Specimen Papers 2017 - English PDF

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
History
Higher level and standard level
Specimen papers 1, 2 and 3
For first examinations in 2017

Contents
History higher level and standard level paper 1 specimen question paper
History higher level and standard level paper 1 specimen markscheme
History higher level and standard level paper 2 specimen question paper
History higher level and standard level paper 2 specimen markscheme
History higher level paper 3 history of Africa and the Middle East specimen question
paper
History higher level paper 3 history of Africa and the Middle East specimen markscheme
History higher level paper 3 history of the Americas specimen question paper
History higher level paper 3 history of the Americas specimen markscheme
History higher level paper 3 history of Asia and Oceania specimen question paper
History higher level paper 3 history of Asia and Oceania specimen markscheme
History higher level paper 3 history of Europe specimen question paper
History higher level paper 3 history of Europe specimen markscheme

SPEC/3/HISTS/BP1/ENG/TZ0/XX
History
Paper 1
Specimen paper
1 hour
Instructions to candidates
yyDo not open this examination paper until instructed to do so.
yyAnswer all questions from one section.
yyThe maximum mark for this examination paper is [24 marks].
16 pages © International Baccalaureate Organization 2015

–2– SPEC/3/HISTS/BP1/ENG/TZ0/XX
Section A: Military leaders
Read sources A to D carefully and answer the questions that follow. The sources and questions relate to
the following aspect of the syllabus: Genghis Khan (c1200–1277): Leadership.
Sources in this paper have been edited: word additions or explanations are shown in square brackets [ ];
substantive deletions of text are indicated by ellipses … ; minor changes are not indicated.
Source A Michael Rank, an historian and former journalist, writing in the popular history
book History’s Greatest Generals: 10 Commanders Who Conquered Empires,
Revolutionized Warfare, and Changed History Forever (2013).
Even at a young age, Genghis Khan saw that the nomadic Mongol tribes were a weak society due to
their endless internal warfare …
Genghis Khan’s strength was in understanding the power of unity. By the age of 20, he used this
wisdom to build an army that set out to destroy the divisions between tribes in what was soon to be
his massive Mongol Empire. As he conquered, instead of exiling the region’s soldiers and killing the
survivors, as commonly happened, he absorbed each conquered territory under his personal rule.
This strategy helped him to expand the Mongol Empire quickly and efficiently, making use of all the
talents, skills and abilities of the people in his newly acquired territories.
Genghis Khan had two primary directives: dominance and unity. He promoted army officers based on
achievements rather than family ties. His was a system in which success and loyalty were rewarded.
Due to his policies, tribal or ethnic divisions did not form in his ranks, ending the feudal alliances that had
been so strong in medieval Mongolia.
Source B David Morgan, a professor of history, writing in an academic book, The Mongols
(2007).
The question that had to be faced was: what now? The tribes of Mongolia had a supreme ruler.
Chinese policy had failed – it had failed to keep the tribes in conflict with each other. But unless
something decisive was done with the newly formed military machine, it would go back to its earlier
state. This, to my mind, is at least one explanation for the beginnings of the Mongols’ astonishing career
of conquest. A superb army, potentially invincible in the field in thirteenth-century conditions, had been
successfully created. But if it was not used against external enemies, it would not remain in existence
for long. The only matter that required a decision was in which direction the armies were to advance.
Source C Reuven Amitai-Preiss, a professor of Muslim history at the Hebrew University of

Jerusalem, writing in the academic book Mongols and Mamluks: The
Mamluk–Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281 (1995).
The belief that it was destiny for the Mongols to rule was not the only, or even main, reason for the
ongoing Mongol expansion under Genghis Khan and his successors. Other factors which helped
Genghis Khan’s rise to power were the particular political relations within the region at this time …
as well as plain luck. On a more fundamental level, territorial expansion into neighboring areas
was essential for nomadic states in the region, motivated as they were by the desire to control the
manufactured and agricultural goods which could be found there.
Expansion was also a crucial part of the role of the nomadic ruler, and a ruler who did not succeed in
this was soon abandoned by his followers. The flexible nature of Turko–Mongolian tribal society made
possible both the rapid construction of larger tribes and the absorption of foreign nomadic groups,
giving the tribal leader the power to launch his campaigns of expansion. The warrior culture and ethos of
tribesmen must also have contributed to Turko–Mongol ambition. Finally, the archery and riding skills of
the tribesmen, along with their endurance, made them excellent soldiers in the conquering armies.
Source D Map showing the extent of Mongol conquest by 1260.
MONGOL CONQUEST. 1260 0 1500 mi
Extent of Mongol conquest Silk Road 0 1500 km
Liegnitz
EUROPE
RUSSIA
Mohir
Kiev
ASIA
JIN
Constantinople
Black Sea
Karakorum KOREA
MONGOLIA Beijing
Caspian Aral Sea (Khanbalik)
Sea
XIA XIA
SYRIA CHINA
Bukhara
MESOPOTAMIA Hangzhou
Damascus (IRAQ) Samarkand
PALESTINE
Baghdad
Herat SONG
KHWARZAM
EMPIRE
Persian South
Gulf China
Sea
Turn over
Questions for Section A
1. (a) What, according to Source C, were the factors that motivated the Mongol conquests? [3]
(b) What is the message conveyed by Source D? [2]
2. With reference to its origin, purpose and content, analyse the value and limitations of
Source B for an historian studying the Mongol Empire. [4]
3. Compare and contrast what Sources B and C reveal about the Mongol conquests under
Genghis Khan. [6]
4. Using the sources and your own knowledge, evaluate the role of Genghis Khan in the launch
and success of the Mongol conquests. [9]
Section B: Conquest and its impact
Read sources A to D carefully and answer the questions that follow. The sources and questions relate
to the following aspect of the syllabus: the conquest of Mexico and Peru (1519–1551): key events and
actors.
Source A Miguel León-Portilla, an historian and anthropologist, writing in an academic

book, The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico (1962).
The book is based on contemporary Aztec accounts of the conquest of Mexico.
On November 8, 1519, the Spanish conquistadors first entered the great city of Mexico, the metropolis
the Aztecs had built on a lake island. Cortés and his men entered the city, not only as guests, but also
as gods coming home.
When the Spaniards were installed in the palace, they asked Moctezuma about the city’s resources and
reserves and about the warriors’ ensigns and shields. They questioned him closely and demanded gold.
Moctezuma guided them to it. They surrounded him and crowded close with their weapons. When they
arrived at the treasure house, the riches of gold and feathers were brought out to them: ornaments made
of quetzal feathers, richly worked shields, discs of gold, the necklace of idols, bracelets and crowns.
The Spaniards immediately stripped the feathers from the gold shields and ensigns. They gathered all
the gold in a great pile and set fire to everything else, regardless of its value. Then they melted down the
gold. They searched through the whole treasure house, questioning and quarreling, and seizing every
object they thought was beautiful.
The Aztecs were too frightened to approach. They would not risk coming forward. Yet they did not
abandon the Spaniards to hunger and thirst. They brought them whatever they needed. They delivered
the supplies to the Spaniards with trembling hands, then turned and hurried away.
Source B Hernán Cortés, a Spanish conquistador, writing in a letter to Emperor Charles V

(1520). Charles V was also known as Charles I, King of Spain.
The following morning, the Aztecs came out of the city to greet me with many trumpets and drums,
including many persons whom they regard as priests in their temples, dressed in traditional clothes and
singing, as they do in the temples. They led us into the city and gave us very good quarters, where all
those in my company were most comfortable …
During the three days I remained in that city they fed us worse each day, and the lords and principal
persons of the city came only rarely to see and speak with me … Because of this and because of
other signs I had observed, I decided to attack, and I sent for some of the chiefs of the city, saying that I
wished to speak with them. I put them in a room and meanwhile warned our men to be prepared to fall
on the many Indians who were outside our quarters and on those who were inside.
We fought so hard that in two hours more than three thousand men were killed. We took them by
surprise, they were easy to disperse, especially because I had imprisoned their leaders.
Turn over
Source C Emanuel Leutze, a German painter, depicts an attack by Cortés and his troops in
the painting Storming of the Teocalli by Cortez and his troops (1848).
Source D Michael Meyer, William Sherman and Susan Deeds, professors of history, writing
in the academic book The Course of Mexican History (2003).
Moctezuma and his nobles visited their guests’ quarters often to provide for all their needs.
Cortés understood with the greatest clarity that they were trapped if Moctezuma chose to make it
so. The Spaniards were surrounded by a multitude of Indians who could rise on signal. The Spanish
soldiers expressed their anxiety to Cortés, who now resolved on a bold and desperate course – he would
seize as hostage Moctezuma himself. This turn of events was inconceivable to the dignified lord of the
Aztecs, but he finally submitted.
To limit the rising anger among his people, Moctezuma announced that he was not a prisoner; he resided
with the strangers voluntarily, because it was the will of the gods. Furthermore, if Montezuma feared the
revolt of nearby city-states then Cortés could provide the best means of coercing their alliance.
The Spanish captain agreed to depart whenever Moctezuma wished. The relieved ruler promised more
gold and added that there was no great hurry in leaving. Cortés, of course, had no intention of departing.
Questions for Section B
5. (a) Why, according to Source D, did Moctezuma agree to remain a hostage of Cortés? [3]
(b) What is the message conveyed by Source C? [2]
Source A for an historian studying the conquest of Mexico. [4]
7. Compare and contrast what Sources A and B reveal about the relationship between the
Spaniards and the Aztecs. [6]
8. “Mutual suspicion and misunderstanding between the Aztecs and the Spaniards played
a central role in the conquest of the Aztec Empire.” Using the sources and your own
knowledge, to what extent do you agree with this statement? [9]
Turn over
Section C: The move to global war
the following aspect of the syllabus: Japanese expansion in East Asia (1931–1941): Events.
Source A The first three articles of the Three Power/Tripartite Pact agreed between
Germany, Italy and Japan in Berlin on 27 September 1940.
The governments of Germany, Italy and Japan have agreed as follows:
Article one: Japan recognizes and respects the leadership of Germany and Italy in establishment of a
new order in Europe.
Article two: Germany and Italy recognize and respect the leadership of Japan in the establishment of a
new order in greater East Asia.
Article three: Germany, Italy and Japan agree to cooperate in their efforts. They further agree to assist
one another with all political, economic and military means when one of the three contracting powers is
attacked by a power at present not involved in the European war or in the Chinese–Japanese conflict.
Source B Akira Iriye, a professor of History, writing in an academic book, The Origins of the
Second World War in Asia and the Pacific (1987).
By September 1940, Britain could be assured of continued American support, and the United States had
already implemented some of its embargoes against Japan. Under the circumstances, there would have
been no way in which an Axis pact would cause the Anglo-American powers to soften their stand.
On the contrary, the pact could be expected to give them added resolve to stand firm. This is exactly
what happened.
Japanese and German negotiators were fully aware of the developing ties between America and Britain,
and for this very reason they hoped their alliance would serve to check and reduce the effectiveness
of American intervention. By then, as Matsuoka [the Japanese Foreign Minister] explained at the
time, it was becoming obvious that the United States was steadily involving itself not only in European
but in Asian-Pacific affairs as well. It was tying itself not just to the British in the Atlantic but to the
Commonwealth in Asia and the Pacific. The United States, in fact, would establish itself as a global
power, with its influence in the Atlantic, Canada, the Western hemisphere, the Pacific Ocean and Asia.
It followed, then, that it would be an American-led coalition that Japan had to confront and be prepared
to fight. It would no longer be China in isolation, but China assisted by the Soviet Union, Britain, and
especially the United States.
Source C Ian Kershaw, a professor of Modern History, writing in an academic book,

Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions that Changed the World, 1940–1941 (2007).
The American response quickly revealed the folly of Matsuoka’s claim – that the Tripartite [Three
Power] Pact would serve as a deterrent. Instead, it merely confirmed American views that Japan was a
belligerent [warlike], bullying, imperialist force in the Far East, an Asian equivalent of Nazi Germany,
and had to be stopped. Such views seemed confirmed by the entry of Japanese troops into French
Indochina on 23 September 1940. The essential purpose of the Tripartite Pact, from the Japanese
perspective, was to deter the United States from intervening to prevent the southern advance seen as
necessary to ensure Japan’s control of raw materials and, therefore, her future economic and political
security.
The gamble in the pact was self-evident. What if the United States did not regard the pact as a
deterrent, but as a provocation? What if the effect was to reinforce the determination to prevent
Japanese expansion by threatening the lifeline of oil supplies? But from a Japanese perspective at
the time, the gamble had to be taken. To take it held great dangers, but also the potential of enormous
rewards. Not to take it meant long-term domination by the Anglo-American powers. It meant, too, that
the China War had been in vain. The need for boldness, not caution, carried the day in such a mentality.
Source D Harold “Mick” Armstrong, a cartoonist, depicts Japan announcing a “new order”
in greater East Asia in a cartoon published in the Australian newspaper The
Argus (1940).
INDO-
CHINA
Turn over
– 10 – SPEC/3/HISTS/BP1/ENG/TZ0/XX
Questions for Section C
9. (a) What, according to Source B, were the effects for Britain of the signing of the Three
Power/Tripartite Pact? [3]
Source A for an historian studying the Three Power/Tripartite Pact (September 1940). [4]
11. Compare and contrast what Sources B and C reveal about the significance of the Three
Power/Tripartite Pact. [6]
12. Using the sources and your own knowledge, evaluate the consequences of the
Three Power/Tripartite Pact for Japan, China and the US up to the end of 1941. [9]
Section D: Rights and protest
the following aspect of the syllabus: the civil rights movement in the United States (1954–1965): Protests
and action.
Source A William J Simmons, a spokesman for a White Citizens’ Council [an organization
that openly worked to preserve segregation] in an interview for a US television
documentary about the civil rights movement, Eyes on the Prize (1987).
When the civil rights workers invaded the state [Mississippi] in the summer of 1964 to change us,
presumably into their own image, they were met with a feeling of some curiosity, but mostly resentment.
They spread across the state, made a great show of breaking up our customs, of challenging social
practices that had been respected by people here over the years. That was the time of the hippies just
coming in and they had on hippie uniforms and conducted themselves in hippie ways. They were not
exactly the types of models that most people I knew wanted to copy and so the arrogance they showed
in wanting to reform the whole state in the way they thought it should be created resentment.
Source B Charles Patterson, an author and historian, writing in a student study guide
The Civil Rights Movement (1995).
Freedom Summer was designed to register blacks for a real election – the 1964 presidential election.
The ambitious goals of the project were to register as many blacks as possible across the state; organize
a “Freedom Democratic Party” to challenge the official whites-only Mississippi Democratic Party; set up
“freedom schools” for black children and establish community centers for blacks who needed medical or
legal help. Student volunteers were recruited at elite colleges in the Northeast, large universities in the
Midwest and black colleges in the South … The day after the first wave of about 200 students arrived
in Mississippi – three young civil rights workers disappeared … The disappearance of the civil rights
workers failed to deter the work of the Freedom Summer volunteers, nor did the arrests, shootings and
burnings of churches that served as “freedom schools”…
The most dramatic result of the Freedom Summer was the creation of the Mississippi Freedom
Democratic Party (MFDP). Organized by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) to
challenge the legitimacy and supremacy of Mississippi’s all-white regular Democratic Party. Freedom
Summer volunteers convinced 80 000 blacks to join the MFDP… Although the MFDP was never
officially recognized by the state Democratic Party, its dramatic challenge marked the beginning of the
end of exclusive white political control of the state … Freedom Summer was also important for the
civil rights movement itself because it moved the struggle to a new level, beyond the bus boycotts,
freedom rides and sit-ins. Mississippi blacks demonstrated to the nation that they wanted to vote, elect
representatives, and have a voice in government. They wanted the political power they were entitled
to as American citizens, black people were fighting for more than a seat at the lunch counter, they were
now fighting for seats in the legislature.
Turn over
Source C Frank Miller, a cartoonist, depicts a Mississippi sheriff [law enforcement officer]
arresting a civil rights activist in a cartoon published in the US newspaper The
Des Moines Register (July 1964). The caption on the t-shirt reads “civil rights
volunteer”.
Sheriff: “Caught him trespassing on private property!”

Source D Dwight Garner, a journalist and book critic, writing in the article “Mississippi
Invaded by Idealism”, published in The New York Times (2010).
More than 700 college students, in the summer of 1964, under the supervision of the Student
Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, risked their lives to travel to Mississippi to register black voters
and open schools … Many Americans remember the names Andrew Goodman, James Cheney and
Michael Schwerner, the three young volunteers who vanished that summer, their bodies later found
buried under a dam. What many forget is that these three men disappeared on the very first day of the
Mississippi Summer Project (Freedom Summer). Their abduction terrified the other volunteers.
Much more was to come. Some 35 black churches were burned in Mississippi that summer, and five
dozen homes and safe houses were bombed. Volunteers were beaten, harassed by the police, arrested
on fraudulent charges. Shotguns were fired into the houses where they slept. Pickup trucks filled with
armed men followed volunteers around … The summer of 1964 in Mississippi was in some ways a
failure for the volunteers. They didn’t register as many voters as they had hoped. Their plans to replace
Mississippi’s all-white delegation at the 1964 Democratic National Convention in Atlantic City came to
nothing. But their actions brought the nation’s full attention to Mississippi’s second-class citizens.
Questions for Section D
13. (a) Why, according to Source A, was there resentment towards the civil rights workers? [3]
Source B for an historian studying the civil rights movement in the United States. [4]
15. Compare and contrast what Sources B and D reveal about the consequences of the
Freedom Summer. [6]
16. Using the sources and your own knowledge, evaluate the success of the Freedom Summer
in furthering the cause of black civil rights in the United States. [9]
Turn over
Section E: Conflict and intervention
the following aspect of the syllabus: Rwanda (1990–1998): Course and interventions.
Source A Lieutenant General Roméo Dallaire, the Force Commander for the United Nations
Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR), writing in a fax sent to the United
Nations headquarters in New York (11 January 1994).
1. Force Commander was put in contact with informant [Jean-Pierre Abubakar Turatsinze] by an
important government politician. Informant is a top-level trainer of the Interhamwe-armed militia …
6. Principal aim of Interhamwe was to protect Kigali from the RPF [Rwandan Patriotic Front].
Since UNAMIR arrived he has been ordered to register all Tutsi in Kigali. He suspects it is for their
extermination. Example he gave was that in 20 minutes his personnel could kill 1000 Tutsis.
7. Informant states he disagrees with anti-Tutsi extermination. He supports opposition to RPF but
cannot support killing of innocent persons.
8. Informant is prepared to provide location of many weapons … He was ready to go to the storage
location tonight, if we guarantee that he and his family be placed under our protection.
9. It is our intention to take action within the next 36 hours …
11. Force commander does have certain reservations on why the informant is now suddenly deciding
to release such information. Possibility of a trap not excluded …
13. Where there’s a will, there’s a way. Let’s go.
Source B Lieutenant General Roméo Dallaire, the former Force Commander for the United
Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR), writing in his memoirs of
the conflict in Rwanda, Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in
Rwanda (2003).
The message from Kofi Annan caught me by surprise. Annan spelled out in excruciating detail the limits
New York was placing upon me: as force commander of a chapter-six peacekeeping operation I was not
allowed to conduct deterrent operations in support of UNAMIR. Also, in the interests of transparency,
I was to pass on to President Habyarimana the information that Jean-Pierre Abubakar Turatsinze had
given to us … For the rest of the week, I made phone call after phone call to New York, arguing over
the necessity of raiding the arms stores. During these exchanges, I got the feeling that New York saw
me as unpredictable and uncontrollable. The deaths and injuries suffered by the American Rangers in
Somalia must have had a huge impact on the DPKO [Department of Peacekeeping Operations] and
many member nations …
Just before going to see Habyarimana on January 12, I briefed the ambassadors of Belgium and the
United States, and the chargé d’affaires of France. All of them acknowledged the information we
provided and stated they would inform their respective governments. None of them appeared to be
surprised, which led me to conclude that our informant was merely confirming what they already knew.
Source C Michael Dobbs a journalist and research fellow, writing in the article “The Rwanda
‘Genocide Fax’: What We Know Now”, for the #Rwanda20yrs project of the US
Holocaust Memorial Museum and the National Security Archive (2014).
Over time, the “genocide fax” became a symbol of the failure of the international community to prevent
mass-killing in Rwanda. Thanks to new documents, it is now possible to piece together a fuller account
of the man who inspired the fax, and how and why UN officials responded, or failed to respond, to his
warnings.
Half-Hutu and half-Tutsi, Jean-Pierre Abubakar Turatsinze [the informant] operated on both sides of the
political and ethnic divisions in pre-genocidal Rwanda … By 1990, he worked as an intermediary to the
Interahamwe. He had been given the assignment of distributing weapons to Interahamwe members,
but was suspected of selling many of these for personal profit …
Turatsinze met with UNAMIR [United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda] officers through January
and February 1994, but he declined to show them the lists of Tutsis identified for “extermination” that he
claimed to have compiled on MRND [National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development,
the ruling party in Rwanda] instructions … Turatsinze misled UN peacekeepers on key points and
exaggerated his own importance. One of the structural weaknesses of UNAMIR was the lack of a
professional intelligence evaluation unit, to fully evaluate Turatsinze’s credibility.
Source D Patrick Chappatte, a cartoonist, depicts the General Assembly of the United
Nations in the cartoon “Anniversary of the Rwandan Genocide”, published in the
Swiss newspaper Le Temps (7 April 2014).
Turn over
Questions for Section E
17. (a) Why, according to Source B, did the UN not allow Lieutenant General Romeo Dallaire
to act upon information provided by the secret informant? [3]
18. With reference to its origin, purpose and content, analyse the value and limitations of Source B
for an historian studying the international community’s response to the Rwandan genocide. [4]
19. Compare and contrast what Sources A and C reveal about the “genocide fax”. [6]
20. “The international community failed to effectively intervene in Rwanda because it lacked
knowledge on the crisis.” Using the sources and your own knowledge, to what extent do you
agree with this statement? [9]
Acknowledgments
Section A
Amitai-Preiss, R. 1995. Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk–Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281. Cambridge University Press; Morgan, D. 2007. The Mongols. Singapore. Wiley-Blackwell; Rank, M.
2013. History’s Greatest Generals: 10 Commanders Who Conquered Empires, Revolutionized Warfare, and Changed History Forever. United States. CreateSpace Independent Publishing
Platform; Wall Bingham, M. 2005. An Age of Empires: 1200–1750. United States. Oxford University Press.
Section B
Cortés, H. 1986. Letters from Mexico (translated by Pagden, A). Yale University Press; León-Portilla, M. 1962. The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Beacon
Press; Meyer M, Sherman, W, Deeds S. 2003. The Course of Mexican History. Oxford University Press; https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Leutze,_Emanuel_%E2%80%94_Storming_
of_the_Teocalli_by_Cortez_and_His_Troops_%E2%80%94_1848.jpg.
Section C
Iriye, A. 1987. The Origins of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific. Pearson Education Limited; Kershaw, I. 2007. Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions that Changed the World, 1940–1941.
St Ives. Penguin Press; http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/triparti.asp; http://theaustraliancartoonmuseum.com.au/projects/mick-armstrongs-war/#jp-carousel-238.
Section D
Garner, D. 2010. “Mississippi Invaded by Idealism”. The New York Times; Patterson, C. 1995. The Civil Rights Movement. New York. Facts on File Inc; Williams, J. 1987. Eyes on the Prize:
America’s Civil Rights Years, 1954–1965. Viking Press; http://digital.lib.uiowa.edu/cdm/ref/collection/miller/id/116.
Section E
Chappatte, P. “Anniversary of the Rwandan Genocide”: http://www.globecartoon.com/; Dallaire, R. 2003. Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda. Random House of
Canada Limited; Dobbs, M. “The Rwanda ‘Genocide Fax’: What We Know Now”: http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB452/; https://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/19940111-
request-for-protection-for-informant.pdf.
SPEC/3/HISTS/BP1/ENG/TZ0/XX/M
Markscheme
Specimen
History
Paper 1
22 pages
–2– SPEC/3/HISTS/BP1/ENG/TZ0/XX/M
Section A: Military leaders
1. (a) What, according to Source C, were the factors that motivated the Mongol
conquests? [3]
• Ideological motives: the expansion was motivated by the belief that it was destiny
for the Mongols to rule. Another motive for expansion was the underlying “warrior
culture” and ethos of the tribesmen;
• There were also economic motives for expansion, including the desire to control
manufactured and agricultural goods in neighbouring areas;
• The consolidation of the leadership necessitated expansion. Expansion added
legitimacy to the rule of the tribal leader.
Award [1] for each relevant point up to a maximum of [3].
• The map highlights the huge geographic area that the Mongol empire covered,
showing their ambitious expansion;
• The map shows that Mongol expansion occurred not only East into Asia, but also
West into Europe and the Middle East;
• The map shows that the Silk Road ran through the centre of the Mongol Empire,
highlighting the economic power of the Mongol Empire.

Source B for an historian studying the Mongol Empire. [4]
Value:
• The extract is from an academic book specifically on the Mongol Empire, so detailed
analysis can be expected (purpose);
• The academic background of the author – it was written by a professor of history
(origin);
• The book was published in 2007, so the author was able to look at the Mongol Empire
in hindsight (origin).
Limitations:
• This is a secondary source that offers a particular/single perspective (origin);
• Being written in 2007 it was written almost 800 years after the events it described, so it
may have been more difficult to find primary source material while researching the
book than it would for more recent events (origin);
• The author may have been influenced by the image of Genghis Khan as an iconic
leader, perhaps reflected in his use of language such as “astonishing” and “superb”
(content).
Do not expect all of the above. If only value, or only limitations, is discussed, award a
maximum of [2].
3. Compare and contrast what Sources B and C reveal about the Mongol conquests under
Genghis Khan. [6]
Marks Level descriptor
5–6 • There is discussion of both sources. Explicit links are made between the two
sources.
• The response includes clear and valid points of comparison and of contrast.
3–4 • There is some discussion of both sources, although the two sources may be
discussed separately.
• The response includes some valid points of comparison and/or of contrast,
although these points may lack clarity.
1–2 • There is superficial discussion of one or both sources.

• The response consists of description of the content of the source(s), and/or
general comments about the source(s), rather than valid points of comparison
or of contrast.
0 • The response does not reach a standard described by the descriptors above.
Note: Examiners are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the
“best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible
to do so.
Indicative content
Comparison:
• Both sources refer to the military capabilities of the tribes and their experience, and
thus the success of the conquests. Source C points out the archery and riding skills of
the tribesmen along with their endurance, which “made them excellent soldiers in the
conquering armies”. Similarly, Source B refers to “a superb army, potentially invincible
in the field in 13th-century conditions”.
• Both sources highlight the relation between expansion and the consolidation and
preservation of the power of the ruler. Source C states that “expansion was also a
crucial part of the role of the nomadic ruler” and Source B likewise states that “unless
something decisive was done with the newly formed military machine, it would go back
to its earlier state”.
Contrast:
• Source B particularly highlights the role of Genghis Khan and his individual leadership,
referring to him as a “supreme ruler”. Source C highlights other factors that helped the
rise of Genghis Khan, rather than focusing on his leadership.
• Source C discusses wider economic and social factors such as “the flexible nature” of
the tribes and how this nature allowed for the creation of larger tribes and “absorption
of foreign nomadic groups”, both of which supported the leader and gave him the
power to launch the conquests. Source B in contrast focuses on the military factors.
• Source C suggests that “plain luck” was one factor in explaining the success of the
Mongols conquests, whereas Source B suggests that the success was far more the
result of deliberate and intentional decisions.
Do not expect all of the above.

4. Using the sources and your own knowledge, evaluate the role of Genghis Khan in the
launch and success of the Mongol conquests. [9]
7–9 • The response is focused on the question.

• Clear references are made to the sources, and these references are used
effectively as evidence to support the analysis.
• Accurate and relevant own knowledge is demonstrated. There is effective
synthesis of own knowledge and source material.
4–6 • The response is generally focused on the question.

• References are made to the sources, and these references are used as
evidence to support the analysis.
• Where own knowledge is demonstrated, this lacks relevance or accuracy.
There is little or no attempt to synthesize own knowledge and source material.
1–3 • The response lacks focus on the question.

