908. Woven silk; Japanese abstract wave pat
2" 19%" high x I2y at base. Collection Louis James, New
tern in shades of brown and olive. 23% x 17". Made by
York
Audiger & Meyer, Krefeld. Landesgewerbemuseum, Stutt
Anonymous (England?) gart
10 Printed cretonne, (c. 1900.) Multicolored pattern of trees Barlach, Ernst (1870-1938)
and flowers on white background. 31%" long. Landesge-
German sculptor, printmaker and playwright. Received his
werbemuseum, Stuttgart
education in Hamburg, Dresden and Paris. Contributor to
Anonymous (France?) Jugend from 1897 to 1902, Barlach worked at first in the
11 Ink stand, (c. 1900.) Bronze. 2" high x c. 8%" long. The German Art Nouveau style. Developed his own style after
Museum of Modern Art, New York. Phyllis B. Lambert a trip to Russia in 1906. Lived mainly in North Germany
Fund and became one of the great Expressionist sculptors.
Anonymous (France) *19 Cleopatra. (1904.) Ceramic. 9" x 26%". Collection Kurt
12 Miniature picture frame, (c. 1895-1905.) Silver with Reutti, Berlin. III. p. 82
chrysoprase. 2% x 2%". Collection Carl Weinhardt, New Bazel, Karel Petrus Cornelis de (1869-1923)
York Dutch architect, designer and graphic artist. Studied with
Anonymous (Germany) P.J.H. Cuypers. With Nieuwenhuis, Lauweriks and Cachet
13 Die Halbinsel. 1900. Single issue of a satirical magazine he created the Dutch version of Art Nouveau. His book
published by the Cococello artists' club in Munich. Book illustrations show some influence of Egyptian design and
size 12% x 6%". Collection Gerd Rosen, Berlin the impact of Symbolism in Holland is evident in his wood
cuts done around 1894.
Anonymous (Germany?)
14 Decanter, (c. 1900.) Clear crystal; silver-plated metal 20 Prospectus for Tydschrijt voor Ercieringskunst. 1896.
mounting. 15" high. Collection Mrs. Sidney Janis, New Woodcut. 6% x 4". Gemeentemuseum, The Hague
York Beardsley, Aubrey Vincent (1872-1898)
Anonymous (Germany?) English graphic artist and illustrator. Self-taught; as a
15 Rug. (c. 1900.) Knotted wool; abstract feather design on young boy made caricatures and illustrations. At the age of
green background. 12'7" x 9'8". Museum fiir Kunsthand- nineteen, after a visit to Burne-Jones' studio, decided to
werk, Frankfurt am Main dedicate himself completely to his art. Illustrations for
Malory's Morte d' Arthur (1892), show the influence of
Ashbee, Charles Robert (1863-1942)
the Pre-Raphaelites and William Morris. Fully developed
English architect, designer and writer. Influenced by Morris, his own style in the illustrations for Oscar Wilde's Salome.
but advocated the use of the machine in applied art. Con 1894 art editor of the Yellow Book, and, following his dis
centrated on all aspects of interior design, including furni missal after the Wilde case, of the Savoy in 1895. Prolific
ture and silverware. One of the original members of the production until his early death at the age of 26. One of
Arts and Crafts Movement. Influential in the improvement the most important and influential graphic artists of Art
of factory workshops. In 1888 founded the Guild and Nouveau.

163
 *21 "J'ai baise ta bouche Jokanaan." Preliminary drawing for important expositions in Europe and at the St. Louis
Salome by Oscar Wilde. (1893.) Ink and watercolor. 10% World's Fair in 1904. 1907 appointed director of design for
x 5%". Princeton University Library. III. p. 67 A. E.G., the German electrical combine in Berlin. He was
22 The Black Cape. Illustration from Salome by Oscar Wilde. in charge of all advertising and typography, as well as de
(1893.) Ink. Princeton University Library signer of street lamps, appliances such as electric fans,
heaters and kitchen utensils. 1909 built the A. E.G. turbine
*23 Ave Atque Vale from The Savoy, No. 7. (1896.) Ink. 6%
factory which was the first monumental building of glass
x 4%". The Hon. and Mrs. John Hay Whitney, London.
and steel in Germany, a pioneer work in modern construc
III. p. 18
tion, using exposed steel beams, and also designed many
24 Publisher. Children's Books. Poster. 30 x 11%". The Mu other buildings for A. E.G. 1922 he became head of the
seum of Modern Art, New York. Purchase School of Architecture at the Vienna Academy and in 1936
*25 Morte d' Arthur by Thomas Malory. 1893. Book size, 9% x taught advanced architecture at the Prussian Academy of
8". Klingspor Museum, Offenbach. III. p. 22 Art in Berlin. Among his pupils were Le Corbusier, Walter
*26 Binding for Salome by Oscar Wilde. 1907. Book size, 8^2 Gropius and Mies van der Rohe.
x 7". Klingspor Museum, Offenbach. 111.p. 21 *29 The Kiss. 1896-97. Color woodcut. 10% x 8%". The Mu
27 Binding for Under the Hill. Book size, 10% x 7%". New seum of Modern Art, New York. Frontispiece
berry Library, Chicago 30 Vignettes for Pan. Published in Vols. IV and V, 1899. Ink.
Behmer, Marcus (1879- ) Museum fiir Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg
German graphic artist. Noted as master of German book *31 Title page for Der Bunte V ogel. 1899. Book size, 8% x
design. In 1903 designed a luxury edition of Wilde's Salome 7%". Klingspor Museum, Offenbach. III. p. 36
for the Insel Verlag in Leipzig. Developed a very rich and 32 Title page for Schrijt und Zierat. 1902. Published by Rud-
delicate style full of fantasy in his designs for book plates, hard 'sche Giesserei, Offenbach. Book size, 11 x 8%".
greeting cards and books. Contributed to Simplicissimus, Klingspor Museum, Offenbach
Insel, Ver Sacrum. Also painter, designer, and watercolor- 33 Darmstadt Mai-Okt. 1901. Ein Dokument Deutscher
ist. Still active in 1950. Kunst: Die Ausstellung der Kiinstler Kolonie. Poster. 49%
28 Title page for Rubaijat des Omar Chajjam. 1907. Book x 17". Deutscher Kunstrat, Cologne
2". size, 8% x 6y Klingspor Museum, Offenbach 34 Two banners. Painted oilcloth. 25' x 3', each. Made for the
Behrens, Peter (1868-1940) Behrens house at the opening of the Mathildenhohe artists'
colony, Darmstadt, 1901. Collection Ludwig Prince von
German architect and designer. 1893 one of the founders
Hessen u.b. Rhein, Wolfsgarten-Langen
of the Munich Secession. First active as a painter, later as
a graphic artist and designer. 1896-97 made a series of 35 Bench. 1901. Pine, Painted white, with embroidered seat.
color woodcuts and book jackets in the Art Nouveau style 45%" high x 48%" wide. Replica of bench in Behrens
of curving lines on a flat-patterned surface. 1898 first work house dining room. Museum fiir Kunsthandwerk, Frank
in applied art — glassware, porcelain, jewelry and furniture. furt am Main
Represented in the exhibition of the Munich Vereinigte 36 Two wine glasses. 1898. Clear crystal. 8%" high, each.
Werkstatten fiir Kunst im Handwerk at the Glaspalast in Made by B. v. Poschinger. Collection Dr. Siegfried Wich-
1899. Member of the artist's colony of Mathildenhohe in mann, Starnberg
Darmstadt from 1899-1903. The original group "Die Sie- Bernard, Emile (1868-1941)
ben" also included Olbrich, Habich, Bosselt, Biirck, Chris
French painter. 1884 pupil at the Academie Cormon, where
tiansen, and Huber. His first building was his own house in
together with van Gogh and Toulouse-Lautrec, he formed
Darmstadt for which he also did the interior design and
the "Ecole du Petit Boulevard" in 1887. Joined the Pont-
furniture. Here his style begins to turn away from the
Aven group in 1888; close collaboration with Gauguin.
curvilinear to the more simple and geometrical. This is
One of the originators of Synthetism and Symbolism; also
evident in the type face he designed in 1902. Represented at
close friend of Cezanne. After 1893 long trips through the
the Turin Exposition of 1902 where he came in contact
Mediterranean countries. Later turned to conventional
with the work of Mackintosh. Through Muthesius was ap
naturalistic painting.
pointed head of the Diisseldorf Kunstgewerbeschule, where
he remained from 1903-07. Active in all aspects of archi *37 Bathers. (1889.) Oil on canvas. 36 x 28". Wildenstein &
tecture, interior and landscape design, and represented in Co., New York. 111.p. 33

164
 *38 Bretonnerie. Corner cabinet. (1888.) Carved polychromed "44 Screen. (Published in 1899-) Color lithograph. Four panels.
wood. 9' high. Collection Mr. and Mrs. Samuel Josefowitz, 54 x 18%" each. The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
New York. III. p. 52 Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Fund. 111.p. 56-57
Bindesb^ll, Thorvald (1846-1908) 45 Horse Cabs. (1897.) Color lithograph. 7% x 17%". The
Danish architect, graphic artist and designer. He was dis Museum of Modern Art. Gift of Mrs. John D. Rocke
tinguished in the development of modern Danish arts and feller, Jr.
crafts. Working in ceramics, bookbinding, furniture design, *46 La Revue Blanche. 1894. Poster. 29% x 23". The Museum
metalwork, embroidery. Principal architectural work: So of Modern Art, New York. Purchase. 111.p. 37
ciety for Post Office and Telegraphic Employees in Copen
Bonvallet
hagen, 1901.
Designer for the Silversmiths Cardeilhac in Paris.
39 Plate. 1893. Glazed pottery with incised abstract decora
8" tion. c. 17y diameter. Signed and dated "Th.B. 1893." 47 Bottle-vase. (c. 1900.) Dark brown porcelain. 8%" high.
Made at Lervarefabrik, Valby. Det Danske Kunstindustri- Silver mounting by Bonvallet for Silversmiths Cardeilhac.
museet, Copenhagen Musee des Arts Decoratifs, Paris

Boccioni, Umberto (1882-1916) Bosselt, Rudolf (1871-1938)

Italian painter. 1898 came to Rome where he met Balla, German sculptor. 1891-97 studied at the Stadelsche
who introduced him to Neo-Impressionism. Friendship Kunstinstitut in Frankfurt am Main and at the Academie
with Severini. 1902-04 in Paris and Berlin. From 1907 in Julian in Paris. 1899 called by Grand Duke Ernst Ludwig
Milan. 1909 met Marinetti and joined the Futurist move of Hesse-Darmstadt to join the artists' colony at Mathil-
ment. 1910 signed the "Manifesto of Futurist Painting." denhohe ("Die Sieben") in Darmstadt. From 1904 pro
Chief theoretician and leading painter of Futurism. fessor at the academies of decorative arts in Diisseldorf
40 The Recital, (c. 1903.) Ink. 7 x 7%". Collection Mr. and (1904-1911), Magdeburg (1911-1925), and Braunschweig
Mrs. Harry Lewis Winston, Birmingham, Michigan (1928-1931); then settled in Berlin. Mainly worked in
small sculpture, bronzes, medallions, plaques and jewelry,
41 Swans and Lovers, (c. 1905.) Color etching. 8% x 12%". but later also in large sculpture.
Collection Mr. and Mrs. Harry Lewis Winston, Birming
ham, Michigan 48 Girl Disrobing, (c. 1900.) Bronze. 13" high. Hessisches
Landesmuseum, Darmstadt
Bonnard, Pierre (1867-1947)
Bradley, Will (1868- )
French painter. After earlier law studies he enrolled at the
Academie Julian in 1888 where he met Denis, Vuillard, American graphic designer and typographer. Born in Bos
Ranson and Serusier and became a member of the Nahi ton, the son of a cartoonist, he began work as a printer's
group. 1890 shared a studio with Vuillard and Denis, later devil in 1879 and worked in printing plants in northern
joined by Lugne-Poe. Besides painting, he did some sculp Michigan and Chicago. In 1893 opened a studio in Chicago
ture, worked on decorative panels and theater decorations from which his posters and designs won him international
together with the other Nabis. Designed posters as early as acclaim; exhibited at the World Columbian Exposition in
1891 and in 1893 contributed lithographs to the Revue Chicago. Following early influence of Beardsley, he attained
Blanche. First large one-man show of paintings at Durand- great originality. He contributed to the Chapbook, edited in
Ruel's in 1896. In the following years participated in all Chicago by Stone & Kimball, along with Beardsley, Beer-
major group exhibitions at Vollard's and Bernheim-Jeune's. bohm and Toulouse-Lautrec. In 1895 founded his own
Dividing his time between the Seine valley and the south printing press, the Wayside Press, in Springfield, Mass.,
of France, he developed an original style, somewhat apart which published seven issues of his magazine Bradley: His
from the avant-garde currents of the Paris School, in a Book and which, three years later, moved to Cambridge
prolific production of paintings, illustrations and graphic and was made part of the University Press, John Wilson &
works. Sons. He then worked for the American Type Founders
Company, setting styles in typography for decades, and
5/8 *42 Le Peignoir, (c. 1892.) Oil on velvet. 60 x 21 %". Musee
was active as art director of the Century Magazine. In 1904
National d'Art Moderne, Paris. III. p. 55
he wrote and designed twelve American Chapbooks for the
43 Table centerpiece, (c. 1904-05.) Bronze. 5%" high x 32" American Type Founders Company and in 1906 he wrote,
diameter. Musee National d'Art Moderne, Paris illustrated and designed the type for Peter Poodle, Toy-

165
 maker to the King for Dodd, Mead. He became art editor Carriere, Eugene (1849-1906)
of Collier's in 1907 and in 1910 organized a service to re- French painter. 1870-76 studied in Paris at the Ecole
style and handle art direction for many magazines. In Nationale des Beaux Arts with Cabanel. Founding member
1915 was appointed supervising art director of the Hearst of the Societe Nationale des Beaux Arts in 1890. 1896 ex
publications and motion pictures, after which he worked hibited at S. Bing's gallery L'Art Nouveau. Very close to
in the motion picture industry, and continued to write the Symbolist movement in painting, as well as in literature
books. He retired in 1930, but has remained active in his and music, he developed a style in which a fog-like trans
field. 1954 awarded gold medal by the American Institute parency seems to envelop his figures, eliminating all lines
of Graphic Arts. Lives in California. and restricting his palette to dark colors, highlighted by
49 Three Dancing Girls. 1894. Ink. 9% x 6". Collection Her sharp contrasts.
bert Stuart Stone, Jr., Wallingford, Connecticut 56 Woman's Head. Lithograph. 13% x 16%". The Mu
50 The Chap-Book. 1894. Poster. 19 x 13". Collection Herbert seum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Peter H. Deitsch
Stuart Stone, Jr., Wallingford, Connecticut Charpentier, Alexandre (1856-1909)
51 The Chap-Book. Thanksgiving number. 1895. Poster. 20% French sculptor, graphic artist and furniture designer. Fa
x 14". The Museum of Modern Art, New York mous for his bronze plaques and active in the early 1890s
52 Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. The Modern Poster. in the applied art field. Exhibited decorative objects with
2". 1895. Poster, 20 x 12y The Art Institute of Chicago Les XX in Brussels in 1893. In 1895, with Jean Dempt,
Felix Aubert, Tony Selmersheim and Moureau-Nelaton,
Brouwer, William Coenraad (1877-1933) formed the group in Paris called Les Cinq, which the fol
Dutch potter and sculptor. Studied in Leiden and after lowing year was joined by Charles Plumet and the name
working for an interior decorator and learning pottery in was changed to Les Six. Charpentier's furniture, at first
a pipe manufactory, specialized in that craft and founded simple and rectilinear, influenced by the Arts and Crafts
his own pottery works in 1901 in Leiderdorp, which devel Movement, took on Art Nouveau decorative elements and
oped into a flourishing business and produced innumerable he often added carved reliefs of nude figures.
decorative terracotta sculptures for buildings all over Hol
*57 Revolving music stand, (c. 1900.) Carved hornbeam. 48"
land, among them the Peace Palace in the Hague.
high. Musee des Arts Decoratifs, Paris. III. p. 99
53 Milk pitcher. (1901-03.) Pottery, glazed dark brown with 58 Sonatines Sentimentales. Poems de Maeterlinck. C. Mau-
raised geometric design in green. Pouring lip in form of clair. 1894. Poster. 19% x 12%". Museum fur Kunst und
owl face. 5%" high. Made by earthenware factory Vrede- Gewerbe, Hamburg
lust, Leiderdorp. Gemeentemuseum, The Hague
Cheret, Jules (1836-1932)
Burne-Jones, Edward (1833-1898)
Born in Paris. French graphic artist and scenery painter.
English painter. Belonged to the second generation of Pre- First worked in a lithographic printing plant, and estab
Raphaelites; close friend of William Morris and Dante lished his own printing press in 1866. Known as the origi
Gabriel Rossetti with whom he shared an admiration for nator of the modern poster. From 1893 under the influence
William Blake. Influenced the French Symbolist move of Toulouse-Lautrec he turned toward decorative flat pat
ment between 1884 and 1893, during which time he ex terns. After 1900, however, he reverted to a mid-impression
hibited major works in Paris. Greatly admired by Aubrey ist style.
Beardsley.
59 Loie Fuller. Poster. 47% x 32%". Victoria and Albert Mu
*54 The Pelican. Design for stained glass at Brampton Church, seum, London
"- Cumberland. (1881.) Pastel. 67 V2" x 22 The William
Morris Gallery, Walthamstow, England. III. p. 67 ClSSARZ, JOHANN VlNCENZ (1873-1942)
German painter, graphic artist and designer. 1903 joined
Cachet, C. A. Lion (1864-1945) the artists' colony at Darmstadt. 1906 to Stuttgart where
Dutch graphic artist. Learned the batik technique from he served as professor of book design at the Lehr-und Ver-
Dijsselhof about 1890. Designed advertisements, book cov suchswerkstatte. 1916 head of advanced painting class at
ers, woodcuts, posters, bank notes. the School of Applied Art in Frankfurt am Main. Cissarz
55 Binding for Oranje Nassau catalogue. 1898. Book size, did mural decorations and stained glass for churches and
8% x 7%". Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam public buildings in many German cities. His graphic work