• References to the sources are made, but at this level these references are
likely to consist of descriptions of the content of the sources rather than the
sources being used as evidence to support the analysis.
• No own knowledge is demonstrated or, where it is demonstrated, it is
inaccurate or irrelevant.
to do so.
Indicative content
• Source A: Genghis Khan identified the damage done by “endless internal warfare”. He
understood the power of unity. He built an army that tried to destroy divisions rather
than create/exacerbate them. He expanded the empire “quickly and efficiently”.
• Source B: Genghis Khan is referred to as the “supreme ruler”, showing his power.
• Source C: There were other reasons for the success of the Mongol conquests, including
“plain luck” and the political relations within the region at the time. The success of the
conquests was also helped by the “archery and riding skills” of the tribesmen.
• Source D: Shows that the empire continued successfully after Genghis Khan, as the
map shows the region in 1260, showing the impact of Genghis Khan’s launch of the
conquests.
• Own knowledge: Genghis Khan captured Western Xia in 1209, and in 1215 he
captured the Jin capital of Zhongdu (Beijing). The name “Genghis Khan” is often
interpreted as meaning “universal ruler”, showing his power.
• Own knowledge: Genghis Khan has a controversial reputation as a leader. Some
emphasize the cruelty and destruction that occurred during his leadership. Others view
him as an innovative leader who integrated rival tribes, improved economic stability and
was tolerant of religious diversity.
Note: The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in
their responses. However, the list is neither prescriptive nor exhaustive, and no set
answer is required.
Section B: Conquest and its impact

5. (a) Why, according to Source D, did Moctezuma agree to remain a hostage of Cortés? [3]
• To try to “limit the rising anger” among his people;

• Moctezuma thought Cortés could assist him if nearby city-states defected from
the alliance with Tenochtitlán;
• Cortés said he would depart whenever Moctezuma wished.
• The encounter between the Spaniards and the Aztecs was a violent one.
Supporting evidence includes the depiction of the Aztecs' fierce resistance and
the dead and wounded in the painting;
• The difference in weapons used / the superiority of the Spaniards’ weapons and
armours;
• The conflict was also religious in nature. Supporting evidence includes the Aztec
priest holding an infant offered in sacrifice (centre right of picture), and the
Spanish priests giving the last rites to a dying Aztec (bottom left of picture).
Source A for an historian studying the conquest of Mexico. [4]
Value:
• The source is a rich description of Aztec culture, providing insights from contemporary
Aztec accounts (origin);
• The author is an academic (an historian and anthropologist) (origin);
• The source provides suggested reasons for the conflict; for example, it describes the
wealth of the Aztecs as a reason for conflict (content).
Limitations:
• It is based on accounts almost contemporary to the fall of Tenochtitlán, which may
have been emotional responses (origin);
• The title of the book suggests that the work aims to allow the voice of the Mexicans to
be heard. It may challenge orthodox approaches to the study of the conquest of
Mexico and may, as a result, be influenced by this aim (purpose).
maximum of [2].
7. Compare and contrast what Sources A and B reveal about the relationship between the
Spaniards and the Aztecs. [6]
sources.

or of contrast.
to do so.
Indicative content
Comparison:
• Both sources suggest that the Aztecs gave the Spaniards a warm welcome;
• Both sources describe the ceremonial aspects of Aztec culture;
• Both sources state that the Spanish depended on the Aztecs for their subsistence.
Contrast:
• Source B is critical of the way the Aztecs looked after the Spaniards by mentioning that
food got worse each day, whereas Source A states that the Aztecs gave the Spaniards
whatever they needed;
• Source A states the Aztecs were afraid of the Spaniards, whereas Source B indicates
that it was the Spaniards who didn’t trust the Aztecs;
• Source A is more critical of the Spaniards’ attitude towards the Aztecs; Source B
seems to want to justify their actions.

8. “Mutual suspicion and misunderstanding between the Aztecs and the Spaniards played a
central role in the conquest of the Aztec Empire.” Using the sources and your own
knowledge, to what extent do you agree with this statement? [9]



Indicative content
• Source A: The Spaniards looted the Aztec palaces showing no respect for the symbolic
value of what they found. They used weapons to intimidate the Aztecs. Although the
Aztecs feared them, they treated them as gods coming home and did not abandon
them to hunger and thirst.
• Source B: The Aztec lords rarely came to speak with Cortés; the food got worse each
day. The Aztecs outnumbered the Spaniards. Cortés betrayed the chiefs of the city
and imprisoned them. The reception the Aztecs gave the Spaniards could either be
interpreted as an act of intimidation or as a warm welcome.
• Source C: The painting shows the lack of understanding of the Spaniards towards the
religious and cultural symbols of the Aztecs. The Spaniards are looting the Aztecs
possessions. The superiority of the Spanish weaponry also played a role in the
conquest of the Aztec Empire.
• Source D: Cortés felt trapped in Tenochtitlán and his men were outnumbered and
anxious. Cortés betrayed his host and took him hostage. Moctezuma wrongly
believed that Cortés might help him against his enemies and that he would leave when
Moctezuma wished.
• Own knowledge in support of the statement: The Aztecs felt intimidated by many of the
elements the Spaniards brought with them such as cannons, gunpowder, horses,
attack dogs, steel blades, etc. The Spaniards feared the great number of Aztec
soldiers; their horror at the evidence that Aztecs performed human sacrifices. The
tension caused by Cortés demanding that Moctezuma destroy their idols and embrace
Catholicism.
• Own knowledge of other contributing factors: further detail on the fact that the Aztecs
had dominated some of their neighbours, which led to Cortés gaining them as his
allies; the spread of diseases brought by the Spanish, such as smallpox, which
depleted the Aztec population between 1519–21; the dispute between Cortés and
Diego Velásquez; the role of Malinche (Doña Marina). Some candidates might argue
that it was an excess of confidence towards the Spaniards, rather than suspicions, that
brought destruction upon Tenochtitlán, referring to the legend of Quetzacoal or the
prophecies that claimed that the end of an era was coming.
answer is required. Examiners are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that
provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it
is possible to do so.
– 10 – SPEC/3/HISTS/BP1/ENG/TZ0/XX/M
Section C: The move to global war

9. (a) What, according to Source B, were the effects for Britain of the signing of the Three
Power/Tripartite Pact? [3]
• Britain was assured of continued American support, which would help to combat
Japanese aggression in the Pacific;
• Ties between Britain and the US were strengthened globally;
• Britain, with US support, assisted China in its war with Japan.
• Germany and Italy are already in an alliance, which Japan would now join in 1940
as it announces the creation of a new order in East Asia;
• The Pact is a military alliance as suggested by the three figures being dressed in
military-style uniforms;
• Japan is expecting to benefit from the Pact. This is indicated by the bowl with
Indochina written on it and the bone and steak already being enjoyed by Italy and
Germany as a consequence of their aggressive foreign policies.

Source A for an historian studying the Three Power/Tripartite Pact (September 1940). [4]
Value:
• The source is contemporary with the events and is a statement of the official policies of
the signatories. It is therefore a useful document in providing insight into the foreign
policy objectives of Japan, Italy and Germany in Europe and in the Pacific in the 1940s
(origin and purpose);
• The source gives an insight into the relationship between the countries. It demonstrates
the unity of the three powers in the pursuance of their mutual goals, and Article three
expresses the level of cooperation of the signatories in mutual defence against third
parties – aimed at the US and the USSR. The source also clearly identifies the
respective spheres of influence of the signatories in Europe and Asia (content).
Limitations:
• The purpose of the source is to give a public declaration of mutual recognition and
cooperation, and may be intended, for example, to send a warning to the US (purpose);
• The source gives useful information about the terms of the treaty, but on its own it
provides a historian with limited information about the reasons behind its signing and
no indication of the world reaction to the pact (content);
• Although the source mentions a “new order” being established in Europe and Asia it
does not precisely define exactly what is explicitly meant by this expression (content).
maximum of [2].
11. Compare and contrast what Sources B and C reveal about the significance of the Three
Power/Tripartite Pact. [6]
sources.

or of contrast.
to do so.
Indicative content
Comparison:
• Both claimed that the Pact would act as a deterrent;
• Both identify Japan as being belligerent [warlike];
• Both indicate that the US is becoming more involved in Asia and the Pacific;
• Both sources indicate the importance of the role of the Anglo-American powers in Asia.
Contrast:
• Source B refers generally to already existing embargoes, whereas Source C suggests
that Japanese oil supplies could be cut off in the future;
• Source C focuses more on the US involvement in Asia, whereas Source B sees the US
influence as being more global.

12. Using the sources and your own knowledge, evaluate the consequences of the Three
Power/Tripartite Pact for Japan, China and the US up to the end of 1941. [9]



Indicative content
• Source A: Indicates that Germany and Italy have agreed to recognize Japan’s claims
over territory in Asia and the establishment of a new order there. They also agree to
take concerted action against any third party power not involved in either the European
war or the Chinese–Japanese conflict, implying that this would either be the US or the
Soviet Union.
• Source B: The US and Britain were strengthening their alliance and the US was
becoming more involved in Asian-Pacific affairs, establishing itself as a global power.
This meant that the US would support China in its conflict with Japan and become a
clear threat to Japanese expansionist ambitions in Asia.
• Source C: It shows that the signing of the Pact did not deter the US from becoming
involved in Asia. In fact the US saw Japan as aggressive and expansionist and was
willing to intervene even to the extent of cutting off Japan’s raw materials and oil
supplies. It indicates that the US would support China against Japan and that the
gamble to keep the US out of Asian affairs had failed.
• Source D: Indicates that Japan is ready and willing to join Germany and Italy in the
Three Power Pact with the aim of establishing a new order in Asia. The source clearly
indicates that this new order will be established by military force and that Japan
expects to gain materially from it.
• Own knowledge: One immediate consequence of the signing of the Three Power Pact
was that the United States slowly moved away from being a neutral country to a
country preparing for war. The United States embargoed scrap metal shipments to
Japan and closed the Panama Canal to Japanese shipping. In early 1941, Japan
moved into southern Indochina threatening British interests there. Japan and the US
took part in negotiations throughout 1941 and Japan considered withdrawal from most
of China and Indochina and modifying the Three Power Pact. However, these
proposals were rejected by War Minister Tojo. Responding to continuing Japanese
aggression in China, the US froze Japanese assets in the US in July 1941, and on
1 August placed an embargo on oil and gasoline exports to Japan. Japan desperately
needed raw materials of oil, rubber and tin and was not receiving sufficient supplies
from the Dutch East Indies. In August 1941 Konoe proposed a summit with President
Roosevelt to discuss the situation. However, Japanese military leaders such as Tojo
again maintained that time had run out and that additional negotiations would be
pointless. They urged swift military action against all American and European
territories in Southeast Asia and Hawaii. In November, Japan offered to withdraw their
forces from southern Indochina and not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia if aid to
China were to stop and if US sanctions against Japan were lifted. The Hull Note
proposed instead that Japan should leave China and sign non-aggression pacts with
Pacific powers. Japan had already prepared war plans to attack Pearl Harbor and, as
a consequence of the failure of negotiations, attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December
1941.
Section D: Rights and protest

13. (a) Why, according to Source A, was there resentment towards the civil rights workers? [3]
• They aimed to break up existing customs and social practices that had been in
place for a long time;
• They were seen to be hippies and most people did not think they were good role
models;
• They were arrogant because they wanted to reform the whole state and impose
their beliefs on everyone.
• The civil rights workers were unwelcome and seen as trespassers;

• The sheriff is shown as very large and he represents the power of the law
enforcement agencies in Mississippi who menaced the civil rights workers; the
status quo was hard to change due to the opposition they faced;
• The African-American people were oppressed and kept under control by the law;
• The cartoon implies criticism of the actions of the Mississippi authorities.
Source B for an historian studying the civil rights movement in the United States. [4]
Value:
• Because this text was not written until the 1990s it is able to take into account the
results of the Freedom Summer; for example, where it refers to “the most dramatic
result” of the Freedom Summer being the creation of the Mississippi Freedom
Democratic Party (origin and content);
• The source is also able to place the events within the wider context of the civil rights
movement in the US, which means that it can help provide insight into the significance
of the Freedom Summer to the civil rights movement (origin and content);
• The source is an extract from a book by an academic historian, Charles Patterson, so
the academic background of the author may be seen to add to its value (origin and
purpose).
Limitations:
• Because the book was not written until the 1990s, thirty years after the events, it
means that by the time it was written the political and social climate in the United
States had changed and some of the goals of the civil rights movement had been
achieved. This knowledge may have influenced the author’s view of the events
(origin);
• This extract is from a secondary source that offers a particular/single perspective
(origin).
maximum of [2].
15. Compare and contrast what Sources B and D reveal about the consequences of the
Freedom Summer. [6]
sources.

or of contrast.
to do so.
Indicative content
Comparison:
• Both sources mention that the Freedom Summer project brought many student
volunteers to Mississippi;
• Both sources mention that three civil rights workers disappeared on the first day of the
Freedom Summer project;
• Both sources mention that as a consequence of the disappearance of the three civil
rights workers the others were terrified, but they continued to risk their lives and
volunteer;
• Both comment that churches were burnt and that there was much violence against the
civil rights volunteers and their African American supporters;
• Both discuss the formation of the MFDP and mention that it failed to achieve its original
goal;
• Both sources imply that the Freedom Summer had long-term consequences.
Contrast:
• Source B identifies the range of community activities the civil rights volunteers set up,
such as “freedom schools” for children and medical and legal help centres, whereas
Source D only mentions schools;
• Source B is more positive in its assessment and mentions that 80 000 became
members of the MFDP, and even though the challenge failed it had long term political
repercussions, whereas Source D says that the Freedom Summer was in some ways a
failure for the volunteers because they did not register as many voters as they hoped
and the MFDP plans came to nothing;
• Source B discusses the impact on the civil rights movement itself and how the
Freedom Summer changed its goals, whereas Source D states that the main outcome
of the Freedom Summer was that it brought the plight of the African Americans in
Mississippi to the nation’s attention.
16. Using the sources and your own knowledge, evaluate the success of the Freedom
Summer in furthering the cause of black civil rights in the United States. [9]



Indicative content
• Source A gives an indication of the opposition that the civil rights workers faced.
It shows how they were resented and therefore how difficult it was for them to change
the situation with regard to the African Americans in Mississippi.
• Source B is positive about the achievements of the Freedom Summer because it
changed the goals of the civil rights movement. It was no longer about localized
desegregation, but about full equality as American citizens and the achievement of
political power by African Americans.
• Source C is a comment on the huge task that faced the civil rights movement.
It illustrates the violence that they encountered, which limited the success of the
project.
• Source D discusses the violence and opposition that the civil rights workers
encountered and it states that the Freedom Summer was in some ways a failure for the
volunteers because they did not register as many voters as they hoped and the MFDP
plans came to nothing. But it also indicates the Freedom Summer changed the way
the nation viewed the issue of civil rights and it laid the groundwork for future
achievements.
• Own knowledge: The Freedom Summer was not an isolated incident – it built on earlier
events such as the 1963 Freedom Vote. One way in which the Freedom Summer was
successful in helping the progress of the civil rights movement was that it helped to
gain more coverage and attention in the national media. An example of how the
Freedom Summer was less successful was that it did not achieve its aim of getting
large numbers of black voters registered in Mississippi.
Section E: Conflict and intervention

17. (a) Why, according to Source B, did the UN not allow Lieutenant General Romeo
Dallaire to act upon information provided by the secret informant? [3]
• He was force commander of a chapter-six peacekeeping operation, which limited

his scope of action (ie he couldn’t “conduct deterrent operations in support of
UNAMIR”);
• New York saw Dallaire as “unpredictable and uncontrollable”, they feared his
aggressive plan of action and believed Dallaire needed to be checked on;
• Many member nations were reluctant to expand UN involvement in Africa after
the deaths and injuries suffered by the American Rangers in Somalia.
• By suggesting that they will do nothing in memory of their role during the
genocide it is suggesting that the UN did nothing during the genocide itself;
• There is nobody there, only the cleaning lady, which suggests that the
representatives of the member countries have not even turned up, indicating a
lack of interest and action on the part of member countries;
• It could be seen to suggest the UN has not accepted responsibility for, or learnt
from, the lack of action in Rwanda as the picture suggests that even 20 years
later there is still a lack of action.

Source B for an historian studying the international community’s response to the Rwandan
genocide. [4]
Value:
• The source is an extract from Lieutenant General Roméo Dallaire’s memoirs, as Force
Commander of UNAMIR, published in 2003. As Force Commander of UNAMIR,
Dallaire is able to provide first-hand knowledge to explain the UN’s lack of intervention
in Rwanda in 1994. (“New York saw me as unpredictable and uncontrollable” “None of
them appeared to be surprised, which led me conclude that our informant was merely
confirming what they already knew”) (origin and content);
• As this was written in 2003, Dallaire profited from analytical hindsight (“The deaths and
injuries suffered by the American Rangers in Somalia must have had a huge impact on
the DPKO [Department of Peacekeeping Operations] and many member nations”)
(origin).
Limitations:
• By criticizing the UN’s lack of intervention in the Rwandan crisis in 1994 he could be
trying to safeguard his reputation, after UNAMIR’s failure. If Dallaire’s purpose was to
safeguard his reputation, this may have led him to exaggerate the UN’s reluctance to
intervene in the crisis. (“For the rest of the week, I made phone call after phone call to
New York, arguing over the necessity of raiding the arms stores”) (origin and purpose);
• Dallaire’s memoirs were published nine years after the events described. Global
condemnation for the lack of international intervention in Rwanda may have pushed
him into a more critical evaluation of the international community’s motives and actions.
(“None of them appeared to be surprised, which led me conclude that our informant
was merely confirming what they already knew”) (origin);
• As Force Commander of UNAMIR, Dallaire’s emotional proximity to the event may lead
him to a biased evaluation. (“I got the feeling that New York saw me as unpredictable
and uncontrollable”) (origin).
maximum of [2].
19. Compare and contrast what Sources A and C reveal about the “genocide fax”. [6]
sources.

or of contrast.
to do so.
Indicative content
Comparison:
• Both sources refer to Turatsinze’s ties to the Interhamwe-armed militia of MRND;
• Both sources imply that Turatsinze suspected a MRND plan for Tutsi extermination;
• Both sources imply that Turatsinze did not like the idea of Tutsi extermination;
• Both sources question the reliability of the information provided by Turatsinze.
Contrast:
• While Source A suggests that Turatsinze was “a top-level trainer of the Interhamwe”;
Source C describes him as an intermediary to the Interahamwe. Thus, as Source C
suggests, Source A exaggerates Turatsinze’s importance;
• While Source A states that Turatsinze opposed the RPF, Source C questions his
political loyalties: “Turatsinze operated on both sides of the political and ethnic divisions
in pre-genocidal Rwanda”;
• Source C argues that Turatsinze “misled UN peacekeepers on key points”.

20. “The international community failed to effectively intervene in Rwanda because it lacked
knowledge on the crisis.” Using the sources and your own knowledge, to what extent do
you agree with this statement? [9]



Indicative content
• Source A: As a piece of primary evidence, Source A may empirically corroborate that a

preconceived plan for the extermination of Tutsis existed before April 1994, and that
UN officials had been informed of such a plan;
• Source B: In Source B, Dallaire asserts that on repeated occasions he warned the UN
in New York about the need for immediate action and that he shared information
provided by Turatsinze with government officials from the US, Belgium and France.
Furthermore, he implies that such governments were already acquainted with the
information provided;
• Source C: In questioning the reliability of Dallaire’s “genocide fax”, Source C supports
the idea that the international community lacked reliable information on events in
Rwanda. This was a result of UNAMIR’s lack of a professional intelligence evaluation
unit;
• Source D: Source D confirms the lack of action by the UN, confirming that the
international community failed to effectively intervene.
Own knowledge:
• Domestic explanations for Belgian, French and American inaction;
• Poor funding of UNAMIR;
• Communication problems between UNAMIR and the DPKO;
• Discussion on the restrictions of UNAMIR’s limited mandate;
• Discussion on the limits imposed by national sovereignty to humanitarian crisis.
SPEC/3/HISTS/BP2/ENG/TZ0/XX
History
Paper 2
Specimen paper
1 hour 30 minutes
yyAnswer two questions, each chosen from a different topic.
yyEach question is worth [15 marks].
yyWhere the word region is used it refers to the following four regions: Europe, Asia and Oceania,
the Americas, and Africa and the Middle East.

Topic 1: Society and economy (750–1400)
1. Evaluate the importance of famines and disease as causes of social and economic change.
2. With reference to one religion, examine the reasons for disputes between rulers
and religious leaders.
Topic 2: Causes and effects of medieval wars (750–1500)
3. “Dynastic disputes lay at the heart of most medieval conflicts.” To what extent do you agree with
this statement?
4. Compare and contrast the military tactics used in two medieval conflicts, each chosen from a
different region.
Topic 3: Dynasties and rulers (750–1500)
5. With reference to one medieval ruler, evaluate the importance of non-military methods as a means
to expand and consolidate their rule.
6. Examine the extent to which the rule of two medieval leaders can be regarded as successful.
Topic 4: Societies in transition (1400–1700)
7. Examine the social impact of two scientific or technological developments from the period
1400 to 1700.
8. Evaluate the importance of merchants and travellers in bringing about economic change in the
period 1400 to 1700.
Topic 5: Early Modern states (1450–1789)
9. Examine the relationship between religion and the state in any one Early Modern state.
10. Compare and contrast the reasons for resistance or rebellion in two colonial states, each chosen
from a different region.
Topic 6: Causes and effects of Early Modern wars (1500–1750)
11. Compare and contrast the short-term causes of two Early Modern wars, each chosen from
a different region.
12. Evaluate the role and importance of mercenaries in one Early Modern war.
Topic 7: Origins, development and impact of industrialization (1750–2005)
13. “The availability of natural resources was the most important cause of industrialization.”
With reference to two countries, each chosen from a different region, to what extent do you agree
with this statement?
14. Examine the impact of industrialization on standards of living and working conditions
in one country.
Topic 8: Independence movements (1800–2000)
15. Evaluate the importance of war as a cause or catalyst for two independence movements,
each chosen from a different region.
16. “The greatest challenges facing newly independent states were economic.” With reference to one
newly independent state, to what extent do you agree with this statement?
Topic 9: Evolution and development of democratic states (1848–2000)
17. Compare and contrast the conditions that encouraged the demand for democratic reform
in two states, each chosen from a different region.
18. “Government policies in democratic states rarely affect the distribution of wealth.” To what extent
do you agree with this statement?
Topic 10: Authoritarian states (20th century)
19. “Successful foreign policy was essential for the maintenance of power by authoritarian leaders.”
With reference to one authoritarian leader, to what extent do you agree with this statement?
20. Compare and contrast the impact on women of the policies of two authoritarian states,
Turn over
Topic 11: Causes and effects of 20th-century wars
21. Examine the role of ideology in causing two 20th-century civil wars, each chosen from
a different region.
22. Compare and contrast the role of technology in determining the outcome of two 20th-century wars.
Topic 12: The Cold War: Superpower tensions and rivalries (20th century)
23. Examine the impact of the US policy of containment on superpower relations between
1947 and 1964.
24. Evaluate the impact on the course of the Cold War of two crises, each chosen from
a different region.
SPEC/3/HISTS/BP2/ENG/TZ0/XX/M
Markscheme
Specimen
History
Paper 2
26 pages
Note to examiners
This markscheme outlines what members of the paper setting team had in mind when they devised the
questions. The points listed in the bullet points indicate possible areas candidates might cover in their
answers. They are not compulsory points and are not necessarily the best possible points. They are
only a framework to help examiners in their assessment, and examiners should be responsive to any
other valid points or any other valid approaches. Examiners are reminded of the need to apply the
markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever
it is possible to do so.

13–15 Responses are clearly focused, showing a high degree of awareness of the demands and
implications of the question. Answers are well structured and effectively organized.
Knowledge of the world history topic is accurate and relevant. Events are placed in their
historical context, and there is a clear understanding of historical concepts.
The examples that the student chooses to discuss are appropriate and relevant, and are used
effectively to support the analysis/evaluation. The response makes effective links and/or
comparisons (as appropriate to the question).
The response contains clear and coherent critical analysis. There is evaluation of different
perspectives, and this evaluation is integrated effectively into the answer. All, or nearly all, of
the main points are substantiated, and the response argues to a consistent conclusion.
10–12 The demands of the question are understood and addressed. Answers are generally well
structured and organized, although there is some repetition or lack of clarity in places.
Knowledge of the world history topic is mostly accurate and relevant. Events are placed in their
historical context, and there is some understanding of historical concepts.
The examples that the student chooses to discuss are appropriate and relevant, and are used
to support the analysis/evaluation. The response makes effective links and/or comparisons (as
appropriate to the question).
The response contains critical analysis, which is mainly clear and coherent. There is some
awareness and evaluation of different perspectives. Most of the main points are substantiated
and the response argues to a consistent conclusion.
7–9 The response indicates an understanding of the demands of the question, but these demands
are only partially addressed. There is an attempt to follow a structured approach.
Knowledge of the world history topic is mostly accurate and relevant. Events are generally
placed in their historical context.
The examples that the student chooses to discuss are appropriate and relevant. The response
makes links and/or comparisons (as appropriate to the question).
The response moves beyond description to include some analysis or critical commentary, but
this is not sustained.
4–6 The response indicates some understanding of the demands of the question. While there may
be an attempt to follow a structured approach, the response lacks clarity and coherence.
Knowledge of the world history topic is demonstrated, but lacks accuracy and relevance. There
is a superficial understanding of historical context.
The student identifies specific examples to discuss, but these examples are vague or lack
relevance.
There is some limited analysis, but the response is primarily narrative/descriptive in nature
rather than analytical.
1–3 There is little understanding of the demands of the question. The answer is poorly structured or,
where there is a recognizable essay structure, there is minimal focus on the task.
Little knowledge of the world history topic is present.
The student identifies examples to discuss, but these examples are factually incorrect,
irrelevant or vague.
The response contains little or no critical analysis. The response may consist mostly of
generalizations and poorly substantiated assertions.
0 Answers do not reach a standard described by the descriptors above.
Topic 1: Society and economy (750–1400)
1. Evaluate the importance of famines and disease as causes of social and economic change.
Candidates must demonstrate a clear understanding of the requirements of the question; in this
case, candidates should make an appraisal of the importance of famines and disease as causes of
social and economic change.
Points discussed may include:

• Candidates should refer to specific examples to support their argument, drawn from within the
period 750–1400. This could include specific examples of famines such as the Great Famine in
Europe (1315–1317) and specific examples of disease such as the Black Death;
• Candidates are not expected to discuss large numbers of famines and diseases in their
response, as this could potentially lead to superficial analysis. Discussion of two specific
examples can be sufficient;
• Discussion of the importance of famines and disease as causes of social change may focus on
aspects such as resulting demographic change, migration in search of food, increased crime,
etc. Candidates may also consider elements such as the importance of famines and disease as
causes of religious change – sometimes famine and disease were seen as a punishment from
God, sometimes they led to increased fanaticism, and in cases such as the Black Death they
led to religious persecution as various religious groups were blamed for the crisis;
• Discussion of the importance of famines and disease as causes of economic change may focus
on the impact for survivors, such as their labour being in higher demand. It may also focus on
increased government controls on prices and exports, or the increase in looters and black
market traders;
• Candidates may weigh the importance of famines and disease against other causes of social
and economic change, such as climate changes, crop failures, the impact of wars, the
development of cities, etc;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the importance of
famines and disease as causes of social and economic change.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses;
however, it is neither prescriptive nor exhaustive and no set answer is required. Examiners are
reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by
candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
2. With reference to one religion, examine the reasons for disputes between rulers and religious
leaders.
Candidates must demonstrate a clear understanding of the requirements of the question.

Candidates will need to examine the factors that caused disputes between rulers and religious
leaders in one religion they have studied, during the period 750–1400.

• Candidates should make reference to specific examples of disputes between rulers and
religious leaders to support their argument, from within the period 750–1400. Such examples
could include the dispute between Philip IV of France and Pope Boniface VIII or the conflict
between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV the Holy Roman Emperor. Some candidates may
choose to discuss examples of individual leaders who had roles as both secular rulers and
religious leaders, which is also a valid approach;
• The factors discussed will depend on the specific examples the candidate chooses to examine.
They may include economic factors such as taxation of the clergy, or political factors such as
rulers attempting to consolidate their authority. In the medieval period the power of rulers was
often limited by the competing power of groups such as religious leaders, which sometimes led
to tension and conflict between rulers and religious leaders;
• Candidates should explore both long-term and short-term causes of disputes between rulers
and religious leaders. For example, in the case of the dispute between King Henry II of England
and Thomas Becket, candidates could explore causes such as the ongoing dispute that dated
back to Henry I about the ability of the king to control the Church, the individual personalities of
both men, and the immediate cause of the dispute regarding which court should have
jurisdiction over churchmen who committed criminal offences;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on what the reasons
were for disputes between rulers and religious leaders in the chosen religion.
Topic 2: Causes and effects of medieval wars (750–1500)
3. “Dynastic disputes lay at the heart of most medieval conflicts.” To what extent do you agree with
this statement?

Candidates will need to discuss the extent to which they agree with the statement that dynastic
disputes lay at the heart of most medieval conflicts.

• Candidates should make reference to specific examples of conflicts from within the period
750–1500 to support their argument. A wide variety of examples of conflicts could be selected,
such as the War of the Roses, the Crusades, the Song-Jin wars, or the Ming-Hồ war;
• Candidates are not expected to discuss a large number of different conflicts within their
response, as this could potentially lead to superficial analysis of those conflicts. Discussion of
two specific examples can be sufficient;
• Candidates may weigh dynastic disputes against other factors that could be seen to lie at the
heart of most medieval conflicts. These factors will depend on the specific examples of conflicts
selected for discussion, but may include factors such as the idea that many rulers acquired their
positions by war and conflict and it was therefore the tradition for changes in the power
structure; religious motives for certain conflicts such as the Crusades; the economic motives for
conflicts – wars were often over land, which was the principal source of wealth and power in the
medieval period (the “booty economy” led to the need to conquer new territories and
expansionist strategies);
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the extent to
which the candidate agrees with the statement that dynastic disputes lay at the heart of most
medieval conflicts.
4. Compare and contrast the military tactics used in two medieval conflicts, each chosen from a
different region.
Candidates must demonstrate a clear understanding of the requirements of the question and
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question. Candidates must examine
the similarities and also the differences between the military tactics used in two medieval conflicts,

• Candidates must make explicit reference to two examples of conflicts from within the period
750–1500, each chosen from a different region. A wide variety of examples of conflicts may be
discussed, such as the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453); the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487);
the Crusades (1095–1291); the Great Abassid Civil War (809–813); the Byzantine–Seljuq Wars
(1048–1308); the Tepanec War with the Aztecs (1428–1430), etc;
• The military tactics discussed will depend on the specific conflicts selected for discussion, as
military tactics and equipment varied widely during the period. Responses may include, for
example, discussion of the role and use of cavalry, the role and use of artillery, the use of
tactics from military writers, the structure of armies, the use of fortifications, the use of tunnels,
etc;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences between the military tactics
used in two conflicts, not simply give a description of the tactics used in each individual conflict.
A thematic approach is therefore likely to be more successful for this question;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will include a clear judgment on the similarities
and differences between the military tactics used in the two medieval conflicts discussed.
Topic 3: Dynasties and rulers (750–1500)
5. With reference to one medieval ruler, evaluate the importance of non-military methods as a means
to expand and consolidate their rule.
case, candidates must make an appraisal of the importance of non-military methods as a means to
expand and consolidate the rule of one medieval ruler.

• Candidates must discuss one specific medieval ruler in their response. A wide variety of rulers
could be discussed, such as ‘Abd al-Rahman III of Spain, Charlemagne, Matilda, Tamerlane,
Frederick I (Barbarossa), Itzcoatl, Empress Theodora, Baibars, Hongwu, etc;
• Medieval rulers used a variety of non-military methods to expand and consolidate their rule. For
example, rulers often established hereditary and dynastic concepts for succession and the
transmission of authority;
• Rulers often adopted elaborate rituals and ceremonies, for example, coronation and
consecration. Their ability to manipulate a ruler’s image, appropriate signs and emblems of
power, ceremonies and rituals gave them an enhanced impression of authority and made
rebellion more difficult;
• Rulers sometimes claimed to have a special/privileged relationship with God, making rebellion
against their authority more difficult. Rulers often gained the support of the religious elites and
institutions, which made obedience to the king a sacred duty and rebellion a sin;
• Rulers often exerted control over wealth (the circulation of capital, coinage, taxation at points of
exchange and production);
• The state often claimed to monopolize violence by exerting control over crime and capital
punishment etc;
non-military methods as a means to expand and consolidate the rule of one medieval ruler.
6. Examine the extent to which the rule of two medieval leaders can be regarded as successful.
Candidates are required to provide a critical analysis of the leadership of two medieval leaders. It
is important that candidates focus their discussion on the extent to which the rule of the two
leaders can be regarded as successful, rather than simply describing the rule of two medieval
leaders.

• A wide variety of leaders could be discussed, such as ‘Abd al-Rahman III of Spain,
Charlemagne, Matilda, Tamerlane, Frederick I (Barbarossa), Itzcoatl, Empress Theodora,
Baibars, Hongwu;
• Candidates could focus their discussion on a variety of different indicators of success. For
example, they may regard factors such as political stability, economic growth or territorial
expansion under the leaders as indicators of success. Alternatively they may focus on factors
such as social or cultural developments under the leaders;
• Candidates may elect to give an account of the similarities and differences regarding the extent
to which the rule of two medieval leaders can be regarded as successful;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will include a clear judgment on the extent to
which the rule of two medieval leaders can be considered successful.
Topic 4: Societies in transition (1400–1700)
7. Examine the social impact of two scientific or technological developments from the period
1400 to 1700.
Candidates must demonstrate a clear understanding of the requirements of the question. It is

important with this question that candidates focus their responses explicitly on examining the social
impact of two scientific or technological developments, rather than simply describing the details of
the two developments.

• Candidates must examine the social impact of two scientific or technological developments from
within the period 1400 to 1700. There is a wide variety of developments from which the
candidate may choose, such as the Gutenberg printing press (1450), developments in
shipbuilding, navigational instruments and cartography, advances in medicine, the Copernican
Revolution, etc;
• The social impact of the developments will depend on the specific examples of developments
selected for discussion. For example, a discussion of the printing press may focus on elements
such as increased access to information, the role of the printing press in spreading scientific
ideas, the impact of mass literacy, the impact on the elite who had previously been the only
group able to access certain information, issues around censorship, the religious impact in
terms of the role played by the printing press in the Reformation, etc;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the social impact
of two scientific or technological developments in the period 1400 to 1700.
8. Evaluate the importance of merchants and travellers in bringing about economic change in the
period 1400 to 1700.
case candidates must make an appraisal of the importance of merchants and travellers in bringing
about economic change in the period 1400 to 1700.

• Candidates should make reference to specific examples drawn from the period 1400–1700 to
support their argument. A wide range of examples could be discussed, such as the impact of
Zheng He (Cheng Ho), Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, etc;
• It is not expected that candidates will discuss large numbers of examples in their responses, as
this could potentially lead to superficial analysis. Discussion of two specific examples can be
sufficient;
• Merchants and travellers played a crucial role in this period in bringing about changes to the
patterns of trade. They helped to bring about an increase in international trade, particularly in
luxury goods such as spices. They also facilitated the movements of goods, crops and animals
around the world, for example the spread of chocolate and potatoes;
• The rise in merchants and travellers also helped bring about other economic changes such as
the formalization of insurance companies, and new sources of wealth through the exploitation of
overseas resources. This in turn brought about other economic changes, such as the rise in
trade in slaves to provide the labour needed to exploit those resources;
• Candidates may weigh the importance of merchants and travellers against other factors that
brought about economic change in the period, such as wars, environmental factors, government
policies, etc;
merchants and travellers in bringing about economic change in the period.
Topic 5: Early Modern states (1450–1789)
9. Examine the relationship between religion and the state in any one Early Modern state.

Candidates will need to examine, rather than simply describe, the relationship between religion and
the state, and must focus their response explicitly on one example of an Early Modern state.

• Candidates may draw from a wide variety of examples, such as attempts by Early Modern
states to suppress Protestantism, the Catholic Church in Latin America, etc;
• Candidates may discuss examples such as the relationship between religion and the state
under King Henry VIII of England, where Henry made major religious reforms and declared
himself Supreme Head of the Church of England, made radical changes to the constitution of
England, and used money which would have gone to the Church to increase his income;
• Candidates should discuss ways in which religion supported Early Modern states as well as
ways in which religion challenged Early Modern states;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the relationship
between religion and the state in their chosen example.
10. Compare and contrast the reasons for resistance or rebellion in two colonial states, each chosen
from a different region.

Candidates must give an account of both the similarities and differences regarding the reasons for
resistance or rebellion in two colonial states from two different regions.

• Candidates should make reference to two specific examples of colonial states from different
regions. Candidates may choose from a wide variety of examples of resistance/rebellion, such
as the resistance to British rule in American colonies which led to the American War of
Independence (1775–1783). The examples chosen for discussion must come from within the
period 1450 to 1789;
• The specific reasons for resistance/rebellion will depend on the specific examples of colonial
states selected for discussion, and many rebellions/acts of resistance came about for a variety
of interrelated reasons. Discussions are likely to focus on dissatisfaction with colonial rule,
economic reasons such as dissatisfaction with heavy taxation, ideological reasons such as the
growth of nationalism, a lack of respect for existing social and cultural practices by the colonial
powers, or reasons such as resistance to attempts to impose a particular religion on the people
in colonial states;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences regarding the reasons for
resistance/rebellion, not simply describe rebellions/acts of resistance in those states. A
thematic approach is therefore likely to be more successful for this question;
and differences between the reasons for resistance or rebellion in two colonial states.
Topic 6: Causes and effects of Early Modern wars (1500–1750)
11. Compare and contrast the short-term causes of two Early Modern wars, each chosen from a
different region.

Candidates must discuss both the similarities and differences between the short-term causes of
two Early Modern wars, each from a different region.

• Candidates should make reference to two specific examples of Early Modern wars, each from a
different region. Examples may be drawn from a wide variety of wars, such as the
Ethiopian–Adal War (1529–1543), Dutch War of Independence (1568–1648) or the Japanese
invasions of Korea (1592–1598);
• Candidates may use cross-regional wars as their examples of wars. However, they may not
then use the same war in a different region in the same response;
• Candidates may discuss economic causes of wars, such as inequity in resource distribution,
conflict over land ownership, etc. They may discuss political causes of wars, such as
ideological disputes;
• It is important that candidates focus their responses explicitly on the short-term of the two wars
selected for discussion, rather than simply discussing all causes;
• Candidates must give an account of both the similarities and differences between the causes of
two wars, not simply list the causes of two wars. A thematic approach is therefore likely to be
more successful for this question;
and differences between the short-term causes of the two wars discussed.
12. Evaluate the role and importance of mercenaries in one Early Modern war.
case, candidates should make an appraisal of the role and importance of mercenaries in any one
war they have studied from the period 1500 to 1750.

• Candidates should make explicit reference to the role and importance of mercenaries in one
Early Modern war they have studied. Examples may be drawn from a wide variety of wars,
such as Scottish mercenaries in the Thirty Years War, Irish soldiers (“Wild Geese”) in the Dutch
War of Independence, etc;
• At the start of the Early Modern period mercenaries (soldiers who fight for private financial gain)
often played an active role in wars, although by the end of the period there had been a move
towards more national/state-focused troops;
• The specific role and importance of mercenaries will depend on the specific war chosen for
discussion. Some mercenaries brought with them additional expertise or tactical knowledge; for
example The “Stratioti” (mercenaries from the Balkans) helped to develop cavalry tactics.
Mercenaries were often expensive, so mercenaries had an important impact through the ways
that rulers raised the funds to pay them. Mercenaries could be unreliable, or have issues
relating to morale; Machiavelli for example argued against the use of mercenaries, arguing that
they would not have the same motivation to fight;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the role and
importance of mercenaries in one Early Modern war.
Topic 7: Origins, development and impact of Industrialization (1750–2005)
13. “The availability of natural resources was the most important cause of industrialization.” With
reference to two countries, each chosen from a different region, to what extent do you agree with
this statement?

Candidates will need to discuss the extent to which they agree with the statement that the
availability of natural resources was the most important cause of industrialization. Please note that
as industrialization occurred at different times in different countries, the specific time frame focused
on within the overall period (1750–2005) will depend on the example countries chosen for study,
and it is not expected that candidates will cover the entire time period.

• Candidates should make reference to two specific countries in their answer, each from a
different region. The specifics of the discussion will depend on the specific countries selected.
For example, in the case of industrialization in Great Britain candidates may discuss the
importance of the preceding Agricultural Revolution as a cause of industrialization, or the
availability of resources such as coal;
• In addition to discussing the importance of natural resources, candidates should also discuss
the relative importance of other causes of industrialization, such as the availability of capital for
investment. Other causes of industrialization that may be discussed include motivation and
desire of key individuals, technological advances, infrastructure, political stability, etc.
Candidates should weigh the relative importance of the availability of natural resources in
causing industrialization against these other factors;
which the candidate agrees with the statement that the availability of natural resources was the
most important cause of industrialization.
14. Examine the impact of industrialization on standards of living and working conditions in one
country.

Candidates must examine the impact of industrialization on standards of living and working
conditions in any one country. Please note that as industrialization occurred at different times in
different countries, the specific time frame focused on within the overall period (1750–2005) will
depend on the example countries chosen for study, and it is not expected that candidates will
cover the entire time period.

• Candidates must focus their response on industrialization in any one country. It is crucial that
responses do not simply describe living and working conditions in the country discussed, but
instead examine critically the impact of industrialization on those conditions;
• In the long term industrialization often brought about higher standards of living, but at the time
standards of living often varied considerably between the high standards for the wealthy factory
owners and the poor standards for workers;
• Industrialization often involved urbanization, with cities struggling to cope with the large
population expansion. Cities expanded quickly leading to high levels of overcrowding, poor
quality of buildings, lack of sanitation, etc. Often diseases such as cholera and typhoid were
common, as was air pollution and malnutrition;
• Working conditions were also often extremely poor. Workers were expected to work long hours,
and conditions were often dangerous. Workers endured low wages, and in some countries
there was still high unemployment. Often women and children also worked. There were
attempts to improve standards of living and working conditions, for example through legislation
such as the 1833 Factory Act in the UK, or through workers forming trade unions;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the impact of
industrialization on standards of living and working conditions.
Topic 8: Independence movements (1800–2000)
15. Evaluate the importance of war as a cause or catalyst for two independence movements, each
chosen from a different region.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case candidates
should make an appraisal of the importance of war as a cause or catalyst for two independence
movements, each chosen from a different region.

• Candidates must make explicit reference to two examples of independence movements, each
chosen from a different region. Examples may be drawn from a wide variety of independence
movements, and the relative importance of war as a cause or catalyst for those movements will
vary depending on the specific examples chosen for discussion;
• For example, the rise of independence movements in the 20th century was often closely
associated with the two world wars which progressively weakened the image, as well as the
economic and military capabilities, of metropolitan states. The wars can be seen as catalysts in
promoting the desire of indigenous populations to attain the freedoms (self-determination
included) for which – ostensibly at least – the victors of both wars claimed they fought. The
wars not only radicalized sections of the colonized states but also provided, in some cases, the
military training that was to be used in physical struggles against the colonial power in the post-
1945 era (for example, Indo-China, Algeria);
• The Cold War is an acceptable choice of war, and may have had the effect of encouraging
superpower involvement either in support of independence or in discouraging it;
• Candidates may weigh the importance of war against other factors that may be considered to
be a cause or catalyst, for example: effective leadership, that is, the ability to mobilize
populations on a mass basis and to attract outside attention or world opinion through
propaganda or successful nationalist campaigns, was also important (for example, India). The
influence of the United Nations in promoting decolonization could also be examined;
war as a cause or catalyst for two independence movements.
16. “The greatest challenges facing newly independent states were economic.” With reference to one
newly independent state, to what extent do you agree with this statement?
case, candidates will need to discuss the extent to which they agree with the statement that the
greatest challenges facing newly independent states were economic.

• Candidates must make explicit reference to one newly independent state in their response.
Candidates may draw from a wide variety of states, and the specifics of the challenges facing
the state will depend on the state chosen for discussion;
• Economic challenges discussed may include: poor infrastructure, poverty and wealth
distribution, continued dependence on a colonial power, lack of industrialization;
• Reponses should also consider the relative importance of other factors that challenged states
such as: political issues – creating political unity, new political institutions; social divisions –
religious and ethnic; lack of welfare provision and education; continued influence of foreign
powers;
which the candidate agrees with the statement that the greatest challenges facing newly
independent states were economic.
Topic 9: Evolution and development of democratic states (1848–2000)
17. Compare and contrast the conditions that encouraged the demand for democratic reform in two
states, each chosen from a different region.
case, candidates should examine both the similarities and differences between the conditions that
encouraged the demand for democratic reform in two states, each from a different region.

• Candidates must make explicit reference to two states, each chosen from a different region.
Candidates may draw from a wide variety of interesting democratic states from the period, such
as Lebanon, Ghana, Argentina, Mexico, India, Australia, Spain, Poland, etc;
• The particular conditions that encouraged the demand for democratic reform will depend upon
the specific examples chosen for discussion. Likely areas for discussion include political
factors, wars, nationalism, urbanization, industrialization, education and the growth of the
middle class. For example, the demand for democracy might come from a need to
accommodate a growing industrial working class, or it might follow the collapse of an
authoritarian regime following war or major political change. Responses may also focus on
factors such as the pressure for reform from unrepresented classes;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences in the conditions that
encouraged the demand for democratic reform in two states, not simply describe the demand in
the two states. A thematic approach is therefore likely to be more successful for this question;
and differences between conditions that encouraged the demand for democratic reform in the
two states chosen for discussion.
18. “Government policies in democratic states rarely affect the distribution of wealth.” To what extent
case, candidates will need to discuss the extent to which they agree with the statement that
government policies in democratic states rarely affect the distribution of wealth.

• Candidates are expected to make reference to specific examples to support their argument. It
is not expected that candidates will discuss large numbers of examples in their responses, as
this could potentially lead to superficial analysis. Discussion of two specific examples can be
sufficient;
• Discussion may focus on the means by which states could affect the distribution of wealth. Was
there a progressive taxation? Did the state take responsibility for social welfare and how
extensive was it? Did the state encourage ownership of land and property beyond a narrow
elite?;
• There may be consideration of the ideological stance of the governing party(ies) and their
attitude to privilege and poverty: for some governments redistribution of wealth was not an aim,
let alone a priority. However, in some cases the concept of a collectivist state did encourage
redistribution of wealth, and governments adopted policies accordingly;
• Assessment of the impact of policies will focus on pattern of wealth distribution. What was the
gap between rich and poor? Was wealth concentrated in the hands of the few? Did the welfare
system manage to help the unemployed, the sick and disabled?;
which the candidate agrees with the statement that government policies in democratic states
rarely affect the distribution of wealth.
Topic 10: Authoritarian states (20th century)
19. “Successful foreign policy was essential for the maintenance of power by authoritarian leaders.”
With reference to one authoritarian leader, to what extent do you agree with this statement?
case, candidates will need to discuss the extent to which they agree with the statement that
successful foreign policy was essential for the maintenance of power for one authoritarian leader
they have studied.

• Candidates should make explicit reference to one example of an authoritarian leader.
Examples may be drawn from a wide variety of leaders, such as Nyerere, Perón, Pinochet,
Mao, Pol Pot, Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini;
• Candidates should examine the extent to which a successful foreign policy was essential for the
maintenance of power by the authoritarian leader being discussed. For example, in the case of
Nasser, “Nasserism” was built on Egypt’s opposition to “imperialist influence” in the Arab world
and a belief in the benefits of pan-Arab unity. Nationalism required the building of a strong state
with a powerful military and a mission to defend the Arab world against imperialism and
Zionism. Nasser’s charismatic leadership and nationalistic foreign policy legitimized the regime
and helped him to maintain power;
• Candidates may also weigh successful foreign policy against other factors that could be seen as
essential for the maintenance of power. For example, domestic policies could be seen to play
an essential role in the maintenance of power either as much as, or in fact more than, foreign
policy. For example, in the case of Hitler policies such as reducing unemployment through
government infrastructure projects, or expanding the armaments industries, providing
employment, income, and a rising standard of living, which increased Hitler’s popularity and
reduced opposition;
• In addition to domestic economic policies, other factors aside from foreign policy that may be
considered essential to maintaining power could include factors such as the removal of political
opponents; censorship; propaganda; coercion; personal qualities and charisma; and support
from key groups such as the armed forces;
which they agree with the statement that a successful foreign policy was essential for the
maintenance of power for their chosen example.
20. Compare and contrast the impact on women of the policies of two authoritarian states, each
chosen from a different region.

Candidates must discuss both the similarities and differences in the impact on women of the
policies of two authoritarian states, from two different regions.

• Candidates must discuss two specific examples of authoritarian states, from two different
regions. Examples may be drawn from a wide variety of states, such as Egypt under Nasser,
Iraq under Saddam Hussein, Cuba under Castro, Haiti under Duvalier, Indonesia under
Sukarno, Pakistan under Zia ul Haq, Spain under Franco, or Poland under Pilsudski;
• The focus should be explicitly on similarities and differences in the impact on women of the
policies of the two authoritarian states selected. Discussion may focus on areas such as
whether women received improved treatment in terms of employment, education,
marriage/divorce legislation and inheritance laws; whether their social, political and economic
status deteriorated under the new authoritarian state due to the withdrawal of rights previously
held; the extent to which ideology, as opposed to pragmatism, was present in the treatment of
women, for example, in the field of employment, in the interests of literally “building” the state or
during time of conflict; legal rights, etc;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences in the impact on women of
the policies of two authoritarian states, not simply describe the policies. A thematic approach is
therefore likely to be more successful for this question.
Topic 11: Causes and effects of 20th-century wars
21. Examine the role of ideology in causing two 20th-century civil wars, each chosen from a different
region.
case candidates should make an appraisal of the role of ideology in causing two 20th-century civil
wars, each chosen from a different region.

• Candidates should refer to two specific 20th-century civil wars, each chosen from a different
region. Examples may be drawn from a wide variety of civil wars, such as the Nigerian Civil
War (1967–1970), the North Yemen Civil War (1962–1970), the Chinese Civil War (1927–1937
and/or 1946–1949), the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), the Russian Civil War (1917–1922),
etc;
• Different ideologies could be discussed, such as communism, socialism, nationalism or fascism;
• Candidates should focus on critically examining the role of ideology in causing the two wars
chosen for discussion, not on simply describing the features of these ideologies;
• Candidates may also discuss the role of related factors in causing the wars chosen for
discussion. For example, the political, economic and social circumstances that permitted the
ideologies to take hold will probably be relevant;
• Candidates may also weigh the role of ideology in causing the two wars chosen for discussion
against other factors that could be seen to be the cause of the wars. Ideology did play a
significant role in some civil wars, whereas in others the key factors were religious, ethnic,
economic or a combination thereof. It is likely, for example, that civil wars will occur in countries
where there is political instability, caused by, for example, the collapse of central authority,
repression or the enactment of unpopular policies. The degree to which civil war leaders
exploited poverty, social division or domination by a foreign power may also be considered;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the role of
ideology in causing the two 20th-century civil wars being discussed.
22. Compare and contrast the role of technology in determining the outcome of two 20th-century wars.
case, candidates should discuss both the similarities and the differences in the role of technology
in determining the outcome of two 20th-century wars.

• Examples may be drawn from a wide variety of 20th-century wars, such as the First World War,
the Second World War, the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), the first Gulf War (1990–1991),
Vietnam (1964–1975), Falklands/Malvinas War (1982), etc;
• Candidates should not simply describe the role of technological developments, but should link
them explicitly to their role in determining the outcome of the wars being discussed;
• Technological developments could include not only weaponry, but also means of
communication and reconnaissance, and the development of industrial capacity. Some
developments tipped the balance of conflict, while others enabled armies to hold their own,
perhaps against superior forces;
• In most cases technology alone was not enough to determine the outcome of conflict: superior
manpower was sometimes more important, as were the tactics used. Economic factors may
come into play as countries lose the means to fight on;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences in the role of technology in
determining the outcome of the two wars discussed. A thematic approach is therefore likely to
be more successful for this question;
and differences in how the role of technology determined the outcome of two 20th-century wars.
Topic 12: The Cold War: Superpower tensions and rivalries (20th century)
23. Examine the impact of the US policy of containment on superpower relations between 1947 and
1964.
Candidates must demonstrate a clear understanding of the requirements of the question. In this
case, candidates must examine the impact of containment on superpower relations, rather than
simply describe a narrative of key events from the period.

• Candidates are expected to refer to Cold War events that demonstrate the use and impact of
the US policy of containment within the timeframe of 1947–1964. The starting point of 1947
may be linked to the Truman Doctrine. The end point of 1964 would allow candidates to
consider the success or failure of the application of US policy to events up to the end of the
Khrushchev era;
• 1947 – The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. The aim of both was to prevent the spread
of Communism in the immediate aftermath of the war in Europe and can be seen as having
been directed against the expansion of communism in Europe. The USSR response was to
revive COMINTERN renamed as COMINFORM (1947) and to criticize the Marshall Plan as
“dollar imperialism”. This episode worsened superpower relations and may be seen as having
provoked the Czech coup of 1948;
• 1948 – The Berlin blockade. This may be interpreted as the use of containment to prevent
Soviet efforts to achieve the removal of the US, Britain and France from Berlin. The blockade
and the Allied response demonstrated that relations were hampered by suspicion and rivalry but
the blockade also indicated that US containment worked as it was called off in May 1949.
Furthermore, it hastened the establishment of NATO (containment) and the division of Germany
into two states;
• 1950–1953 – The Korean War. Via the UN, the US made efforts to push back the forces of
North Korea from the South and so to contain the spread of communism. How far this affected
superpower relations could be interpreted in a number of different ways and candidates may
include a reference to China. What became clear was that both superpowers were reluctant to
escalate or to come into direct conflict;
• 1958–1961 – Renewed efforts by Khrushchev (urged on by Ulbricht) to remove the Allies from
Berlin failed and resulted in the building of the Berlin Wall, which may be viewed as an
acknowledgement that containment has worked in Berlin;
• 1962 – The Cuban Missile Crisis. Containment becomes brinkmanship with near dire
consequences for superpower relations that are, ultimately, strengthened as a result of this
near-miss of nuclear war;
• Other possible examples of containment may include: the removal of President Arbenz in
Guatemala in 1954; the 1953 coup in Iran; the Chinese Off-Shore Island Crises (Taiwan);
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the impact of the
US policy of containment on superpower relations between 1947 and 1964.
24. Evaluate the impact on the course of the Cold War of two crises, each chosen from a different
region.
case, candidates should make an appraisal of the impact on the course of the Cold War of two
crises, each from a different region.

• Candidates must make explicit reference to two examples of Cold War crises from different
regions. Candidates may use cross-regional crises as examples in their response, but may not
use the same crisis in different regions as both of their examples;
• Cold War crises are “flashpoints” that involve a clear escalation in Cold War tensions.
Superpower involvement in the crises may be direct, or may also be indirect. Examples may be
drawn from a wide variety of Cold War crises, such as the Berlin blockade (1948–1949), the
Suez Crisis (1956), the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), the Prague spring (1968), US intervention
in Chile (1973), or the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979);
• It is important that candidates focus their response explicitly on appraising the impact of their
selected crises on the course of the Cold War, rather than simply describing the major events of
two crises;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will include a clear judgment on the impact upon
the course of the Cold War of two crises, each from a different region.
SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/AF
History
Higher level
Paper 3 – history of Africa and the Middle East
Specimen paper
2 hours 30 minutes
yyAnswer any three questions.