166
 includes designs for posters, bookbinding and illustrations. 66 Vase. (c. 1899.) Porcelain; decorated with green-black
He also designed furniture and household utensils. crystal glaze. 6%" high. Osterreichisches Museum fiir
60 Unterstrom, the story of Helene Voight-Diedericks. 1901. Angewandte Kunst, Vienna
Book size, 8x6". Klingspor Museum, Offenbach Corinth, Lovis (1858-1925)
61 Type specimen sheet. (1896-1900.) Klingspor Museum,
German painter and printmaker. Studied at the academies
Offenbach
of Konigsberg, 1876-80, and Munich, 1880-84. After
Cobden-Sanderson, T. J. spending a few years first in Paris, then in Konigsberg and
English bookbinder, illustrator and printer. Friend of Mor Munich, he finally settled in Berlin in 1902. One of the out
ris and Crane. Active in development of modern English standing representatives of German Impressionism, he later
book design. 1900, with Emery Walker, founded the Doves turned to Expressionism. It was at this time, from 1918 on,
Press, which advocated the use of the plain unadorned type that he painted, during the summers, his famous Walchen-
face. Designed and executed parchment book covers, orna see landscapes.
mented in gold. Illustrated for Dekorative Kunst and 67 Dancers. (1895.) Soft-ground etching. 5% x 7%". Stadti-
Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration. sche Galerie und Lenbachgalerie, Munich
*62 Binding for Areopagitica by John Milton. (1907-08.) Book Dalpayrat, Adrien-Pierre (1844- ? )
size, 9% x 5%". Museum fiir Kunsthandwerk, Frankfurt French ceramist. Born in Limoges. The firm, Dalpayrat et
am Main. 111.p. 21 Lesbros in Bourg-la-Reine specialized in pottery with sculp
COLENBRANDER, ThEODORUS A. C. (1841-1930) tured shapes and highly developed glazes. He was awarded
a gold medal at the World Columbian Exposition in Chi
Dutch pottery and textile designer. One of the leaders of
cago in 1893.
the modern applied-art movement in Holland. Early work
in architecture, but by mid- 1880s had created a new style 68 Plate, (c. 1900.) Pottery with multicolor glaze. 13" diame
derived from Javanese batik for the Rozenburg porcelain ter. Musee des Arts Decoratifs, Paris
works in The Hague. His highly refined style combined 69 Vase. (c. 1900.) Pottery; sculptured shape, grey-red speck
exotic elements with bold linear patterns and colors. 1895 led glaze, c. 6" high. Made in Bourg-La-Reine, probably
became head of the Amersfoorter wall-paper factory. by Dalpayrat. Osterreichisches Museum fiir Angewandte
Kunst, Vienna.
*63 Plate. 1886. Pottery decorated with abstract plant design
in brilliant colors on white. 10%" diameter. Made by earth 70 Vase in the shape of a squash. (1908.) Stoneware with
enware factory Rozenburg, The Hague. Gemeentemuseum, rough-textured glaze (gres damme). 8" high. Musee des
The Hague. III. p. 108 Arts Decoratifs, Paris. Gift of S. Bing
64 Saucer. 1886. Pottery decorated with abstract design in Daum Freres
brilliant colors on white. 6" diameter. Made by earthenware August Daum (1854-1909) and his brother Antonin,
factory Rozenburg, The Hague. Gemeentemuseum, The French glass manufacturers of the Nancy group, which was
Hague founded by Emile Galle. The Daum glass was less extrava
Colonna, Eugene gant than Galle's and the technique less refined. Typical
floral motifs were poppies and snowdrops.
French interior and furniture designer and decorative artist.
Lived in Paris and worked for S. Bing. In 1900 together 71 Group of vases, (c. 1900.) Sculptured glass, hand painted.
with Eugene Gaillard and Georges de Feure designed S. Designed and made by Daum Freres, Nancy. The Museum
Bing's L' Art Nouveau pavilion at the Paris Universal Ex of Modern Art, New York. Phyllis B. Lambert Fund
position. Participated in the Secession exhibition in Munich Debschitz, Wilhelm von (1871-1948)
in 1899 and in the Turin International exhibition in 1902. German painter, illustrator and designer. Mainly self-
65 Pendant, (c. 1900.) Gilded metal, green agate, pearl. 2%" taught, but knew the work of Morris and Crane. 1902 with
high. Made for L'Art Nouveau shop in the S. Bing work Obrist in Munich founded the Lehr-und Versuchsateliers
rooms. Musee des Arts Decoratifs, Paris fiir freie und angewandte Kunst, which became widely
known as the Debschitz School with workshops for metal-
Royal Porcelain Factory, Copenhagen
ware, textiles and ceramics. The work of this school was
Founded in the eighteenth century, it gained world recog shown at the Jubilee Exhibition in Nuremberg in 1906 and
nition in the last decades of the nineteenth century. won a gold medal, c. 1908 Debschitz established, with

167
 H. Loehner, the Ateliers und Werkstatten fur Angewandte 80% x 31%". The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
Kunst in Munich. He later became director of the Stadt Ill p. 33
Handwerkers u. Kunstgewerbeschule in Hanover.
Frau Dunsky
*72 Ink stand. (1906.) Bronze, triangular shape. 2" high x
80 Tablecloth. (1901.) Woven linen with stylized peacock
8%" wide. Landesgewerbemuseum, Stuttgart. III. p. 114
feather pattern in yellow and white. 50 x 45%". Made by
Demachy, Robert ( ? -1938) Carl Faber, Stuttgart. Museum fur Kunsthandwerk, Frank-
French photographer. One of the greatest influences in pic furt-am-Main
torial photography in the 1890s and the early twentieth Eckmann, Otto (1865-1902)
century. With C. Puyo led the French section of the Linked
German graphic artist and designer. Began as a landscape
Ring Brotherhood, one of the secession groups which con
painter. Studied in Hamburg, Nuremberg and at the
centrated on photography. Specialized in landscapes and
Munich Academy. After 1894 abandoned painting and con
figure studies. 1894-95, with A. Rouille Ladeveze brought
centrated on applied art. Belonged to the Munich school of
gum bichromate process to high perfection; exhibited at the
Art Nouveau. The influence of Japanese prints is evident
Paris Photo Club in 1895. Introduced modern transfer
in graphic work he did for the magazines Pan and Jugend.
method in oil printing, 1911.
He was the leader of the German "floral style"; his illus
73 In Brittany, (c. 1900.) Gum print photograph. 5% x trations of stylized plant motifs in his own publication
8%". The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Gift Dekorative Entwiirfe of 1897 exerted a great influence on
of Alfred Stieglitz, 1933 German graphic artists. He was the designer of the best
Denis, Maurice (1870-1943) known Art Nouveau typeface and he also designed tapes
tries, furniture and metalwork. 1897 he became a teacher
French painter, graphic artist and theoretician. 1888 pupil
at the Kunstgewerbeschule, Berlin.
at the Academie Julian. Leader and theoretician of the
Nabi group. Joined the Pont-Aven painters in whose Sym 81 Sketch for book cover, (c. 1896-98.) Crayon and ink. 9 x
bolist style he participated. Contributed to the Revue 6". Museum fiir Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg
Blanche. Developed a neo-Catholic style in connection with 82 Initials designed for Pan. 1895. Museum fur Kunst und
the painting school of Kloster Beuren. Close friend of Gewerbe, Hamburg
Claudel and Gide. 83 AEG Prospectus for the Paris 1900 Exhibition. 1899-1900.
74 Portrait of Mme Paul Ranson. (c. 1890.) Oil on canvas. 9% x 12%". Museum fiir Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg
35 x 17%". Collection Dominique Denis, St. Germain-en- 84 Group of marbleized endpapers, (c. 1898-1902.) 21% x
Laye, France 14%" each. Museum fiir Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg
*75 April. (1892.) Oil on canvas. 14% x 24". Rijksmuseum 85 Book jacket for Johannes by Sudermann. (c. 1896.) 7%
Kroller-Muller, Otterlo, The Netherlands. 111. p. 54 x 4%". Klingspor Museum, Offenbach
76 W omen in a Landscape, (c. 1894.) Lithograph. 6% x 3%". 86 Title page for Schrijten und Zier-Material , published by
Collection Robert Pincus-Witten, New York Rudhard'sche Giesserei. (c. 1903.) Book size, 11% x 8%".
77 Design for wallpaper, (c. 1900.) Color lithograph. 35% x Klingspor Museum, Offenbach
19%". The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Purchase 87 Page from type-specimen book Schrijten und Zier-Material,
*78 Sagesse by Verlaine. Colored wood engravings by Denis. published by Rudhard'sche Giesserei. (c. 1903.) 11% x
(1889-1910.) Vollard edition, 1911, copy no. 76. Book size, 8%". Klingspor Museum, Offenbach
11% x 8%". Collection Dominique Denis, St. Germaine- 88 Plant forms. Design from portfolio Neue Formen. (c.
en-Laye, France. 111.p. 30 1900.) 17% x 13%". Klingspor Museum, Offenbach
Dumont, Henri (1859- ? ) 89 Announcement of Eckmann tapestry exhibition, (c. 1898-
1903.) Klingspor Museum, Offenbach
French painter and printmaker. Active in Paris as painter,
poster designer and etcher (signing his work at times 90 Announcement for Die Woche. (c. 1898-1903.) Klingspor
Henry). From 1893 on almost exclusively dedicated to Museum, Offenbach
paintings of flower still life. Exhibited at the Exposition 91 Woven silk fabric; grey-blue wave pattern on grey-blue
Universelle in Paris in 1900. background, (c. 1900.) 27% x 21%". Det Danske Kunst-
*79 Tous les Soirs aux Ambassadeurs. Yvette Guilbert. Poster. industrimuseet, Copenhagen

168
 92 Woven silk fabric; black flower pattern on black back important long trip to North Africa. Died at the age of 27
ground. (c. 1900.) 27% x 21%". Det Danske Kunstindus- before reaching a mature style.
trimuseet, Copenhagen. Both fabrics were part of a series 96 In the Square, (c. 1895.) Color lithograph. 13 x 9". Private
called "Kiinstlerseide," commissioned from artists by the collection, New York
manufacturer, Deuss & Oetker, Krefeld
Gaillard, Eugene
Endell, August (1871-1925)
French interior and furniture designer and decorative artist.
German architect and designer. Self-taught as an artist. Designed, in 1900, together with Eugene Colonna and
Strongly influenced by Obrist in Munich where he belonged Georges de Feure, S. Bing's L' Art Nouveau pavilion at the
to the group of architects and interior designers in the Paris Universal Exposition. Wrote A propos du Mobilier,
Vereinigte Werkstatten. Principal buildings in Art Nou- Paris, 1906. One of the foremost furniture designers of
veau style: Elvira Studio, 1897-98, designed for a Munich Art Nouveau.
photographer; Sanatorium in Fohr, 1901; Buntes Theater, 97 Velour with printed flower pattern in four colors, (c. 1899.)
Berlin, 1901. Also designed textiles, jewelry, furniture, and
60% x 34% ". Purchased from Universal Exposition, Paris
was a writer. 1918, Director of Akademie fur Kunst und 1900. Museum fur Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg
Kunstgewerbe in Breslau.
Gaillard, Lucien
v93 "' Armchair. (1899.) Carved elmwood with upholstered seat.
French jeweler. Contemporary of Rene Lalique; used insect
33%" high. Collection Dr. Siegfried Wichmann, Starnberg,
Germany. (Exhibited in New York only). III. p. 112 and flower forms in his silver work. Participated in the
Glasgow International Exhibition of 1901.
94 Wrought-iron ornaments from a desk designed for H.
98 Decorative comb. (c. 1900.) Horn, carved in the shape of
Heiseler, Munich, (c. 1899.) Mounted on board. Executed
blossoms with pearl centers. 6%" long. Marked: "L. Gail
by R. Kirsch. 28% x 37". Collection Dr. Siegfried Wich
mann, Starnberg lard." Museum fur Kunsthandwerk, Frankfurt am Main
See list of architecture photographic enlargements on 99 Decorative comb. (c. 1900.) Carved horn with gold mount
page 185. ing in the form of maple seeds. 6%" long. Exhibited at
Salon des Artistes Francais, 1906. Musee des Arts Deco-
Ensor, James Sydney (1860-1949) ratifs, Paris
Belgian painter and graphic artist. 1877-1880 studied at 100 Magnifying glass, (c. 1900.) Silver frame in the shape of
the Brussels Academy, under Portaels and others. 1880 re a beetle. 5" long. Musee des Arts Decoratifs, Paris
turned to his native town, Ostend, where he lived all his
Galle, Emile (1846-1904)
life. 1884 founding member of Les XX in Brussels, but in
1889, a major work of his, The Entry of Christ into Brus French designer-craftsman and pioneer in glass-making.
sels, was refused exhibition by Les XX. 1898 exhibited in Early studies in philosophy and botany. Trained in his
Paris under the auspices of La Plume. Edgar Allan Poe father's pottery works in Saint Clement and at glass works
was his favorite author. Developing out of sixteenth- in Meisenthal. 1874 added faience workshop to the family
century Flemish painting, but influenced by Impressionism plant, which by 1900 employed approximately 300 workers
and Symbolism, he painted a haunted world of make- in glass production and furniture, ending operations in
believe in which the ironic use of masks played a major 1913. Founder of Nancy School, a center for decorative art
role. Although acknowledged as a master in his own coun influenced by the Symbolist movement and based on a deep
try, being named baron by the Belgian King in 1929, it is belief in nature as the source of inspiration. Galle's glass
only recently that he has gained full world-wide acclaim work is unconventional in form, with original techniques
as a true originator. such as relief decoration, etching with acid, and overlaying
of colors. His furniture was noted for inlay work. In both
95 Self Portrait with Demons. Salon des Cent. Poster. 20% x
glass and furniture he incorporated inscriptions of Sym
15%" (without lettering). The Museum of Modern Art,
bolist poetry. He was an important and prolific contributor
New York. Gift of Ludwig Charell
to Bing's Paris shop L'Art Nouveau. With Galle's death in
Evenepoel, Henri (1872-1899) 1904 the vitality of the Nancy School diminished.
Belgian painter. Early studies in Brussels; 1892 pupil of *101 Screen (1900.) Ashwood with carved plant decoration and
Gustave Moreau in Paris; friendship with Matisse; fre marquetry in various woods. 42" high. Shown at Universal
quented the studios of many painters; under the influence Exposition, Paris, 1900. Signature in marquetry, lower left.
of Manet, Toulouse-Lautrec, Forain and Steinlen. 1897 Victoria and Albert Museum, London. III. p. 98
 102 Side table. 1898. Carved supports, triangular top decorated 111 Human Misery. (1895.) Woodcut. 9 x 11%"- The Metro
with marquetry in various woods. 34%" high. Signed. politan Museum of Art, New York. Whittelsey Fund, 1952
Musee de l'Ecole de Nancy *112 Leda. Design for a plate. Cover for Dessins lithograph-
103 Vase. (c. 1900.) Glass, colored violet, yellow, white and iques. 1889. 11% x 10%". The Metropolitan Museum of
brown. Decorated with engraved sheaf of oats. 11%" high. Art, New York. Rogers Fund, 1922. III. p. 30
Signed. Musee de l'Ecole de Nancy *113 Vase. Glazed stoneware. 11%" high. Made by Ernest
104 Hand, covered with sea plants, (c. 1900.) Colored glass Chaplet. Musees Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire, Brussels.
paste (pate de verre). c. 10" high. Signed. Musee de l'Ecole (Exhibited in New York only). 111.p. 30
de Nancy *114 Gauguin or School of Pont-Aven: Decorative Landscape.
*105 Shallow bowl in the shape of a shell, engraved with sea (1889.) Oil on wood. 33% x 22%". Nationalmuseum,
weed and small shells. (1899.) Clear crystal, 11%" long. Stockholm. III. p. 30
Signed. Musee de l'Ecole de Nancy. III. p. 91 Studio Glatigny, Versailles. Artists' colony in Glatigny near
106 Vase in the shape of a fish head, decorated with seaweed Versailles.
in relief. 1900. Colored glass. 5%" high. Inscription on 115 Coffee service, (c. 1900.) Coffee pot; creamer; sugar bowl;
back: "Et nul vent ne detruit son fragile univers. Roden- cup and saucer. Porcelain, shaped like sea fauna, glazed
bach." Signed underside: "Galle Expos 1900." Norden- blue. Signed "Glatigny." Det Dansk Kunstindustrimuseet,
fjeldske Kunstindustrimuseum, Trondheim Copenhagen
107 Vase, in shape of flat-sided oil jug. 1900. Grey-green glass Grasset, Eugene (1841-1917)
decorated with carved sea fauna, shells and spots of arti French graphic artist. Born in Lausanne, Switzerland where
ficial erosion. 9%" high. Inscription: "Descendre au fond he was trained as an architect. To Egypt in 1869 and Paris
de son propre destin, savoir ce se qui se passe en cette mer in 1871. Studied with Viollet-le-Duc, and also a student
sans fin." (Rodenbach.) Signed and marked: "Expos. n. Japanese art. Worked in various fields of applied art.
1900." Det Danske Kunstindustrimuseet, Copenhagen Published articles and books on typography and ornament
108 Vase. (c. 1900.) Translucent glass shaded white, blue and and as a theorist, advocated respect for materials and
amber; decorated with dragonfly and water lillies. 8" high. utility of objects, but in his decorations he used motifs
Signed. Collection Joseph H. Heil, New York derived from nature. In 1883 he designed the illustrations
for the medieval poem by de Montauban, Histoire des
Gauguin, Paul (1848-1903) Quatre Fils Aymon. Grasset was one of the originators of
French painter and printmaker. Began his painting career poster design.
around the age of thirty-five, after having been a sailor in 116 Exposition E. Grasset. Salon des Cent. (c. 1898.) Poster,
his youth and then a business man. Friendship with Pis- 23% x 14%". The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
sarro; from 1880, he participated in the exhibitions of the Gift of Ludwig Charell. 111.p. 39
Impressionists. Friendship with van Gogh. 1886 first so *117 Histoire des Quatre Fils Aymon, tres nobles et tres vaillans
journ in Pont-Aven. 1887 trip to Martinique. 1888 again chevaliers by de Montauban. 1883. Paris, H. Launette edi
in Pont-Aven, close relationship to Bernard and a group of tion. Color lithographic illustrations by Charles Gillot after
artists including Denis and Serusier. Visited van Gogh in designs in color by Grasset. Book size, 10% x 9". Rijksmu-
Aries in 1888. 1889-90 sojourns in Pont-Aven and Pouldu. seum Library, Amsterdam. III. p. 39
Back to Paris in 1891, departed for Tahiti. Came back once
Guimard, Hector (1867-1942)
more to France in 1893, but then returned to Tahiti in 1895
and settled finally in the Marchesas Islands where he died French architect and furniture designer. Studied at ficole
des Arts Decoratifs and Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, where
in 1903.
he also taught. Though influenced by Horta, he was one
*109 Still Life with Three Puppies. 1888. Oil on wood. 36% x of the most original and interesting Art Nouveau archi
24%". The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Mrs. tects. His style is based on nature with decorations that
Simon Guggenheim Fund. III. p. 48 are functional parts of the construction. His furniture and
*110 Manao Tupapau ( Watched by the Spirits of the Dead). jewelry display a similar harmony of design and sophisti
(c. 1893-95.) Woodcut, printed in black and colored by cation of detail. Guimard's three principal architectural
hand, partly with stencils. 9 x 20%". The Art Institute of works are the Castel Beranger, a group of apartment houses
Chicago. III. p. 31 at 16 rue de la Fontaine, Paris, 1894-98, the cast-iron en-