–2– SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/AF
The ‘Abbasid dynasty (750–1258)
1. “Military power was the most important reason for the ‘Abbasid defeat of the Umayyads.” To what
extent do you agree with this statement?
2. “The first century of ‘Abbasid rule brought about significant economic and political change in the
Islamic world.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
The Fatimids (909–1171)
3. Examine the ideological and cultural impact of the Fatimid Empire on the Islamic world.
4. “Internal problems rather than external challenges led to the collapse of the Fatimid Empire.”
To what extent do you agree with this statement?
The Crusades (1095–1291)
5. “Religious ideology was the primary motive for the Crusades.” To what extent do you agree with
this statement?
6. Evaluate the impact of the Crusades on the Islamic world.
The Ottomans (1281–1566)
7. Evaluate the significance of the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
8. Examine the contribution of either Selim I (1512–1520) or Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566)
to the success of the Ottoman Empire during the 16th century.
Trade and the rise and decline of African states and empires (800–1600)
9. Evaluate the reasons for the decline of the Ghana Empire.
10. “Trade was more important to the success of the Mali Empire than it was to the success of the
Kingdom of Kongo.” Discuss.
Pre-colonial African states (1800–1900)
11. Compare and contrast the contributions of Tewodros II and Yohannes IV to the unification of Ethiopia.
12. “Moshoeshoe was a more successful ruler than Shaka Zulu.” To what extent do you agree with
this statement?
The slave trade in Africa and the Middle East (1500–1900)
13. Examine the social and economic impact of the slave trade on Africa and the Middle East up until the
19th century.
14. “Economic factors were the main reason for the decline of the Atlantic slave trade.” To what extent
European imperialism and the partition of Africa (1850–1900)
15. Examine the reasons for increased European interest in Africa in the second half of the
19th century.
16. “The annexation of Africa was only made possible by weaknesses within Africa.” To what extent do
you agree with this statement?
Response to European imperialism (1870–1920)
17. “The leadership of Menelik II was the most significant factor in Ethiopia maintaining its
independence.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
18. Discuss the reasons for, and results of, Kabaka Mwanga’s resistance to European imperialism.
Africa under colonialism (1890–1980)
19. Evaluate the economic impact of Portuguese rule in Angola and Mozambique.
20. Examine the reasons for, and results of, the British decision to implement a system of indirect rule
in Nigeria.
Turn over
20th-century nationalist and independence movements in Africa
21. Evaluate the contribution of the Mau Mau uprising to the achievement of independence in Kenya.
22. Compare and contrast the role of individual leaders in two 20th-century independence movements
in Africa.
The Ottoman Empire (c1800–1923)
23. Evaluate the impact of the Tanzimat reforms on the Ottoman Empire.
24. Examine the reasons for the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the first half of the 19th century.
War and change in the Middle East and North Africa 1914–1945
25. To what extent did ineffective Allied diplomacy in the Middle East during the First World War lead to
instability in the region?
26. Evaluate Ataturk’s impact on Turkish society.
Africa, international organizations and the international community (20th century)
27. Discuss the role played by the Abyssinian Crisis in the failure of the League of Nations.
28. “The East African Community (EAC) was more of a success than a failure in the 20th century.”
Developments in South Africa 1880–1994
29. “The Boers lost the war but won the peace.” To what extent do you agree with this statement
about the South African War (1899–1902)?
30. Examine the reasons for, and the effects of, the radicalization of resistance to the apartheid system
in South Africa.
Social and cultural developments in Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries
31. Examine the factors that promoted and those that inhibited the spread of Christianity in Africa in
the 19th and 20th centuries.
32. Discuss the impact of immigration and emigration on any two African countries in the 19th and
20th centuries.
Post-war developments in the Middle East (1945–2000)
33. Compare and contrast the economic and social policies of Nasser and Sadat in Egypt.
34. Evaluate the importance of religious factors in causing the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War
in 1975.
Post-independence politics in Africa to 2005
35. “Economic problems after independence were the main cause of civil war.” With reference to one
civil war you have studied, to what extent do you agree with this statement?
36. Compare and contrast the factors that led to the return to multi-party democracy in two countries.
SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/AF/M
Markscheme
Specimen
History
Higher level
Paper 3 – history of Africa

and the Middle East
38 pages
–2– SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/AF/M
Note for examiners: The following pages of this markscheme outline what members of the paper setting
team had in mind when they devised the questions. The points listed in the bullet points indicate
possible areas candidates might cover in their answers. They are not compulsory points and are not
necessarily the best possible points. They are only a framework to help examiners in their assessment.
Examiners should be responsive to any other valid points or any other valid approaches.
Markbands for paper 3

implications of the question. Answers are well structured, balanced and effectively
organized.
Knowledge is detailed, accurate and relevant. Events are placed in their historical context,
and there is a clear understanding of historical concepts. Examples used are appropriate
and relevant, and are used effectively to support the analysis/evaluation.
Arguments are clear and coherent. There is evaluation of different perspectives, and this
evaluation is integrated effectively into the answer.
The answer contains well-developed critical analysis. All, or nearly all, of the main points
are substantiated, and the response argues to a reasoned conclusion.
structured and organized, although there may be some repetition or lack of clarity in
places.
Knowledge is accurate and relevant. Events are placed in their historical context, and
there is a clear understanding of historical concepts. Examples used are appropriate and
relevant, and are used to support the analysis/evaluation.
Arguments are mainly clear and coherent. There is some awareness and evaluation of
different perspectives.
The response contains critical analysis. Most of the main points are substantiated, and the
response argues to a consistent conclusion.
7–9 The response indicates an understanding of the demands of the question, but these
demands are only partially addressed. There is an attempt to follow a structured
approach.
Knowledge is mostly accurate and relevant. Events are generally placed in their historical
context. Examples used are appropriate and relevant.
The response moves beyond description to include some analysis or critical commentary,
but this is not sustained.
4–6 The response indicates some understanding of the demands of the question. While there
may be an attempt to follow a structured approach, the response lacks clarity and
coherence.
Knowledge is demonstrated but lacks accuracy and relevance. There is a superficial
understanding of historical context. The answer makes use of specific examples, although
these may be vague or lack relevance.
There is some limited analysis, but the response is primarily narrative/descriptive in nature,
1–3 There is little understanding of the demands of the question. The answer is poorly
structured or, where there is a recognizable essay structure, there is minimal focus on the
task.
Little knowledge is present. Where specific examples are referred to, they are factually
incorrect, irrelevant or vague.
The response contains little or no critical analysis. It may consist mostly of generalizations
and poorly substantiated assertions.
The ‘Abbasid dynasty (750–1258)
1. “Military power was the most important reason for the ‘Abbasid defeat of the Umayyads.” To what
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the extent to
which the candidate agrees that military power was the most important reason for the ‘Abbasid
defeat of the Umayyads.

• Feuds between southern (Kalb) and northern (Qays) Arab tribes reduced military power and
later led to major revolts in Syria, Iraq and Khorasan;
• Regional problems as Umayyad government was equated with Syrian government; did not
include Muslims from Iraq, narrow base of support. Marwan’s policies lost him traditional
support;
• Fiscal reforms of ‘Umar II aimed at lessening opposition from non-Muslims created a financial
crisis. Narrow support was made worse as Syria was not rich, and did not have a large Muslim
population as did Iraq; Iraq produced more revenue;
• Battle of the Zab, 750. Although the Umayyad force was larger, loyalty to the Caliph was
limited. Abbasids were a coalition of Abbasids, Persians and Shias;
• The Umayyads had no direct descent from the Prophet Muhammad, whereas the ‘Abbasids did.
Many Muslims felt that charismatic, truly Islamic leadership was needed to establish rule of the
Qur’an, only the family of the Prophet Muhammad could provide this;
• Tactics in battle. Abbasid spear wall was able to withstand Umayyad cavalry charge. The
‘Abbasids pursued the remaining Umayyads, meeting little resistance in Syria as the area had
been laid waste by earthquake and plague. The death of Marwan in a later battle ended
Umayyad rule;
which the candidate agrees with the claim that military power was the most important reason for
the Abbasid defeat of the Ummayads.
2. “The first century of ‘Abbasid rule brought about significant economic and political change in the
Islamic world.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
which they agree with the statement that the first century of Abbasid rule (750–850) brought about
significant economic and political change in the Islamic world.

• Political: built on achievements of the Umayyads, but more centralized attempts to ensure
provinces contributed to finance of central government. Continued hereditary succession of the
Umayyads. Appointment of Muslim judges was taken over by central government. Centre of
government moved from Syria to Iraq; as Iraq provided the most revenue this made it easier to
collect. Judges and bureaucrats became more important;
• Development of bureau of taxes, accounts office and chancery, board for inspection of
grievances, police department – some were developed from Umayyad rule. Continued division
of provinces under governors;
• Political: change in political elite; it became more varied in composition, not just Arabs, but also
Iranians and Persians. Clerks of Christian origin joined by Iranians. Government often
described as Persian in character, but Arabs still held high positions and Arabic was still the
language of administration. Remained a Muslim state and claimed to base rule on Islam.
Non-Arabs could hold high positions;
• Creation of Baghdad. This also brought economic opportunities. Became a model for many
new towns, for example Samarra and Cairo. Brought social change as towns were used to
house followers and generate income. Impact on urban development;
• Changed position of Khorasan;
• Promotion of commerce and industry, increased position within the state for merchants.
Prosperity based on Baghdad. Agricultural impetus under the Abbasids as the capital was well
situated;
which the first century of Abbasid rule brought about significant economic and political change
in the Islamic world.
The Fatimids (909–1171)
3. Examine the ideological and cultural impact of the Fatimid Empire on the Islamic world.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case an examination
of the ideological and cultural impact of the Fatimid Empire on the Islamic world. It is important
that responses focus specifically on the ideological and cultural impact of the Fatimid Empire,
rather than on the impact more generally.

• Scholarship/academics: the Fatimids funded one of the first universities in the world (the Al
Azhar university) which was a major intellectual centre and still exists today. Extensive libraries
were also established in Fatimid palaces;
• The Fatimids advanced Islamic scholarship in science, and particular astronomy;
• Religion: the Fatimids generally practiced tolerance of other faiths and sects and did not make
extensive efforts to convert others to their faith. Candidates may also discuss the relationship
between the Fatimid Empire and Ismaili beliefs, and the relationship with Sunni Muslims;
• Arts: the Fatimids introduced new styles, especially in ceramics;
• Architecture: new architectural styles were introduced, as seen for example in the al Hakim
Mosque;
• Candidates may discuss controversies about the ideological and cultural impact of the Fatimid
Empire, particularly under Al Hakim;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the ideological
and cultural impact of the Fatimid Empire on the Islamic world.
4. “Internal problems rather than external challenges led to the collapse of the Fatimid Empire.”
which the candidate agrees with the claim that internal problems rather than external challenges
led to the collapse of the Fatimid Empire.

• Fatimid power rested on the efficiency of their military and government; their collapse began
when internal division developed in the army and bureaucracy between Berber, Turkish and
North African factions;
• Internal strife caused the loss of Syria;
• Caliphs lost power to viziers and generals, which weakened the regime;
• Religious divisions between Druze and Assassins weakened the regime; attacks by the Seljuk
Turks caused loss of territory and prestige; the Crusades captured Fatimid territory and caused
a loss of prestige;
• They failed to convert the population of their Empire to the Ismaili sect; revival of Sunni Islam,
linked to the rise of Salah al-Din (Saladin);
• Problems such as drought and famine;
which the candidate agrees with the claim that internal problems rather than external challenges
led to the collapse of the Fatimid Empire.
The Crusades (1095–1291)
5. “Religious ideology was the primary motive for the Crusades.” To what extent do you agree with
this statement?
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, the extent to
which the candidate agrees that religious ideology was the primary motive for the Crusades. The
dates of the topic (1095–1291) refer to the period from the calling of the First Crusade to the fall
of Acre.

• Religious motives could include following the call of a religious leader. In the case of Christians,
for example, this could include responding to appeals from Popes and popular preachers
(Urban II, Bernard);
• Religious motives could also include: the chance to go on a pilgrimage; the chance to serve
God; to obtain forgiveness of sins and salvation; a general sense of piety and religious devotion;
or to visit, capture or recapture holy places;
• Another motive for participation could be to avenge abuses; for example, as a response to
stories of treatment of Christians following the fall of Jerusalem;
• Economic motives could include: desire to gain land (including particularly second sons who
would not inherit land and saw this as an opportunity to gain wealth); opportunities to obtain
great wealth from plunder; lack of prospects at home; the opportunity to make fighting a career;
trade – cities such as Venice and Genoa sought to profit;
• Political reasons were complex, especially with the later Crusades, and with both Muslim and
Christian participants. Frequently both made decisions and alliances that were personal and
political. Originally political motives for Christians were to help the Byzantine Empire and to
obtain land, a principality, and become a ruler. The Islamic world was far from united during the
period between 1095 and 1291, and different sects and caliphs sought to maintain or enhance
their positions;
• Other motives for participation could include desire for travel, knowledge, excitement, or
adventure, as many had never left their local areas before; or the opportunity to gain fame,
respect and power at home if successful;
which the candidate agrees with the claim that religious ideology was the primary motive for the
Crusades.
6. Evaluate the impact of the Crusades on the Islamic world.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case an evaluation
of the impact of the Crusades on the Islamic world.

• The impact of the Crusades was largely negative in the Middle East as a result of the damage
and casualties caused by war and increased political and religious divisions;
• Loss of territory to the invaders for several centuries;
• Led to stronger Muslim regimes as leaders such as Nur al-Din and Salah al-Din emerged and
unified Muslims; new sense of Islamic unity and militancy to resist non-Muslim invaders;
• Weakening of the Fatimid Empire contributing to its collapse;
• The Crusades contributed to the decline in power of the Byzantine Empire and its replacement
by a Muslim power;
• Some increase in Muslim confidence occurred as a result of the defeat of the West and a more
hostile attitude toward the West developed;
• Loss of the Muslim states in Spain;
• The presence of the Crusaders in the Middle East continued to undermine Muslim power;
• The concept of jihad re-emerged as a result of the Crusades;
• Increased commercial links with the West, particularly Italian cities; development occurred as
Western merchants sought to expand trade with the Middle East and created increased demand
for products from the region;
Crusades on the Islamic world.
The Ottomans (1281–1566)
7. Evaluate the significance of the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
of the significance of the fall of Constantinople in 1453.

• Seen as significant for both the Ottoman Empire and Western Europe, which had seen it as the
last stronghold of the East;
• Prestige gained by the Ottomans and shock felt by the West;
• Strategic issues: area from which to launch further attacks and the direction these attacks might
take;
• The Imperial view of the Ottoman Empire;
• Consolidation of the Ottomans in the Mediterranean;
• Threat to the Venetians and their possessions in the eastern Mediterranean, also threat to the
Genoese. Discussions about trade following the fall of Constantinople;
• Cultural impact and flight of scholars, documents etc;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the significance of
the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
– 10 – SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/AF/M
8. Examine the contribution of either Selim I (1512–1520) or Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566)
to the success of the Ottoman Empire during the 16th century.
of the contribution of either Selim I or Suleiman the Magnificent to the success of the Ottoman
Empire in the 16th century.

Selim I
• Selim’s focus was Anatolia and the Arab lands. Turned Ottomans into dominant power in the
Islamic world with the conquest of Egypt. Conquests in the Middle East saw a change in
direction of expansion;
• Selim removed potential claimants, killing his father and secured position following civil strife
and left only his son as claimant;
• Reform of administration: Selim developed the concept of a self-funding conquest, developed
trade routes in the East to bring in finances. Promoted by merit, often used former slaves and
did not have to worry about power of nobility, unlike in the West;
• Selim developed an efficient navy and system of government, and logistics designed to wage
war;
• Selim took the title of Caliph of Islam, the first Ottoman to have this title. Saw himself as the
new Alexander the Great, defeated Muslim rival Shah Ismail of Iran and destroyed the Mamluk
Empire in Egypt;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the contribution of
Selim I to the success of the Ottoman Empire.
Suleiman the Magnificent

• Suleiman captured the island of Rhodes, the strategically important fortress city of Belgrade,
which opened the way into the Danube Valley; victorious at the Battle of Mohács and occupied
most of Hungary, but failed against Vienna and retreated;
• Suleiman had ability as a leader and warrior. Suleiman led by example and quickly moved his
army into the Balkans and personally led attack on Belgrade; seen as warrior leader, won him
support;
• Suleiman realized the need for a uniform legal system; created a quality civil service; efficient
tax system which allowed raising of armies. He too promoted by merit;
• Suleiman made effective use of siege artillery. Development of galley fleet which was able to
defeat Venice, Spain and the Papacy;
Suleiman the Magnificent to the success of the Ottoman Empire.
Trade and the rise and decline of African states and empires (800–1600)
9. Evaluate the reasons for the decline of the Ghana Empire.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the reasons for
the decline of the Ghana Empire. Much of the evidence on the slow collapse of the Ghana Empire
is scant and fragmentary, meaning that there is uncertainty and controversy surrounding the
reasons for its demise. However, it seems more than likely that the reason why the Ghana Empire
emerged in the first place, the lucrative trade in salt and gold, was also a significant factor in its
decline.

• Emerging regional rivals such as the Sosso competed with Ghana for control of the trade routes
and launched periodic raids on their territory. These incursions were both politically and
economically debilitating;
• New goldfields were discovered beyond the borders of the empire, most notably at Bure, and
new trading routes were opened up to the east, further bypassing the empire and strengthening
its competitors;
• Rivalry with the Berber tribes which traded with Ghana was another decisive factor. Ghana’s
conquest of the previously independent city state of Aughadost led to steadily worsening
relations at precisely the moment that the Almoravid Berber dynasty emerged as a dominant
political and military force in North Africa. The so-called Almoravid jihad probably led to the
conquest of the imperial capital, Kumbi, in 1076. While the precise nature of conflict is disputed,
there is little doubt that it represented a blow from which the empire never really recovered;
• The political structure of the empire was also a factor in its demise. It was made up of a number
of conquered kingdoms, each of which was keen to reassert its former independence if and
when the opportunity arose. The final destruction of the empire was thus preceded by a
prolonged period during which it weakened and slowly broke apart, leaving the residual rump
vulnerable to a final attack from Mali;
• Candidates may discuss the view that changes in climate played an important role in
accelerating the decline of the empire. Droughts were increasingly frequent in the region in the
12th and 13th centuries, and this inhibited the capacity of the empire to sustain an agricultural
economy. Attempts to turn arable land over to livestock grazing may have contributed to its
further desertification. The resulting economic decline contributed to the empire’s internal
instability and left it vulnerable to external conquest;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the reasons for
the decline of the Ghana Empire.
10. “Trade was more important to the success of the Mali Empire than it was to the success of the
Kingdom of Kongo.” Discuss.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case a discussion of
the claim that trade was more important to the success of the Mali Empire than it was to the
success of the Kingdom of Kongo.

• The vast wealth of the Mali Empire depended entirely on the trans-Saharan trade caravans,
which brought salt to West Africa in exchange for gold, copper, slaves and other commodities.
The most important of these items were salt and gold. Indeed, Mali was the source of most of
the gold produced globally;
• Contrastingly, slaves formed the mainstay of Kongo’s external trade with the Portuguese.
Humans were exchanged for European goods such as cloths and firearms as the trade was an
important factor in the growth of the kingdom;
• In Mali, the vast bulk of state revenue came from taxes on external trade. The royal treasury
was boosted by heavy taxes on all goods entering or leaving the empire. As well as this, all
gold bars mined in the country were officially the property of the king;
• In Kongo, the king tended to rely more on taxes on agricultural production as a means of raising
revenue. In general, the authorities in the Kongo had less control over external trade than their
counterparts in Mali, particularly as the demand for slaves in Portugal’s overseas empire
(particularly Brazil) grew. Indeed, the insatiable Portuguese appetite for slaves undoubtedly led
to the political destabilization of the country. This was a factor in the steady decline of the
kingdom after the 16th century;
• Internal trade was more important in the Kongo than in Mali, even though the internal trade in
salt was particularly lucrative in the latter on account of the increase in its value in the southern
parts of the empire. In the Kongo, iron, copper, salt and animal hides were traded as well as
agricultural goods, and some of these commodities were also traded with the Portuguese;
• Each empire also established currencies in order to regulate their trade. In Kongo this typically
took the form of cowrie shells, while in Mali copper or salt bars were used, or even gold dust,
depending on the region;
• It could be argued that external trade was more important in Mali than it was in the Kongo,
where the economy was more agricultural. While external trade undoubtedly benefited Mali, it
ultimately worked to the detriment of the Kingdom of Kongo;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on whether trade
was more important to the success of the Mali Empire than it was to the success of the
Kingdom of Kongo.
Pre-colonial African states (1800–1900)
11. Compare and contrast the contributions of Tewodros II and Yohannes IV to the unification of
Ethiopia.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, they must
examine both the similarities and the differences between the contributions of Tewodros II and
Yohannes IV to the unification of Ethiopia.

• Tewodros brought an end to the Zemana Mesafent, the fissiparous “era of the princes”, and
ruled over a country which he unified for the first time in more than a century. Although his
empire fell apart once again after his death, he left a strong legacy of centralization on which his
successors could build. After Tewodros died, Yohannes defeated his main rival for the throne,
Tekle Giyorgis. His coronation meant that an emperor ruled over a unified Ethiopia once again;
• Comparison: Both Tewodros and Yohannes sacrificed their lives to the unification of their
country and the need to protect it from foreign invasion. Tewodros chose to commit suicide
rather than surrender to Napier’s expedition, while Yohannes was killed by a Mahdist sniper
during the Battle of Metemma;
• Comparison: both used conquest as a means of unifying Ethiopia and ensuring the survival of
the empire. In Tewodros’ case, this involved the defeat of one rival warlord after another, while
Yohannes fought external enemies in the form of the Italians, Egyptians and Sudanese
Mahdists;
• Contrast: Tewodros created a strongly centralized state by ruling directly over the lands of those
he defeated. Yohannis instead sought to placate his main rivals, most notably Tekle Haymanot
of Gojjam and Menelik of Shoa, by offering them considerable autonomy within a loosely
federated political structure;
• Contrast: Because of the brutal nature of his conquests and suppression of rebellions, as well
as his extensive modernization programme, Tewodros incurred the animosity of many forces in
Ethiopian society, most notably the Orthodox Church. The result is that, even before the death
of Tewodros, the empire was once again in a state of political disarray. While some of
Yohannes’s erstwhile allies eventually deserted him, a free and unified Ethiopia was his
immediate and lasting legacy. Menelik II became emperor after his death and guaranteed
Ethiopia’s independence at the Battle of Adwa;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences between the contribution of
the two leaders rather than simply describing their contribution. Thematic approaches are
therefore likely to be more successful than end-on comparisons;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the similarities
and differences between the contributions of Tewodros II and Yohannes IV to the unification of
Ethiopia.
12. “Moshoeshoe was a more successful ruler than Shaka Zulu.” To what extent do you agree with
this statement?
which the candidate agrees with the claim that Moshoeshoe was a more successful ruler than
Shaka Zulu. Candidate responses to this question will probably vary greatly and will likely hinge on
how the term “successful” is defined. If success is associated more closely with military success,
then Shaka Zulu is likely to be regarded as more successful, whereas if success is associated with
statecraft and diplomacy then Moshoeshoe is likely to be regarded as more successful.

• Successes of Moshoeshoe: his strategy of providing shelter to refugees of the Difaqane and
incorporating them into his expanding Sotho state; his use of the mountain fortress of Thaba
Bosiu as a defensive stronghold during hostile invasions;
• Successes of Moshoeshoe: his use of the pitso system to discuss matters of state and resolve
any disputes among his people; his decision to welcome French Catholic missionaries – who he
then employed as foreign policy advisors – to his court; his encouragement of trade with the
Boers and Griquas which allowed the Sotho nation to prosper; the mafisa system, whereby he
lent cattle to newcomers in return for their political loyalty;
• Successes of Moshoeshoe: his diplomatic skills – these were a key factor in his decision to
request a British protectorate, a move which prevented defeat and annexation at the hands of
the Boers and allowed him to continue as king of the Sotho;
• Successes of Shaka Zulu: his bravery and prowess in battle; his military innovations such as the
use of the iklwa and the ox-head formation, which led to the defeat of the Ndwandwe and other
Nguni groups and the forging of a single Zulu nation; the adoption of the age grade regimental
system; his practice of sparing the women and children of conquered peoples and incorporating
them into the expanding Zulu population;
• Successes of Shaka Zulu: his use of indunas, all of whom had already demonstrated their
unswerving loyalty to him, as disciplined and effective political administrators; and the creation
of a centralized Zulu state based on enormous cattle wealth, with a new capital built at
kwaBulawayo;
• Candidates may also stress the failures of Shaka Zulu and Moshoeshoe in their answers. With
Shaka Zulu this may refer to the disastrous consequences of the Mfecane for the wider region,
or indeed the arbitrary and ultimately self-defeating violence which characterized the final years
of his life. In the case of Moshoeshoe, the main consequence of his decision to seek a British
protectorate was the loss of Sotho independence;
which the candidate agrees with the claim that Moshoeshoe was a more successful ruler than
Shaka Zulu.
The slave trade in Africa and the Middle East (1500–1900)
13. Examine the social and economic impact of the slave trade on Africa and the Middle East up until
the 19th century.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case examining the
huge social and economic impact of the slave trade on Africa and the Middle East. The focus of
the essay must be on the social and economic impact of the slave trade, rather than on political
consequences such as the collapse of political alliances.

• The slave trade led to the loss of an estimated fifty million people in Africa, most of whom were
young and economically productive, and a resulting demographic deficit which meant that the
population of the continent remained static until well into the nineteenth century, leaving it
vulnerable to colonial conquest. The trade also led to depopulation of urban areas in Africa as
people fled the cities to avoid capture;
• Candidates may also stress the sheer human suffering of the trade; for example, the terror
wrought by the raids, the break-up of families and communities, the forced marches to the coast
during which many died, and the incarceration of those captured in terrible conditions in the
coastal forts before transportation by ship to the overseas slave markets;
• While some individuals or even communities benefitted economically as a result of their
involvement in the trade and their use of slaves, on the whole the effects were calamitous for
Africa;
• In the Middle East, wealthy individuals used slave as labour in large plantations and in mining,
(where slaves were kept in awful conditions and life expectancy was extremely short), or for
work in the household. Eunuchs were in high demand, hence the practice of forced castration;
• Conversion to the Muslim faith for slaves in the Middle East was not that usual, as this would
have conferred slaves with greater rights under Islamic law, including that of manumission.
However, there was certainly a greater prospect of social mobility for black people in the Arab
world than in the west. Many freed slaves went on to serve in the armies of emerging Islamic
states (such as Morocco and Egypt) during the period;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the social and
economic impact of the slave trade on Africa and the Middle East in the period.
14. “Economic factors were the main reason for the decline of the Atlantic slave trade.” To what extent
which the candidate agrees with the claim that economic factors were the main reason for the
decline of the Atlantic slave trade.

• Economic factors which may be argued to have played an important role in the decline of the
Atlantic slave trade may include: the waning of the sugar trade and its replacement by cotton
production as the mainstay of British industry; the emergence of economic rivals (such as Java
and Australia) which meant that the Caribbean sugar industry was already in a state of decline
by the turn of the 19th century; the advent of industrial machinery which reduced the demand
for slave labour on the plantations; the rise of “legitimate commerce” with West Africa resulting
from the growing demand for palm oil (used as machine lubricants); and the recognition that
Africa might one day serve as a valuable market for the products of British industry if it could be
made more stable and prosperous by ending the slave trade;
• Candidates may counter argue that the economic costs of abolishing the trade outweighed any
benefits, and the cost of enforcing prohibition on the high seas was very high. The fact that the
British ended it anyway may be argued to show that other factors were deemed more important
than economic factors;
• Candidates should also discuss non-economic reasons for the decline. These may include, for
example, the changing moral climate in Britain associated with the rise of the evangelical
Christian movement, and the campaigns of anti-slavery activists such as Thomas Clarkson and
William Wilberforce as well as former slaves like Olaudah Equiano. Slave revolts in the
Caribbean, and their brutal suppression by the authorities, also served to change the perception
of slavery in the public mind. The result was a popular pressure that the British government
could ultimately ignore no longer;
• It may be pointed out that the Atlantic trade continued even after abolition in the British Empire
in 1807, with several other European countries continuing with their own trade. Candidates may
therefore point out that the real cause of the end of the trade was the passage of a number of
anti-slave trade laws by different European countries after 1807, and indeed the struggle to
enforce these;
which the candidate agrees with the claim that economic factors were the main reason for the
decline of the Atlantic slave trade.
European imperialism and the partition of Africa (1850–1900)
15. Examine the reasons for increased European interest in Africa in the second half of the 19th
century.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, the reasons
for increased European interest in Africa in the second half of the 19th century. Candidates are
expected to have a clear understanding of the European background to the European interest in
Africa and also to discuss events in Africa which contributed to European interest.

• Factors such as the unification of Germany and Italy, and the role they played in the increased
European interest in Africa;
• The role played by industrialization in the need for imperial expansion in Africa with the aim of
getting raw materials and markets for finished goods;
• The role played by the development of the group of humanitarians whose aim was to help stop
slave trade and slavery;
• The role played by public opinion in Europe in propagating European interest in Africa;
• The rivalry between the French and the Italians, which spilled over to North Africa;
• Strategic factors which led to the British interest in areas like Egypt and Sudan;
• French rivalry and German fear of French revenge after losing Alsace and Lorraine may also be
considered. It is important for the candidates to demonstrate how this rivalry was evident in
Bismarck’s activities in Africa;
• The role played by King Leopold’s activities in the Congo, which led to the flaring up of
European rivalry;
the increased European interest in Africa in the period.
16. “The annexation of Africa was only made possible by weaknesses within Africa.” To what extent
which the candidate agrees that the annexation of Africa was only made possible by weaknesses
within Africa. Candidates are expected to demonstrate a clear understanding of what the African
weaknesses and German activities were as well as the role they played, and their relative
importance, in facilitating the annexation of Africa.

• Factors such as disunity amongst African societies; how in some areas, cultural unity did make
it possible for African communities to resist European annexation;
• The role played by the lack of standing armies and poor quality of weapons in many African
communities. European armies were well trained, better equipped and well disciplined and this
ensured a high level of success on the battlefield;
• Factors such as the rivalry between France and Germany and its spill-over in Africa;
• The role played by Germany in the Berlin West Africa Conference;
which the candidate agrees that the annexation of Africa was only made possible by
weaknesses within Africa.
Response to European imperialism (1870–1920)
17. “The leadership of Menelik II was the most significant factor in Ethiopia maintaining its
independence.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
which candidates agree with the claim that the leadership of Menelik II was the most significant
factor in Ethiopia maintaining its independence.

• Factors such as Menelik II’s ability to work well with the other leaders in Ethiopia. Candidates
may discuss his pact with Johannes in 1878 which was cemented by a marriage alliance. This
led to him being recognized by Johannes as the King of Shewa;
• His fight against the Italians after the breach of the Treaty of Wichale. Eventually he led the
Abyssinians in the defeat of the Italians at the Battle of Adowa;
• His ability to work closely with the Church, which was important for unity;
• His use of the Amharic language to unify his people;
• His development of a well trained, well equipped standing army;
• The role played by his territorial gains;
• The role he played in modernizing Ethiopia;
• Factors aside from Menelik II’s leadership that could be considered include the role played by
Ras Alula; the role of religion; the willingness of the Ethiopian leaders and the Church to
cooperate with Menelik;
which the candidate agrees with the claim that the leadership of Menelik II was the most
significant factor in Ethiopia maintaining its independence.
18. Discuss the reasons for, and results of, Kabaka Mwanga’s resistance to European imperialism.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, it is crucial
that candidates discuss both the reasons for and the results of Kabaka Mwanga’s resistance to
European imperialism.

• Reasons: Mwanga’s desire to ensure the political independence of Buganda and his distrust of
the colonialists;
• Reasons: Mwanga was angered by the law introduced by the colonialists which limited his
power over land distribution in Buganda. He was also angered by the colonialists stopping the
Soga from paying tribute to his kingdom;
• Reasons: Mwanga’s desire to keep the Christian faith away from his kingdom;
• Reasons: Mwanga was unhappy with the Christian government’s withdrawal of the pages from
his court due to homosexual accusations;
• Results: others in Mwanga’s kingdom, including the Catholics, joined him in his resistance, and
Mwanga gained popularity in Buganda for his action of resistance;
• Results: some of the leading Protestant and Catholic leaders who worked closely with the
British failed to support Mwanga;
• Results: the defeat at the Battle of Kabuwoko Hill, forcing him to flee;
• Results: Mwanga was replaced by Daudi Chwa (Cwa) after his escape to Tanganyika. There
was continued guerrilla fighting organized by Mwanga’s supporters. Mwanga eventually died in
exile in The Seychelles;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the reasons for,
and results of, Kabaka Mwanga’s resistance to European imperialism.
Africa under colonialism (1890–1980)
19. Evaluate the economic impact of Portuguese rule in Angola and Mozambique.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, the economic
impact of Portuguese rule in Angola and Mozambique.

• Candidates may argue that the impact of Portuguese colonialism in Angola and Mozambique
was extremely limited in terms of economic development, and that this was as a direct
consequence of the weak and racist nature of Portuguese imperialism;
• Portugal was a weak colonial power, and it attempted to defray the costs of pacification by
granting leases for the administration of vast swathes of its territory to independent prazo estate
owners, and later on to chartered companies, many of which were not even Portuguese;
• The result was the absence of a coherent colony-wide economic policy, with the prazo senors
and companies pursuing their own economic ends of profit maximization with little concern for
their labour force (much of which was indentured) or for the wider development of the economy
through the provision of infrastructure and services. The result was chronic underdevelopment,
exploitation and poverty, with an economy largely dependent on cash crop production. Much of
the wealth created in the colonies was remitted abroad and not invested in economic
development;
• White settlement was encouraged after Salazar’s proclamation of the Estado Novo in the
1930s, and again after the Second World War. The result was the emergence of a large white
working class which competed with Africans for semi-skilled jobs in a small labour market. This
group could only get ahead through official discrimination against the black population.
Economic and social policies were therefore closely connected;
• There was some limited economic growth during this period, such as in the development of a
mining sector in Angola and the construction of three railways using forced labour, including the
Benguela railway. However, the black majority failed to benefit and the result was the outbreak
of independence wars in both colonies in the early 1960s, which were to last until independence
in 1975. These wars ravaged already fragile economies, and it can be argued that Portugal’s
refusal to countenance a transfer of power until Salazar’s successor Caetano was ousted in an
army coup in 1974 was a very significant factor in the legacy of underdevelopment and poverty
which the metropolis bequeathed to the newly independent states of Angola and Mozambique;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the economic
impact of Portuguese rule in Angola and Mozambique.
20. Examine the reasons for, and results of, the British decision to implement a system of indirect rule
in Nigeria.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, both the
reasons for, and the results of, the British decision to implement a system of indirect rule in Nigeria.
Some candidates may challenge the question by arguing that the so-called “warrant chief” system
in the southern part of the colony involved a major modification of the idea of indirect rule, and was
in many ways more characteristic of a system of direct rule.

• Reasons: the importance in the colonial mindset of ideas of tradition, gradualism and the
maintenance of the status quo; the reduced costs of administering colonies through traditional
political structures rather than creating new systems of governance; the perceived importance
of perpetuating traditional systems of justice and arbitration; the minimal disruption to the lives
of ordinary Africans in a new colonial order which stressed continuity rather than change, and
consequently the lesser likelihood of revolt;
• Reasons: the deflection of blame for any issues or problems from colonial power to the
traditional authorities; the belief that the system offered the best safeguard against the
development of African nationalism;
• Reasons: the decision to introduce the system in Nigeria had much to do with the influence of
Frederick Lugard, who conquered and co-opted the northern emirates before instituting indirect
rule across Nigeria as a whole. Lugard recognized the power of these traditional polities and
judged them to be ideal vehicles for the implementation of his policies. In a country of such
enormous ethnic diversity, he also understood that indirect rule allowed for the implementation
of appropriate systems of local government in the different parts of the country;
• Results: candidates should note the obvious centripetal tendencies that the system
engendered, a problem that was exacerbated by the decision to institute separate
administrative entities which partially reflected the ethnic divisions of the colony;
• Results: the religious cleavage between north and south was also accentuated. The
development of a true nationalism was retarded, as aspiring African politicians developed power
bases rooted in their regions. It can be argued that this created major obstacles for Nigeria to
overcome on the road to independence. These impediments may be described in the essay,
but an analysis of post-independence politics of Nigeria, including the causes of the civil war,
lies outside of the scope of the section;
and results of, the British decision to implement a system of indirect rule in Nigeria.
20th-century nationalist and independence movements in Africa
21. Evaluate the contribution of the Mau Mau uprising to the achievement of independence in Kenya.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the
contribution of the Mau Mau uprising to the achievement of independence in Kenya. This is a
deeply controversial topic, which is likely to be reflected in a wide range of candidate responses.

• Candidates may argue that the uprising fundamentally damaged relations between the different
groups in Kenya and delayed independence as a result, particularly given the ferocity of both
the uprising and its suppression by the authorities;
• Elements of traditional Kikuyu culture that were prominent in the uprising, such as oathing,
served to convince Europeans that Mau Mau embodied an African primitivism that ought to be
resisted at all costs. The counterinsurgency strategies employed by the British were equally
brutal. Captives were routinely tortured, castrated and – in the case of the notorious Hola Camp
– even massacred. At the same time, Mau Mau starkly illustrated the fundamental ethnic
cleavages in Kenyan nationalism;
• Beside the minor representation of the Embu and Meru, only the Kikuyu were involved in the
uprising. Yet even this group were divided: the uprising took on the character of a sort of
Kikuyu civil war, with the collaborationist chiefly elite attacked by a younger generation of
militants. When the emergency was finally lifted in 1960, the colony seemed further away than
ever from independence. Senior nationalist leaders such as Jomo Kenyatta were imprisoned,
and the authorities were loath to contemplate handing over power to a radical Kikuyu who they
believed had betrayed them through their rebellion;
• Yet Kenya achieved its independence just three years later, following the first Lancaster House
Conference in late 1960 and Kenyatta’s release from jail in 1961. Candidates may argue that
Mau Mau was a crucial factor in the rapid pace of developments;
• The revolt persuaded the authorities that Kenyans were determined to achieve their
independence come what may, so there was little point in delaying the inevitable or attempting
to negotiate constitutional alternatives that fell short of full independence. British obstruction to
independence might backfire by causing the Kikuyu to radicalize still further;
• At the same time, the colonial authorities became less responsive to the demands of the settler
lobby. Settler-oriented policies were perceived to have impoverished and alienated the Kikuyu
and precipitated the crisis in the first place. Candidates may also argue that many African
countries were achieving their independence in the early 1960s and that Kenya would have
been no exception here, irrespective of the Mau Mau revolt;
the Mau Mau uprising to the achievement of independence in Kenya.
22. Compare and contrast the role of individual leaders in two 20th-century independence movements
in Africa.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case both the
similarities and the differences in the role of individual leaders in two 20th-century independence
movements in Africa. There will be a great deal of variety in candidate responses to this question,
and the nature of the answers will obviously depend to a considerable degree on the two leaders
chosen for discussion. It is important that the candidate has ensured that there is fertile ground for
both comparison and contrast in their selection.

• Candidates are likely to choose independence movements with leaders who played prominent
roles in the anti-colonial struggle. Popular selections are likely to be Kwame Nkrumah in
Ghana, Leopold Senghor in Senegal, Sekou Toure in Guinea, Julius Nyerere in Tanzania, and
Kenneth Kaunda in Zambia;
• The focus for comparison or contrast may include factors such as the role of the leader in
determining the nature of the independence movement and whether this included armed
struggle;
• Discussion may also focus on the ideological orientation and ethnic background of the leader
and the role that they played in uniting or dividing the independence movement;
• Discussion may also focus on the importance of aspects such as personal charisma, and the
extent to which the leader was successful in achieving the objective of independence, but the
focus of the question must be specifically on similarities and differences in the role of the two
leaders chosen for discussion;
• Candidates may also explore the role of other leaders within the movements and the extent to
which the achievement of independence can be attributed to the individual leader;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences in the role individual
leaders, not simply give a description of their role. Thematic approaches are therefore likely to
be more successful than end-on comparisons;
and differences in the role of individual leaders in two 20th-century independence movements
in Africa.
The Ottoman Empire (c1800–1923)
23. Evaluate the impact of the Tanzimat reforms on the Ottoman Empire.
of the impact of the Tanzimat reforms on the Ottoman Empire.

• The key areas of the reforms: military; political; educational; legal; administrative; economic;
• The impact of the reforms was variable: legal reform was gradual and often a compromise
between European legal codes and Sharia;
• Some success was obtained with military reforms but Turkey was still weak. Education was
removed from the Ulema but in reality the main changes were in towns and cities. In the
countryside the Ulema remained influential;
• Candidates may discuss the impact of the reforms on the powers of the Sultan;
• Responses may include discussion of the impact on different groups within society, such as the
impact on non-Muslims, or difference in the impact of the reforms in different areas of the
Empire;
• Candidates might for example argue that the underlying aims were to strengthen and modernize
the empire. This was not achieved, thus the impact was limited;
Tanzimat reforms on the Ottoman Empire.
24. Examine the reasons for the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the first half of the 19th century.
the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the first half of the 19th century.

• The focus of this question is on the reasons why the empire was in decline;
• Responses could include discussion of internal problems such as nationalist agitation within the
empire, which led to Greek independence in 1831, loss of territory such as Egypt and constant
unrest in areas such as Bulgaria;
• There may be discussion of other problems facing the empire, such as: difficulty in
implementing reforms because of the resistance of traditional elements; financial weakness;
weak sultans;
• Internationally the frequent intervention of the other major powers highlighted the weakness of
the empire (Crimea, Russo/Turkish War, Congress of Berlin, etc) and contributed to continuing
decline;
the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the first half of the 19th century.
War and change in the Middle East and North Africa 1914–1945
25. To what extent did ineffective Allied diplomacy in the Middle East during the First World War lead
to instability in the region?
which ineffective Allied diplomacy in the Middle East during the First World War lead to instability in
the region.

• Key diplomatic events such as Hussein–McMahon, Sykes–Picot, Balfour Declaration;
• Areas to consider could include the contradictory promises to Jews and Arabs over Palestine
which made the British mandate difficult to govern;
• Reasonable relations between the British and the rulers in Iraq and Transjordan could be cited
as a counter-argument, especially as Iraq gained independence in 1932;
• Diplomacy could include the final establishments of mandates at San Remo (1920) and
comments could then be made regarding levels of Jewish immigration to Palestine, which
contributed to tensions;
• Candidates may discuss other factors which caused instability in the region at the time, such as
underlying economic and religious issues;
which ineffective Allied diplomacy in the Middle East during the First World War led to instability
in the region.
26. Evaluate Ataturk’s impact on Turkish society.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, an evaluation
of Ataturk’s impact on Turkish society.

• Mustapha Kemal Ataturk (1881–1938) assumed the patronymic Ataturk, meaning “Father of the
Turks” in 1934, when he wished all Turkish families to adopt Western-style surnames;
• As president, Ataturk sought to modernize and secularize Turkey, and to modernize and
develop the Turkish economy;
• Ataturk introduced a new constitution establishing equal rights and eventually (in 1934)
universal suffrage, and encouraged Western dress. The introduction of civil law and the
abolition of the Caliphate were all designed to reduce the influence of religion, as was banning
the fez and the chador;
• Other developments such as the development of industry such as textiles, improvements in
education, and the introduction of the Roman alphabet could also be commented on.
Candidates may also discuss how he fostered national pride in Turkey rather than to Islam;
• Possible limits on his impact: the Sultanate was replaced by a dictatorial regime with one party
(RPP) dominating. Islam continued to have a major influence, particularly in rural areas.
Economic developments tended to be limited to urban areas and educational improvements
were also slower in rural areas. There was a clear divide between the urban modern society
and traditional rural society;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the impact
Ataturk had on Turkish society.
Africa, international organizations and the international community (20th century)
27. Discuss the role played by the Abyssinian Crisis in the failure of the League of Nations.
the role played by the Abyssinian Crisis in the failure of the League of Nations. In order to answer
this question effectively candidates will need to have an understanding of the key aspects of the
Abyssinian Crisis, such as the countries that were involved and why they were involved in the
crisis. However, the focus of the response should be specifically on the role played by the crisis in
the failure of the League of Nations, not a discussion of the Abyssinian Crisis in general.

• The League gave an opportunity to Haile Silassie to put his case before them;
• Italy was condemned by the League of Nations and asked to withdraw their troops from
Abyssinia. Despite imposing economic sanctions on Italy, oil was not one of the items included
in the sanctions;
• One reason why the League of Nations sanctions failed was because non League members
such as the US continued trading with Italy;
• The foreign ministers of both Britain and France drew up a plan which gave out two thirds of
Abyssinia to Italy. This plan led to an outcry against the League of Nations;
• In the end, Italy was able to occupy Abyssinia, proving that the League of Nations had failed;
• This crisis led to many countries losing faith in the League of Nations in being able to assist
them against aggressors and from here on the League was not taken seriously;
• Abyssinia played an important role in the ultimate failure of the League of Nations, but
candidates may also consider other factors that also contributed to its failure;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the role played by
the Abyssinian Crisis in the failure of the League of Nations.
28. “The East African Community (EAC) was more of a success than a failure in the 20th century.”
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question. In this case, the extent to
which the candidate agreed with the claim that the East African Community was more of a success
than a failure in the 20th century. Candidates should discuss clear and specific examples of
successes and failures, and success may be interpreted in a variety of ways such as cultural,
social, economic and political.

• Success: the role the East African Community played in encouraging trade among member
states;
• Success: improved means of transport and communication among the member countries;
• Success: increased cultural exchange between member states also ought to be considered;
• Success: education benefits may also be considered with members of the East African
community being able to receive education in any of the three countries involved;
• Failure: the disparity in development between the member states which eventually led to the
collapse of the organization;
• Failure: the lack of economic unity among the East African countries;
• Failure: the differences between the leaders of the East African countries;
which the candidate agrees with the claim that the East African Community was more of a
success than a failure in the 20th century.
Developments in South Africa 1880–1994
29. “The Boers lost the war but won the peace.” To what extent do you agree with this statement
about the South African War (1899–1902)?
which the candidate agrees with the claim that “the Boers lost the war but won the peace” in the
South African War of 1899 to 1902.

• Despite their resistance, the Boers found themselves in dire circumstances at the end of the
war. Following two years of guerrilla warfare, the Boers surrendered following the scorched
earth policies of the British which destroyed their land and forced hundreds of thousands of
women and children into concentration camps;
• The Treaty of Vereeniging of 1902 was a very generous peace. Although the two republics
were annexed, they were promised self-government in the near future. Following Milner’s
abortive policies of Anglicization, further reconciliation was promoted as the English and Dutch
languages were given equal legal status. Measures were taken to rebuild the shattered South
African economy and Boer political parties like Het Volk and Orangie Unie were legalized. The
Transvaal and Orange Free State became self-governing in 1907;
• However, the country was already moving towards greater economic and political integration.
Ultimately, it was recognition of the common interest of wealthy Boer farmers and Anglophone
capitalists of need for a plentiful supply of cheap and pliable African labour – an outcome that
could only be guaranteed by a new political dispensation – that accelerated moves to unify the
country;
• The Union of South Africa, which was in effect an independent nation, came into existence in
1910. Whites-only elections resulted in victory for Botha and Smuts’s South African Party
(SAP). Considering that these politicians had played an important part in the Boer resistance to
the British just eight years earlier, this was a hugely ironic outcome, and one which capped a
remarkable turnaround in Afrikaner fortunes since 1902;
• Candidates may also argue that the preferred policies of the Afrikaners – segregation and white
domination – were pursued by the SAP government. However, detailed analysis of these
policies would be inappropriate;
which the candidate agrees with the claim that “the Boers lost the war but won the peace”.
30. Examine the reasons for, and the effects of, the radicalization of resistance to the apartheid system
in South Africa.
reasons for, and the effects of, the radicalization of resistance to the apartheid system in South
Africa.

• The raft of apartheid laws passed by the new National Party government after 1948 had the
effect of intensifying discrimination of the majority black population at the hands of the white
minority, and played an important role in the radicalization of resistance to the apartheid system.
For example: the Immorality Act of 1950; the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act of 1953
which set aside separate municipal amenities for use by different racial groups, the best of
which were reserved for whites; or the Population Registration Act of 1950 which provided for
the formal classification of South Africans by race;
• The Group Areas Act of 1950 and the Bantu Authorities Act of 1951 together made residential
separation compulsory, and resulted in the forced removal of residents of the so-called “black
spots”; the severe overpopulation of the already crowded black townships and a growing
squatter problem;
• The Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act of 1959 which provided for the “independence” of
the black homelands and resulted in a dramatic acceleration in the forced resettlement of
Africans from urban areas to the economically marginal rural reserves; and the Bantu Education
Act of 1953, which established separate syllabuses for blacks and ensured that they would
receive an education that was vastly inferior to that enjoyed by whites;
• The brutal suppression by the authorities of any opposition to the system may also be
discussed. This may include the arrests and treason trials of African National Congress (ANC)
leaders, banning and banishing orders, the Sharpeville Massacre and the decision to ban the
ANC;
• Candidates might also stress the frustration felt by a new generation of leaders in the ANC with
the cautious, gradualist approach of earlier African nationalists. The result was a radicalization
of the organization through its youth wing and the collision with the apartheid system, through
the Defiance Campaign, the Congress of the People, bus boycotts, and eventually through
armed struggle;
• Discussions might also include the emergence of other resistance movements such as the Pan
Africanist Congress (PAC), Black Consciousness and the United Democratic Front (UDF), and
the international boycott of the apartheid economy;
• The ultimate effect of all of these developments was the dismantling of the apartheid system in
the 1980s and the ending of white minority rule in 1994;
and effects of, the radicalization of resistance to the apartheid system in South Africa.
Social and cultural developments in Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries
31. Examine the factors that promoted and those that inhibited the spread of Christianity in Africa in
the 19th and 20th centuries.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the factors that
both promoted and inhibited the spread of Christianity in Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries.

• The role played by various Christian societies in promoting the spread of Christianity;
• The role played by the establishment of missionary centres many of which included a church,
school, hospital etc in promoting the spread of Christianity;
• The role played by African leaders who embraced the Christian faith due to the benefits they
gained from the missionaries in promoting the spread of Christianity;
• Factors such as the existence of Islam and/or the role of tradition, culture and religion in
inhibiting the spread of Christianity;
• The role played by poor means of transportation in inhibiting the spread of Christianity;
• The fear of hostile communities in inhibiting the spread of Christianity;
• The fear of diseases such as malaria, which hindered missionary movement into the interior of
Africa;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the factors that
promoted and inhibited the spread of Christianity in Africa in the period.
32. Discuss the impact of immigration and emigration on any two African countries in the 19th and
20th centuries.
the impact of both immigration and emigration in any two African countries in the 19th and 20th
centuries.

• Candidates must clearly identify the two countries they have selected to discuss. The specific
impact of immigration and emigration on each country will depend upon the examples chosen
for discussion;
• Discussion of the impact of immigration could include the development of tensions/animosity
between the newcomers and the original inhabitants of the country;
• Candidates may discuss how immigration has led to cultural exchange and mixing, including
cross-cultural marriages;
• Candidates may discuss the economic impact of immigration; for example, in some cases
immigration may increase the availability of cheap labour, or immigration may add to the talent
pool and contribute economic benefits to the country;
• In some cases immigrants may have played a role in contributing to political upheaval in a
country;
• Discussion of emigration may focus on the economic effects, for example, “brain drain”, or loss
of human resources which may adversely affect the economy;
• Candidates may discuss the social impact of emigration such as separation of families, or the
death of many emigrants in the process of moving to a new country, for example due to the
hostile transport methods used;
immigration and emigration on the two countries chosen for discussion.
Post-war developments in the Middle East (1945–2000)
33. Compare and contrast the economic and social policies of Nasser and Sadat in Egypt.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case discussion of
the similarities and differences in both the economic and social policies of Nasser and Sadat in
Egypt.

• Comparison: both Nasser (1918–1970) and Sadat (1918–1981) realized that the Egyptian
economy was weak, and tried to improve it;
• Comparison: in both cases Egypt remained poor in spite of their efforts;
• Comparison: both of their economic policies were affected by political considerations. As their
economic policies differed considerably, candidates will probably find more to contrast, than
compare;
• Contrast: Nasser’s policies were socialist. He nationalized the Suez Canal, guaranteed
employment in the public sector, nationalized industries, sought to redistribute land, and aimed
at self-sufficiency. He introduced free education, and to a certain extent did champion the
middle class, but his most important economic policy was probably the Aswan Dam;
• Contrast: Sadat tried to distance himself from Nasser’s policies with his “open door” policy. He
did consolidate the public sector, but allowed private sector growth, some capitalist measures
related to a “free market economy”. The continued closure of the Suez Canal caused revenue
losses. Sadat encouraged foreign trade, but this caused a trade deficit, and exports fell. A new
upper class of merchants developed and inflation increased;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences in economic and social
policies of the two leaders, not simply give a description of the two sets of policies. Thematic
approaches are therefore likely to be more successful than end-on comparisons;
and differences between the economic and social policies of Nasser and Sadat in Egpyt.
34. Evaluate the importance of religious factors in causing the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War
in 1975.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the importance
of religious factors in causing the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War in 1975.

• Complex religious situation in Lebanon with Sunni Muslims, Shia Muslims and Maronite
Christians; escalating sectarian violence in 1975; the Bus Massacre;
• It could be argued that it is impossible to separate religious and political factors because of the
confessional nature of the state, with the president always a Maronite and the prime minister a
Sunni and the allocation of cabinet posts being proportional on a confessional basis. The
emergence of the militias on confessional lines was also a key factor;
• Candidates may also consider the relative importance of other factors in causing the outbreak of
the war, for example: the influx of Palestinian refugees after Black September, which upset the
delicate balance of Lebanese society; militarization of the Palestinian refugee population; arrival
of PLO forces;
• Candidates may also discuss economic factors that contributed to the instability, such as
economic disparity, and the fact that movement into the cities, especially Beirut, because of
increasing tensions with Israel, led to an increasingly poor urban group who became attracted to
the militias;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will include a clear judgment on the importance of
religious factors in causing the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War in 1975.
Post-independence politics in Africa to 2005
35. “Economic problems after independence were the main cause of civil war.” With reference to one
civil war you have studied, to what extent do you agree with this statement?
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question. In this case, candidates
must clearly identify one civil war from the region to discuss as an example, and must reach a clear
judgment on the extent to which they agree that economic problems after independence, rather
than other factors, were the main cause of the civil war.

• The specific causes of the civil war will depend on the example chosen for discussion. Popular
countries chosen for discussion are likely to be Angola, Burundi, Chad, Congo, Rwanda,
Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda and Mozambique;
• Economic causes such as economic marginalization of some communities may be discussed as
a cause of civil wars;
• The need to control trade and economic activities by specific communities may also have
contributed to civil war;
• Candidates may discuss the importance of land issues as a cause of civil wars, or may discuss
conflicts caused by fights over resources such as diamonds, oil etc;
• Candidates may also discuss a range of other factors which could be regarded as the main
cause of civil war, such as ethnic/tribal and religious differences, the role of political coups, bad
governance and political inequalities, lack of political freedom for some groups in the chosen
communities;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will include a clear judgment on extent to which
they agree that economic problems after independence, rather than other factors, were the
main cause of the civil war.
36. Compare and contrast the factors that led to the return to multi-party democracy in two countries.
must clearly identify the two countries they are going to consider, and to examine both similarities
and differences in the factors that meant these countries that had embraced one party politics
eventually turned back to multi-party democracy.

• The weaknesses and failures of the one party systems which made many countries turn back to
multi-party democracy;
• Political factors such as the fact that many of the single party states were seen to be
dictatorial/totalitarian in nature;
• There was lack of political freedom with other political parties either being forbidden or having
their operations restricted. Political opposition was forbidden and political opponents were
ruthlessly dealt with;
• General lack of freedom eg lack of freedom of expression and association;
• The economy was usually controlled by and therefore not everyone was seen to benefit;
• With a return to multi-party democracy, there was hope that healthy democracy would be
promoted, human rights would be respected and national development would be encouraged;
• With a return to multi-party democracy there was also hope that a lot of the failures of the single
party states would be resolved;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences in the factors that led to the
return to multi-party democracy, not simply give a description of factors and events. Thematic
approaches are therefore likely to be more successful than end-on comparisons;
and differences between the factors that led to the return to multi-party democracy in two
countries.
SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/AM
History
Higher level
Paper 3 – history of the Americas
Specimen paper
2 hours 30 minutes

–2– SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/AM
Indigenous societies and cultures in the Americas (c750–1500)
1. Compare and contrast the economic structures of two indigenous societies in the Americas.
2. Examine the relationship between religious and political powers in one indigenous society
in the Americas.
European explorations and conquests in the Americas (c1492–c1600)
3. Examine the reasons for, and effects of, the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494).
4. Discuss the reasons for Spanish success and Inca defeat in the Spanish conquest of the
Incan Empire.
Colonial government in the New World (1500–1800)
5. Evaluate the impact of the Bourbon reforms.
6. Examine the ways in which one European country organized trade with its American colonies.
Religion in the New World (1500–1800)
7. Examine the reasons for, and effectiveness of, resistance of indigenous populations to
Christianization.
8. Compare and contrast the role of the Church in British North America and in Spanish America.
Slavery and the New World (1500–1800)
9. Discuss the reasons why slavery was introduced into the colonies of the New World.
10. Examine the different forms of resistance developed by slaves in two colonies in the Americas.
Independence movements (1763–1830)
11. To what extent was the influence of Enlightenment ideas responsible for the rise of independence
movements in the Americas?
12. Evaluate the impact of independence on the social and economic structures of one country
in the Americas.
Nation-building and challenges (c1780–c1870)
13. Examine the nature of caudillo rule in one country in the Americas.
14. Evaluate the impact on British North America and the United States of the War of 1812.
United States’ Civil War: Causes, course and effects (1840–1877)
15. Examine the ways in which supporters of slavery in the 19th century used legal, religious and
economic arguments in its defence.
16. “Reconstruction was doomed to fail.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
The development of modern nations (1865–1929)
17. Examine the ways in which railway expansion helped the modernization of two countries
in the Americas.
18. With reference to one country in the Americas, to what extent were the aims of progressivism
achieved by 1929?
Emergence of the Americas in global affairs (1880–1929)
19. Discuss the extent of Canada’s involvement in the First World War.
20. Examine the effects on Cuba of the Spanish–American War of 1898.
Turn over
The Mexican Revolution (1884–1940)
21. Evaluate the key achievements and failures of the Mexican Revolution.
22. Discuss the role played by foreign powers in the outbreak and development of the
Mexican Revolution.
The Great Depression and the Americas (mid 1920s–1939)
23. Compare and contrast the proposed solutions to the Great Depression in two countries
in the Americas.
24. Examine the social and cultural impact of the Great Depression in one country in the Americas.
The Second World War and the Americas (1933–1945)
25. To what extent were attempts at hemispheric cooperation successful prior to and during the
Second World War?
26. Examine the reasons for, and nature of, the involvement of one country of the Americas in the
Second World War.
Political developments in Latin America (1945–1980)
27. Discuss the successes and failures of the economic policies of two populist leaders
in Latin America.
28. To what extent did the policies of Fidel Castro reinforce the revolutionary spirit
and Cuban nationalism?
Political developments in the United States (1945–1980) and Canada (1945–1982)
29. Evaluate the causes and effects of the Quiet Revolution.
30. Compare and contrast the social policies of any two leaders of the United States during the period
1945 to 1980.
The Cold War and the Americas (1945–1981)
31. Discuss the consequences for the region of Eisenhower’s national security policy.
32. Examine the domestic impact of the Cold War on one country in the Americas (excluding the
United States).
Civil rights and social movements in the Americas post-1945
33. Evaluate the impact of US Supreme Court decisions on ending segregation in education between
1955 and 1965.
34. Examine the reasons for the rise of feminist movements in the Americas post-1945.
The Americas (1980–2005)
35. Discuss the impact on the region of the foreign policy of Ronald Reagan between 1981 and 1988.
36. Evaluate the key successes and failures of the Mulroney governments in Canada between 1984
and 1993.
SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/AM/M
Markscheme
Specimen
History
Higher level
Paper 3 – history of the Americas
38 pages
–2– SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/AM/M

organized.
places.
approach.
coherence.
task.
0 Answers do not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.
Indigenous societies and cultures in the Americas (c750–1500)
1. Compare and contrast the economic structures of two indigenous societies in the Americas.
must examine both the similarities and differences in the economic structures of two indigenous
societies from the region. Popular examples discussed are likely to be Maya, Tolteca, Azteca,
Wari, Tiahuanaco, Inca, Apache, Navajo, or Cheyenne, but discussion of any two indigenous
societies from the region is acceptable.