170
 trances to the Paris Metro stations, 1900, and the Humbert ban by the Nazis in 1933. Master of satirical illustration,
de Romans Building, rue St. Didier, Paris, 1902. He came he was noted for his cartoons. 1898 imprisoned for political
to the United States in 1938 and died in New York in 1942. offence. 1933 emigrated to Prague, and worked for a news
118 Corner cupboard from a bedroom suite. (1900.) Carved paper. Later connected with journals in Oslo and Stock
pearwood. 67" high. Musee des Arts Decoratifs, Paris holm, where he died.
*119 Desk from the architect's own house, (c. 1903.) Carved 128 Feuerbestattung. (1908.) Ink. 11% x 8%" . Stadtische
African and olive ash. 28%" high x 101" wide. The Mu Galerie und Lenbachgalerie, Munich
seum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Mme Hector 129 Friihlingsgedichte, eine Redaktionsidylle. 1897. ink. 9% x
Guimard. III. p. 104 15%". Stadtische Galerie und Lenbachgalerie, Munich
120 Desk chair from the architect's own house, (c. 1905.) 130 Die Lebensmueden. (1895.) Four ink and crayon draw
Carved walnut, with leather upholstery. 32%" high. The ings. Stadtische Galerie und Lenbachgalerie, Munich
Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Mme Hector 131 Die Einzige Moglichkeit. 1900. Published in Simplicissimus
Guimard 1910. Ink. 10% x 9". Stadtische Galerie und Lenbach
*121 Side table from the architect's own house, (c. 1908.) galerie, Munich
Carved pearwood. 43%" high. The Museum of Modern 132 Advertising design for Simplicissimus. (c. 1900.) Water-
Art, New York. Gift of Mme Hector Guimard. III. p. 104 color, 6% x 13%". Stadtische Galerie und Lenbachgalerie,
122 Vase. (c. 1908.) Glazed porcelain. 10% x 5%". Made by Munich
Manufacture Nationale de Sevres. Cooper Union Museum
Hodler, Ferdinand (1853-1918)
for the Arts of Decoration, New York
123 Umbrella stand from the architect's own house, (c. 1902.) Swiss painter. Studied with Swiss landscape painters in
Bronze. 32%" high. The Museum of Modern Art, New Thun and Geneva. Participated in the World's Fair exhi
York. Gift of Mme Hector Guimard bition of 1889 in Paris. Sojourns in Paris and Belgium.
Member of the Rosicrucian esthetic movement in whose
124 Balcony railing. (1907.) Cast iron. 39%" high x 63" long.
exhibition at Durand-Ruel's he participated in 1892. Ex
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Phyllis B. Lam
hibited in Munich and Vienna and became Switzerland's
bert Fund
most important artist. Painted landscapes, portraits and
125 Oval frame from the architect's own house, (c. 1909.) major Symbolist compositions of simplified form and bold
Gilded bronze. 21 x 10%". The Museum of Modern Art, outline. Major muralist of his generation.
New York. Gift of Mme Hector Guimard
*133 The Chosen One. (c. 1903, replica by the artist of painting
126 Standing cabinet frame with photograph of the artist. 1907. of c. 1896.) Oil on canvas 7'2%" x 9'10". Karl-Ernst-
Bronze. 10%" high x 6%" wide. Signed and dated. Cooper Osthaus-Museum, Hagen, Germany. III. p. 76
Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, New York
134 Secession. XIX Ausstellung der Vereinigung Bildender
See list of architecture photographic enlargements on
Kiinstler Osterreichs. 1904. Poster. 37% x 25%" Oster-
page 185.
reichisches Museum fur Angewandte Kunst, Vienna
Habich, Ludwig (1872-1949)
Hoffmann, Josef (1870-1955)
German sculptor and medalist. Studied at Stadelsche
Kunstinstitut in Frankfurt am Main, and at the academies Austrian architect, graphic artist and designer. Studied
of Karlsruhe and Munich. 1900-06 member of the Darm painting at Munich Academy and architecture with Otto
stadt artists' colony. From 1910 professor at the Academy Wagner in Vienna. Took prominent part in the founding
of Fine Arts in Stuttgart. of the Vienna Secession in 1897, and became leader of the
new art movement. His illustrations for Ver Sacrum first
127 Bathing Woman. (1900.) Bronze, c. 6" high. Collection
showed his characteristic ornamentation, stressing geomet
H. R. H. Ludwig, Prince von Hessen, u.b. Rhein, Wolfs-
ric forms. This was also evident in his designs for archi
garten-Langen
tecture, furniture and decorative objects, paralleling the
Heine, Thomas Theodor (1867-1948) work of Mackintosh in Glasgow but retaining his own
German draftsman, illustrator, painter and writer. Studied Viennese style. 1899 appointed Professor of Architecture at
at Diisseldorf Academy. After 1889 in Munich as con the Wiener Kunstgewerbeschule; he was a brilliant teacher
tributor to Fliegende Blatter and Jugend. 1896 founder of great influence throughout Central Europe. With Olbrich
and co-editor of Simplicissimus with Albert Langen and he designed the Austrian pavilion at the 1900 Paris Univer
Ludwig Thoma. Remained with this publication until its sal Exposition. In 1903, with Moser and Warendorfer

171
 founded the Wiener Werkstatte. Two important early approved for the Palais des Beaux-Arts, Brussels, built
works in architecture are the Sanatorium at Purkersdorf, after World War I, between 1923-28.
1903-04 and the Palais Stoclet, Brussels, 1904-11, for 140 Foot rocker from Hotel Solvay. (c. 1895-1900.) Carved
which he also did the interior decoration, furnishings, and cherry, with wool tapestry. 16%" high x 22" long. Collec
gardens. In 1912 he founded the Osterreichische Werkbund tion L. Wittamer-de-Camps, Brussels
which he left in 1920 to take the lead of the "Gruppe
141 Photograph display stand from Hotel Solvay. (c. 1895-
Wien" of the Deutsche Werkbund. He continued to prac
1900.) Gilded bronze. 60%" high. Collection L. Wittamer-
tice and teach until 1950 and died at the age of 85 in 1955.
de-Camps, Brussels
135 Table flatware, (c. 1903.) Handwrought silver. Spit; serv
142 Wall light fixture in the shape of two flowers from Hotel
ing fork; fish fork; dinner knife; dinner fork; dessert spoon;
Solvay. (c. 1895-1900.) Gilded bronze and glass. 18%"
sherbet spoon. Made by Wiener Werkstatte. Collection
high. Collection L. Wittamer-de-Camps, Brussels
Mrs. F. Beer-Monti, New York
143 Door handles from Hotel Solvay. (c. 1895-1900.) Gilded
136 Ring. Gold, with flat round opal. Made by Wiener Werk
bronze. 17%", 11", 7" high respectively. Collection L. Wit-
statte. Collection Mrs. F. Beer-Monti, New York
tamer-de-Camps, Brussels
*137 Brooch, (c. 1908.) Gold, with moonstones, milk opals,
*144 Ink stand, (c. 1900.) Gilded bronze. 4%" high x 18%"
baroque pearls and handwrought gold leaves. 2%" wide.
long. With initials "A.S." (Armand Solvay). Collection
Made by Wiener Werkstatte. Collection Mrs. F. Beer-
Mme La Baronne Horta, Brussels. 111.p. 93
Monti, New York. III. p. 121
See list of architecture photographic enlargements on
138 Flower container. (1903-04.) Perforated pewter, painted page 185.
2" white. 8y high. Made by Wiener Werkstatte. Kunstge-
werbemuseum, Zurich Kandinsky, Wassily (1866-1944)
139 Flower container. (1903-04.) Perforated pewter, painted Russian painter, and printmaker. Worked in Germany and
white. 9%" high. Made by Wiener Werstatte. Kunstge- France. After early law studies in Russia, he settled in
werbemuseum, Zurich Munich in 1896 where he studied under Azbe and Stuck.
See list of architecture photographic enlargements on 1900-1903 teacher at and president of the private art school
page 185. Phalanx. Member of the Berlin Secession since 1902. 1903-
1908 traveled in France, Tunisia and Italy. Settled in
Horta, Victor (1861-1947) Munich and Murnau in 1908; 1909 founded the Neue
Belgian architect. Early studies in Ghent and Paris, and at Kiinstlervereinigung and in 1911 was co-founder (with
Academie des Beaux-Arts, Brussels. Worked in office of Franz Marc) of Der Blaue Reiter. First non-objective
the classicist architect Alphonse Balat. The constructive painter (1910). Returned to Moscow in 1917. Professor at
principles of Viollet-le-Duc, neo-baroque elements of form, the Moscow Academy 1918. Emigrated to Berlin in 1921.
and plant-motifs were his chief sources of inspiration. 1892- Teacher at the Bauhaus 1922-33. Emigrated to France in
93 designed a house for Professor Tassel at 12, rue de 1933 and settled in Neuilly-sur-Seine, where he died in
Turin (now 6, rue Paul Emile Janson), Brussels. With 1944.
this first example of Art Nouveau architecture Horta's *145 The Mirror. (1903.) Woodcut. 12% x 6%". Stadtische
style was established and much imitated for its refinement Galerie und Lenbachgalerie, Munich. 111.p. 83
of ornamentation. His use of iron enabled great freedom 146 Phalanx: First Exhibition. 1901. Poster. 18 x 23%". The
of form, especially notable in the staircase of the Tassel Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Mme Wassily
house. Other buildings in Brussels in the mature Art Nou Kandinsky
veau style include the Hotel van Eetvelde, Avenue Palm-
erston, 1898, the Hotel Solvay, 224 Avenue Louise, 1895- Kinderen, Antoon Johannes der (1859-1925)
1900, two houses for himself, 22-23, rue Americaine, 1898; Dutch painter, muralist and illustrator. 1880-82 studied at
and the Maison du Peuple, 1895-1900, a building for a the academies of Amsterdam, and (together with Toorop)
group of cooperatives for working-class organizations, im of Brussels. 1887 trip to Italy and Paris, where he was
portant architectually for its facade of iron and glass. 1902 strongly impressed by Puvis de Chavannes. Mainly active
represented at the Turin Exposition. About 1905 Horta in monumental mural painting and stained glass window
abandoned the Art Nouveau style. 1913 became director designs, but also as book illustrator, especially during the
of the Brussels Academy, which he reorganized. 1914 plans nineties.

172
 147 Two-page fly-leaf for Gedenbock, Keuztentoonstelling von *150 Portrait of a Woman. (1897.) Pastel. 20% x 10%". Allen
Hollandsche Schdderkunst. 1893. Lithograph page one: Art Museum, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio
131/2 x 8%"; lithograph page two: 12% x 8%"- Gemeente-
*151 Salome. 1909. Oil on canvas. 70Vs x 18 Galerie Inter-
museum, The Hague
nazionale d'Arte Moderna, Venice. 111.p. 77
King, Jessie Marion (Mrs. E. A. Taylor) (1876-1949) 152 1. Kunstausstellung der V ereinigung bildender Kiinstler
Scottish illustrator and decorative artist. 1894-1900 studied Osterreichs. 1. Fassung. 1898. Poster. 25% x 18%" (first
at the Glasgow School of Art. Won a traveling scholarship state). Osterreichisches Museum fur Angewandte Kunst,
to Germany and Italy. Taught bookbinding at the Glasgow Vienna
School of Art. Designed mural decorations for schools in
Knox, Charles
Lanarkshire and specialized in book illustrations, among
them for works by Kipling, Morris, Milton, Spenser and 153 Jewel box. (c. 1900.) Silver, decorated with mother-of-
Wilde. Also designer of jewelry, pottery, and batik work. pearl, turquoise and enamel. Made by Liberty & Co., Lon
don. 11% x 6 x 3%". The Museum of Modern Art, New
148 Binding for Le Reve by Zola. (c. 1900.) Book size, 11%
York. Gift of the family of Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Jr.
x 8". (This edition contains an original ink drawing frontis
piece by Jessie King and illustrations by Carloz Schwabe.) Koepping, Karl (1848-1914)
Collection Thomas Howarth, Toronto German painter, etcher and designer craftsman. After early
Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig (1880-1938) chemistry studies enrolled at the Akademie der Bildenden
Kiinste in Munich where he studied painting and etching,
German painter and printmaker. After early studies in
he evolved a superb technique in making etchings after
architecture in Dresden (1901-03), he turned to paint
old masters. From 1896 one of the editors of Pan. He
ing. Mainly self-taught but studied also with Hermann
also developed a very delicate style of glass design, trans
Obrist in Munich (1903-04). Greatly impressed by seeing
ferring the Japanese technique of fusing different color
Diirer's woodcuts in Nuremberg, he began making wood
glazes from earthenware to glass.
cuts around 1900 and became one of the most important
printmakers of the century. Co-founder with Ernst Heckel *154 Group of glasses in the shape of flowers. (1895-96.)
and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff of Die Briicke in 1905. Wrote Tinted blown glass, c. 12" high. Det Danske Kunstindus-
the chronicle of Die Briicke in 1913. Settled in Berlin in trimuseet, Copenhagen. Acquired from the artist. 111.p. 120
1911 and moved to Frauenkirch near Davos, Switzerland Lacombe, Georges (1868-1916)
after World War II. Died by his own hand in 1938. One French painter and sculptor. Pupil at the Academie Julian,
of the outstanding painters of German Expressionism. member of the Nabi group. Participated in all their activi
*149 Before the People, from Man and Wife cycle. 1900. Wood ties; made marionette heads for theatrical performances;
cut. 7% x 7%". Allen Art Museum, Oberlin College, painted, sculpted and made decorative objects; faithfully
Oberlin, Ohio. III. p. 82 adhered to Nabi dogma not to sell their work.
Klimt, Gustav (1862-1918) *155 Headboard of bed (Le Reve). (1892.) Carved wood. 27%"
high x 55" long. Musee National d'Art Moderne, Paris.
Austrian painter and muralist. Studied oil and glass paint
III. p. 60
ing, mosaics and ceramics at the Kunstgewerbeschule in
Vienna. After important mural commissions for the Burg- Lalique, Rene (1860-1945)
theater he was in 1897 co-founder of the Vienna Secession French jewelry designer. Studied at the Ecole des Beaux-
and its first president. Collaborated also with the Wiener Arts. By 1885 he had established his own jewelry workshop
Werkstiitte. Chief exponent of Art Nouveau painting in in Paris. Lalique was the outstanding French Art Nouveau
Vienna, he created the wall decorations for Josef Hoff artist working in jewelry, gold and silver. The asymmetri
mann's Palais Stoclet in Brussels. His three huge murals cal settings for his jewelry were primarily derived from
for the auditorium of the University of Vienna caused floral motifs. He also designed glassware and decorative
public and official furor. Klimt resigned from the Secession objects. He was represented anonymusly at the Paris
which he had dominated and formed a new group "Kunst- World's Fair of 1889 and awarded a prize. He first became
schau" in 1908 in which he showed together with Egon known and his work attracted attention, at the Salon des
Schiele and Oskar Kokoschka. Internationally famous as Champ de Mars in 1895. He was represented at the open
portrait and landscape painter at the turn of the century, ing of S. Bing's shop L'Art Nouveau and he became one of
his influence extended beyond Central Europe. Bing's regular contributors. His work was acclaimed with

173
 enthusiasm at the Paris University Exposition of 1900, and tional Oriental vase forms, heightening their effect by the
he exhibited at the Turin exhibition in 1902. placing and the color of his plant motifs. 1908 in Munich
*156 Shallow bowl. (1900.) Semi-translucent opal glass deco first comprehensive exhibition in Germany at the Deutsche
rated with silver mounting depicting the heads of three Werkstatten.
cocks in low relief; four opals. 9" diameter. Signed: "La- 166 Vase. (Before 1903.) Brown glazed pottery, decorated
lique." Osterreichisches Museum fiir Angewandte Kunst, with black and green plants in relief. 8V4" high. Marked:
Vienna. Acquired from the artist, 1900. III. p. 101 "MFK." Museum fiir Kunsthandwerk, Frankfurt am Main
157 Hand mirror in silver frame; enameled handle in the shape Febeau, Joris Johannes Cristiaan (Chris) (1878-1946)
of a beetle; back, carved glass with wisteria blossom. Dutch decorative and graphic artist. Besides woodcuts and
(1900.) 9" long. Signed: "Lalique." Museum fiir Kunst- lithographs, specialized in designs for industrial art, tex
handwerk, Frankfurt/Main. Acquired at Universal Expo tiles, glassware, posters, etc.
sition, Paris, 1900
167 Silk scarf, (c. 1904.) Batik design of animals and scrolls;
158 Necklace (choker), (c. 1900.) Twelve rows of opal beads
x/2". white on rose. 3D/2 x 29 Made by t'Binnenhuis, Am
with five rectangular inserts of enameled gold and opals. sterdam. Det Danske Kunstindustrimuseet, Copenhagen
13" long x 2%" wide. Museum fiir Kunsthandwerk,
Frankfurt am Main Lechter, Melchior (1865-1936)
159 Necklace (choker. (1900.) Gold, enamel and opaque glass German painter and book designer. 1884 studied at the
in the shape of flowering bean vine; white velvet ribbon. Hochschule fiir Bildende Kunst in Berlin. 1886 in Bay-
3/s" 3V4" long x 2 wide. Museum fiir Kunsthandwerk, reuth. 1900 represented at the Exposition U niverselle in
Frankfurt am Main. Acquired at Universal Exposition, Paris. Influenced in his painting by the Pre-Raphaelites and
Paris, 1900 in his book designs by Morris. Friend of the German poet
Stefan George, all of whose books he designed from 1897-
160 Brooch, (c. 1900.) Carved horn in the shape of a woman's
face, with hair and wings of gold and enamel; pearl drop, 1907.
c. 4" wide. Musee des Arts Decoratifs, Paris 168 Title page for Der Teppich des Lebens und die Lieder von
Traum und Tod mit einem V or spiel by Stefan George.
161 Brooch, (c. 1900.) Flower spray surmounted by bees. Rock
1899. Book size, 15 x 141/2". Klingspor Museum, Offenbach
crystal and gold. 7^2 " wide. Musee des Arts Decoratifs,
Paris 169 Type specimen sheet. (1896-1900.) Klingspor Museum,
Offenbach
162 Brooch, (c. 1900.) Four dragon flies of enameled gold,
translucent enamel and diamonds; large opal in center. Lemmen, Georges (1865-1916)
8" 2y wide. Collection Mrs. Alfred H. Barr, Jr., New York Belgian painter, graphic-artist and designer. In painting in
*163 Decorative comb. (c. 1900.) Carved horn in the shape of fluenced by Seurat. 1889-92 exhibited at Salon des Inde
a branch surmounted by a bird with enameled gold body. pendents, Paris. 1893 contributed to Van Nu en Straks.
8" 6V long. Det Danske Kunstindustrimuseet, Copenhagen. 1894-97 associated with van de Velde in Brussels and mem
Acquired from the artist at Universal Exposition, Paris, ber of the group La Libre Esthetique. 1899 designs for
1900. III. p. 102 magazine Die Ins el. Also designed jewelry, metal fittings,
bookbindings and tapestries.
Fangfier (?)
*170 Title page for catalogue Les XX. 1891. 5% x 5%". Biblio-
4"x/2. 164 Loie Fuller, (c. 1900.) Photograph. 6 x 4i/ Museum
theque Royale de Belgique, Brussels. III. p. 31
of the City of New York
Fivemont, Privat (1861- )
Farche, Raoul Francois (1860-1912)
Belgian painter and decorative artist. Studied painting in
French sculptor. Pupil of Fr. Jouffroy, Falguiere and Dela-
Brussels with A. Bourson and L. H. Hendrick. Active in
planche. Active in Paris. Participated in the exhibition of
Scherrebek near Brussels. Made posters and lithographs.
the Salon from 1884 on.
171 Poster. 1897. 42 Vs x 3iy2". Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam
165 Table lamp; dancer with veils, (c. 1900.) Gilded bronze.
13" high. Signed. Collection Mrs. Sidney Janis, New York Fotz Witwe, Joh.
Lauger, Max (1864-1952) Glass factory in Klostermiihle, Bohemia, following the
German architect. Studied and taught at Kunstgewerbe- example of Tiffany.
schule, Karlsruhe. Specialized in ceramics. Simplified tradi 172 Vase. (c. 1900.) Silver iridescent glass, with onion-shaped