• Agricultural production; the ownership, organization and land use, irrigation techniques, the
importance of water control, the use of various agricultural techniques and their importance
(roza y quema, andenes, camellones, chinampas, etc). The comparison may emphasize the
relationship between the specific techniques employed and the characteristics of the
environment in which the society had developed;
• Techniques for food conservation and storage, and its importance in economic organization;
• Circulation and distribution of goods in societies with and without money (such as the use of
reciprocity and redistribution in the Andes), trade circuits, social groups related to trade or
distribution of goods, and diversity of traded products;
• The role of specialists in the organization of the economic structures (artisans, merchants,
fishermen, etc);
• The nature, organization and importance of the tribute;
• The role of the state or the religious powers in the organization and control of the economic
system and its structure;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences in the economic structures
of the two societies, not simply give a description of the features of the economic structures.
Thematic approaches are therefore likely to be more successful than end-on comparisons;
and differences between the economic structures of two indigenous societies in the Americas.
2. Examine the relationship between religious and political powers in one indigenous society in the
Americas.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the relationship
between religious and political powers in one indigenous society in the region. The detail of
candidates’ answers will vary according to the society they choose to discuss. Popular choices are
likely to be Toltecas, Mayas, Aztecas, Incas, Apache, Navajo, Cheyenne, but discussion of any
indigenous society in the Americas is acceptable.

• In many cases indigenous societies were complex agrarian societies in which political and
religious power coincided in the same social group; in other cases, political power was shared
with warrior elites;
• In many cases the rulers had religious attributes because many indigenous societies were
theocratic states. Candidates may focus on the power struggles between various political
clusters and how certain groups had the support of some religious sectors, while others were
supported by military expansionist groups or groups of traders;
• Candidates may focus their answer on the relationship between agricultural success and
religion. In some agricultural societies, political power lay with priest-kings or sacerdotal elites
because knowledge of the seasons and agricultural cycles was interpreted by many people as a
divine revelation. As the societies depended on agricultural success they took leading roles,
based on the idea that they were people with a closer proximity to the gods;
• This group strengthened its power because they were considered as the only ones capable of
reaching the world of the gods, something which was reinforced, for example, through religious
ceremonies. Disobeying them was a challenge to the gods that could be punished with natural
disasters;
• Candidates may also discuss the role of war in consolidating political power and the role of the
priestly elite. In some cases the priestly elite was considered critical because victory or defeat
in battle could be related to the action of the divinities. In other cases war was important for the
control of water, fertile land or resources; then war had strategic sense, which weakened the
priestly elite and strengthened the political power of the military sectors;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the relationship
between religious and political powers in the society chosen for discussion.
European explorations and conquests in the Americas (c1492–c1600)
3. Examine the reasons for, and effects of, the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494).
should critically examine, rather than simply list, the reasons for and the consequences of the
signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas.

• Candidates might give some context regarding the situation in Europe and the competition
between Portugal and Spain for the rights to rule the lands conquered;
• There was concern that the incorporation of new territories (the West Indies/Indias
Occidentales) to the Spanish crown could affect Portuguese rights over their territories
conquered or explored in the Atlantic route. Portugal also wanted to guarantee their dominance
of lands occupied in Africa, and also of trade and navigation routes to India;
• One reason for the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas discussed could be the unsuccessful
intervention of Pope Alexander VI in solving the differences between the two kingdoms.
Traditionally popes were called in as mediators in these disputes; for example Pope Alexander
VI signed the Bula Intercaetera in 1493;
• Candidates may discuss the effects of the treaty on the conquest and colonization process; for
example, it allowed Portugal to gain the territory that today is Brazil. Candidates may discuss
how the treaty divided South America and established the initial demarcation of colonial
territory, and how it led to the implementation of two different systems of domination over the
indigenous populations. Another effect of the treaty was that the divisions were decided only
according to the interests of the conquerors, without considering the will of indigenous peoples;
• Another effect of the treaty was that it displayed the capacity of both kingdoms to negotiate
outside of the Pope’s authority, challenging the traditional power structures in Europe at the
time;
• Candidates may argue that the effects of the signing of the treaty were limited, and that it only
had a limited impact on the political situation at the time. For example, the British and French
did not sign the Treaty and did not feel obliged to abide by it, with Henry VII and France sending
expeditions to explore the lands in the North. There were also conflicts between Portugal and
Spain in the Americas, especially in frontier areas that were occupied or used for smuggling,
disregarding the treaty;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on both the reasons
for, and effects of, the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas.
4. Discuss the reasons for Spanish success and Inca defeat in the Spanish conquest of the Incan
Empire.
Spanish success and Inca defeat in the Spanish conquest of the Incan Empire.

• The superiority of Spanish weapons, the use of war dogs, etc;
• Candidates might also consider the power struggle between Huascar and Atahualpa; this
divided the power of the Inca state, weakening the Incas and making them easier to defeat;
• Candidates may argue that the first contact with the Spaniards bewildered the indigenous
population; the conquerors were different not only in their physical appearance but also in their
cultural practices and religious beliefs, with some accounts suggesting that some indigenous
groups mistook them for gods. (Some historians argue that this reaction may have been
influenced by prophecies announcing the destruction of the known world and existing order,
whereas other historians argue that these prophecies were created after the conquest);
• The negotiations between Spaniards and small communities under Inca domination. Some
research suggests that some Andean ethnic lords or local chiefs (curacas) collaborated with
Pizarro and his men because they were unhappy with, for example, the high demands of labour.
This collaboration would have allowed the Spanish conquistadors to have food, supplies,
information on roads, etc. and decreased the capacity for resistance of the Inca state;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on what the reasons
were for Spanish success and Inca defeat in the Spanish conquest of the Incan Empire.
Colonial government in the New World (1500–1800)
5. Evaluate the impact of the Bourbon reforms.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this candidates may
focus on the impact of the Bourbon reforms on the Spanish colonial structure as a whole, or they
may choose to focus on the impact of the reforms in a specific viceroyalty.

• The Bourbon reforms were intended to modernize the empire. They wanted to strengthen the
power of the crown in America, increase the efficiency of the colonial administration, improve
tax collection and stop the smuggling of goods;
• Candidates may discuss the link between the reforms and many revolts and rebellions of the
18th century such as Tupac Amaru II or Túpac Catari, and even the origins of the independence
movements;
• The economic impact of the reforms was not the same in all Spanish colonies. In some regions
such as Mexico, Venezuela or the Río de la Plata, production increased and there was
economic growth. Agricultural production and manufacturing output increased, and commercial
networks were strengthened (local, interregional and transatlantic);
• Candidates may discuss the negative impact of the Free Trade Decree (1778) in areas such as
Peru (reforms opened new ports competing directly with the Callao also negatively affected
trade flows and the great Lima merchants reduced their income). Another economic issue
discussed may be tax reforms, for example the increase of alcabala by 6 %, as these new taxes
and more efficient collection provoked bitter protest;
• Another issue discussed may be the impact of the new territorial demarcation (new viceroyalties
as the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata and the Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada). The pursuit of
decentralization of the Bourbon reforms weakened the power of the commercial elite groups
from Lima and affected the networks of relationships between them and the traditional colonial
officials (virreyes, oidores, corregidores). Although the administrative impact was positive for
the Crown, it encouraged the discontent of the elites against the Spanish crown and a rejection
against the new colonial bureaucracy;
• The reforms led to political conflicts; for example, Gálvez (Mexico) and Areche (Peru) with
viceroys and colonial elites. The rivalry between criollos and peninsular increased because the
reforms prioritized the peninsular for bureaucracy and clerical positions in the high civil and
religious hierarchies;
Bourbon reforms.
6. Examine the ways in which one European country organized trade with its American colonies.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question. Answers will vary
depending on the country selected for discussion (Spain, Portugal, Great Britain, France or the
Netherlands), but candidates should focus specifically on the ways in which the country organized
trade with its American colonies.

• Candidates may discuss the link between trade organization and mercantilist policies, where
crowns directed and controlled carefully the economic system, especially Atlantic trade;
• Commercial competition between nations; nations tried to protect their territories in America
from the other kingdoms and from pirates; strict state controls on the entrance and exit of goods
and merchant ships;
• The Peruvian and Mexican silver was a great attraction for Portugal, Britain and the Dutch, and
there was very active contraband trade (eg through Río de la Plata and Paraguay);
• In the case of Spain, candidates may discuss the monopoly system (Monopolio Comercial)
organized around authorized ports (Sevilla, Cádiz, Veracruz and Portobelo). Among the failures
of this system was the amount of time that it took to export goods from one place to another, the
rise of the prices, and the discontent of the criollos who were left aside from this activity.
Candidates may also consider the role of institutions (such as Casa de Contratación de Sevilla
and Tribunal del Consulado) in the trade systems;
• In the case of Portugal, candidates may consider that trade was first organized around wood,
but the real growth of commercial activity came with sugar. Then the Portuguese crown
promoted a commercial circuit that included African slaves, Brazilian sugar (to be sold in
Europe) and European goods and money (to pay for the African slaves). They may also
discuss the role of “feitorias” in the trade system;
• Britain also applied mercantilist policies; products from the colonies could only be exported to
England. The control of trade was conducted by Admiralty Courts, there were laws restricting
trade with other colonies as the French and great concern for the collection of taxes and tax
evasion. Initially, trade was associated with the formation of trading companies in Bristol and
London. Later, the colonial bourgeoisie was dedicated to this activity;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the ways in which
one European country organized trade with its American colonies.
Religion in the New World (1500–1800)
7. Examine the reasons for, and effectiveness of, resistance of indigenous populations to
Christianization.
should focus on both the reasons for resistance of indigenous populations to Christianization and
also the effectiveness of this resistance.

• Candidates may discuss the violence that was used to eradicate and prohibit native religions
(destruction of temples or sacred places, the burning of religious idols, prohibition of religious
expressions), or examples such as the Campañas de Extirpación de Idolatrías;
• Evangelization could be seen as being related to indigenous exploitation; for example the
encomienda or obrajes, and in some cases taxes collected by priests;
• Candidates may discuss difficulties surrounding communication as the indigenous populations
often did not understand the messages of the priests who did not speak their language;
• Candidates may discuss the major theological differences between Christianity and their
existing religious beliefs; for example, resistance to the idea of moving from polytheistic beliefs
to a monotheistic religion, or the difference between the view of gods who acted prominently in
everyday life (for example in nature) compared to the Catholic conception of God;
• Some native populations thought that the gods were angry with them for having accepted some
Catholic practices, such as baptisms, so then later chose to reject Catholicism (eg Taki Onqoy);
• The resistance to Christianization could be considered effective in that it was successful in
preserving certain elements of pre-Hispanic religions. These remained in syncretism.
Candidates may use different samples of syncretism to show that a number of elements of
indigenous religions remained throughout the colonial period and even remain to the present;
• On the other hand, the resistance to Christianization could be considered ineffective given that
ultimately Catholicism spread widely in the colonies. Multiple churches were built by indigenous
leaders and many actively participated in processions, brotherhoods and Catholic activities;
for, and effectiveness of, resistance of indigenous populations to Christianization.
– 10 – SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/AM/M
8. Compare and contrast the role of the Church in British North America and in Spanish America.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case they must
examine both similarities and differences in the role of Church in colonial systems in British North
America and Spanish America.

• An important issue is that the Spanish colonies had greater religious unity, while the British
colonies gathered people of different religions (Puritans, Quakers, Anglicans, and Baptists).
The Spanish colonies were Catholic and were intolerant of other religious practices, whereas in
the British colonies there was not a dominant religion. (There were some exceptions; for
example, New England was mainly Puritan);
• The relation of the monarchy with the Church defined its political role. As Catholicism was a
symbol of the Spanish crown, religion strengthened ties with the metropolis. (For example, the
power of the ecclesiastical hierarchy (Archbishops and Bishops) and the influence of religious
orders like the Jesuits.) In contrast, the relationship between the Churches and the English
Crown was diverse and often distant;
• Candidates may compare and contrast the role of the Church regarding indigenous populations.
According to the Spanish monarchy, evangelization was the main justification for the conquest.
For the Churches in British colonies there was not this same focus on evangelizing the
indigenous population; British settlers often excluded indigenous populations from life in the
British colonies and removed them from their lands;
• Discussion may consider similarities and differences in the social influence and role of the
Church, for example in keeping traditional values, and may refer to specific examples such as
the Inquisition or the Salem witch trials. In Spanish America the Church defended the colonial
social hierarchy (the role of slaves, Indians, Spaniards, women and men in society). In the
Spanish colonies the Catholic Church also played an important role in education;
• The Church had an important economic role, because they owned large areas of land and
urban property, for example, the Jesuit landholdings;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences in the role of the Church in
the two cases, not simply give a description of the role. Thematic approaches are therefore
likely to be more successful than end-on comparisons;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear a clear judgment on the role of
the Church in British North America and in Spanish America.
Slavery and the New World (1500–1800)
9. Discuss the reasons why slavery was introduced into the colonies of the New World.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; answers should focus on
specific reasons that slavery was implemented in various British, Spanish or Portuguese colonies
and not deviate to discussing slavery in general.

• The principal reason for slavery was the need for additional labour. The New World was seen
as a land of wealth (silver mines, farms and sugar cane and tobacco landholdings) that required
labour to make it productive. The colonial riches were the attraction that motivated migration
from Europe to the New World, but they must ensure access to sources of labour;
• Candidates may discuss the enslaving of indigenous peoples as well as the importation of
slaves. They may also discuss the widespread abuses of indigenous labour. In other cases
such as North America or Brazil, the indigenous population was not an alternative labour force
because there were a lot of problems regarding control, organization and instability;
• In some cases African slaves were seen as a more stable work force (compared to some
indigenous groups or temporary servitude contracts of the central North American colonies, or
more identifiable if they fled) and more profitable. Although the initial investment could be high,
eventually this was justified by the high profitability of producing goods such as sugar or snuff;
• Candidates may discuss examples such as Portuguese traders and the slave trade, or the loss
of the monopoly of the Royal African Company (1697) in British North America. They may also
focus on the interests of the colonial elites and companies engaged in slave trade and in the
large profits from this business;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the reasons why
slave labour was introduced into the colonies of the New World.
10. Examine the different forms of resistance developed by slaves in two colonies in the Americas.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, examining the
different forms of resistance developed by slaves in two colonies in the Americas. The most
popular colonies discussed are likely to be the southern American colonies and Brazil, but
discussion of any two colonies in the region is acceptable.

• In many colonies slave resistance included feigning illness, working slowly, breaking tools and
running away;
• In Brazil, resistance would include setting up communities of runaway slaves such as Palmares;
• Harriet Tubman’s Underground Railroad could be included for the southern American colonies;
• In several colonies, slave resistance included slave rebellions. In southern American colonies,
candidates might mention uprisings such as the Stono Rebellion or others led by Gabriel
Prosser, Denmark Vesey, and Nat Turner;
• For Haiti, all of these forms of resistance occurred as well as the slave rebellion leading to
revolution and the establishment of an independent state;
• Whichever colonies are used, expect detailed knowledge of forms of slave resistance;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the different
forms of resistance developed by slaves in the two colonies selected for discussion.
Independence movements (1763–1830)
11. To what extent was the influence of Enlightenment ideas responsible for the rise of independence
movements in the Americas?
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case answers
should focus on the influence of Enlightenment ideas on independence and weigh this against
other factors that influenced the development of the independence movement.

• Influential Enlightenment thinkers were Locke, Rousseau and Montesquieu. The ideas of the
Enlightenment became popular in the Americas’ colonial centres. In the Portuguese and
Spanish colonies ideas about modernization and secularization were well received, both by the
colonial elites and the government bureaucracy;
• Political ideas such as popular sovereignty, representative government, separation of powers,
political and economic freedom and equality were welcomed by a party of colonial elites. They
began to question the rationality of colonial dependence on the European metropolis;
• The ideas involving political changes were rejected by the rulers. They adapted the ideas of the
Enlightenment to modernize some aspects of colonial life without questioning the colonial
relationship. Some candidates may refer to Bourbon or Pombaline Reforms as examples of
Enlightened Despotism;
• There were a group of thinkers who requested reforms to the colonial system (greater freedom
and equality) and others that wanted a complete break;
• Candidates may argue that Enlightenment ideas provided a philosophical justification for
Independence movements;
• Role of Enlightenment ideas in the American Revolution and the French Revolution; in the case
of the Independence of the 13 Colonies the impact was positive (gave start to a “governance
model” proposed in equality, economic freedom, breaking an unfair relationship, protection of
property, popular sovereignty), but the French Revolution brought fears and suspicion (disorder,
loss of property of elites, violence in the process, popular revolts);
• Other issues that can be evaluated in relation to independence may include: Bourbon Reforms,
the impact of the Napoleonic War, British pressure for new markets (linked to the Industrial
Revolution) and the wear and tear on the Spanish colonial system. In British colonies,
candidates may consider the French and Indian War, the changes in taxation and the
strengthening of a commercial bourgeoisie concerned about greater economic freedoms;
which the influence of Enlightenment ideas was responsible for the rise of independence
movements in the Americas.
12. Evaluate the impact of independence on the social and economic structures of one country in the
Americas.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question. The details of the answer
will depend on the country chosen for discussion, but candidates should focus their response
specifically on the impact of independence on the social and economic structures of the country
they choose to discuss.

• Candidates may focus on the negative economic impact of independence; for example, in the
case of the United States the economic impact could include the fact that trade was no longer
protected by the British Navy, the end of access to markets in the British Empire (hostile ports),
the end of mercantilism, war debts and inflation;
• Candidates may argue that although the short-term impact might have been negative, the
disruption of trade and economic patterns eventually stimulated domestic manufacturing and led
to a more diverse economy. With independence, trade among American states was promoted
and new trade areas were opened (Caribbean, Latin America, and China);
• In Latin America, independence ended the Spanish monopoly of trade with her colonies and
opened new European and US markets for Latin American goods, but also led to disruption of
the colonial economies, difficulties in tax collection, etc;
• Discussion of the impact of independence on social structures may focus on religion (for
example the disestablishment of the Anglican Church in Massachusetts), or on education (in the
US education was intended to be public, but this was not achieved as many private schools
were founded for the elites; some advances were made in women’s education and schools for
Native Americans);
• Discussion of the impact of independence on social structures may also focus on the impact on
slavery – the escape of African American slaves, open resistance to white control, fear of slave
revolts, and the origin of divisions over the issue of slavery;
• In the case of the US discussion might refer to exile of loyalists, confiscation of their property
and loss of positions, the rise of a patriotic economic elite, increases in social tension and class
conflict, growing demand for lands to the West at the expense of the Native Americans, etc;
• In the case of Latin America, candidates may refer to the decline in the civilian labour force; the
loss of status of and discrimination against indigenous populations; or the idea that land was in
the hands of a few traditional families that held power and replaced the Peninsulares;
independence on the social and economic structures of the country selected for discussion.
Nation-building and challenges (c1780–c1870)
13. Examine the nature of caudillo rule in one country in the Americas.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, an
examination of the nature of caudillo rule in one country in the region.

• Popular examples are likely to be Santa Anna or Juárez in Mexico, Rosas, Güemes, Quiroga or
Artigas in Argentina, and Paéz, the Monagas brothers or Guzmán in Venezuela, but discussion
of any caudillo from any country in the Americas during the time period is acceptable;
• In nearly all countries, caudillo rule was dependent upon their charisma and authoritarian rule;
• They gained support from the upper class by distributing favours and patronage, often ignoring
the needs of the majority of the population;
• They took military action against opposition and governed in a repressive manner;
• Whatever example is chosen, candidates should have detailed and specific knowledge of the
nature of caudillo rule in the country;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the nature of
caudillo rule in the country selected for discussion.
14. Evaluate the impact on British North America and the United States of the War of 1812.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question. Both British North America
and the United States should be discussed, though not necessarily equally.

• The treaty of Ghent, which officially ended the war, changed no territorial boundaries and
returned nearly everything to pre-war status;
• For British North America (Canada), the war brought a greater feeling of unity and nationalism
as they had withstood the attacks from the United States. French and English settlers had
united against a common enemy;
• The war ended any real threat of conquest from the United States. It could be argued that the
war eventually led to Canadian Confederation in 1867;
• The war also promoted a greater sense of loyalty to the British system as opposed to the
republican ideas of the United States;
• For the United States, the war is sometimes seen as a second war of independence and thus a
great source of pride in defeating the British again;
• The war made Andrew Jackson a national hero for his victory in the post-treaty Battle of New
Orleans. This would propel him to the presidency in 1828;
• Opposition to the war by the Federalists essentially ended that political party, and brought about
the so-called “Era of Good Feelings”;
• After the war, the United States looked inward and began improving its interior using Henry
Clay’s American System of federal support for canals, national roads and railroads;
• The British did eventually leave their forts in the Old Northwest and quit supplying Native
Americans, terms agreed to in the Treaty of Paris of 1783, but not complied with by the British
until after War of 1812;
• Native American tribes in the Old Northwest and Old Southwest, who had allied themselves with
the British, suffered the greatest losses, not only in manpower and leadership, but also in
territory as the victorious Americans moved into tribal lands. While there would still be battles
between Native Americans and the United States, the War of 1812 essentially ended any
chance Native Americans east of the Mississippi had in retaining their lands;
War of 1812 on both British North America and the United States.
United States’ Civil War: Causes, course and effects (1840–1877)
15. Examine the ways in which supporters of slavery in the 19th century used legal, religious and
economic arguments in its defence.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the ways in
which supporters of slavery in the 19th century used legal, religious and economic arguments in its
defence.

• Pro-slavery arguments became more militant by the mid-1830s as a result of events in the
South, such as the Nat Turner uprising in 1831, which terrified the southerners. There was also
an economic incentive when the expansion of slavery into the Deep South – which had been
seen as unprofitable – now became lucrative again. Events in the North – such as the growth of
the abolitionist movement and writings – also contributed to them;
• Legal arguments centred on the Constitution and its recognition of slavery in the three-fifths
compromise, as well as its ban on slave importation in 1808. Other legal arguments come from
the Tenth Amendment and the idea of states’ rights. Supreme Court decisions, such as Dred
Scott, were also used to defend slavery’s existence;
• Religious arguments focused on multiple examples of slavery in the Bible and references in the
Old and New Testaments about how to treat slaves and how slaves should act toward their
masters. It was argued that since African Americans were inferior, they needed to be protected
and guided in their spiritual needs. Southerners claimed that churches were built for slaves so
they could become Christian;
• Economic arguments stated that the economy of the nation was dependent on slave labour for
cotton and other agricultural products. Slaves were better off – better fed, clothed, housed,
secure – than northern factory workers. If slaves were freed, they would be a terrible economic
burden on the country because they wouldn’t be able to take care of themselves;
• Slavery, in their view, was the way to preserve American traditions and values which were being
replaced in the North by greed and corruption as its labour system demonstrated;
supporters of slavery in the 19th century used legal, religious and economic arguments in its
defence, rather than simply outlining the arguments used.
16. “Reconstruction was doomed to fail.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
which the candidate agrees with the statement that Reconstruction was doomed to fail. This
question demands a clear understanding of what is meant by Reconstruction.

• Candidates are likely to discuss Lincoln’s plan for Reconstruction, Congressional opposition to
his plan, Radical Republicans’ plans and Andrew Johnson’s attempts at Reconstruction;
• Candidates should show some awareness of the “doomed to failure” element of the title, as if it
couldn’t have happened any other way;
• General goals of Reconstruction were to re-establish the country as one, rebuild the South, and
find a solution for the former slaves;
• Determination of the success of these three goals is necessary for a strong answer;
• Candidates could conclude that Reconstruction was successful in achieving the first two goals,
but failed in the latter;
• The 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments, their significance and their effectiveness could also be
discussed;
• Some evaluation of the Freedmen’s Bureau could be included;
• Southern opposition to these plans and attempts to circumvent them through Black Codes, Jim
Crow Laws, sharecropping and the rise of the Ku Klux Klan could also be discussed;
which the candidate agrees with the claim that Reconstruction was doomed to fail.
The development of modern nations (1865–1929)
17. Examine the ways in which railway expansion helped the modernization of two countries in the
Americas.
which railroad expansion helped the modernization of any two countries from the region. The
United States, Canada and Argentina are likely to be popular choices, but discussion of any two
countries from the region is acceptable.

• For both the US and Canada, transcontinental railroads were the catalyst for rapid
industrialization and modernization. Railroads were seen as a symbol of progress in American
countries. It changed the transportation of people and products, and also introduced new
techniques;
• For agricultural economies the introduction of the railroad was determinant to conduct the
import and export more efficiently and faster, and to reduce costs of transportation from the
producing areas to the main ports;
• For more industrialized countries, railroads facilitated the movement of raw materials to factories
and finished products to market. It also contributed to the establishment of new towns and/or
the revival of old ones who were until then isolated;
• Railroads increased communication whether it was through the building of telegraph lines,
faster postal delivery or people carrying news as they travelled;
• Railroads were essential to carry the immigrant population to those places that needed labour,
as well as to facilitate the access to capital cities;
• The possibility to travel had also a cultural impact that can be seen in literature and visual arts;
• In some countries, railroads accelerated the demise of native peoples who might be seen as an
obstacle to modernization;
railroad expansion helped the modernization of the two countries chosen for discussion.
18. With reference to one country in the Americas, to what extent were the aims of progressivism
achieved by 1929?
which the aims of progressivism were achieved by 1929. Definitions of Progressivism and relevant
examples will vary dependent upon the country selected for discussion.

• The US is likely to be a popular choice for discussion, but discussion of any country within the
region where progressivism existed is acceptable;
• Answers could include reference to some of the following: political aims – women’s suffrage,
direct election of senators, curbing powers of political bosses, democratizing governing
institutions; economic aims – progressive taxation, economic controls, corporate regulation;
social aims – prohibition of drugs and alcohol, health and safety legislation;
• Specific measures that could be discussed include: political reforms – women’s suffrage,
referenda, direct primaries; social reforms – child-labour laws, consumer protection laws, labour
laws affecting women and workers’ compensation laws;
• Candidates choosing a Latin American country could associate progressivism with “Order and
Progress”. Reward answers that assess its achievements and make an evaluation of the
attempts at reform (eg: the UCR in Argentina; “Batllismo” in Uruguay);
which the aims of progressivism were achieved by 1929.
Emergence of the Americas in global affairs (1880–1929)
19. Discuss the extent of Canada’s involvement in the First World War.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the extent of
Canada’s involvement in the First World War.

• When the First World War broke out in 1914, all Dominions of the British Empire, including
Canada, were called upon by Great Britain to fight on her behalf;
• Canada’s sacrifices and contributions to the war changed its history and enabled it to become
more independent, while opening a deep rift between the French- and English-speaking
populations, in large part because of the conscription crisis;
• For the first time in its history, Canadian forces fought as a distinct unit under a Canadian-born
commander. Battles such as Vimy Ridge, the Second Battle of Passchendaele and the Battle
of the Somme are still remembered today by Canadians as part of Canada’s evolution, for both
its identity and culture;
• Canada’s total casualties stood at 67 000 young men and women killed and 173 000 wounded.
These figures are disproportionately high considering Canada’s total population was 7 million on
the eve of the First World War;
• In addition to military contributions, Canada was responsible for vast quantities of foodstuffs and
armaments;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the extent of
Canada’s involvement in the First World War.
20. Examine the effects on Cuba of the Spanish–American War of 1898.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, the discussion
must focus on the war’s effect on Cuba, not on the United States or Spain.

• Cuba gained its independence from Spain, but complete independence was thwarted by US
intervention and domination;
• Some might see the Cuban independence movement as being hijacked by the United States
when Cuba was close to victory, while others might note the failures of previous struggles for
independence and suggest Cuban independence would not have been realized without US
help;
• Candidates might discuss the pre-Spanish–American War independence movement of Cuba
begun by José Martí in 1895 and the disastrous results for Cuba, especially after Spanish
General Weyler incarcerated many of the rebels under inhumane conditions. It has been
estimated that over 250 000 Cubans died between 1895 and 1898;
• During the Spanish–American War, Cubans, for the most part, were left out as the United
States took over the fighting. Estimates vary as to the number of Cuban deaths;
• The United States military set up an occupation government until Cubans accepted the Platt
Amendment as part of their constitution. This was reluctantly agreed to in 1901 and in 1902
Cuba held elections. Tomás Palma was sworn in as president in May of 1902. In 1903, Cuba
agreed to cede Guantánamo Bay to the United States;
• While under the United States military government, US businesses took control of the Cuban
economy, displacing the Cuban owners;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the effect on
Cuba of the Spanish–American War of 1898.
The Mexican Revolution (1884–1940)
21. Evaluate the key achievements and failures of the Mexican Revolution.
of the key achievements and failures of the Mexican Revolution. A brief background on the
Mexican Revolution and the proposals of Zapata, Carranza and Villa are required to properly
understand the achievements and failures, but should not be the focus of the response.
Candidates should also be aware that the revolution was a process that endured three decades,
ending with the administration of Lázaro Cárdenas.