174
 base and green onion leaf decoration. 8%" high. Landes- 178 New Year's Card. Pencil. 9% x 2". The Metropolitan Mu
gewerbemuseum, Stuttgart seum of Art, New York. Whittelsey Fund, 1956
173 Vase. (c. 1900.) Dark purple iridescent glass with light 179 Conversazione program. 1894. Watercolor. 5% x 7%".
blue abstract decoration. 8%" high. Osterreichisches Mu Collection Thomas Howarth, Toronto
seum fur Angewandte Kunst, Vienna '180 The Scottish Musical Review. 1896. Poster. 7'8" x 3'2".
'174 Bottle-vase. (c. 1902.) Sculptured shape; gold iridescent The Museum of Modern Art, New York. 111.p. 19
glass. 14%" high. Osterreichisches Museum fur Ange '181 Cabinet, (c. 1903.) Wood, painted white, decorated with
wandte Kunst, Vienna. Gift of Max Ritter von Spaun. carvings and inlayed figures of enamel and leaded glass.
III. p. 120 5' high. The University of Glasgow Art Collections. III. p.
175 Bowl. (1899.) Green iridescent glass with scalloped edge; 91
2" leaf rosette in center, c. 4y high. Osterreichisches Mu 182 Chair. 1900. Wood, carved and painted white; linen up
seum fur Angewandte Kunst, Vienna. Gift of Max Ritter holstery with stenciled decoration. 5' high. The University
von Spaun of Glasgow Art Collections
183 Fish knife and fork. (c. 1900.) Silver-plated nickel. 9"
Macdonald, Frances (1874-1921)
long. The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of The
Scottish decorative designer and metalworker. Younger University of Glasgow
sister of Margaret Macdonald. Educated at the Glasgow 184 Wall mirror, (c. 1903.) Surface overlayed with leaded
School of Art. Worked both alone and with her sister. stained glass design. 31% x 9%". The University of Glas
Married the architect J. Herbert McNair in 1899 and after gow Art Collections
wards collaborated with him in the design of furniture and See also list of architecture photographic enlargements on
stained glass. Taught enameling, gold, silver, and metal- page 185.
work at Glasgow School of Art from 1907.
Mackintosh, Margaret Macdonald (1865-1933)
2 176 The Iliad. 1899. Two plaques, metal repousse. 20y x 6V2",
Scottish decorative designer, metalworker and watercolor
each. Collection Thomas Howarth, Toronto. (N.Y.)
ist. Educated at the Glasgow School of Art. Designed and
Mackintosh, Charles Rennie (1868-1928) executed decorative metalwork with her sister Frances.
Scottish architect, designer and watercolorist. 1884 appren Married C. R. Mackintosh 1900, and afterwards collabo
ticed to the architect John Hutchison and attended, from rated in all his work and considerably influenced his deco
1885 evening classes at the Glasgow School of Art. 1889 ration. Her later work includes gesso panels and stained
joined as draftsman the architectural firm of John Honey- glass.
man & Keepie of which he became a partner in 1904. De 185 Motherhood. 1902. Painted gesso relief. 42 x 42". The
veloped an individual style in architecture, interior design Glasgow School of Art
and furniture during the nineties and became the leader of 186 Menu for Miss Cranston's White Cockade Tea Room at
the internationally-known group called The Four: Herbert The International Exhibition, Glasgow, 1901. 9% x 12%"
McNair, Margaret and Frances Macdonald, and himself. (opened). University of Glasgow Art Collections
Together they explored the decorative arts, evolving in the Mackmurdo, Arthur Heygate (1851-1942)
Glasgow style, a very important element of Art Nouveau.
English architect, graphic artist, craftsman and economist.
His short architectural career included Windy Hill (1899-
About 1870 induced by Ruskin to train as architect. In 1882
1901) and Hill House (1902-03) and culminated in the
(or a little earlier), together with Herert Home, Selwyn
building of the Glasgow School of Art (1897-1909), a
Image and Bernard Creswick, founded the Century Guild,
number of tearooms for Miss Cranston (1897-1910) and
a loose cooperative association of artist-craftsmen. The
the Scottish Pavilion at the Turin Exhibition 1902. Later he
style of the products of the Century Guild formed the
dedicated himself mainly to furniture design and decora
esthetic foundation of Voysey's and Mackintosh's art. 1883
tion. Gave up architecture and moved to Port Vendres,
produced book Wren's City Churches with woodcut title
France, and painted watercolors.
page. From 1884 edited the magazine of the Century Guild
'177 Preliminary design for the mural decoration in the first- The Hobby Horse which in its printing style is the fore
floor room of Miss Cranston's Buchanan Street Tea Rooms, runner of the Kelmscott and the Doves Press work. Around
Glasgow. 1897. Watercolor on tracing paper. 14 x 29%". 1900 gave up architecture and retired to Essex devoting
The University of Glasgow, Department of Fine Arts. himself to research in economics in which field he pub
111.p. 68-69 lished several books.

175
*187 Title page for Wren's City Churches by A. H. Mackmurdo, Minne, George (1866-1941)
A. R.I. B. A. 1883. Book size, 12 x 9". Victoria and Albert Belgian sculptor and draftsman. Studied at the academies
Museum, London. III. p. 27 of Ghent and Brussels. Member of the Les XX in Brussels.
*188 Two-sectioned screen. 1884. Embroidered silk panels with Close contact with Symbolist poets and friend of Mater-
satinwood frame. 47 x 42%". Made by The Century Guild. linck whose work he illustrated. Major sculptural work
William Morris Gallery, Walthamstow. III. p. 88 the Folkwang Museum fountain formerly in Hagen, now
*189 Cromer Bird. (c. 1884.) Printed cotton. 36 x 32". Made in Essen 1898. Returned later to classical style.
by The Century Guild. William Morris Gallery, Waltham *194 Kneeling Boy at the Fountain. (1898.) Bronze. 30%" high.
stow. III. p. 89 Musee des Beaux-Arts, Ghent, Belgium. III. p. 72
Maillol, Aristide (1861-1944)
Modersohn-Becker, Paula (1876-1907)
French sculptor. Started out as painter and tapestry de
signer. 1882-1886 pupil at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in German painter. Early studies in Bremen and Berlin, then
Paris. Strongly influenced by Gauguin and the Pont-Aven at the artists's colony of Worpswede near Bremen where
group and also member of the Nabi group. 1893-95 work she settled and married the painter Otto Modersohn, friend
shop for tapestries in Banyuls-sur-Mer. From 1898 on of Rainer Maria Rilke. Four study trips to Paris between
devoted himself to sculpture, becoming one of the most im 1900 and 1907, including a trip to Brittany; experienced
portant sculptors of the early twentieth century. the impact of French painting: Serusier, Gauguin; discov
*190 The W asherwomen. (1893.) Oil on canvas. 25% x 31%". ered Cezanne in 1901. Developed a strong proto-Expres-
Collection Mr. and Mrs. Samuel Josefowitz, New York. sionist style of her own, cut short by her early death.
III. p. 61 *195 Still Life. (c. 1900.) Oil on cardboard. 14% x 11%". Col
*191 Washerwoman. (1893.) Bronze. 8" high. Collection The lection Stephen Radich, New York. 111.p. 84
Hon. and Mrs. John Hay Whitney, London. III. p. 60
Moser, Koloman (1868-1918)
Majorelle, Louis (1859-1926)
Austrian painter, designer, and graphic artist. Founding
French furniture designer. After attending the Academie
member of Vienna Secession, 1897. Began teaching at
des Beaux-Arts in Paris, he returned to Nancy to take over
Wiener Kunstgewerbeschule in 1899 and became an influ
his father's business, which specialized in making period
ential force in Austrian applied-art movement, working in
furniture. His own first designs were in the rococo man
illustration, textile design, posters, frescoes, stained glass,
ner, before he adopted the Art Nouveau style in 1897-98
bookbinding, glassware and jewelry. In 1903, with Hoff
under the influence of Galle. Majorelle made use of Galle's
mann and Warndorfer established the Wiener Werkstatte.
plant shapes but instead of a flat surface treatment of floral
elements, his design was more plastic. This is true also of 196 14 vignettes for Ver Sacrum. (1898-1903.) Ink. Oster-
his free handling of iron in the stair rail for the Galerie reichisches Museum fur Angewandte Kunst, Vienna
La Fayette in Paris. The essential characteristic of his work 197 7 initials for Ver Sacrum; one head in profile. (1898-1903.)
is the dynamic line. His work was represented at S. Bing's Ink. Osterreichisches Museum fur Angewandte Kunst,
Paris shop L'Art Nouveau, which opened in 1895, and the Vienna
Turin Exposition of 1902. He is considered the leading 198 Marbleized end paper, (c. 1900.) 13% x 9%". Oster
furniture producer of the Nancy School, but with its de reichisches Museum fur Angewandte Kunst, Vienna
cline, he returned to classicism.
199 Woman. (1901.) Embossing, 5% x 5". Osterreichisches
192 Table lamp in the shape of a cluster of water lilies, (c.
Museum fur Angewandte Kunst, Vienna
1902.) Gilded brass base; sculptured glass shades by Daum
Freres. 31%" high. Made by Majorelle Freres & Cie., 200 Type specimen sheet. 1896-1900. Klingspor Museum, Offen
Nancy. Collection Theodoros Stamos, New York bach
Martin, Camille (1861-1898) 201 Ver Sacrum. V. ]ahr. XIII Ausstellung. D. Vereinigung
French painter and decorative artist. Pupil of Devilly and Bildender Kiinstler Osterreichs Secession. 1901. Poster
Lechevallier-Chevignard. Active in Nancy. 37% x 12%". Osterreichisches Museum fiir Angewandte
193 Desk folder. 1893. Leather repousse design of maple leaves Kunst, Vienna
and thistles; inscribed: "Feuilles d'Automne" and "II reste 202 Fabrik von Wiener Moebeln, A. G. Jacob, Josef Kohn (text
la melancolie quand le bonheur s'en est alle." 20 x 13". in Russian). Poster. 37% x 24%". Osterreichisches Mu
Musee de l'Ecole de Nancy seum fiir Angewandte Kunst, Vienna

176
*203 Liqueur glass, (c. 1900.) Clear glass bowl, red stem and Neree tot Babberich, Karel de (1880-1909)
base. 6%" high. Osterreichisches Museum fur Angewandte Dutch draftsman. Self-taught, influenced by Toorop,
Kunst, Vienna. Gift of R. Steindl. III. p. 120 Beardsley and the Japanese, excellent draftsman of nudes.
204 Textile. 1899. Silk and wool double weave; abstract mush 211 Two Women. 1901-1909. Watercolor and ink. 14% x 8%".
room pattern. 48 x 48". Made by Backhausen & Sohne, Gemeentemuseum, The Hague
Vienna. Osterreichisches Museum fur Angewandte Kunst,
Vienna. Gift of R. Steindl Nieuwenhuis, Th. (1866-1951)
Dutch graphic artist, designer and ceramist. Pupil of the
*205 Textile. 1899. Silk and wool double weave; abstract flower
architect P. J. H. Cuypers, he was active in the Dutch Art
pattern. 48% x 37%". Made by Backhausen & Sohne,
Nouveau movement with Lion Cachet and G. W. Dijssel-
Vienna. Osterreichisches Museum fur Angewandte Kunst,
hof. Among the influences on Dutch artists in the 1890s
Vienna. Gift of the manufacturer. 111.p. 117
were Japanese art, the English Arts and Crafts Movement
206 Textile, (c. 1899.) Silk and wool double weave; leaf and and the batik technique from the East Indies. Nieuwenhuis'
peacock feather pattern. 50 x 48%". Made by Backhausen work reflects these trends in emphasizing the linear with
& Sohne, Vienna. Osterreichisches Museum fur Ange designs of coiled snakes, peacock feathers and other ele
wandte Kunst, Vienna. Gift of R. Steindl ments taken from nature. He designed pottery for the De
Distel earthenware factory which operated in Amsterdam
Mucha, Alfons Maria (1860-1939)
from 1895-1923.
Czech painter, graphic and decorative artist. Studied in 212 Bottle-vase. 1916-17. Glazed pottery with plant and butter
Munich, Vienna and in Paris at the Academie Julian 1890- fly design in relief on white background. 12%" high. Made
1894. Became famous through his posters for Sarah Bern by De Distel factory, Amsterdam. Gemeentemuseum, The
hardt (the first in 1894), and for others. Also active as Hague
book designer and illustrator. Contributed to La Plume
among other magazines. Also did wall paintings for the Obrist, Hermann (1863-1927)
South-Slavic pavilion at the Universal Exposition in Paris, Swiss sculptor and designer. First studied geology and
1900, and later for theaters and public buildings in Berlin chemistry, but after attending the Karlsruhe Kunstgewer-
and Prague. beschule, he devoted himself to applied art, although he
207 XXme Exposition du Salon des Cent. 1896. Poster. 24% worked independently in sculpture for a time in Paris. 1892
x 16%". The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of with Berta Ruchet founded an embroidery workshop in
Ludwig Charell Florence, which he moved to Munich in 1894. 1897 found
ing member and regular collaborator in the Munich Verein-
Munch, Edvard (1863-1944) igte Werkstatten fur Kunst im Handwerk. Represented by
Norwegian painter and printmaker. Closely related to Art embroideries in "Salle Riemerschmid" at Paris Exhibition
Nouveau, he used the style with great psychological in of 1900. His motifs are derived from nature with stylized
sight and formal power. One of the chief pioneers of the but highly inventive shapes. A series of his embroideries
modern print movement. 1881-1884 studied in Oslo. 1889 was published in Pan. 1902, with Wilhelm von Debschitz,
first exhibition in Oslo. From 1885 extensive travels to founded the Lehr-und Versuchateliers fur freie und Ange
Paris, Germany and Italy. Saw work of Toulouse-Lautrec, wandte Kunst in Munich.
Gauguin and van Gogh in Paris. Exhibited in S. Bing's *213 Wall hanging. Peitschenhieb (W hiplash) . 1895. Embroi
L'Art Nouveau in 1896 and also made decorations for the dered in gold colored silk on grey wool, 46% x 72%".
Theatre de l'Oeuvre. First woodcuts in 1896. Shown in Initialed "HO." (The original title is Cyclamen. The name
Berlin since 1892, his work had the greatest single influ Whiplash derives from an article by Fuchs in Pan, 1896.
ence on German Expressionist painting. Miinchner Stadtmuseum. (Exhibited in New York only).
*208 The Cry. 1893. Oil on cardboard. 33 x 26%". Nasjonal- 111.p. 113
galleriet, Oslo. 111.p. 80 214 Ornamental plant composition. Pencil, 16% x 10". Collec
tion Dr. Siegfried Wichmann, Starnberg, Germany
209 Woman. (1895.) Drypoint and aquatint. 11% x 13%".
Private Collection. New York Olbrich, Joseph Maria (1867-1908)
*210 Madonna. (1895.) Color lithograph. 23% x 17%". The Austrian architect, draftsman and designer. Studied with
Museum of Modern Art, New York. Purchase. III. p. 81 Otto Wagner at Vienna Academy. Began career as illus-

177
 trator, contributing to V er Sacrum. With Josef Hoffmann, Paul, Bruno (1874- )
leader of Vienna Secession which he helped found in 1897. German printmaker and decorative artist. 1886-94 studied
Designed Secession building 1898-99. Summoned by the at the Kunstgewerbeschule in Dresden and, from 1894 on,
Grand-Duke of Hesse to the artists' colony at Mathilden- at the Academy in Munich. Contributed to Jugend. 1897
hohe, Darmstadt in 1899 for which he designed almost all co-founder of the Vereinigte Werkstatten fiir Kunst in
the buildings. Designed an entire room for the 1900 Paris Handwerk. 1907 head of the Unterrichtsanstalt of the
Exhibition and was represented in the Turin Exhibition of Kunstgewerbemuseum in Berlin, and 1924-32 director of
1902. Designed the fountain court of the German pavilion the Vereinigte Staatsschule fiir freie und angewandte Kunst
at the St. Louis World's Fair of 1904. His death at the age in Berlin. Lives in Berlin.
of 41 ended a promising career at a vital point in devel 221 Cover for Jugend, Vol. 1, No. 35, August 1896. Book size
8". opment. 11% x 9y New York Public Library
215 Type specimen sheet. (1896-1900.) Klingspor Museum, Picasso, Pablo (1881- )
Offenbach
Spanish painter, lives in France. Early studies in Barcelona;
216 Sculpture stand. (1900.) Mahogany. 56" high. Made by* first visit to France in 1900. Traveled back and forth be
Julius Gluckert, Darmstadt. Designed for reception room tween Barcelona and Paris up to 1904 when he settled in
of Darmstadt Artists' colony, Universal Exposition, Paris, Paris. Early work strongly related to the "Modernismo" in
1900. Museum fur Kunsthandwerk, Frankfurt/Main Barcelona and the Symbolist and Art Nouveau style in
*217 Two-armed candlestick, (c. 1900.) Pewter, with abstract Paris.
"8 incised decoration. I4y high. On bottom: Artist's mark *222 The End of the Road. (c. 1898.) Watercolor. 17% x
2". and manufacturer's identification "Edelzinn E. Hueck. liy Mr. and Mrs. Justin K. Thannhauser Collection,
1819." Museum fur Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg. 111.p. lent through Thannhauser Foundation. 111.p. 65
118 *223 Courtesan with Jeweled Collar. (1901.) Oil on canvas.
1/2". 25% x 21 Los Angeles County Museum. Mr. and Mrs.
Orley
George Gard de Sylva Collection. III. p. 65
218 Textile. (1902.) Woven silk; abstract swirl pattern. 49 x
Prendergast, Maurice (1859-1924)
2". 36y Made by Backhausen & Sohne. Osterreichisches Mu
seum fur Angewandte Kunst, Vienna. Gift of the manu American painter. 1884-89 studied at the Academie Julian
in Paris, together with his brother Charles. Both settled
facturer
in Winchester, Mass., in 1889, to practice wood carv
Pankok, Bernhard (1872-1943) ing and gilding. Maurice returning to Europe in 1897,
was strongly influenced by Cezanne and Seurat and, on
German designer and graphic artist. Active in Munich
frequent trips to Italy, by Italian masters, particularly
1892-1902. Contributed to Jugend. His style transposed
Carpaccio, and the decorative arts of Italy. 1905 first New
organic forms to furniture and ornaments. Rooms he
York exhibition. 1913 exhibited in the Armory Show from
designed were shown at the VII International Art Exhibi
which time his reputation began to grow.
tion at the Glaspalast in Munich. A founder of the Miinch-
224 The Red Cape. (c. 1900.) Monotype. 14% x 10". Collec
ner Vereinigte Werstatte fiir Kunst in Handwerk. 1899
furnished a room at the Munich Secession exhibition. De tion Mr. and Mrs. Harold Uris, New York
signed and decorated the catalogue for the German section Prouve, Emile Victor (1858- ? )
of the Paris Universal Exposition of 1900, for which he French sculptor, medalist, graphic and decorative artist.
also furnished a room. After 1902 active in Stuttgart. 1904 Pupil and later close friend and collaborator of Galle. At
represented at St. Louis World's Fair with a music room. the age of nineteen decorated a Galle vase with inscription
1913-37 Director of the Staatliche Kunstgewerbeschule in from de Musset. Asked in 1889 by Galle to design inlay
Stuttgart. work for a table with quotations from Tacitus.
*219 Armchair. 1899. Mahogany, with woven tapestry seat, 225 Ring. 1910. Gold with baroque pearl, small diamonds and
29%" high. Landesgewerbemuseum, Stuttgart. III. p. 112 emeralds. Signed and dated. Musee de l'Ecole de Nancy
220 End papers for W eltausstellung in Paris 1900. Amtlicher 226 Triangular box. (c. 1900.) Leather repousse design of
Katalog der Ausstellung des Deutchen Reichs. Book size, leaves; butterfly in colored enamel inlaid in leather, c.
91/2 x 71/2". Klingspor Museum, Offenbach 10% x 12". Signed. Musee de l'Ecole de Nancy
Ranson, Paul (1864-1909) Charles Shannon, with whom he also illustrated several
French painter and decorative artist. Enrolled as a student books with woodcuts in the early nineties, among them
at the Academie Julian in 1880. 1889 co-founder of the Oscar Wilde's A House of Pomegranates (1891) and
Nabi group. 1892 worked together with Bonnard, Vuiliard Daphnis and Chloe (1893). 1896 founded the Vale
and Serusier on the decorations for the Theatre d'Art. Con Press, illustrating most of its publications in the following
tributed to the Revue Blanche; designed tapestries. Close years. In his graphic work he was close to William Morris
friend of Georges Lacombe. Academie Ranson founded by and the Pre-Raphaelites. As a painter he was a follower of
his wife in 1908 with the help of the Nabis who all taught Delacroix, as a sculptor of Rodin. He also made jewelry
there in the following years (Bonnard, Denis, Maillol, and small bronzes and was one of the reformers of English
Serusier, Vallotton, etc.). stage and costume design. 1922 member of the Royal
*227 Women Combing Their Hair. 1892. Distemper. 63 x 51%". Academy.
Collection Mme Sylvie Mora-Lacombe, Paris. 111.p. 58 233 Ricketts, Charles and Shannon: Hero and Leander by Chris
topher Marlowe 1894. Book size, 8 x 5%". Collection Mr.
228 Girl Sewing (La Mansarde) . 1893. Distemper on canvas.
and Mrs. Leonard Baskin, Northampton, Massachusetts
2P/4 x 171/2"- Collection Mr. and Mrs. Samuel Josefowitz,
New York 234 Binding for Sphinx by Oscar Wilde. 1894. Book size, 8%
x 7". Morgan Library, New York
229 Tiger in the jungle. 1893. Color lithograph, 14% x 11".
Peter Deitsch Gallery, New York Riemerschmid, Richard (1868-1957)
230 Cover for L'Exposition de 1900 et I'Impressionisme by German architect and designer. Studied painting at Munich
Andre Mellerio. (published 1900). 8 x 5%". Collection Academy. 1897 founding member of the Munich Vereinigte
John Rewald, New York Werkstatten fur Kunst in Handwerk, with Pankok, Obrist
Redon, Odilon (1840-1916) and Bruno Paul, and collaborated with these artists in de
signing the Salle Riemerschmid at the Paris Exposition of
French painter and graphic artist. 1862-69 studied art in 1900. 1901 interior design for the Munich Schauspielhaus.
Bordeaux and in Paris at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. Friend
Designs for furniture and silver flatware are typical of his
ship with Rodolphe Bresdin whom he later acknowledged
distinctively simple and functional style. 1902-05 taught at
as his teacher; met Corot, Delacroix and Fromentin. 1871-
the Nuremberg Art School. 1912-24 Director of the School
1878 painted in the forest of Fontainebleau and in Brit- of Applied Arts in Munich. 1926 Director of the Cologne
tainy. 1879 published his first volume of lithographs Dans Werkschule.
le Reve. 1886 participated in the Salon des XX, Brussels.
236 Type specimen sheet. (1896-1900.) Klingspor Museum,
1888 friendship with Mallarme, interested in the Belgian
Offenbach
and French Symbolist movement. 1890 lithographs for
*236 Side Chair. 1899. Oak, with brown leather upholstery.
Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du Mai. 1891 L'Oeuvre litho-
graphique d'Odilon Redon published in Brussels by Jules 30%" high. Designed for Riemerschmid's music room,
Destrees. 1904 retrospective exhibition of Redon's work at Dresden Exhibition of Decorative Arts, 1899. The Museum
of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Liberty & Co., Ltd.,
the Salon d'Automne. The visionary "dream world" of
London. III. p. 114
Odilon Redon and its symbolist and anti-realistic implica
tions were of prime importance in the formation of Art *237 Table flatware. (1900.) Silver (oyster fork, dessert spoon,
Nouveau, although Redon himself in his highly personal dessert fork, dessert knife, cheese knife). Landesgewerbe-
and intimate style stayed aloof from the movement proper. museum, Stuttgart. 111.p. 115
231 Le Buddha. (1895.) Lithograph. 12% x 9%". The Mu Roche, Pierre (1855-1922)
seum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Mrs. John D. French sculptor, medallist and ceramist. Pupil of Roll,
Rockefeller, Jr. Dalou and Rodin. Participated in the Salon des Artistes
*232 La Mort: Mon ironie depasse toutes les autres! (after Franfais; received a silver medal at the Exposition Univer-
1905.) Oil on canvas. 21% x 18%". Collection Mrs. Louise selle in 1900.
R. Smith, New York. III. p. 46 *238 Loie Fuller, (c. 1900.) Bronze. 21%" high. Musee des
Ricketts, Charles (1866-1931) Arts Decoratifs, Paris. III. p. 64
English painter, sculptor, printmaker and decorative artist. Rodin, Auguste (1840-1917)
Born in Geneva, he grew up in France. 1889-97 editor of French sculptor. 1855-64 studied at the Ecole d'Art Deco-
the magazine The Dial, together with his pupil and friend ratif. 1864-71 active in the porcelain manufactory of

179
 Sevres. 1871-77 in Belgium; friendship with Meunier. This type of Rozenburg porcelain was primarily designed
1875 trips to Florence and Rome and 1877 through France by J. Juriaen Kok and decorated by J. Schelling and R.
for the study of cathedrals. Moved to Bellevue near Sevres Sterken.
in 1890. Settled in Meudon in 1894. Initiator of the revival Rysselberghe, Theo van (1862-1926)
of modern sculpture. His sculpture related more closely to
Belgian painter and graphic artist. Studied at the acade
Impressionism and Symbolism than to Art Nouveau, never
mies of Ghent and Brussels. Member of Les XX. From
theless exerted an important influence on the New Style.
1898 on spent much time in Paris. Introduced Neo-impres-
*239 The Sirens. (1889.) Bronze. 17" high. Cleveland Museum sionism into Belgium, but was also closely related to the
of Art. III. p. 12 Belgian Art Nouveau.
Roland Holst, Richard Nicholaus (1868-1938) 244 Lady before a Mirror. (1900.) Wood engraving. 15% x
Dutch painter, graphic artist and essayist. Studied at the 6%". Collection Mr. and Mrs. Hugo Perls, New York
Academy of Fine Arts in Amsterdam. Influenced by van SCHARVOGEL, JULIUS JOHANN (1854-1938)
Gogh, the Pre-Raphaelites and Beardsley, he developed a
German ceramist. Operated a prosperous workshop in
predominantly decorative style in his graphic art. Con
Munich. First experiments in underglaze painting. Strongly
tributed woodcuts to Van Nu en Straks in 1893. After 1894
influenced by Far Eastern ceramics.
fell under the influence of Charles Ricketts and Charles
Shannon's illustrations. From 1896 on turned more and 245 Vase. (c. 1900.) Earthenware, with four wing-like projec
more to nature and became the propagandist of the Social tions. Incised plant ornament under brown and black glaze.
6Ys" high. Det Dansk Kunstindustrimuseet, Copenhagen
ist movement.
240 Title page for van Gogh exhibition catalogue, Amsterdam, SCHMITHALS, HANS (1878- )
1/ 1892. Lithograph, 6 4 x TVs" • Book size, 7 x 8%". Museum German architect, painter and decorative artist. 1902 joined
Boymans van Beuningen, Rotterdam the Obrist-Debschitz school in Munich, first as a student
and then as teacher. Trips to Paris in 1909 and 1911. De
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel (1828-1882)
signed interior decorations. Lives near Munich.
English painter and poet. 1846-48 studied in the Royal
246 The Glacier. (1903-04.) Oil on paper. 45% x 29V2". The
Academy schools where he took instruction from Ford
Museum of Modern Art, New York. Purchase
Madox Brown and, later, shared a studio with Holman
Hunt. Rossetti and Hunt, together with John Everett Mil- SCHNECKENDORF, JOSEF EMIL (1865- )
lais, formed a secret association which developed into the Sculptor and designer-craftsman. Born in Romania. Studied
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood of artists combining poetic and at Munich Academy. After 1898 devoted himself to the
religious fervor with truthfulness to reality in their paint manufacture of fine glassware. 1907 became director of
ings. Rossetti was instrumental in re-awakening interest in the glassworks in Darmstadt founded by the Grand Duke
William Blake and was a close friend of John Ruskin. He of Hesse.
became the outstanding painter of this group which was 247 Vase. (c. 1908.) Iridescent gold glass, with bluish spatter
to influence profoundly the younger generation, among design, 12%" high. Made by the Grossherzoglich Hessische
them Edward Burne-Jones, and through him, the formation Edelglasmanufaktur, Darmstadt. Osterreichisches Museum
of Art Nouveau. fiir Angewandte Kunst, Vienna
*241 Binding for Atalanta in Calydon. 1865. Book size, 8% x SCHNELLENBUHEL, GERTRAUD VON (1878- )
6%"- New York Public Library, Berg Collection. III. p. 26 German painter and designer. First studied painting in
Rozenburg, Haagsche Plateelbakkery, The Hague Munich. Turned to applied art in 1902 and attended classes
Porcelain and earthenware factory, founded 1883. in metalware at the Debschitz school. 1911 joined the work
shop of the silversmith Adalbert Kinzinger. Represented at
*242 Bottle-vase with four handles, (c. 1900.) Semi-porcelain,
the Deutsche Werkbund exhibition in Cologne in 1914.
decorated with birds and flowers on white background.
15%" high. Landesgewerbemuseum, Stuttgart *248 Candelabrum for 24 candles. (After 1911.) Silver-plated
brass, c. 19" high. Miinchner Stadtmuseum. (Exhibited in
243 Bottle-vase with two handles, (c. 1900.) Semi-porcelain,
New York only). 111.p. 119
decorated with green and yellow flower design on white
background. 15%" high. Osterreichisches Museum fiir Seguin, Armand (1869-1904)
Angewandte Kunst, Vienna. III. p. 108 French painter and printmaker. Friend and pupil of Gau-

180
 gum, belonged to the Pont-Aven group. 1895 exhibition of Stamp, Percy
his work at the Bare de Boutteville in Paris for which *252 Hatpin. (1908.) Silver. Made by Charles Horner, Ftd.,
Gauguin wrote an introduction.
Halifax, England. Private collection, New York. III. p. 103
*249 The Pleasures of Life, 4 panels. (1890-91.) Oil on canvas.
60 x 221/2" each. Hirschl and Adler Galleries, Inc., New Steichen, Edward (1879- )
York. III. p. 59 American photographer, born Luxembourg. First exhibited
249a Farm in Brittany. 1894. Etching and aquatint. 9 x 9%6"- photographs at Philadelphia Photographic Salon, 1899.
The Museum of Modern Art, New York First one-man show of paintings and photographs at the
Maison des Artistes, Paris. 1905 collaborated with Alfred
Serusier, Paul (1863-1927)
Stieglitz in establishing the Gallery of Photo-Secession,
French painter. After early philosophy studies joined the later called "291," which showed works of Rodin, Matisse,
Academie Julian in 1886. Met Bernard and Gauguin in Brancusi, Cezanne, John Marin and Gordon Craig. During
Pont-Aven in 1888. Co-founder of the Nabi group and its World War I commanded Photograph Division, Air Ser
most outspoken theoretitian. Wrote A. B.C. de la Peinture. vice, U.S. Army, A.E.F. 1923-38 chief photographer for
Between 1895 and 1907 frequent trips to Italy and Ger Conde Nast publications. One-man retrospective exhibition
many. Strongly influenced by the ecclesiastical art school of at Baltimore Museum of Art, 1938. 1941 commissioned to
Kloster Beuren. 1903 settled in Brittany where he retired do photo-murals for new Radio City Center Theater. 1941
in 1914, after teaching at the Academie Ranson. commissioned as Lieutenant Commander, U.S.N.R., organ
250 Le Bois Sacre. (c. 1895.) Oil on canvas. 36% x 28%". Col ized and directed Naval aviation photographic unit; at
lection Mile H. Boutaric, Paris tained rank of Captain. 1947 to the present, Director of
Department of Department of Photography at Museum of
Sloan, John (1871-1951)
Modern Art. Organized Family of Man exhibition which
American painter, illustrator and printmaker. 1891 at opened in 1955 at Museum of Modern Art. Lives in Ridge-
tended night drawing class at the Spring Garden Institute field, Connecticut.
in Philadelphia and in 1892 entered the Pennsylvania
Academy of Fine Arts where he worked under Thomas P. 253 Figure with Iris. (1902.) Photograph. Original pigment
Anschutz, (a pupil of Thomas Eakins). Worked for twelve print, 8 x 3%". The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
years on newspapers as illustrator for the Philadelphia In Gift of the photographer.
quirer and the Philadelphia Press. Under the brilliant 254 Rodin — Le Penseur. Photograph. 11 x 14". Copy of pho
guidance of Robert Henri, who had spent several years in togravure in Camera Work, No. 11, July, 1905. Original
Paris, Sloan became familiar with the contemporary art of print (1902), 16% x 20%", owned by Mr. and Mrs. Hans
Europe. In his early posters and prints he was strongly Hammarskiold. Stockhold, Sweden
influenced by Walter Crane, William Morris and Japanese
art. From 1900 on he exhibited paintings regularly in the Steinlen, Theophile Alexandre (1859-1923)
major American annual art exhibitions. 1902 he started on Swiss-French designer and graphic artist. Studied art in
a series of etched illustrations and drawings for a de luxe Lausanne, then active as textile designer in Mulhause
edition of the novels of Paul de Kock. In 1904 he moved to (Alsace). 1882 moved to Paris, where he became an illus
New York and, although his chief source of income was trator, with biting social criticism, for many magazines and
illustrating for magazines such as Collier's and The Cen newspapers (partly under the pseudonyme Petit Pierre and
tury, he dedicated himself more and more to painting and Jean Caillou). 1901 naturalized French citizen.
etching. In 1908 he formed the group known as The Eight,
255 Winter, (c. 1896.) Color lithograph. 19% x 23%". The
whose members — Sloan, Glackens, Luks, Shinn, Lawson,
Museum of Modern Art, New York. Ludwig Charell Be
Henri, Davies and Prendergast — were pioneers in the move
quest
ment for freedom in art. He was prominent in organizing
the Society of Independent Artists in 1917 and was its Thorn Prikker, Johan (1868-1932)
president in 1918. From 1916-24 he taught at the Art Dutch painter and decorative artist. Studied at the academy
Students' Feague in New York and became its president of The Hague. Influenced by Maurice Denis and Gauguin.
in 1931. Impressed by meeting Paul Verlaine in 1892, he turned to
251 The Echo. 1895. Poster. 18% x 8". The Museum of Mod Symbolism. Exhibited with Les XX in 1893 and contributed
ern Art, New York ornamental designs to Van Nu en Straks. Friendship with

181
 Verhaeren and van de Velde through whose influence he ton Hall in Oyster Bay, Long Island. Tiffany Studios and
applied himself to industrial art. From 1904 on in Ger Tiffany & Company continued to produce and sell objects
many: taught in Krefeld, from 1910 at the Folkwangschule in various media, including glass, pottery, enamels, metal-
in Flagen and Essen and later in Munich, Diisseldorf and ware, as well as memorial windows. In 1911 he designed a
Cologne. Influential in the development of frescoes, mosaics mosaic glass curtain for the National Theatre in Mexico
and stained glass windows for Catholic churches. City. The Louis Comfort Tiffany Foundation at Laurelton
Hall was established in 1918, providing fellowships for
2 *256 The Bride. (1892-93.) Oil on canvas. 57V x 34%". Rijks-
young arstit,s to live and work on the estate. In 1932 the
museum Kroller-Miiller, Otterlo. 111.p. 74
Tiffany Studios went bankrupt. Tiffany died in 1933. The
Tiffany, Louis Comfort (1848-1933) collection of Laurelton Hall were sold at auction in 1946.
American glass designer and jeweler. Born in New York, 257 Vase. (c. 1900.) Flower form. Favrile glass, iridescent gold.
the son of Charles Tiffany, goldsmith and jeweler. Instead 16% " high. Made by Tiffany Studios, New York. Signed
of joining the family business decided to become a painter. and marked. The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
1866 apprenticed to George Innes. Studied in Paris and Phyllis B. Lambert Fund
active in painting, up to 1878, specializing in genre scenes 258 Vase. (c. 1900.) Favrile glass, opaque with abstract raised
2" and landscapes. Turned to decorative arts. First experi decoration. 10y high. Made by Tiffany Studios, New
mented with glass and learned chemistry, working in the York. Signed and marked. The Museum of Modern Art,
Heidt glass works in Brooklyn. First ornamental windows New York. Phyllis B. Lambert Fund
of opalescent glass in 1876 and by 1880 he had applied for *259 Vase. (c. 1900.) Glass flower in a metal stand. Favrile
the patents on the metallic iridescent glass for which he glass, translucent white and green; silver-plated bronze.
became noted. 1879 formation of Louis C. Tiffany Com 15%" high- Made by Tiffany Studios, New York. Marked
pany, Associated Artists, which decorated interiors for and stamped. The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
many private homes and public buildings, including the Phyllis B. Lambert Fund. III. p. 106, left
White House in Washington, D. C. in 1882-83. Tiffany *260 Vase. (c. 1900.) Favrile glass with irregular textured sur
Glass Co. was incorporated in 1885, specializing in stained face. 4%" high. Made by Tiffany Studios, New York.
glass windows and related interiors. 1893 Tiffany designed Signed and marked. The Museum of Modern Art, New
and built a chapel for the World Columbian Exposition in
York. Edgar Kaufmann, Jr. Fund. III. p. 106, center
Chicago, later installed in the Cathedral of St. John the
Divine in New York. In this, his first architectural work, 261 Vase. (c. 1990.) Favrile glass, calla lily decoration encased
3/8" the influence of Richardson, Sullivan and the Romanesque in clear glass. l6 high. Made by Tiffany Studios, New
are evident. However, Tiffany's ornamentation incorpo York. Collection Joseph H. Heil, New York
rating Art Nouveau motifs in glass and mosaics had de 262 Candlestick, (c. 1900.) Bronze, lined with opaque green
veloped into an original and wholly contemporary style. glass. 6" high. Made by Tiffany Studios, New York.
Because of the superb quality of his glass he received com Marked. The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Phyllis
missions to execute a series of windows designed by French B. Lambert Fund
artists, including Bonnard, Vuillard and Toulouse-Lautrec 263 Candlestick, (c. 1900.) Bronze. Tripod base with root
which were shown in the Salon of 1895 in Paris. With the motif; Favrile glass jewel decoration. 12%" high. Made by
building of a new glass factory in 1892 Tiffany concen Tiffany Studios, New York. Marked. Collection Joseph H.
trated on blown glass vases and bowls. Each piece pro Heil, New York
duced was personally approved by him before it was sold. 264 Hand mirror with peacock motif, (c. 1900.) Silver, enamel,
He gave the trade-mark "Favrile," meaning handmade to sapphires. 10%" long. Collection Joseph H. Heil, New
this glass which was distinctive for its shapes and its iri York
descent, brilliant or deeply toned colors. The influence of
*265 Table lamp. (c. 1900.) Base and shade forming wisteria
Near and Far Eastern art was also apparent. S. Bing in
vine. Bronze and Favrile glass. 27" high; shade 18" diame
Paris had exclusive European distribution rights to Tiffany
ter. Lillian Nassau Antiques, New York. III. p. 107
glass but it was soon widely imitated in Europe, notably
by Bohemian glassmakers. One of his "lily-cluster" lamps 266 Leaded picture window depicting wisteria vine on trellis
won a grand prize at the Turin Exposition in 1902. After against blue and purple sky from William Skinner House,
his father's death that same year, Tiffany concentrated on 36 East 39 Street, New York. (c. 1905.) 73 x 67". Collec
designing jewelry and building his own residence, Laurel- tion R. Stewart Kilborne, New York