• Achievements: Candidates might mention the end of the Diaz regime and the eventual
establishment of a more democratic government; the Constitution of 1917 with its provisions for
education, labour reforms, land reforms, national ownership of natural resources, and limitations
on the Catholic Church; restoration of pride in Mexican culture;
• Failures: Inability of governments to carry out the reforms of the Constitution of 1917; very slow
pace of land reform; political control under one party; treatment of indigenous people;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the key
achievements and failures of the Mexican Revolution.
22. Discuss the role played by foreign powers in the outbreak and development of the Mexican
Revolution.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question. Candidates are likely to
discuss the role of the United States and Germany, though other nations might be included.

• The United States had backed Porfirio Diaz, but as the situation deteriorated into rebellion, the
US withdrew its support and allowed Madero to stay in the US while preparing the Plan of San
Luis Potosi and the revolution. President Taft increased the number of US troops along the
border with Mexico;
• US Ambassador Wilson, along with Spanish, German and British officials, helped plot the
overthrow of Madero by Huerta. Later, under President Wilson, the US refused to recognize
Huerta’s government and supported Carranza. US involvement continued with its occupation of
Veracruz, and later with a military incursion searching for Villa;
• German involvement can be seen in the backing of Huerta, the shipment of arms to him, and
later in the Zimmerman Telegram;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the role played by
foreign powers in the outbreak and development of the Mexican Revolution.
The Great Depression and the Americas (mid 1920s–1939)
23. Compare and contrast the proposed solutions to the Great Depression in two countries in the
Americas.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; candidates are expected to
evaluate similarities and differences between the proposed solutions to the Great Depression, not
merely to outline them.

• Popular examples are likely to be the United States, Canada, Argentina or Brazil, but discussion
of any country in the region is acceptable;
• For the United States, the proposed solutions of Hoover and Franklin D Roosevelt could be
discussed;
• For Canada, the policies of Mackenzie King and RB Bennett could be used;
• For Argentina, discussion would focus on the ideas of the Concordancia and ISI;
• For Brazil, the policies of Vargas and the establishment of the Estada Nova could be used;
• Comparisons could focus on increased government involvement in the economy through bank
regulation, establishment of federal work programmes, and regulation of agriculture and
industry;
• Points of similarity and difference will vary depending on the countries chosen;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences in the proposed solutions to
the Great Depression, not simply give a description of what those proposed solutions were.
Thematic approaches are therefore likely to be more successful than end-on comparisons;
and differences in the proposed solutions to the Great Depression in two countries in the
Americas.
24. Examine the social and cultural impact of the Great Depression in one country in the Americas.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the social and
cultural impact of the Great Depression in one country in the region. The discussion must focus on
the social and cultural impact of the Great Depression in the chosen example, not on the impact
more generally.
Point discussed may include:

• Details will vary depending on the country chosen. Candidates may discuss social effects of
unemployment such as poverty, hunger, population migration, impact on the family, decline in
educational opportunities, etc;
• When discussing the cultural impact of the Depression candidates may, for example, discuss
the impact on the arts. The implementation of government programmes to assist artists aimed
at the formation of a “national culture” and of “national art” in many countries. There was
growing interest for the arts to reflect the history of each nation. Social grievances, together
with the need to think inclusively at a national level, were represented by the works of artists
such as the Mexican muralists, and the “social novels”, as well as those written about
indigenous or black characters;
• The influence of the Depression in the selection of topics in literature and sound films, and the
way these were used by people either to escape or portray the reality of the period could also
be relevant areas of analysis;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the social and
cultural impact of the Great Depression in the country selected for discussion.
The Second World War and the Americas (1933–1945)
25. To what extent were attempts at hemispheric cooperation successful prior to and during the
Second World War?
which attempts at hemispheric cooperation were successful prior to and during the Second World
War.
Point discussed may include:

• There could be some discussion of improved relations as a result of the Good Neighbor Policy
and reciprocal trade agreements, but the focus should be on hemispheric cooperation as a
result of European actions;
• Some of the following could be addressed: Montevideo Conference Pact in 1933, Buenos Aires
Conference in 1936, Lima Conference in 1938, Panama in 1939, Havana in 1940, Rio
Conference in 1942, and declarations of war by almost all Latin American countries;
• The United States gave aid to Brazil under the Lend-Lease Act. Cooperation between the
United States and Canada greatly increased after US entry into the war;
• In general, hemispheric cooperation improved in light of common enemies;
which attempts at hemispheric cooperation were successful prior to and during the Second
World War.
26. Examine the reasons for, and nature of, the involvement of one country of the Americas in the
Second World War.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question about the reasons for, and
nature of, the involvement of one country of the Americas in the Second World War.

• For Canada involvement was nearly automatic after Great Britain and Germany went to war;
however, the declaration of war was an independent act and not mandated by the British, as the
First World War had been. Canadian military forces participated in all theatres of the war,
though their greatest contributions were in Europe and in gaining control of the North Atlantic.
In addition to military forces, Canada also supplied many armaments and foodstuffs for the
allies;
• For the US: Americans’ sympathy for the British as seen by passage of the Cash and Carry Act
in 1939 and the later Lend–Lease Act in 1941. Roosevelt’s belief was that what happened to
Britain could affect Americans’ security; a Europe controlled by Nazi Germany would not only be
bad for American trade but it also represented a strategic threat; the naval policies developed
by the United States; fight against tyranny; deteriorating relations between the United States
and Japan after Japan’s attack on China and expansion into Indo-China and, lastly, the attack
on Pearl Harbor. The nature of US involvement was massive military, land, air and sea, in
Europe, North Africa and Asia. The Lend-Lease Act continued throughout the war as the US
outproduced the combined Axis powers and supplied both Britain and the USSR with needed
armaments;
• For Brazil, neutrality was the official policy, though trade with the Allies increased and trade with
the Axis powers decreased. During the spring and summer of 1942, German submarine
warfare was responsible for sinking over 20 Brazilian ships and killing over 1500 people. Public
outrage grew and war was declared in August, 1942. Brazil army and air force saw action in
Italy; its navy helped to control the South Atlantic. Brazil was also a valuable resource for many
strategic raw materials, especially rubber;
for, and the nature of, the involvement of one country from the region in the Second World War.
Political developments in Latin America (1945–1980)
27. Discuss the successes and failures of the economic policies of two populist leaders in Latin
America.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question. Candidates can choose
any two populist leaders from 1945 to 1980, with popular examples likely to be Vargas in Brazil,
Perón in Argentina, and Velasco in Peru.

• Many of the populist proposals were accompanied by a nationalist economic discourse. The
leader promised economic independence and nationalization of resources. Candidates may
discuss some specific measures (petroleum nationalization, expropriation of mines and public
utilities) and the success of these measures;
• Another aspect may be the use of a modernizing proposal involving economic renewal. This
can be expressed in abandoning traditional economic sectors for rapid industrialization and a
series of infrastructure projects. To do so required implementation of new planning institutions
and increased bureaucracy;
• Candidates may discuss the establishment of a state based on corporatist principles and how it
changed the economic role of government. For example in control, regulate and direct the
economy. It can promote the implementation of Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI),
increasing import tariffs, protectionist policies or limit foreign investment. In other cases it may
be rather an approach to another country as a new investor;
• Another issue discussed may be the development of programmes that offered jobs for the urban
poor, promoting better wages, price controls, subsidies and incentives to increase consumption;
• Candidates may discuss policies used to provide a stimulus to the economy;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the successes
and failures of the economic policies of two populist leaders in Latin America.
28. To what extent did the policies of Fidel Castro reinforce the revolutionary spirit and Cuban
nationalism?
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case knowledge of
Castro’s policies, both domestic and foreign, is necessary.

• Castro’s domestic policies such as nationalization of US holdings and land reform, as well as
his programmes to improve health, education and living conditions could be mentioned;
• Preventing the Bay of Pigs invasion furthered the nationalistic spirit, as well as the continual use
of the United States as an enemy to the revolution;
• The revolutionary spirit was reinforced by Castro’s attempts to export the revolution to other
Latin American countries. Also, the establishment of Committees for the Defence of the
Revolution (Comités de Defensa de la Revolución) within Cuba supported the revolutionary
spirit;
• Cuba’s sports teams and their Olympic success increased feelings of nationalism;
• Castro’s elimination of opposition and control of the media as ways to promote the revolution
and nationalism;
which the policies of Fidel Castro reinforced the revolutionary spirit and Cuban nationalism.
Political developments in the United States (1945–1980) and Canada (1945–1982)
29. Evaluate the causes and effects of the Quiet Revolution.
will need to ensure that they are evaluating the causes and effects of the Quiet Revolution, rather
than simply giving a narrative of the variety of changes that took place in Canada throughout the
1960s, which can be said to have constituted the revolution.

• The phrase “Quiet” or “Silent” Revolution is normally applied to the province of Quebec, rather
than the country as a whole. The revolution itself is usually seen as beginning with Lesage in
1960 and ending in the October Crisis of 1970. Candidates may challenge the term “revolution”
or even the phrase “Quiet Revolution”, as long as the argument is supported by evidence;
• Candidates may discuss a variety of short- and long-term political, economic and social causes
of the revolution. For example: Duplessis’ government was criticized for being reactionary and
corrupt while French Canada in the 1950s was growing more urban and less rural; Duplessis’
death in 1959 followed by that of his successor Sauvé; the unpopularity of the Catholic Church
(due to its support for the United States in the 1949 Asbestos strike); limited higher educational
opportunities; lack of state intervention in social reform; lack of technological development; the
rise of Quebec Liberalism; etc;
• Some may argue the Quiet Revolution should be seen as part of a wider North American
process already underway, and thus the logical evolution of a longer term process;
• Discussion of effects may include: expanded role of the state; greater economic control and
legislation; new government departments; implementation of health care reforms in 1971;
continued modernization after Lesage; rise of the French middle class; questioning of traditional
values; rise in Quebec identity; etc;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on both the causes
of, and effects of, the Quiet Revolution.
30. Compare and contrast the social policies of any two leaders of the United States during the period
1945 to 1980.
Candidates may choose any two leaders of the US from the period 1945–1980, and must examine
both the similarities and the differences in their social policies. Some candidates may address
political context as the framework of social policies. The US, like most countries, significantly
transformed its social characteristics and structure after the Second World War, although with
uneven results. Urban areas generally presented significant advantages over rural areas, with few
exceptions. Access to employment, education, health services, transportation, housing and
gender issues varied.

• The Second World War imposed changes to social domestic policies. Democrats and
Republicans differed in their approaches, so depth and speed of change varied accordingly;
• Civil rights, employment, inflation and wages, rights of labour and expansion of access to
housing, were policies addressed by Truman as a sort of extension of the New Deal legislation;
• Eisenhower: social security, formal integration of the armed forces (begun by Truman),
questions of the federal role in education and health care, creation of an interstate highway
system were all addressed with different degrees of effectiveness in the end;
• The “New Frontier” was designed and partially developed by Kennedy. His social agenda was
initially retaken and continued by Johnson under the title of the “Great Society”: civil rights,
attack on poverty, access to health programmes (Medicare and Medicaid), federal aid to
education;
• Nixon dedicated his efforts to controlling the federal budget in relation to prices and wages,
trying to reform the welfare system, shifting responsibility for some social programmes to the
state and local level (revenue-sharing), trying to guarantee minimum income, 18-year-olds got
the right to vote and the death penalty was revised;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences in the social policies of the
two leaders selected for discussion, not simply give a description of the features of these
policies. Thematic approaches are therefore likely to be more successful than end-on
comparisons;
and differences in the social policies of two leaders of the United States during the period 1945
to 1980.
The Cold War and the Americas (1945–1981)
31. Discuss the consequences for the region of Eisenhower’s national security policy.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, the
consequences for the region of Eisenhower’s national security policy.

• Eisenhower’s national security policy was known as the New Look, which meant an increased
reliance on nuclear weapons and covert operations. It was the covert operations that had the
greatest impact on Latin America;
• In 1954, the CIA helped overthrow the democratically elected Guatemalan government of
Jacobo Guzmán, fearing that he had communist leanings. He was replaced with Carlos Armas,
who ended land reform, eliminated communists and protected United Fruit’s holdings;
• In 1960, the CIA began training Cuban exiles for the attempted overthrow of Castro in the Bay
of Pigs invasion. Though done post-Eisenhower, it was under his administration that the
planning began;
• In general, the Eisenhower administration supported anti-communist, non-democratic
governments throughout the region regardless of human rights abuses;
• Regarding Canada, Eisenhower’s reliance on massive retaliation and reliance on unilateral
decision making were not well received by the Pearson government. Pearson attempted to
keep Canadian foreign policy independent of the US;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the
consequences for the region of Eisenhower’s national security policy.
32. Examine the domestic impact of the Cold War on one country in the Americas (excluding the
United States).
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the focus must
be on the domestic impact of the Cold War on a chosen country, not merely a description of the
domestic policies of that country. Popular choices for discussion are likely to be Canada or Cuba,
but discussion of any country within the region other than the US is acceptable.

• The domestic impact will vary depending upon which country is chosen, but expect detailed
historical knowledge for the country selected;
• In many Latin American countries, candidates could argue that governments became more
repressive in order to eliminate communist movements and to gain support from the United
States;
• Candidates might argue the opposite point and suggest communist insurgencies grew as a
result of oppressive governments, and that after the success of Castro, the USSR was more
active in the region;
• For Canada, the domestic impact could include increased defence spending, a fear of being
dominated by the United States, and, at the same time, closer cooperation with the United
States;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the domestic
impact of the Cold War in the country selected for discussion.
Civil rights and social movements in the Americas post-1945
33. Evaluate the impact of US Supreme Court decisions on ending segregation in education between
1955 and 1965.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, the impact of
US Supreme Court decisions on ending segregation in education between 1955 and 1965.

• Many answers will use the Brown vs Board of Education of Topeka case as a foundation for the
discussion, but other court decisions may be used to supplement or expand on the impact of the
court in this area;
• Examples of court cases that may be considered include: Brown II; Aaron vs Cooper; Griffin vs
County School Board of Prince Edward County;
• Examples that could be discussed include: states’ attempts to either ignore the decisions or
rewrite their laws to circumvent the decisions of the Court; the Southern Manifesto issued by
members of Congress; attempts by state politicians to block African American students from
attending previously all-white public schools;
• Candidates should be mindful of the question’s time frame and address events from within that
period;
• Candidates should avoid exaggerating the degree of immediate integration stemming from
these landmark cases;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the impact of US
Supreme Court decisions on ending segregation in education between 1955 and 1965.
34. Examine the reasons for the rise of feminist movements in the Americas post-1945.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the question
only asks for reasons for the rise of feminist movements, not about any successes the movements
might have had. Candidates are likely to discuss movements in the United States, Canada and
Argentina, but feminist movements in any countries in the region are acceptable.

• Reasons will depend upon the countries chosen for discussion. For whichever countries are
chosen common reasons could be involvement in the Second World War, both abroad and at
home, increased presence in the workforce yet unequal pay, gaining the right to vote, the
existence of other civil rights movements and sexism;
• For the United States, candidates might include the publication of The Feminine Mystique by
Betty Friedan and the emergence of the National Organization for Women;
• For Canada, certain court rulings, such as in the Murdoch and Lavell cases, which deprived
women of their rights could be seen as catalysts. The 1970 report from the Royal Commission
on the Status of Women might also be mentioned;
• For Latin America, reasons will depend upon the countries chosen for discussion, but may, for
example, include reasons such as women’s participation in revolutionary movements;
the rise of feminist movements in the region post-1945.
The Americas (1980–2005)
35. Discuss the impact on the region of the foreign policy of Ronald Reagan between 1981 and 1988.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question. In this case candidates
must focus their discussion of the impact of Ronald Reagan’s foreign policy on the region, not
simply outline the main features of his foreign policy.

• Reagan began his presidency determined to restore the military might and superpower prestige
of the United States and to intensify the Cold War competition with the Soviet Union. He
labelled the Soviet Union “the Evil Empire” and took a hard line stance against communism,
including in Latin America;
• Increased spending for defence and aid to anticommunist forces in Latin America were the
hallmarks of Reagan’s approach to the Cold War;
• In Central America, Reagan supported “friendly” right wing dictators, such as in El Salvador and
Guatemala and worked to overthrow Marxist regimes such as the Sandinistas in Nicaragua.
Reagan covertly supported the Contras in their attempt to displace the Sandinistas. In
Grenada, Reagan sent in US troops to crush an alleged communist uprising;
• In other Latin American countries, such as Honduras, Bolivia and Argentina, Reagan attempted
to help in a restoration of democracy;
• Regarding Canada, relations improved during Reagan’s presidency as Prime Minister Mulroney
tended to agree with most of Reagan’s views;
Ronald Reagan’s foreign policy on the region during the period 1981–1988.
36. Evaluate the key successes and failures of the Mulroney governments in Canada between 1984
and 1993.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question. The successes and
failures of Mulroney’s governments are debatable as what one person might see as a success,
another might see as a failure.

• Mulroney led the Conservatives to an historic victory in 1984, capturing 211 seats in the House
of Commons and ending years of liberal rule, but by the end of his administration, the
Conservatives were soundly defeated;
• He campaigned on improving the Canadian economy, lessening government regulation and
resolving the Quebec issue (ratification of the repatriated constitution “Canada Act” 1982);
• Mulroney established closer ties with the United States and was able to get the Canada–US
Free Trade Agreement in 1988 and later NAFTA in 1992;
• He replaced the Manufacturers’ Sales Tax with the Goods and Services Tax, and ended the
National Energy Policy;
• Economic growth occurred during his first term, but declined quickly during his second,
increasing the national debt he had promised to lower;
• The Canadian Multiculturalism Act of 1988 protected the languages of New Brunswick, while
the Nunavut Act of 1993 helped create another Canadian territory and resolve some First
Peoples issues;
• His attempts at resolving the Quebec issue failed as the Meech Lake Accord of 1987 and the
Charlottetown Accord of 1992 were rejected;
• Candidates might also mention Canadian participation in the First Gulf War in 1991, the
passage of environmental laws and an acid rain agreement with the United States, as well as
the scandals that marred Mulroney’s second term;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the key
successes and failures of the Mulroney governments in Canada during the period.
SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/AS
History
Higher level
Paper 3 – history of Asia and Oceania
Specimen paper
2 hours 30 minutes

–2– SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/AS
Trade and exchange: The Silk Road in the medieval world (750–1500)
1. Examine the economic and cultural impact of the Mongol Empire on the Silk Road.
2. Evaluate the factors that led to the decline in the importance of the Silk Road in the 15th century.
Japan in the Age of the Samurai (1180–1333)
3. Discuss the reasons for, and results of, the rise in power of the samurai.
4. Examine the positive and negative effects of the Mongol invasions on Japan.
Exploration, trade and interaction in East Asia and South-East Asia (1405–1700)
5. Discuss the reasons for, and the consequences of, the Portuguese capture of Malacca in 1511.
6. Compare and contrast the Dutch and Spanish settlements in South-East Asia during the 16th and
17th centuries.
The rise and fall of the Mughal Empire (1526–1712)
7. To what extent do you agree with the claim that the social and religious developments of Akbar’s
rule were his greatest achievements?
8. Discuss the reasons for the decline of Mughal power during the reign of Aurangzeb.
Colonialism and the development of nationalism in South-East Asia (c1750–1914)
9. Discuss the reasons for French interest in the region and the extent to which they had established
control over Indo-China by the outbreak of the First World War.
10. “The Siamese monarchs managed to maintain their independence from European powers using a
combination of modernization and diplomacy.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
India, Afghanistan and Burma (1750–1919)
11. To what extent was the Great Revolt (Indian Mutiny) of 1857 a turning point in the British
administration of India?
12. Examine the nature and impact of British colonization of Burma by the end of the First World War.
Challenges to traditional East Asian societies (1700–1868)
13. “The Opium Wars were caused by China’s attitudes toward the outside world.” To what extent do
14. Examine the reasons for the challenges and discontent faced by the Tokugawa Shogunate
prior to 1853.
British colonialism and emerging national identities in Oceania (1788–1919)
15. “The issue of land was the greatest source of tension between settlers and the indigenous people
of New Zealand.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
16. Examine the impact of the First World War on national identity in Australia and New Zealand.
Early modernization and imperial decline in East Asia (1860–1912)
17. Examine the factors that led to the outbreak of the Boxer Rebellion.
18. “The Tonghak Rebellion made Japanese annexation of Korea an inevitability.” To what extent do
Nationalism and independence in India (1919–1964)
19. “Gandhi’s importance to the Indian Independence Movement has been exaggerated.” To what
20. Examine the reasons for, and consequences of, the growth of Muslim separatism by 1947.
Turn over
Japan (1912–1990)
21. Examine the reasons for the collapse of democracy in Japan in the 1930s.
22. To what extent was the context of the Cold War responsible for Japan’s “economic miracle” after
the Second World War?
China and Korea (1910–1950)
23. “The First United Front was of more benefit to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) than to the
Guomindang (GMD).” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
24. Evaluate the reasons why the Nationalists were defeated in the Chinese Civil War (1946–1949).
Impact of the world wars on South-East Asia
25. Examine the impact of the First World War and the Second World War on political developments in
French Indo-China.
26. “Sukarno’s collaboration with the Japanese was a key factor in the success of the Indonesian
Independence Movement.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
The People’s Republic of China (1949–2005)
27. Evaluate Mao’s achievements as a nation builder in China between 1949 and 1976.
28. Examine the reasons why Deng Xiaoping emerged as the most powerful leader in China by 1982.
Cold War conflicts in Asia
29. To what extent was the Vietnam War responsible for the rise of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia?
30. To what extent were foreign powers responsible for the outbreak of the Korean War?
Developments and challenges in South Asia after 1947
31. Discuss the nature of the problems facing Pakistan, and the extent to which they had been
resolved by the end of the 20th century.
32. To what extent could Indira Gandhi’s leadership of India be regarded as successful?
Developments in Oceania after the Second World War (1945–2005)
33. Evaluate the significance of immigration patterns in shaping society in Australia and New Zealand
since the Second World War.
34. Examine the changes in the foreign and economic policies of either Australia or New Zealand that
led to the development of closer relations with countries in Asia and the Pacific Islands between
1945 and 2000.
Social, cultural and economic developments in Asia (excluding China, Japan and India)
(1980–2005)
35. To what extent has technology transformed the society and economy of two countries in the region
(excluding China, Japan and India)?
36. Discuss the extent to which women gained equality in one country in the region by 2005 (excluding
China, Japan and India).
SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/AS/M
Markscheme
Specimen
History
Higher level
Paper 3 – history of Asia and Oceania
38 pages
–2– SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/AS/M

organized.
places.
approach.
coherence.
task.
Trade and exchange: The Silk Road in the medieval world (750–1500)
1. Examine the economic and cultural impact of the Mongol Empire on the Silk Road.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case examining
both the economic and the cultural impact of the Mongol Empire on the Silk Road.

• The unity, peace and security provided by the Mongol Empire encouraged an increase in trade
along the Silk Road as the Mongols controlled it from end to end;
• The Mongols supported trade; they established systems to encourage it such as the ortaq.
They treated the Silk Road as a major communications route for their empire, which facilitated
both economic and cultural exchanges;
• The Mongols were open to influences from all areas, this allowed the exchange of ideas,
technology and culture from West to East (Marco Polo);
• Religious ideas flourished as western missionaries travelled the Road to China, Buddhism and
Taoism were also very prominent, moving in both directions along the Road;
• Mongols also had eclectic ideas in art and thus a variety of art forms both new and old were
encouraged and developed due to the interaction of Chinese, Buddhist and Islamic genres;
• Mongol leaders such as Tamerlane (1336–1405) built sophisticated cities such as Samarkand,
which displayed great accomplishments in art, architecture and general wealth. These centres
might serve as examples of the height of achievements in the region under the Mongols;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the economic and
the cultural impact of the Mongol Empire on the Silk Road.
2. Evaluate the factors that led to the decline in the importance of the Silk Road in the 15th century.
should address a range of reasons for the decline of the Silk Road, including political, economic
and cultural factors.

• The breakup of the Mongol empire in the 15th century made travel on the Road less secure;
dangers and costs increased due to wars;
• The rise of the Ming dynasty, its conflict with the Mongols and its policy of isolation closed the
Chinese end of the road, thus limiting trade;
• The rise of the Ottomans put a new emphasis on trade by ships across the Indian Ocean, Red
Sea and the Mediterranean;
• Chinese merchants developed sea routes for trade, which were more profitable and
incorporated markets in South Asia. This reduced traffic on the Road;
• The European establishment of sea routes to Asia further diverted trade to sea-borne
commerce;
• Some of the cultural exchanges on the Road were impacted negatively by the rise of Islam,
which affected the artistic styles in the region, thus reducing the Silk Road’s importance;
led to the decline in importance of the Silk Road in the 15th century.
Japan in the Age of the Samurai (1180–1333)
3. Discuss the reasons for, and results of, the rise in power of the samurai.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, candidates
should discuss both the reasons for and the results of the rise in power of the Samurai.

• Rise of samurai: The result of a shift in power from the court to the heads of warrior families who
had gained control of land and enlisted retainers to expand and defend their territories;
• The Taihō Code demoted many sons of the Imperial family and forced them to find a means of
support which they often did by acquiring land, hiring retainers and using force to expand their
authority;
• The frontier wars encouraged the military skills, with emphasis on courage and the ferocious
bonds of loyalty between warriors and overlords that distinguished the samurai class;
• The government decision to disband their army and rely on the recruitment of military clan
leaders to suppress rebellions and defend against invasion gave further prestige, wealth and
power to the samurai. The decentralization of military power from the court to the provinces
allowed the rise to power of the samurai;
• Results: The samurai-warrior class took over effective control of the government. Struggles for
power were waged between powerful military families; the emperor and the court were
essentially figureheads;
• Significant cultural changes took place – the highest value was now the way of the warrior or
bushido, which replaced respect for scholars and gentlemen. Loyalty, honour and the sword
were the highest values in society. An entire culture developed around the making of swords,
considerable emphasis was placed on battle dress, ornamentation and style;
for, and results of, the rise in power of the samurai.
4. Examine the positive and negative effects of the Mongol invasions on Japan.
should examine both the positive and negative effects of the Mongol invasions on Japan. These
attempted invasions by the Mongols took place in 1274 and 1281 under Kublai Khan, and were
ultimately unsuccessful.

• Positive: The internal wars in Japan ended as the samurai united to resist the invaders. The
strength of the unified government was demonstrated and created a sense of nationalism;
• Positive: The myth of the “Divine Wind” (kamikaze) became an important part of Japanese
religious belief and culture. Japan was believed to be under the protection of the gods;
• Positive: The ultimate failure of the invasions meant that Japan was saved from a Mongol
invasion, which might have dramatically altered its culture, government and independence;
• Negative: The immense cost of the fortifications built to resist the Mongols and the cost of the
armies placed a heavy burden on the government and required additional taxes which were
unpopular;
• Negative: The government lost popularity as it had no spoils of war to reward the samurai. This
led to discontent and rebellion against the government. Central government power began to
decline as the feudal lords felt less loyalty to it;
• Negative: The end of the Mongol threat ended the internal unity of the Japanese feudal lords
and they returned to warring amongst each other;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment of the positive and
negative effects of the Mongol invasions on Japan.
Exploration, trade and interaction in East Asia and South-East Asia (1405–1700)
5. Discuss the reasons for, and the consequences of, the Portuguese capture of Malacca in 1511.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) it raises. The question revolves around the initial
rivalry between the Spanish and Portuguese for the expansion of trade in the region, and the
consequences of the expansion, which led to clashes with the Chinese and with other local rulers.

• Reasons: In the latter years of the 15th century there was much rivalry between Portugal and
Spain for trade and both countries financed voyages of discovery. Both were anxious to expand
their empires, develop the spice trade and find a sea route to Asia.
• Reasons: The Portuguese king, Manuel I, wanted to challenge the Arab and Venetian monopoly
on trade routes into the Mediterranean, which went partially by sea and then over land;
• Reasons: The Portuguese established a trading base in Goa in India (1510) and launched
further expansion into South-East Asia. The original expedition under Sequeira in 1509 to
capture Malacca was not successful, but Albuquerque was successful in 1511. Malacca was an
important location because it gave control over trade via the Malaccan straits, and it became
one of the most significant strategic possessions of the Portuguese crown;
• Consequences: The Portuguese established a fort and a base to facilitate trade to the Spice
Islands;
• Consequences: The Malaccan Sultanate was a tributary state of China, who opposed the
Portuguese intrusion of trade in the area. Conflict developed between Portugal and China;
• Consequences: The Portuguese expansion of trade routes into Asia and South-East Asia led to
further conflict with the Spanish and the Treaty of Saragossa was signed in 1529. This was
intended to clarify the Treaty of Tordesillas and denote respective spheres of influence. The
Portuguese gained access to most of East Asia, the East Indies and the Spice Islands while the
Spanish claimed the Pacific Ocean. In time the Portuguese dominated trade in the region and
established trading outposts: Macau in China (1557); Nagasaki in Japan (1570);
• Consequences: Francis Xavier in 1542 led the first Jesuit missionaries and thereafter the
spread of Christianity became part of the Portuguese presence in the region;
• Consequences: Advances in navigation instruments, ship building and cartography developed
as a result of the Portuguese trade;
and the consequences of, the Portuguese capture of Malacca.
6. Compare and contrast the Dutch and Spanish settlements in South-East Asia during the 16th and
17th centuries.
of the similarities and differences between the Dutch and Spanish settlements in South-East Asia
during the 16th and 17th centuries. The comparison may explore elements such as the nature of
the respective colonial systems, the economic and social developments, or the impact on the
indigenous population.