182
 Toorop, Jan (1858-1928) 277 The Flute. (1896.) Plate II from the series Six Instruments
Dutch painter and graphic artist. Born in Java. Studied in de Musique. Woodcut. 8% x 7". The Museum of Modern
Amsterdam and Brussels where he joined the group Les Art, New York. Gift of Victor S. Riesenfeld
XX in 1887. Influenced by Ensor and Redon, he associated Velde, Henry van de (1863-1957)
in 1890 with the Dutch literary group of the "Tachtigers," Belgian painter, architect and designer. Studied painting
with Maeterlinck and Verhaeren, and for some time with in Antwerp and in Paris with Carolus-Duran. In contact
the Rosicrucian movement and turned to Symbolism, re with impressionist painters and the symbolists Mallarme,
stricting his artistic production mainly to drawings. 1905 Verlaine, Debussy. 1885 returned to Belgium, and by 1889
converted to Catholicsm. active with the group Les XX in Brussels; under the influ
* 267 The Three Brides. (1893.) Drawing. 37% x 38%". Rijks- ence of van Rysselberghe turned to neo-impressionism;
museum Kroller-Miiller, Otterlo. III. p. 75 Through Willy Finch came to know the English Arts and
*268 Deutsche Slaolie. (1895.) Poster. 36% x 24%". Stedelijk Crafts, and Morris movements. After a period of indeci
Museum, Amsterdam. III. p. 18 sion, followed by a nervous breakdown, he gave up paint
269 Binding for Babel by L. Couperus. (1901.) Stedelijk Mu ing and turned to the decorative arts. 1893 showed em
seum, Amsterdam. Book size, 8% x 6%". broidery Angels' Guard at the Les XX exhibition; illustra
270 Binding for Psyche by L. Couperus. (1898.) Stedelijk Mu tions for Van Nu en Straks; first furniture designs. 1894
2 seum, Amsterdam. Book size, 8y x 6%". gave lecture Deblaiement d' Art at Les XX which was pub
lished as a brochure. Van de Velde, as a theoretitian, writer
Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de (1864-1901)
and lecturer, became the most articulate advocate of the
French painter and printmaker. 1878 accident which new ornamental style and an ardent partisan for applied
crippled him for life. 1881 settled in Paris. Studied at the art. His abstract design was distinctive for its tense energy.
studios of Bonnat and Cormon. Formed the "Ecole du In his interiors and furniture he emphasized functional
Petit Boulevard" together with Anquetin, Bernard and van unity. 1895 built and furnished his own house at Uccle,
Gogh. 1891 first posters, 1892 first color lithographs. 1893 near Brussels, which served as a model to demonstrate his
contributed to the Revue Blanche; visited van de Velde in theories of design. Visit by J. Meier-Graefe and S. Bing
Brussels in 1894. 1895 trips to London where he met Wilde brought van de Velde to the attention of world outside of
and Beardsley. One of the most important figures in the de Belgium; in 1896 he was asked by Bing to create four
velopment of French Art Nouveau. rooms for his new Paris shop, L' Art Nouveau, that met
*271 At the Nouveau Cirque: The Dancer and the Five Stiff with a mixed reception in France. These, with an additional
Shirts. (1891.) Oil on paper on canvas, 45% x 33%". room were sent to the Applied Art Exhibition in Dresden
Philadelphia Museum of Art. Exhibited in New York only. in 1897, leading to many commissions in Germany. 1898
III. p. 63 took charge of graphic design and advertising for Tropon
*272 Loie Fuller. 1893. Color lithograph, 14% x 10%". The works, Mulheim; contributed to Pan. 1899 commissioned
Ludwig and Erik Charell Collection. III. p. 64 by Meier-Graefe to design interior for new Paris showroom
273 Loie Fuller. 1893. Color lithograph, 14 x 9%". The Ludwig La Maison Moderne. 1900 commissioned by Karl Ernst
and Erik Charell Collection Osthaus to design the interior of the Folkwang Museum at
2 274 Jane Avril. 1895. Lithograph, 10y x 8%". The Museum Hagen, completed in 1902. 1901 publication of Die Renais
of Modern Art, New York. Purchase sance in Modernen Kunstgewerbe. Invited to Weimar
*275 ]ane Avril. 1899. Poster. 22 x 14". The Museum of Modern School of Applied Art, introducing his own methods of art
Art, New York. Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Fund. III. instruction. 1907 took part in the founding of the Deutsche
p. 37 Werkbund. 1914 built theater for the Deutsche Werkbund
exhibition in Cologne. With outbreak of World War I, as
Vallotton, Felix (1865-1935)
a Belgian dismissed from all positions. His post in Weimar
Swiss-French painter and graphic artist. 1882 settled in was taken over by Walter Gropius and the school reor
Paris. Studied at the Academie Julian. Contact with the ganized at the Bauhaus. 1917 allowed to leave Germany
Nabi group. 1890 first woodcuts. Contributed to the Revue and settled in Switzerland where he came in contact with
Blanche. 1908 taught at the Academie Ranson. Trips to Romain Rolland and E. L. Kirchner. 1921 moved to Hol
Russia, Italy and Germany. land on invitation of the art collector Kroller-Muller to de
*27 6 The Waltz. (1893.) Oil on canvas. 24 x 19%". Private sign the Kroller-Miiller Museum in Otterlo, which opened
collection, Paris. III. p. 63 officially in 1938. 1926-35 head of the Institut Superieur

183
 des Arts Decoratifs, Brussels and Professor of Architecture 294 Woven silk fabric; abstract rose design on rose background.
at University of Ghent from 1926-1936. 1938 collaborated 27% x 21%". Det Danske Kunstindustrimuseet, Copen
on the Belgian pavilion for New York World's Fair. 1947 hagen. Both fabrics were part of a series called "Kiinstler-
settled in Oberageri, Switzerland. seide," commissioned from artists by the manufacturer
278 Abstract composition. 1890. Pastel. 18% x 20". Rijksmu- Deuss & Oetker, Krefeld
seum Kroller-Miiller, Otterlo
Maison Vever
*279 Angels' Guard. 1893. Wall hanging; wool and silk em
broidered applique. 55 x 91%". Kunstgewerbemuseum, French jewelry manufacturers. Next in importance to Rene
Zurich. III. p. 94 Lalique in producing Art Nouveau jewelry. Firm begun by
280 Illustration from Van Nu en Straks. 1893. Book size 11% Ernest Vever who withdrew in 1880. It was carried on by
x 19%". Bibliotheque Royale de Belgique, Brussels Paul Vever (1851-1915), and Henri Vever (1854-1942).
281 Illustration from Van Nu en Straks. 1893. Book size, 11% 295 Decorative comb. (1900.) Carved horn, decorated with
x 19%". Butler Library, Columbia University, New York. mistletoe in enameled gold and pearls. 6%". Musee des
*282 Tropon. (c. 1899.) Poster. 18% x 12%". Museum fur Arts Decoratifs, Paris
Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg. III. p. 23
Villon, Jacques (Gaston Duchamp) (1875- )
283 Title page for Dominical by Max Elskamp. 1892. Book
size, 8% x 5% " • Bibliotheque Royale de Belgique, Brussels French painter and printmaker. Oldest brother of
284 Binding for Ecce Homo by Friedrich Nietzsche. 1908. Book Duchamp- Villon and Marcel Duchamp. After early law
size, 9% x 7%". Klingspor Museum, Offenbach studies, joined the Atelier Cormon in 1895. At this time
285 Title page for Ecce Homo by Friedrich Nietzsche. 1908. mainly occupied as illustrator, cartoonist and lithographer;
Book size, 9% x 7%". The Museum of Modern Art, N.Y. close to Toulouse-Lautrec. In 1911 turned to Cubism. Lives
*286 Side Chair from the artist's house in Uccle. 1895. Paduk in Puteaux near Paris.
with rush seat, 37" high. The Museum of Modern Art, 296 The Game of Solitaire. 1903. Color aquatint and etching.
New York. Purchased from van de Velde estate. III. p. 94 13% x 17%". The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
287 Armchair, (c. 1899.) Polished paduk. 34%" high. Woven Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Fund
upholstery, decorated with abstract batik pattern (executed 297 Le Grillon: American Bar. 1899. Poster. 51 x 37". The Mu
by Thorn Prikker, Amsterdam). Chair executed in van de seum of Modern Art New York. Purchase
Velde's own workshops in Ixelles. Nordenfjeldsk Kunst-
industrimuseum, Trondheim Voysey, Charles Francis Annesley (1857-1941)
*288 Candelabrum for 6 candles, (c. 1902.) Silver-plated bronze. English architect and designer. Pupil of J. P. Seddon,
21%" high. Nordenfjeldske Kunstindustrimuseum, Trond strongly influenced by Mackmurdo. Specialized in building
heim. III. p. 96 small country houses which were partly based on the tradi
289 Inkstand. 1898. Polished brass, 8 %" long. Acquired from tion of the English house, and in designing furniture, tapes
La Maison Moderne at the Universal Exposition, Paris, tries, wallpapers and useful objects. His style is character
1900. Nordenfjeldske Kunstindustrimuseum, Trondheim ized by its clean line and graceful simplicity. One of the
*290 Table flatware. 1902-03. Silver (dinner knife and fork, leading English designers contemporary with Art Nouveau.
soup spoon, serving spoon, carving fork, grapefruit spoon). *298 Textile. (1897.) Silk and wool double cloth; bird and leaf
Signed. Made by Theodor Miiller, Weimar. Karl-Ernst- pattern in green and white. 55 x 49". Made by Alexander
Osthaus-Museum, Hagen. III. p. 115 Morton & Co., Carlisle, England. Victoria and Albert Mu
291 Belt buckle. 1898-1900. Silver, with plant ornament in re seum, London. III. p. 89
lief; moonstones and rose diamonds, c. 1%" x 2%". Exe
cuted in the artist's workshops in Ixelles. Nordenfjeldske Vuillard, Edouard (1868-1940)
Kunstindustrimuseum, Trondheim French painter. 1886 began art studies at the Ecole des
292 Coffee service, (c. 1903.) (Demi-tasse pot, sugar bowl, Beaux Arts in Paris; changed to the Academie Julian
cups and saucer, plate). White porcelain, grey and grey- where he met as fellow students the painters with whom
blue decoration. Made by Royal Meissen Porcelain Works. he joined in the Nahi group in 1889- 1890 shared a studio
Collection Stephen L. Bruce, New York with Bonnard, Denis and Lugne-Poe. 1893 together with
293 Woven silk fabric; black abstract scrolls on purple back Roussel, Bonnard and Ranson worked on the scenery of
ground. (c. 1900.) 23% x 26". Det Danske Kunstindustri- Ibsen's Rosmersholm at the Theatre de l'Oeuvre. 1894
museet, Copenhagen decorations for the house of the Natanson brothers. 1896

184
 exhibited with Lautrec and Bonnard with La Libre Es- ARCHITECTURE
thetique in Brussels. 1908 teacher at the Academie Ranson.
Developed an intimate style in his paintings and also pro Photographic Enlargements
duced several series of decorative panels for private houses
and theaters. 1938 elected to the Institute.
299 The Dressmakers. (1891.) Oil on canvas. 19% x 51%". Victor Horta
Collection Mrs. Charles Vidor, Beverly Hills Tassel House, 6 rue Paul-fimile Janson, Brussels; stair hall; 1892-
Worked for Rorstrand, porcelain factory in Stockholm 93. III. p. 129
around 1890. Van Eetvelde House, 4, avenue Palmerston, Brussels; stair hall;
Wallander, Alf 1895. III. p. 132
300 Vase. (c. 1900.) Porcelain, representing a starfish in relief, Grand Bazar, Anspach, Brussels, 1895. 111.p. 126
partly submerged in the sea. c. 8%" high. Made by Ror Maison du Peuple, place van de Velde, Brussels; auditorium and
strand, Stockholm. Osterreichisches Museum fiir Ange- facade; 1897-99. III. p. 131
wandte Kunst, Vienna A l'lnnovation, rue Neuve, Brussels, 1901. 111.p. 127
Weiss, Emil Rudolf (1875- ) Hector Guimard
German painter, graphic artist, designer. Studied in Karls Metropolitain Station, Place de l'Etoile, Paris, 1900 (demolished).
ruhe, Stuttgart and Paris. Husband of sculptor Renee Sin- III. p. 136
tenis. Contributed to Pan. After 1897 active in all forms of Metropolitain Station, entrance gate (c. 1900). The Museum of
book design (for publishers Eugen Diederichs, die Insel Modern Art. III. p. 133
and S. Fischer). 1907-33 taught applied art in Berlin.
Humbert de Romans Building, rue St. Didier, Paris, 1902; audi
301 End papers for Gugeline by E. R. Weiss. 1899. Book size torium (demolished). 111.p. 134
8 x 5%". Klingspor Museum, Offenbach
302 Binding for Die Fischer und andere Gedichte by A. W. August Endell
Heymel. 1899. Collection Gerd Rosen, Berlin Atelier Elvira, Munich; facade and stair hall; 1897-98 (de
stroyed). 111.pp. 138, 139
Wilke, Rudolf (1873-1909)
German caricaturist. Born in Braunschweig, he studied in Josef Hoffmann
Munich and, 1894-95, at the Academie Julian in Paris. Palais Stoclet, Brussels; exterior and interior; 1905-11. III. pp.
Active in Munich where he contributed continuously to 142, 143
Jugend after its inception in 1896, and to Simplicissimus.
Outstanding caricaturist of the period. Charles Rennie Mackintosh
*303 "U eberbrettl." Drawing for Simplicissimus. 1903. Ink, tem School of Art, Glasgow; facade and library; 1897-99. 111.p. 143
pera and watercolor. 18% x DVz" • Staatliche Graphische Antoni Gaudi
Sammlung, Munich. 111.p. 82
Casa Mila, Barcelona; facade, balcony detail, plaster ceiling deco
Wolfers, Philippe (1858-1929) ration; 1905-07. III. pp. 124, 123
Foremost Belgian goldsmith and jeweler, whose family
Alfred Messel
firm had been prominent for two generations. Philippe
Wolfers studied under Isidore de Rudder and first worked Wertheim Store, Leipzigerstrasse, Berlin; 1896. 111.p. 128
in the neo-rococo style, but by 1895 had turned completely C.R.-F.M. Jourdain
to Art Nouveau floral and insect motifs. He introduced the
use of ivory from the Belgian Congo in creating brooches, Samaritaine Store, rue de la Monnaie, Paris; 1905. 111.p. 127
combs and decorative objects of extreme refinement. By
1900 his style had become more symmetrical and abstract.
He was represented at the Turin Exposition of 1902.
304 Medusa. 1898-99- Pendant on chain. Carved ivory, en
ameled gold and opal, c. 4" high. Signed. Collection L.
Wittamer-de Camps, Brussels. 111.p. 100

185
INDEX

by llse Falk

Page numbers in italics denote illustra 12, 14, 16, 19, 22, 24, 31, 38, 39, 42, Blanche, 37, 38, 58; Screen, 36-37
tions 66, 72, 77, 163; Ave Atque Vale, 18, Bonnier, Louis, 97
J'ai baise ta bouche . . ., 67; Morte Bonvallet, 165
d' Arthur, 21, 22, 31, 66; Salome, 7, Book of Kells, 13
Abstract, Abstraction, 10, 70, 93, 95, 98,
21, 67; The Yellow Book, 8, 66 Bosselt, Rudolf, 165
102, 114, 137
Beerbohm, Max, 38, 66 Boston, 106
Academie Julian, 54
Behmer, Marcus, 164 Botticelli, Sandro, 29
Aesthetes, Aesthetic Movement, 8, 16, 65,
Behrens, Peter, 7, 16, 19, 38, 42, 45, 81, Bouguereau, William, 54
66, 75
83, 110, 116, 123, 124, 135, 144, 164; Bradley, William H., 11, 38, 39, 66, 165;
Africa (African), 13, 102, 106
Der Bunte Vogel, 36; Dining room, Whiting's Ledger Papers, 40
America (American), see United States
116; Feste des Lebens . . 18; Kiss, Brittany, 49, 52, 62
Amsterdam, 106
frontispiece, 10, 83; Mathildenhohe, Brouwer, William Coenraad, 166
Anquetin, Louis, 49, 62
44, 116 Brussels, 7, 11, 31, 45, 47, 49, 66, 72, 125,
Anti-historicism, 11
Belgian Socialist Party, Headquarters, see 130, 135, 140, 141; Academy, 125; see
Antwerp, 66, 68, 70, 125
Horta, Maison du Peuple also La Libre Esthetique and Les XX
Architectural Record, 102
"Belgische," "Belgische Stii," 10, 123 Buchanan Street Tearooms, see Mackin
L'Art Nouveau Bing, see Bing
Belgium (Belgian), 10, 11, 12, 19, 31, 49, tosh
L'Art Nouveau Gallery, see Bing
68, 70, 77, 92-97, 121, 123, 125, 130, Buddhism, 9
The Art Workers' Guild, 7
135, 140 Buffalo, 125
Arts and Crafts movement, 7, 8, 12, 29,
Benin bronzes, 14 Buntes Theater, Berlin, see Endell
81, 91, 114, 140, 141
Benois, Alexandre, 85 Burne-Jones, Edward, 65, 66, 77, 166;
Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, 7, 10,
Berlage, H. P., 123 Kelmscott Chaucer, 66; The Pelican,
24, 81
Berlin, 79, 83, 116, 121, 140 67
Ashbee, Charles Robert, 7, 90, 91, 163;
Bernard, Emile, 16, 49, 51-52, 62, 164; Burns, Robert, Natura Naturans, 31
Bowl, 90
Bathers, 52, 33; Bretonnerie, 51, 32 Byzantine mosaics, 77, 79
Atelier Elvira, see Endell
Bierbaum, O. J., Der Bunte Vogel, 36, 38
Auriol, Georges, 39, 40; type face, 41
Bindesbpll, Thorvald, 165 Cachet, C. A. Lion, 166
Austria (Austrian), 9, 10, 75, 91, 117-
Binet, Rene, 144; Printemps Store, 125, Campanini, Alfredo, 135
121, 123, 124, 135, 137, 140-141; see
126, 144 Carolus-Duran, 68
also Vienna
Bing, S„ 11, 12, 14, 55, 81, 97, 101, 103, Carriere, Eugene, 11, 166
Avril, Jane, 37, 65
105, 109; L'Art Nouveau, 55, 81, 97; Carson Pirie Scott Building, Chicago, see
L'Art Nouveau Bing, International Sullivan
Bakst, Leon, 66, 85 Exhibition Paris 1900, 11, 103, 105; Casagemas, Carlos, 65
Balat, Alphonse, 125 Exhibition Munch 1896, 11, 81; Maison Casa Mila, see Gaudi
"Bandwurmstil," 10, 123 de L'Art Nouveau, 11, 97, 101, 105, Casas, Ramon, 62
Barbey d'Aurevilly, Jules, Les Diabo- 109, 135 Castel Beranger, see Guimard
liques, 20 Bing, S., shop L'Art Nouveau, 22 Rue de Catalan, 123
Barcelona, 62, 125 Province, Paris, see Bing, Maison de Catholicism, 9, 74
Barlach, Ernst, 83, 163; Cleopatra, 82, L'Art Nouveau Celtic art, 12, 13, 24, 38, 66
83 Blake, William, 13, 26, 28, 72; Little Tom Centennial Exhibition, 1876, see Phila
Baron van Eetvelde house, see Horta the Sailor, 27; Songs of Innocence, 13, delphia
Baroque revival, 12 13 Centralschrift, see Schoppe
Batik, 13, 74, 109 Bloemenwerf, see van der Velde Century Guild of Arts and Crafts, 7, 26,
Baudelaire, Charles, 10, 29 Boccioni, Umberto, 165 28, 29, 38, 90, 125
Bauhaus, 7, 116 Bonnard, Pierre, 11, 16, 36, 38, 39, 54, Cezanne, Paul, 49, 54
Bazel, Karel Petrus Cornelis de, 163 55-58, 105, 165; France Champagne, Chaplet, Ernest, 51
Beardsley, Aubrey Vincent, 7, 8, 9, 11, 34, 36, 38, 58; Le Peignoir, 33; Revue Charpentier, Alexandre, 101, 166; Re-

186
 volving Music Stand, 99 Dresden, 11, 14, 87, 110; International "The Four," 66, 68
Cheret, Jules, 7, 33, 36, 58, 166; Folies- Exhibition, 1897, 11, 109, 110, 111; Fraktur, see Type faces
Bergere, 34; Yvette Guilbert, 33 German Art Exhibition, 1899, 87, 111, France (French), 9, 10, 12, 29, 31, 39, 40,
Chicago, 66, 124, 125 115 49-65, 66, 70, 79, 97-103, 105, 121, 123,
Chinese glass, 97 Duchamp, Marcel, 74 130, 135 ,137, 140, 147
Church of Sagrada Familia, see Gaudi Dujardin, Edouard, 49 Freud, Sigmund, 141
Cincinnati, 106 Dumont, Henri, 36, 38, 168; Tous les Fuller, Loie, 16, 62, 64; Serpentine dance,
Cissarz, J. V., 166 soirs . . ., 33 16, 62
Civilite, 20, 40 Durand-Ruel Gallery, 75
Classical motifs, 38 Dutch, see Holland
Gaillard, Eugene, 11, 101, 169
Cloisonisme, 49
Cobden-Sanderson, T. J., 167; binding for Gaillard, Lucien, 169
Eckmann, Otto, 14, 16, 40-42, 81, 110- Galle, Emile, 9, 11, 12, 14, 97-98, 102,
Aeropagitica, 21
111, 135, 168; Five Sivans, 110; Type 105, 106, 169; Screen, 98; Shell-shaped
Colenbrander, Theodorus A. Chr., 109, faces, 43; Title page for Die Woe he, crystal bowl, 97
167; Plate, 108 42
Collage, 77 Gaudi, Antonio y Cornet, 62, 123, 125,
"Ecole du Petit Boulevard," 62 130; Church of the Sagrada Familia,
Colonna, Eugene, 11, 101, 167 Egyptian revival, 12 62; Casa Mila, 123, 124, 123, 130
Congo, 109, 125 Eighteenth century, 101, 103, 123, 140;
Corinth, Lovis, 167 Gauguin, Paul, 7, 9, 14, 29, 31, 49-54,
furniture, 98; illustrations, 66 58, 60, 62, 79, 95, 170; Leda, 30; Manoa
Cormon, Fernand, 62
Elskamp, Max, 32; Dominical, 31 Tupapau, 31; Still Life with Three
Councillor Coulon, 60
Elvira Atelier, see Endell Puppies, 48, 49, 52; Vase, 30; Vision
Counter-Art Nouveau, 70, 150 n. 18 Empire, 12 after the Sermon, 49; Yellow Christ,
Crane, Walter, 7, 10, 33, 45 Endell, August, 10, 81, 83, 85, 110, 111, 51; Gauguin or School of Pont Aven,
Cranston, Miss, Tearooms, 68, 68-69, 141 114, 137-140, 169; Armchair, 112; Ate Decorative Landscape, 30, 51
"Curtain-wall," 130
lier Elvira, 10, 16, 83, 111, 114, 137, Geneva, 75
Curvilinear Gothic, 13
138-139, 140; Buntes Theater, 140; Germany (German, Germanic), 10, 11,
Decorative metal mounting, 113 40, 42, 70, 74, 81-85, 87, 91, 97, 109-
Dalpayrat, Adrien-Pierre, 167 England (English), 9, 10, 29, 36, 65-68, 116, 117, 123, 135-140, 141; Art Exhibi
Darmstadt, 91, 116, 124, 137; Artists' 72, 81, 88-91, 93, 97, 105, 109, 114, tion Dresden, 1899, see Dresden; Cen
colony, 91; Mathildenhohe, 91, 116 117, 123, 124, 125, 141 trals chrift, see Type faces; prints:
D'Aronco, Raymondo, 135 Ensor, James, 7, 47, 77, 169 Christ as the Man of Sorrow with Four
Daum Freres, 98, 167 Ernst Ludwig, Grand Duke of Hesse, 91, Angels, 22; Reichsbahn, lettering, 114;
Day, Lewis, 7 116 woodcuts, 29
Debschitz, Wilhelm von, 114, 167; Ink Evenepoel, Henri, J. E., 169 "Gesamtkunstwerk," 8
stand, 114 Exhibitions, see under cities, e.g. Dresden Gide, Andre, 55
Debucourt, P. L., 12 Exposition U niverselle Paris, see Paris Gilchrist, Herbert H., 28, 148 n. 31
Debussy, Claude, 7, 49 Exotic art, 13, 62 Glasgow, 12, 66, 68, 91, 111, 141;
Decadence, Decandents, 8, 20, 33, 66 Expressionism and Expressionists, 14, 83 Buchanan Street Tearooms, 12, 68, 68-
Degas, Edgar, 14 69
Decorative Arts Exhibition, 1897, 1899, Fauves, 14 Glasgow group, 91, 111, 116; "The Glas
Dresden, see Dresden Far Eastern, 109; see also Oriental gow School," 11; see also "The Four"
Decorative Arts Exposition, 1902, Turin, Feure, Georges de, 11, 101 and Mackintosh
see Turin Fin de siecle, 8, 66, 70, 101, 123 Glasgow School of Art, see Mackintosh
Dekorative Kunst, 13-14, 90, 95 Finch, Alfred William, 95 Gogh, Theo van, 79
Demachy, Robert, 168 "Flachenkunst," 140, 141 Gogh, Vincent van, 11, 14, 33, 49, 62, 68,
Denis, Maurice, 11, 16, 29-31, 33, 36, 45, Flamboyant Gothic, 13 70, 79
54-55, 58, 168; April, 34; Sagesse, 30 Flemish, see Belgium Goldwater, Robert, 36
Des Esseintes, see Huysmans, A Rebours Florence, 114 Goncourt, Edmond de, 10, 97
Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration, 7 Florentine Mannerists, 52 Gothic, 12, 13, 90, 91, 144, 146; Gothic
The Dial, 26, 27, 29 Folkwang Museum, see Hagen architecture, 13, see also St. Severin,
Donaldson, George, 91, 151 n. 1 Forma, 65 Paris; Gothic Revival, 12, 13

187
Grand Bazar Anspach, see Horta Hoffmann, Josef, 11, 16, 75, 79, 117, 121, Irish, 24
Grand Duke of Hesse, see Ernst Ludwig 137, 140-141, 144, 171; Brooch, 121; Italy (Italian), 11, 123, 135
Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar, 116 Convalescent Home, Purkersdorf, 141;
Grasset, Eugene, 7, 10, 11, 14, 16, 36, 38- Palais Stoclet, 17, 79, 141, 142, 143, Japanese art, 11, 14, 24, 28, 29, 42, 54,
40, 101, 150 n. 34, 170; Histoire des 144, 147; Project for an entrance, 137; 55, 58, 62, 66, 97, 101, 105; glass,
Quatre Fils Aymon, 39, 40; Poster for Wiener Werkstatte, 140-141 97; "Grass writing," 41; Scroll, 41;
Exposition Salon des Cent, 10, 39; Hohenhof, Hagen, see van de Velde Utamaro, 13, 24; woodcuts, 14, 13, 24,
Typefaces, 41 Holland (Dutch), 9, 10, 13, 19, 45, 66, 28, 42, 58
Greek art, 29, 87; vase painting, 66 68, 72, 106-109, 123 Jarry, Alfred, Ubu Roi, 33
Gropius, Walter, 116, 144 Horta, Victor, 8, 12, 13, 16, 45, 49, 66, Java, 13, 72, 109
Gros Waucquez Building, Brussels, see 93, 95, 102, 110, 125-133, 135, 140, Jenson, Nicolas, 25
Horta 141, 144, 147, 172; Buildings: Baron Jourdain, Franz, Samaritaine Store, 125,
Gruebe workshop, Boston, 106 van Eetvelde house, 16, 130, 132, 144; 127, 135, 144
Guaranty Building, Buffalo, see Sullivan Grand Bazar Anspach, 125, 126; Gros Joventut, 62
Guilbert, Yvette, 33, 36, 38 Waucquez Building, 130, 133; Hallet Jugend, 10, 11, 40, 62, 83
The Guild and School of Handicraft, house, 130; Hotel Solvay, 13, 43, 93, Jugendstil, 10, 47, 81, 83, 85, 116, 123,
London, 7, 90 143; A l'lnnovation, 125, 127, 130, 144, 135, 140
Guimard, Hector, 8, 10, 16, 102-104, 130, 147; Maison du Peuple, 44, 45, 125,
135, 140, 144, 147, 170; Apartment 130, 131, 141, 144, 147; his own house, Kandinsky, Wassily, 16, 65, 85, 172; The
house, rue Fontaine, 130; Castel Beran- 130, 133; Tassel house, 10, 12, 49, 93, Mirror, 83
ger, 13, 135, 140; Desk, 104; Desk 125, 129, 130; Objects: Electric light Kelmscott Chaucer, 66
chair, 103; Humbert de Romans Build fixture, 92, 93; Inkstand, 93 Kelmscott Press, 7, 25, 66
ing, 16, 130, 134, 135, 144; Metro, 10, Hotel Solvay, Brussels, see Horta Khnopff, Fernand, 11, 12, 31, 40, 47, 77;
102, 130, 133, 136, 137, 144, 147; Side Hough, Graham, 30 Cover for Les XX, 31
table, 104 House of a Connoisseur, see Mackintosh Kinderen, Antoon Johannes der, 172
Gulbransson, Olaf, 83 Humbert de Romans Building, see Gui King, Jessie Marion (Mrs. E. A. Taylor),
Gutton, Andre, Grand Bazar (Magasins mard 173
Reunis), 135 Husser house, Chicago, see Wright Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig, 83, 173; Before
Huysmans, J. K. (Joris-Karl), 9, 10, 19, the People, 82, 83
Habich, Ludwig, 171 20, 24, 33, 40, 65; A Rebours, 20 Klimt, Gustav, 9, 11, 16, 66, 75-79, 141,
Haeckel, Ernst, Kuntsformen der Natur, 173; Frieze for Palais Stoclet, 78, 79,
14, 16, 17 Ibels, Henri-Gabriel, 11, 54 141, 143; Salome, 77; University of
Hagen, 70, 75; Folkwang Museum (now Ibsen, Henrik, 12, 55 Vienna, 77
Karl-Ernst Osthaus Museum), 70, 151 Iconography, 16 Klinger, Max, Beethoven Monument, 77
n. 22; Hohenhof, 75 Image, Selwyn, The Hobby Horse, 26 Klingspor, Karl, 42
The Hague, 106, 109 Impressionism and Impressionists, 14, 29, Koepping, Karl, 121, 173; Decorative
Hallet House, Brussels, see Horta 31, 47, 49, 70, 73, 101 flower glass, 120
Hamburg, 11, 116 Independants, see Societe des Artistes In- Koch, Alexander, 7
Hamlin, A. D. F., 11 dependants, Paris Koch, Robert, 36
Hankar, Paul, 12 India, 109 Kok, J. Juriaen, 109; Bottle-vase, 108, 109
Harper's Magazine, 38 Inness, George, 105 Krefeld, 116
Hauptmann, Gerhart, 55 A l'lnnovation, Brussels, see Horta Kunstformen der Natur, see Haeckel
Heidt Glass factories, Brooklyn, 105 International Art Exhibition, 1897, Dres
Heine, Thomas Theodor, 83, 171 den, see Dresden Lacombe, Georges, 60, 173; The Dream,
Henry, Charles, 10, 29, 70, 148 n. 15 International Art Exhibition, 1897, 60
High Victorian, 87; see also Victorian Munich, see Munich La Farge, John, 105
Historicism, 11, 12, 81 International Exhibition of 1900, Paris, Lalique, Rene, 11, 101-102, 173; Decora
The Hobby Horse, 8, 13, 26, 28, 29, 40 see Paris tive comb, 102; Shallow bowl, 101
Hodler, Ferdinand, 9, 68, 75, 171; The International Exhibition of Decorative Larche, Raoul Francois, 174
Night, 75; The Chosen One, 75, 76, Arts, Turin, 1902, see Turin Larisch, Rudolf von, 19, 20
151 n. 22 International Style, 141 Lauger, Max, 174

188
Lautreamont, Isidore Ducasse, le Comte Washerwoman (bronze), 60; The 114, 115, 116, 137; Glaspalast, 114;
de, 47 Washerwomen (painting), 60, 61; International Art Exhibition, 1897, 114;
Lavirotte, Jules Aime, 135 Women Playing Guitars, 60, 61 University, 83
Lebeau, Joris Johannes Christiaan (Chris), Maison d l'Art Nouveau, see Bing Munich School, 135
174 Maison du Peuple, Brussels, see Horta Miinter, Gabriele, 85
Lechter, Melchior, 174 Majolika haus, see Otto Wagner Muthesius, Hermann, 90, 91
Lemmen, Georges, 31, 32, 95, 174; Ad Majorelle, Auguste, 12, 176
vertisement for Bing's L'Art Nouveau, Majorelle, Louis, 98; Bannister, 99 Nabis, 9, 29, 36, 54, 55, 58, 60, 62, 75,
105; Cover for Les XX, 31 Makart, Hans, 77 81, 97
Le Pouldu, 51, 58 Mallarme, Stephane, 9, 10, 47, 49, 65 Nancy, 12, 97, 98; Place Stanislas, 12
Le Pouldu, Inn, 58 Malory, Thomas, Morte d' Arthur, 66 Nancy School, 12
Leczinski, Stanislas, 97 Manet, Edouard, 14 Nature and Art Nouveau, 14-16
Liberty (Style), see "Stile Liberty" Manoeline Stile, 147 Near East, 13, 105
Liberty, Arthur L., 14 Martin, Camille, 176 Neo-Baroque, 137
Liberty's, London, 11 Mathildenhohe, see Darmstadt Neo-Gothic, 105
La Libre Esthetique, 7, 11, 49, 95 Matisse, Henri, 52 Neo-Impressionism, 10, 31, 47, 70
Liege, 93 Maus, Octave, 11, 47 Neo-Renaissance, 105
"Ligne beige," 123 "The mauve decade," 101 Neo-Rococo, 98, 105, 137
Lipps, Theodor, 83 Meier-Graefe, Julius, 83, 97 Neree tot Babberich, Karel de, 177
Livemont, Privat, 174 Meisenthal glass factories, 97 Netherlands, see Holland
Lotz, Witwe glass factory (Klostermiihle, Messel, Alfred, Wertheim Store, Berlin, Newbery, Jessie, 68
Bohemia), 121; Bottle-vase, 120 125, 128 New York, 11, 135
London, 7, 11, 65, 72, 90, 95, 97; Victoria Metropolitan Underground Stations, Nietzsche, Friedrich, 62
and Albert Museum, 91, 97 Paris, 10, 102, 130, 135, 136, 137, 144, Nieuwenhuis, Th., 177
Loos, Adolf, 117, 123, 137, 141, 147 147; see also Guimard Nonell, Isidor, 65
Lugne-Poe, 55 Middle Ages, 7, 12, 24, 49, 60, 73, 88 Non-Objectivism, 33, 70, 85
Minne, Georges, 70, 72, 176; Fountain Norway (Norwegian), 9, 125
Macdonald, Frances, 16, 66, 73, 92, 175; with Kneeling Boys, 70, 72 Obrist, Hermann, 14, 81, 83, 110, 114,
A Pond, 18 Moderne Architektur, see Otto Wagner 135, 140, 177 ; Design for a Monument,
Macdonald sisters, 12, 16, 19, 66, 92 "Modernismo," 11, 123 83, 84; The Whiplash (also called
Mackintosh, Charles Rennie, 11, 12, 16, "Modern Movement," 16, 140 Cyclamen) , 83, 113, 114
19, 22, 42, 45, 66, 68, 73, 77, 91-92, "Modern Style," 10, 123, 135 Offenbach-am-Main, 42
116, 141, 175; Buchanan Street Tea Modersohn-Becker, Paula, 83, 176; Still Olbrich, Joseph Maria, 11, 75, 116, 117,
rooms murals, design for, 68-69, 68; Life, 83, 84 124, 135, 137, 177; Candlestick, 118
Cabinet, 91; Glasgow School of Art, Monet, Claude, 14 Oriental Art, 11, 15, 28, 31, 38, 40, 41,
14 1, 145; House of a Connoisseur, Moreas, Jean, Symbolist Manifesto, 9 106, 109; see also Chinese glass and
17; Reform movement, 68; Scottish Moreau, Gustave, 29 Japanese art
Musical Review, 19; Willow Tea Morris, William, 7, 8, 10, 12, 24-25, 26, Orthodox Baptistry, Ravenna, see Ra
Room, 16 28, 29, 30, 33, 38, 39, 40, 45, 66, 70, venna
Mackintosh, Margaret Macdonald, 12, 88, 90, 91, 95, 109, 125; Golden Type, Oslo, 79
16, 19, 66, 141, 175 25; The History of Godefry of Osthaus, Karl Ernst, 70, 75; see also
Mackmurdo, Arthur Heygate, 7, 8, 12, 13, Boloyne, 25; Kelmscott Press, 7, 25, 66 Hagen, Folkwang Museum
26, 28, 29, 31, 33, 45, 90, 93, 124, 175; Moser, Koloman, 19, 20, 117, 121, 137,
Cromer Bird, 89; The Hobby Horse, 176; Liqueur glass, 120, 121; Woven Palais Stoclet, Brussels, see Hoffmann;
8, 13, 26, 28, 29; Monogram, 28; Two- silk and wool fabric, 117 see also Klimt
sectional screen, 88, 90; Wren's City Mucha, Alfons Maria, 177 "Paling Stijl," 11, 123
Churches, 13, 27 , 45, 90, 93 Munch, Edvard, 9, 11, 16, 75, 79-81, 177; Pan, 40, 83
MacNair, Herbert, 66, 92 The Cry, 79, 80; Exhibition Berlin, Palmer, Samuel, 148 n. 31
Madsen, Stephan Tschudi, 125 1892, 79; Exhibition Paris, 1896, 11, Pankok, Bernard, 45, 81, 110, 111, 135,
Maeterlinck, Maurice, 10, 55, 72 81; Frieze of Life, 79; Madonna, 79, 81 178; Armchair, 111, 112; Border illus
Maillol, Aristide, 7, 54, 58, 60, 176; Munich, 10, 11, 62, 77, 83, 85, 87, 110, tration, 44; Smoking room, 111

189
Paul, Bruno, 83, 110, 111, 178 Renoir, Auguste, 7, 14 Scala, Arthur von, 117
Parallelism, 75, see also Hodler La Revue Blanche, 38, 58, 81 Scharvogel, Johann Julius, 180
Paris, 10, 11, 14, 31, 38, 39, 47, 49, 62, Revue illustree, 39, 40 Scherrebek, North Germany, 110
65, 66, 68, 72, 75, 79, 81, 83, 91, 97, Revue W agnerienne, 49, 148 n. 5 Schmalenbach, Fritz, 140, 141, 149 n. 4
101, 102, 103, 105, 109, 111, 135, 137; Ricketts, Charles, 29, 39, 179; The Dial, Schmithals, Hans, 180
International Exhibitions, 1855, 65; 26, 29; In the Key of Blue, 21 Schneckendorf, Josef Emil, 180
1889, 60, 101; 1900, 11, 75, 91, 103, Riemerschmid, Richard, 81, 87, 110, 111, Schnellenbiihel, Gertraud von, 117, 180;
105, 109, 111, 115, 116; Metro Sta 114, 115, 135, 179; Music room, 86, Candelabrum, 119
tions, 10, 102, 130, 135, 136, 137, 144, 111; Side chair, 114, 115; Table flat "Schnorkelstil," 10, 123
147; Salon du Champ de Mars, 1895, ware, 115 Schoellkopf, Xavier, 135
101; St. Severin, 14 Rimbaud, Arthur, 47, 55 Schoppe, Centralschrift, 40, 42; see also
Pel y Ploma, 62 Robinson, Charles, binding for Make Be Type faces
Perret, Auguste, 123, 135, 151 n. 8 lieve, 21 Schuffenecker, Emile, 49
Philadelphia, Centennial Exhibition, 1876, Roche, Pierre, 62, 179; Loie Fuller, 62, 64 Schwabe, Carlos, 66, 151 n. 20
105 Rochefoucauld, Count de la, 75 Scott, Baillie, 91
Picasso, Pablo, 16, 62, 65, 178; Blue Rococo, 12, 97, 123, 140, 147 Scotland (Scots), 11, 66, 91-92, 141
Period, 65; Courtesan with Jeweled Rodin, Auguste, 11, 70, 83, 179; Kiss, 83; Secession Vienna, 10, 11, 45, 75, 77, 116,
Collar, 65; End of the Road, 65 The Sirens, 70, 72 117, 137
The Picture of Dorian Gray, see Wilde Roland Hoist, Richard Nicholaiis, 33, "Secessionsstil," 10, 47, 123, 135, 140
Pissarro, Camille, 7 180; Cover for van Gogh catalogue, Second Empire, 102
Place Stanislas, see Nancy 32 Seguin, Armand, 54, 58, 79, 180; The
La Plume, 10, 39; Exhibition of Grasset Roller, Alfred, 117 Pleasures of Life, 58, 59
posters, 39 Roman letter, see Type faces Selmersheim, Tony, 101
Plumet, Charles, 101 Romanesque, 90 Serpentine curve, 22, 42; dance, see Loie
Poe, Edgar Allan, 72 Romantic, 47 Fuller; form, 111; line, 24
Pointillism, 70 Romische Antiqua, see Type faces Serrurier-Bovy Gustave, 7, 93, 95; Din
Pont-Aven, 9, 49, 51, 83 Rookwood Workshop, Cincinnati, 106 ing room buffet, 93
Portugal, 147 Rosicrucians, 9, 75 Serusier, Paul, 11, 52, 54, 55, 181
Postal Savings Bank, Vienna, see Otto Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 7, 26, 65, 148 Seurat, Georges, 10, 29, 31, 33, 47, 79;
Wagner n. 31, 180; Atalanta in Calydon, 26 The Bathers, 47; Le Chahut, 47; Le
Poster movement, 10; Posters, 33-38 Roussel, Ker-Xavier, 11, 54 Cirque, 47, 48; La Parade, 47; A Sun
Pre-Columbian art, 60 Rozenburg, The Hague, 108, 109 day Afternoon on the Island of La
Prendergast, Maurice, 178 Rudhard'sche Schriftgiesserei, Offenbach- Grande Jatte, 47
Pre-Raphaelites, 16, 26, 65, 66, 72, 75, am-Main, 42 Shelling, J., 109; Bottle-vase, 108
90, 92 Ruskin, John, 7, 12, 26, 33, 88, 90, 95 Signac, Paul, 7, 10, 31
Primitive art, 60 Russia, 83, 85 Simplicissimus, 83
Proto-Art Nouveau, 26, 125, 149 n. 9 Rysselberghe, Theo van, 47, 180 Sloan, John, 181
Prouve, Victor, 178 Societe des Artistes Independants, Paris,
Pugin, August W. N., 12 Sagesse, see Verlaine 47
Purkersdorf Convalescent Home, see Saint-Aubin, Gabriel de, 12 Solvay house, see Horta
Hoffmann St. Petersburg, 66 Sommaruga, Guiseppe, 135
Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre, 7, 54 St. Severin, Paris, window, 14 Somov, Constantine, 85
Saintenoy, Paul, Old England Store, Songs of Innocence, see Blake
Quatre Gats, 62 Brussels, 125, 126 Spain, 11, 123
Salome, 7, 66, 77 Stadtbahn stations, Vienna, see Otto
Ranson, Paul, 11, 54, 55, 58, 60, 179; Salon des Cent, 10, 39 W agner
W omen Combing Their Hair, 58 Salon de la Rose-Croix, 75 Stamp, Percy, hatpin, 103
Ravenna, Orthodox Baptistry, 79 Salon du Champ de Mars, 1895, see Paris Steichen, Edward, 181
Redon, Odilon, 7, 9, 47, 54, 179; ' La Sankt Leopold, Hietzing, see Otto Wag Steinlen, Theophile, 65, 181
Mort: Mon ironie depasse . . 46 ner "Stile floreale," 11, 47, 123, 135
Reform movement, 68, 114 Sar Peladan, 75 "Stile inglese," 123
Renaissance, 88 Savoy, 66 "Stile Liberty," 11, 123

190
 Strawberry Hill, 12 Type faces, 24-25, 38-45; Auriol, 41 try, 117; Secession, see Secession
Strindberg, August, 55, 81 Ebony, 42, 43; Eckmann, 42, 43; Ger Vienna; University, 77; see also Austria
Stuck, Franz von, 77 man Centralschrijt, 40, 42; Fraktur, 40 Villon, Jacques, 184
The Studio, 73 French Antique, 42, 43; Grasset, 41 Les Vingt, see Les XX
"Studio-Stil," 10 Morris, Golden Type, 23; Old Style Les XX (vingt), 31, 47, 49, 72, 74, 95;
"Style de bouche de Metro," 10 39; Roman letter, 25, 33, 40, 42 International Exhibition, 31; Khnopff
"Le Style des Vingt," 11 Romische Antiqua, 40; Schoppe, 42 (cover), 31; Lemmen (cover), 31
"Style Guimard," 10 Uncial, 42; see also von Larisch Viollet-Le-Duc, Eugene-Emmanuel, 12,
"Style nouille," 10, 123 125, 130
Sullivan, Louis H., 11, 105, 123, 124, 125, Ubu Roi, see Jarry Voysey, Charles F. Annesley, 90, 91, 123,
181; Carson Pirie Scott & Co., 122, Uccle, 8, 95 184; Woven silk and wool fabric, 89
125; Guaranty Building, 125 United States 11, 25, 36, 38, 87, 91, 102, Vuillard, Edouard, 11, 16, 54, 55, 105,
Sumner, Heywood, 125 105-106, 117, 123, 124, 135 184
Surrealism and Surrealists, 114, 141 Universal Exposition, Paris, 1900, see
Swinburne, Algernon Charles, 148 n. 31 Paris
Switzerland (Swiss), 9, 70, 75, 114 University of Vienna, see Klimt Wagner, Otto, 11, 117, 137, 140, 141,
Symbolism and Symbolists, 9-10, 19, 20, Utamaro, 24; Snow, Moon, Flowers, 144; Majolika haus, 137, 140, 141;
29, 33, 39, 47, 49, 54, 55, 62, 65, 66, Compared to Woman, 13 Moderne Architektur (1895), 117;
68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 83, 95, 101, Karlsplatz Stadtbahn, 137, 137; Postal
103; Symbolist Manifesto, 9; see also Vallin, Eugene, 12 Savings Bank, 137, 144, 146; Sankt
La Plume Vallotton, Felix, 7, 11, 54, 62, 66, 79, 85, Leopold, 137
Symonds, Arthur, 66 183; Waltz, 62, 63 Wagner, Richard, 8, 62
Synesthesia, 8 van de Velde, Henry, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, Walker, Emery, 25
Synthetism, 49 16, 19, 24, 31-33, 38, 42, 45, 47, 68-70, Walpole, Sir Horace, Strawberry Hill, 12
72, 73, 74, 75, 95-97, 98, 102, 109, 110, Webb, Philip, 141
Tassel house, see Horta 111, 114, 115, 116, 117, 125, 135, 140, Weimar School for the Applied Arts, 116
Tatlin, Vladimir E., 83 147, 183; Abstract Composition, 70, Weiss, Emil Rudolf, 185
Tearooms, see (Miss) Cranston; see also 71, 73; Angels' Guard, 75, 94, 95; Belt Whiplash curve, 22; line, 19, 79; orna
Glasgow buckle, 103; Bloemenwerf, 95, 97; ment, 12; see also Obrist
Terrasse, Claude, 55 Candelabrum, 96, 97; Deblaiement Whistler, James MacNeill, 14, 28, 29,
Theater, 12, 55 d'art, 32; Design for pendant, 43; 66; Butterfly mark, 28; Peacock Room,
Theatre de L'Oeuvre, 55 Desk, 94, 95; Dresden exhibition, 109, 14; La Princes se du Pays de la Porce-
Theosophists, 9 110, 111; Dress design, 8, 9; Dominical, laine, 14
Thorn Prikker, 16, 72, 73-74, 181; The 31, 32; Hohenhof, 75; Lounge, 109, Wiener Werkstatte, see Hoffmann
Bride, 73, 74 110; Side chair, 94, 116; Table flat Wilde, Oscar, 7, 8, 19, 20, 24, 55, 66;
Tiffany, Louis Comfort, 11, 14, 55, 102, ware, 113; Tropon poster, 19, 23, 24, Picture of Dorian Gray, 20; Salome,
105-106, 121, 124, 182; Group of vases, 33; Van Nu en Straks, designs for, 32, 7, 66
106; Tablelamp, 107 ; Tiffany & Com 33, 45, 70 Wilke, Rudolf, 83, 185; U eberbrettl, 82
pany, 105 Van Eetvelde house, see Horta Willow Tea Room, see Mackintosh
Tolstoy, Leo, 7, 8 Van Nu en Straks, 32, 33, 45, 70, 74 Die Woche, 42, 42
Toorop, Jan, 7, 9, 12, 16, 19, 47, 66, 72- "Veldesche," 10 Wolfers, Philipe, 185; Medusa, 100
73, 74, 77, 79, 151 n. 20, 183; Deljtsche Ver Sacrum, 75, 117, 137 World's Fair Paris 1855, 1889, 1900, see
Slaolie, 18; Three Brides, 72, 73, 79 Verhaeren, Emile, 72 Paris
Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri, 7, 8, 11, 14, 16, Verkade, Jan, 9, 55 Worpswede, 83
36-38, 49, 55, 62, 65, 66, 79, 105, 183; Verlaine, Paul, 9, 10, 30, 65; Sagesse, 30 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 45, 123, 124; Hus-
Jane Avril, 37, 65; Loie Fuller, 62, 64; Vever, Maison Vever, 184 ser house, Chicago, 124
Yvette Guilbert, 33; At the Nouveau Victoria and Albert Museum, see London Wren's City Churches, see Mackmurdo
Cirque: The Dancer and the Five Stiff Victorian culture, 66; Victorian drawing
Shirts, 62, 63 room, 86 "Yachting Style," 10, 97
Tropon poster, see van de Velde Vienna (Viennese), 10, 11, 66, 75, 116, The Yellow Book, see Beardsley
Turin, 17; International Exhibition, 1902, 117, 137, 140, 144; Akademie, 137;
17, 111 Austrian Museum for Art and Indus Zola, Emile, 47, 66; Le Reve, 150 n. 20

191

^,,.1.. 1*1 I!!'. I .. . •• 1... TI J - . t-i .rtriuJiXtin' • '!» •» - . n.iiiL.. .

PHOTOGRAPH CREDITS

A.C.L., Paris, pp. 44 top right, 50 bottom; Archives Photo-

graphiques, Paris, p. 55; Art Institute of Chicago, pp. 21 bottom
row, 22 left, 40, 51; George Barrows, New York, pp. 19, 103,
106, 107, 120, 121, 135; Walter Binder, Zurich, p. 94 top left;
James Blair, Chicago, p. 122 top; Photo B.N., p. 34 left; Photo
Bober, p. 14; Brenwasser, New York, p. 59; Brown Brothers,
New York, p. 86 right; Photo Cauvin, Paris, p. 53; Cleveland
Museum of Art, pp. 34 right, 72 bottom; Dienst voor Schone
Kunsten der Gemeente, The Hague, p. 108 right; Edizioni Artis-
tiche Fiorentini, Venice, p. 77; Fachklasse fur Fotografie Gewer-
beschule, Zurich, p. 96; D. Galland, Brussels, p. 145 bottom;
Gemeente Musea van Amsterdam, p. 18 right; Len Gittleman,
Chicago, p. 122 bottom; Franz Grol, Hagen, p. 76; Ernst Hahn,
Zurich, p. 133 bottom; Friedrich Hewicker, Kaltenkirchen/Hol-
stein, p. 82 top; Klingspor Museum, Offenbach, pp. 21 top left,
21 top center, 22 right, 42 bottom, 43 top left, 43 bottom left;
Kunstgewerbemuseum, Zurich, pp. 9, 15 right, 27 right, 64, 68, 69,
84, 91, 94 top right, 97, 99 right, 103 top, 104 top, 119; Landesge-
werbeamt, Baden-Wiirttemberg, pp. 112 left, 115 top left, 117;
Louis Laniepge, Paris, p. 60 bottom; Los Angeles County Museum,
p. 65 top; D. S. Lyon, Walthamstow, England, p. 67 left; Foto
Marburg, pp. 126, 132; Foto Mas, Barcelona, p. 124; Paul Mayen,
New York, pp. 43 bottom left, 133 left, 133 right; Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York, pp. 15, 35 left top, 50; Foto Studio
Minders, Genk, pp. 78, 143 top, 143 bottom; Photo Monsieur
Delhaye, p. 93 top; Morain Photographe, Brussels, p. 100; Galerie
Mouradian, Paris, p. 63 left; Musee des Beaux Arts, Ghent, p. 72;
Museum of Decorative Art, Copenhagen, pp. 61 top, 99 left, 102,
110; Museum fur Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg, p. 118; Museum
fur Kunsthandwerk, Frankfurt am Main, pp. 21 top right, 114
bottom; Nationalmuseum, Stockholm, p. 50 left; The New York
Public Library, pp. 25 right, 26 all, 27 left, 30; Osterreichisches
Museum fur Angewandte Kunst, Vienna, pp. 94 top right, 101,
108 left, 120 left, 120 right; Pierre d'Otreppe, Brussels, p. 92;
Philadelphia Museum of Art, p. 63; Princehorn, Oberlin, p. 82
bottom; Princeton University Library, p. 67 right; Percy Rainford,
New York, pp. 56, 57; Rijksmuseum Kroller-Miiller, Otterlo, pp.
39 top, 54, 71, 73, 74; Walter Rosenblum, New York, p. 61 bot
tom; David Royter, New York, p. 104 bottom; John D. Schiff,
New York, pp. 18 bottom right, 60 top; Statliche Graphische
Sammlung, Munich, p. 82 left; Dr. Franz Stodtner, Diisseldorf,
pp. 126, 127, 128, 129, 131 top, 136 bottom, 138, 139, 140, 142,
146; Adolph Studly, New York, pp. 23, 37 right, 39 bottom;
Soichi Sunami, New York, frontispiece, pp. 15 right, 35 left, 37
left, 48 right, 64 left, 81, 84 left; O. Vaering, Oslo, p. 80; Victoria
and Albert Museum, London, pp. 13, 89 left, 89 right, 90, 98;
Photo Viollet, Paris, p. 136 top; William and Morris Gallery,
Walthamstow, England, p. 88.

192
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