• The Dutch East India Company or Vereenigide Ooste-Indische Compagnie (VOC) traded in the
East Indies from the early 17th century and was in competition with the British East India
Company for the spice trade. The Spanish established themselves in the Philippines during the
16th century. The main aims were trade and the spread of Christianity. The Spanish gradually
conquered all of the Philippine islands;
• Similarities and differences in the nature of the colonial systems: the political structures, the
types of rule, and the structures of the bureaucracies;
• Similarities and differences in the economic developments in each case: land distribution, the
effect on local agriculture, trade, etc;
• Similarities and differences in the impact on the indigenous population: the way in which the
Dutch and the Spanish handled rebellions and resistance; the level of violence used to control
the colonized people;
• Much of the Dutch activity radiated from the island of Java where it founded the city of Batavia.
This was an administrative centre and trade was the main objective. Much of the indigenous
population was moved out of the city; Chinese workers were bought in and a mixed-race colony
developed. Rebellions were brutally crushed. Spanish rule adopted an indirect approach and
this created an indigenous upper class, which benefitted greatly. The communal system of land
ownership was replaced by private ownership. The Spanish policies of repression both helped
cause as well as curb resistance in the Philippines;
• Similarities and differences in the social developments in each case: the lifestyles of the colonial
masters; the attempts to replicate the society and institutions of the imperial power; the activities
of missionaries. (In the Spanish settlements there was a strong military presence, but also
much missionary activity. The Jesuit missionaries established schools and colleges and also
introduced the indigenous people to Spanish culture and to more modern methods of
agriculture. Church and state were closely linked in the administration of policies.);
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences in the two settlements, not
simply give a description of the features of the two settlements. Thematic approaches are
therefore likely to be more successful than end-on comparisons;
and differences between the Dutch and Spanish settlements.
The rise and fall of the Mughal Empire (1526–1712)
7. To what extent do you agree with the claim that the social and religious developments of Akbar’s
rule were his greatest achievements?
which the candidate agrees that the social and religious developments of Akbar’s rule were his
greatest achievements. Candidates should examine both the social and religious developments to
determine if they should be regarded as his greatest achievements, and should weigh these
against other developments of Akbar’s rule that could potentially be considered his greatest
achievements.

• Social developments: Akbar introduced several important social reforms including abolishing
sati, legalizing widow remarriage and ending child marriage;
• Religious developments: At the beginning of Akbar’s rule in 1556, the Mughal state changed to
a more secular and liberal one, with greater emphasis on religious tolerance. He implemented
policies that won him the support of his non-Muslim subjects. These included a decree stating
that Hindus who had previously been forced to convert to Islam could convert back to Hinduism
without any consequences. He also ended sectarian tax for non-Muslims and allowed them to
be appointed to important civil and military positions. Akbar initially had a negative attitude
towards the Shia, but later he adopted a more tolerant attitude towards them and eventually
declared a prohibition on the Shia–Sunni conflict;
• Other developments which could instead be regarded as Akbar’s greatest achievements might
include: tripling the size of the Mughal Empire; the development of a strong and stable
economy; the expansion of trade; creating a centralized system of administration; the use of
matrimonial alliances and diplomacy to establish better relations with neighbouring states;
improvements in transportation/communication throughout the empire;
which the candidate agrees that the social and religious developments of Akbar’s rule were his
greatest achievements.
– 10 – SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/AS/M
8. Discuss the reasons for the decline of Mughal power during the reign of Aurangzeb.
should discuss a range of reasons why Mughal power declined during Aurangzeb’s reign
(1658–1707). Aurangzeb’s reign saw the expansion of the Mughal Empire to its greatest peak,
but also saw significant revolts and decline in Mughal power, and candidates should discuss a
range of social, political and military reasons for this decline.

• There was widespread internal rebellion throughout the rule of Aurangzeb, primarily as a result
of his imposition of Sharia law and the jizya, or poll tax on non-Muslims in 1679. This had led to
strict edicts and repression. He banned alcohol, gambling, and music and ordered the
destruction of many non-Muslim schools and temples. Weaknesses within the administrative
systems also highlighted the failings of Mughal power;
• The rise of Sikhism threatened the power of the Mughal Empire. For much of Aurangzeb’s
reign various rebel groups of Sikhs engaged Mughal troops in battles, resulting in heavy
casualties;
• The Maratha Wars were a key factor in the decline of Mughal power. In 1657 the Hindu
Maratha warrior, Shivaji, took control of three Adil Shahi forts and, as a consequence of this,
essentially became the leader of many independent Maratha clans. Shivaji expanded Maratha
control and through military success transformed the Marathas into a powerful military force,
which undermined Mughal authority in the region;
• In 1672 soldiers, allegedly under the orders of the Mughal Governor, attempted to assault
women of the Safi tribe. The Safi tribe retaliated and the Pashtun revolt spread. Although the
Mughals managed to regain control of the trade route much of this region was no longer under
Mughal authority. Agrarian revolts also undermined Mughal power;
• Aurangzeb did not have a clear successor so after his death a war of succession began, which
further undermined Mughal power;
the decline of Mughal power during Aurangzeb’s rule.
Colonialism and the development of nationalism in South-East Asia (c1750–1914)
9. Discuss the reasons for French interest in the region and the extent to which they had established
control over Indo-China by the outbreak of the First World War.
should discuss both the reasons for French interest in the region and also the extent to which they
had established control over Indo-China by the outbreak of the First World War. Although there
should be reference to the Indo-China region, it is likely that many responses will focus
predominantly on Vietnam, which is acceptable.

• Initial reasons for French interest in the region centred on the desire for trade and to spread
Catholicism through missionary activity. Nationalism and imperialism were also reasons for
French interest in the region. The success of the British and Dutch in the region also inspired
the French to pursue similar goals in the region;
• Between 1858 and 1862 the French captured Saigon and the surrounding provinces and
created the colony of Cochinchina through a treaty in 1862. Using the south as a base the
French moved west and north, completing the conquest of Indo-China by 1907. Indo-China
consisted of five territories – Cochinchina, Annam, Tonkin, Laos and Cambodia. The French
established political control over these regions through the process known as “assimilation”.
Through this, Vietnam adopted French systems and practices;
• The French quickly gained control of the economies of these regions. Heavy taxes were
imposed on local populations and the French exploited resources of tea, rice, coffee, tin and
rubber. However, there was also some industrialization and improvements to the infrastructure
of French Indo-China, particularly in terms of transport and communication. Other evidence of
French control could include the impact of Catholic missionaries on society and the use of the
French language;
• The emergence of early nationalist movements such as Dong Du and Duy Tân Hôi may be
assessed to suggest that the French did not have complete control of the region. Dong Du
proposed armed rebellion against the French whereas Duy Tân Hôi promoted education for the
masses and a peaceful transition of power. Both movements were suppressed by the French,
which in turn made the nationalist movement more radicalized;
for French interest in the region and also the extent to which they had established control over
Indo-China by the outbreak of the First World War.
10. “The Siamese monarchs managed to maintain their independence from European powers using a
combination of modernization and diplomacy.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
which the candidates agrees that the Siamese monarchs managed to maintain their independence
from European powers using a combination of modernization and diplomacy. Candidates should
assess the policies and actions of the Thai monarchs to determine the extent to which they were
responsible for maintaining Siamese independence or whether other factors played a role.

• The policies and actions of King Mongkut (1851–1868), King Chulalongkorn (1868–1910) and
King Vajiravudh (1910–1925);
• Modernization: economic modernization reforms included expanding transportation and
communications infrastructure as well as encouraging commerce. Politically the structure of
government administration was modernized. Western advisors were brought in to assist in this
process. Socially, changes were made to the education system;
• Diplomacy was also essential and this included making concessions to both the British and
French. A treaty was signed with Britain in 1855, which established terms favouring British
trade and representation. In 1893, Siam signed a similar treaty with France and in 1907, ceded
the provinces of Battambang and Siem Reap to France. In 1909, Siam ceded the provinces of
Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan and Trengganu to Britain;
• Diplomacy: by making concessions with “less important” regions of Siam the Siamese were able
to prevent the process of colonization. Siam played off British interests against those of the
French and, in doing so, established Siam as a buffer zone between the British territories of
Burma and Malaysia and the French in Indo-China. In 1917, Siamese willingness to participate
in the First World War strengthened ties between Siam, Britain and France;
which the candidates agrees that the Siamese monarchs managed to maintain their
independence from European powers using a combination of modernization and diplomacy.
India, Afghanistan and Burma (1750—1919)
11. To what extent was the Great Revolt (Indian Mutiny) of 1857 a turning point in the British
administration of India?
which the Great Revolt (Indian Mutiny) was a turning point in the British administration of India.
Candidates may initially establish how India was governed before the Great Revolt (Indian Mutiny)
of 1857, but the main focus of the response should be on whether there was significant change in
the way the British governed India afterwards.

• Prior to the Great Revolt the British administration was essentially the operations of the British
East India Company under the auspices of the Crown rather than a colonial settlement. The
nature of the administration was essentially paternalistic. British policies could be considered
as being aimed at extending and consolidating British trade. They also included an attempt to
reform aspects of Indian society and impose British religious and cultural values;
• The policies of the various Governor-Generals were significant: Wellesley created subsidiary
alliances with the princes; Bentinck’s “reforms” included the abolition of sati and thuggee,
marriage reform and the extension of education; Dalhousie introduced the Doctrine of Lapse
which annexed the princely states without heirs;
• The economic changes such as the opening of India to free trade had a negative impact on
native industry and production; land reform and land taxation also caused difficulties for Indian
peasants. Infrastructure was developed with the building of railways, canals and post and
telegraph;
• After the Great Revolt, the British East India Company was abolished and the British
government took direct control of areas previously administered by the Company and
established indirect control over the princely states. The Government of India Act 1858 created
a new British government office and the Governor-General became the Viceroy and was
answerable to the Secretary of State for India;
• The nature of the relationship between the British and Indians changed and, although the British
became increasingly more socially elitist, the government policy aimed to involve Indians in
administration and this led to the opening of entry into the Indian Civil Service;
• There was a growth in secular education, including universities, for Indians and the rise of a
new Indian middle class and intelligentsia. Religious tolerance was decreed. The changes in
infrastructure and communications contributed to the increase in prosperity for some and to a
growing sense of Indian national identity;
which the Great Revolt (Indian Mutiny) was a turning point in the British administration of India.
12. Examine the nature and impact of British colonization of Burma by the end of the First World War.
of both the nature and the impact of British colonization of Burma by the end of the First World
War. Candidates should assess a range of political, social and economic effects of British
colonization.

• Political: As a result of Burmese defeat in the first Anglo–Burmese War (1824–1826) Burma lost
control of significant areas of territory (Assam, Manipur, Arakan, Cachar and Jaintia) and had to
pay a large indemnity. Following the second Anglo–Burmese War Burma had to concede
further territory and lost access to the sea. These events undermined the Burmese monarchy
and led to political instability;
• Political: King Pagan was eventually overthrown by his half brother, Mindon. King Thibaw
antagonized the British by seeking closer relations with the French. The British invaded in 1885
and forced Thibaw to abdicate. The Burmese monarchy was abolished by the British in 1885
and the country became a province of India. Much of Burma was administered by Indian
migrants. Nationalism did not really emerge until after the First World War but discontent
towards British rule was certainly present;
• Economic: The Anglo–Burmese Wars and in particular, the loss of territory and access to the
sea had a negative impact on Burma’s economy. King Mindon had already sought to
modernize Burma’s technological and industrial sectors by sending scholars overseas.
However, when the British took control they reorganized the economy, agriculture and trade.
The British increased the amount of land available for cultivation and this in turn increased rice
production. However, few Burmese farmers could afford to purchase the land without borrowing
money from Indian moneylenders, leaving them with huge debts, which could often not be
repaid. So, although the Burmese economy did grow under British rule only British and Indian
migrants really benefited from this;
• Social: Christian missionaries went to Burma to convert the Burmese people from Buddhism.
This was partly done through education with Christian schools being established throughout
Burma. Burmese Buddhists were initially excluded from public life and Buddhism would remain
frowned upon throughout British rule. Buddhist monks would eventually become the
forerunners of the Burmese independence movement;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the nature and
impact of British colonization of Burma by the end of the First World War.
Challenges to traditional East Asian societies (1700–1868)
13. “The Opium Wars were caused by China’s attitudes toward the outside world.” To what extent do
which candidates agree that the Opium Wars were caused by China’s attitudes towards the
outside world. Candidates should consider how differences in attitudes between China and the
West led to misunderstandings and conflict, and should also explore other possible factors that
could be regarded as causes of the Opium Wars.

• Candidates may discuss the differences between these two cultures to show the lack of
understanding they had of each other. These may include: Confucianism and Buddhism as
opposed to Christianity; the Canton system of trade versus Western view of free trade; the
Chinese legal system which emphasized collective responsibility in contrast to the Western view
of individual guilt; Chinese “tribute system” of international relations versus Western diplomacy.
Differences in culture, science and technology may also be addressed;
• The differences in attitudes between China and the West were highlighted during the following
missions to China: Macartney (1793); Amherst (1816); and Napier (1834);
• The issue of opium itself should also be assessed. In the 18th century, despite strong protest
from the Qing (Ch’ing) government, the British began importing opium from India to China. This
was a result of Britain's “need” for Chinese tea;
• The Chinese were not interested in any of Britain’s goods, so the British were forced to pay the
Chinese in silver. However, with India under British rule a profitable solution to fix this
imbalance of trade was to start trading opium. The British ignored the Chinese ban on the drug
and continued to import hundreds of tons of opium;
• In 1839 Commissioner Lin began the process of confiscating and destroying opium. A letter
was sent to Queen Victoria questioning the morality of the opium trade but there was no
response to this. Instead the British accused Lin of destroying their property and responded
with military force. The war was concluded in 1842 with the Treaty of Nanjing;
which candidates agree that the Opium Wars were caused by China’s attitudes towards the
outside world.
14. Examine the reasons for the challenges and discontent faced by the Tokugawa Shogunate prior
to 1853.
should examine a variety of reasons for the challenges and discontent faced by the Tokugawa
Shogunate before the arrival of Perry.

• Economic problems, such as increased taxation, higher rents and famine had all led to
rebellions;
• The Western tozama clans (Satsuma, Choshu, Hizen and Tosa) had become increasingly more
powerful with some even having limited trade with the West;
• The social hierarchy began to break down as the merchant class grew increasingly powerful
and the samurai’s status was in decline. Years of peace forced many samurai to marry into
merchant families or become merchants themselves;
• The expense of Alternative Attendance of the Daimyo left many indebted to the new merchant
class;
• The new schools of learning challenged the position of the Shogun. Kokugaku (National
Learning) supported the restoration of the emperor. The Rangaku movement (Dutch Learning)
also became increasingly influential and argued against isolation believing learning from the
West would strengthen rather than harm Japan;
• The arrival of Perry in 1853 resulted in the Shogun asking for advice on how best to deal with
his demands, which undermined his position;
the challenges and discontent faced by the Tokugawa Shogunate prior to 1853.
British colonialism and emerging national identities in Oceania (1788–1919)
15. “The issue of land was the greatest source of tension between settlers and the indigenous people
of New Zealand.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
which they agree that the issue of land was the greatest source of tension between settlers and the
indigenous people of New Zealand. It is likely that many candidates will agree that the relationship
between settlers and indigenous people was very much based on the ownership of, and rights to,
the land, but they should also consider other factors that were a source of tension.

• The New Zealand Land Company had bought land rights previously obtained in a series of
deals between Europeans and Māori chiefs;
• Land was the main focus of the Treaty of Waitangi signed on 6 February 1840. This gave
Queen Victoria sovereignty over the land but also guaranteed Māori chiefs control over their
lands, villages and possessions. It gave the British Crown an exclusive right to deal with Māori
leaders over buying land. With British sovereignty officially proclaimed Governor Hobson
declared all prior land claims void until investigated and approved by his government. The
subsequent Governor, Fitzroy (1843–1845), did allow settlers to purchase land directly from the
indigenous people but the British government did not support this;
• Disputes over land led to open conflict between indigenous people and settlers; eg armed
conflict between the indigenous people and the European settlers on 17 June 1843. The New
Zealand Company had an invalid deed to a block of land in the north of the South Island;
however, this did not prevent them trying to clear the land of indigenous people in preparation
for surveying. Further rebellions occurred, mainly as a result of dubious land purchases by the
New Zealand Company. These rebellions were finally suppressed in 1847, by colonial forces
under Governor Sir George Grey. Grey won the confidence of many Māori leaders by
forbidding direct purchase of land on penalty of a heavy fine;
• The New Zealand Company was dissolved in 1851. In 1852 New Zealand received a
constitution, but land policy remained firmly in the hands of the British government. Grey
reduced the price of land to help small farmers settling in New Zealand. However, the quick
procurement of large areas of land in the North Island sparked the Second Māori War
(1860–1870). The outcome of this conflict was a series of enforced confiscations of Taranaki
tribal land from indigenous people regarded as rebels by the government. Although some of
this land was restored, the issue of land confiscation caused long-term tension between settlers
and indigenous people;
• Relations between settlers and the indigenous people were also affected by factors such as
culture, religion, government, trade, as well as personal relations;
which the candidate agrees that the issue of land was the greatest source of tension between
settlers and the indigenous people of New Zealand.
16. Examine the impact of the First World War on national identity in Australia and New Zealand.
which the First World War influenced the growth of national identity in both Australia and New
Zealand.

• Ideas of nationhood were not especially strong in either Australia or New Zealand in the early
20th century and the bonds to Britain and Empire were still strong. Responses to the outbreak
of war demonstrated this loyalty. The Australian Prime Minister declared that Australia would
support Britain to “the last man and the last shilling”. In both countries thousands of men
volunteered to serve; 400 000 in Australia and 125 000 in New Zealand;
• For both countries involvement in the war had major political consequences as a sense of
national identity increased. Gallipoli was seen as a defining moment in nationhood, for Australia
“Baptism by fire” and New Zealand “Baptism of blood”. The soldiers came to represent the
typical Australian or New Zealander in uniform with his values of resourcefulness and
“mateship”, and war correspondents and cartoonists popularized this image. Despite the fact
that the Gallipoli campaign ended in withdrawal, the Anzac legend came to symbolize
Australia’s or New Zealand’s involvement in the First World War and subsequent wars and
Anzac Day became a public holiday and de facto national day;
• The aftermath of the war may be discussed. The fact that both countries signed the Treaty of
Versailles in their own right and that, later, they would become members of the League of
Nations in their own right strengthened the sense of national identity. Before the First World
War, Australia and New Zealand had been rather isolated from international matters:
involvement in the war, the Versailles conference and the League of Nations changed this and
made them more aware of their own position in the world. In both countries the sense of
national identity is still linked with commemoration and remembrance;
First World War on national identity in both Australia and New Zealand.
Early modernization and imperial decline in East Asia (1860–1912)
17. Examine the factors that led to the outbreak of the Boxer Rebellion.
should consider a variety of social, economic and political factors that led to the Boxer Rebellion.

• The Boxers, or “Righteous and Harmonious Fists”, originally emerged in Shandong province.
They had links with earlier anti-Qing secret societies, but by the late 1890s they had become
pro-Qing and anti-foreign;
• Religion was a major cause of the rebellion. The Treaties of Whampoa and Wanghia signed
after the Opium Wars had allowed for the introduction of foreign missionaries into China.
Missionaries built schools, orphanages and hospitals and their attempts to convert the Chinese
to Christianity led to increased hostility. The Boxers specifically targeted missionaries and “Rice
Christians”, which further supports the view that religion was a significant contributing factor;
• Strong anti-foreign sentiment was also an important reason for the Boxers gaining support. The
Opium Wars and Unequal Treaties that followed had led to much public anger, which was
heightened after their defeat by the Japanese in 1884–1895 and the Scramble for Concessions
in the late 1890s;
• Social and economic factors also contributed to the outbreak of rebellion. Increased foreign
domination created many social and economic problems but others were caused by natural
disasters or the inefficiencies/incompetence of the ruling Qing;
• The weaknesses of the Qing and their failure to address the problems facing China in particular
may also be assessed, as well as the actions of the Empress Dowager;
led to the outbreak of the Boxer Rebellion.
18. “The Tonghak Rebellion made Japanese annexation of Korea an inevitability.” To what extent do
which the candidate agrees that the Tonghak Rebellion made Japanese annexation of Korea an
inevitability. Candidates should assess the impact of the Tonghak Rebellion on Korean
independence as well as consider other factors that led to the Japanese annexation of Korea
in 1910.

• The Tonghak Rebellion or “Eastern Learning” Movement developed as a reaction against
western ideas. It included aspects of Taoism, Buddhism, Neo-Confucianism and traditional
Korean Shamanism. The movement gained support amongst those who disliked ideas of
modernization and increasing Japanese influence in Korea. The Tonghak Rebellion in 1894
was crushed with Chinese assistance, but the Japanese also sent forces that would remain
stationed in Korea;
• Candidates may argue that the Tonghak Rebellion was simply the excuse that the Japanese
needed to assert their control over Korea and that annexation was a result of developments in
Japan during the Meiji period. There may be a discussion of the ways Japan was rapidly
industrializing and modernizing and that expansionism was a natural progression for them;
• The Japanese government saw Korea as a source of raw materials, as a steady market for
Japanese goods, and as a “granary” to feed the increasing Japanese population. They also
saw Korea as a buffer from an expanding Russia and for strategic advantages in dealings with
both Russia and China;
• Japan forced Korea to open its ports in 1876 with the Treaty of Kanghwa and recognized Korea
as an independent state in 1895. However, Korea still considered itself to be under Chinese
control. As a consequence of the Treaty of Shimonoseki Japan gained more ports in Korea and
China was forced to recognize Korea’s independence;
• Japan began to dominate the internal politics of Korea and Japanese agents assassinated
Queen Min in 1895;
• The Treaty of Portsmouth following the Russo–Japanese War (1904–1905) recognized Japan’s
political, economic and military interests in Korea. Finally, Japan formally annexed Korea with
the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910;
which the candidate agrees that the Tonghak Rebellion made Japanese annexation of Korea an
inevitability.
Nationalism and independence in India (1919–1964)
19. “Gandhi’s importance to the Indian Independence Movement has been exaggerated.” To what
which they agree that Gandhi’s importance to the Indian Independence Movement has been
exaggerated. Gandhi’s role in the Indian Independence Movement should be considered in depth
but candidates may also consider other important factors.

• The importance of Gandhi in the development of Indian nationalism and the emergence of a
mass movement should be addressed. The Satyagraha Campaigns, Gandhi’s support for the
Khilafat issue, the boycott of foreign goods, Salt March (1930) and the Civil Disobedience
Campaign are all examples of Gandhi’s importance. Gandhi was imprisoned for his opposition
to British rule;
• Gandhi’s relationship with the Indian National Congress should also be addressed. There was
a rift in congress between the more radical Bose and Gandhi’s methods of non-violence.
Gandhi’s role in the Round Table Conferences, his attitude towards the Second World War and
the Quit India Campaign are also relevant;
• Gandhi’s failed attempts to unify the Muslims and Hindus eventually led to the rise of Muslim
separatism. Gandhi’s views regarding the traditional caste system and religious discrimination
may also be considered;
• Other factors discussed may include the impact of the Second World on Britain and its new
government. The roles of the INC, the All-India Muslim League, Nehru and Jinnah may be
assessed to support the interpretation that Gandhi’s role has been exaggerated;
which the candidate agrees that Gandhi’s importance to the Indian Independence Movement
has been exaggerated.
20. Examine the reasons for, and consequences of, the growth of Muslim separatism by 1947.
must examine both the reasons for, and the consequences of, the growth of Muslim separatism by
1947.

• Candidates should assess a variety of reasons for the growth of Muslim separatism and the
consequences for the subcontinent by 1947;
• The All-India Muslim League was created in 1906. The catalyst for the emergence of the
league was a growing concern that the Hindu majority would not protect Muslim culture and
religion in an independent India. Jinnah became its leader in 1913;
• Initially the goals of the League did not include a separate Muslim state but rather on protecting
Muslims liberties and rights;
• Sir Muhammad Iqbal took over leadership of the League and in 1930 first put forward the
demand for a separate Muslim state in India. The belief that Hindus and Muslims could not live
together in one country gained popularity amongst Muslims;
• At a League conference in Lahore in 1940, Jinnah spoke of the differences between the
Muslims and Hindus. The Lahore Resolution was adopted in March 1940, and its principles
formed the foundation for Pakistan’s first constitution. Talks between Jinnah and Gandhi in
1944 failed to achieve agreement. This was the last attempt to reach a single-state solution;
• In the elections of 1946, the League won 425 out of 496 seats reserved for Muslims (and about
89.2 % of Muslim votes) on a policy of creating an independent state of Pakistan. 1947 saw the
partition of the South Asian subcontinent into India and Pakistan;
• In the same year there were violent battles due to the communal clashes between the two
communities in India. Millions of people migrated from India to Pakistan and vice-versa;
and the consequences of, the growth of Muslim separatism by 1947.
Japan (1912–1990)
21. Examine the reasons for the collapse of democracy in Japan in the 1930s.
should examine a variety of reasons for the collapse of democracy and the rise of militarism in
Japan. Although the time frame of the question is the 1930s it is valid to have some assessment of
events in the late 1920s and early 1940s, especially if students are challenging the question.

• The liberal nature of Japan in the 1920s may be considered. Universal male suffrage was
introduced in 1925. Some candidates may suggest that democratic processes were already
undermined in the 1920s, often as a result of corrupt politicians, domestic problems or
international relations;
• The failure of democratic parties to deal with the effects of the Great Depression resulted in the
Japanese looking for alternative systems to democracy;
• The army used this opportunity to reassert its position. Expansion into Manchuria seemed to
provide a solution to some of the economic problems Japan faced and also gained the army
great prestige. The Kwantung Army acted without the knowledge of the government, which
undermined its authority;
• A consequence of the Manchurian incident in 1931 was the emergence of factions within the
government and conflict between these led to plots and assassinations, all of which further
weakened the democracy in Japan;
• After 1932 most prime ministers were drawn from the military, although there were exceptions
such as Konoe Fumimaro, who did try to curb the military and maintain democratic processes;
• The actions of the Kwantung Army in China also affected Japan’s foreign relations and pushed
Japan into finding new allies (Germany and Italy) with fascist/militaristic governments;
• The appointment of Tojo as prime minister of Japan in 1941 can be seen as the definite end of
democracy in Japan and the establishment of a militaristic government;
the collapse of democracy in Japan in the 1930s.
22. To what extent was the context of the Cold War responsible for Japan’s “economic miracle” after
the Second World War?
which the context of the Cold War was responsible for Japan’s “economic miracle” after the
Second World War. Candidates should assess the impact the Cold War had on Japan’s economic
progress but should also consider other factors that contributed to this economic progress.

• Candidates may start their responses by assessing the nature of the US occupation of Japan
from 1945 to 1952 and how this occupation was affected by the events of the Cold War in the
region. Discussion of US occupation should be focused on economic developments, although it
would also be valid to show that some social and political developments, such as changes in
their education system, also aided economic progress;
• The Cold War context certainly contributed to Japan’s economic miracle. Fear of communism in
the region, especially following the outbreak of war on the Korean Peninsula, resulted in the US
adopting the Reverse Course. The Korean War helped stimulate industrial growth and trade in
the decade afterwards, averaging almost 10 % growth per annum;
• The US invested heavily in Japan: over $2 billion by 1952. This investment ensured Japanese
industry and agriculture had the most modern machinery, which helped them adopt newer
methods in these areas. This helped Japan gain a reputation for high quality goods and their
economic success depended largely on foreign trade;
• Other factors could include Japan’s well educated labour force; government stability; work
practices that limited industrial action; the Ministry of International trade and Industry (MITI); role
of the new Zaibatsu; restricted military spending/US protection, which led to greater investment
in industry;
which the context of the Cold War was responsible for Japan’s “economic miracle” after the
Second World War.
China and Korea (1910–1950)
23. “The First United Front was of more benefit to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) than to the
Guomindang (GMD).” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, the question
of which party benefitted most from the First United Front. Some candidates may challenge the
statement in the question by arguing that, given the Front ended with Jiang Jieshi purging the
Communists and consolidating his rule in China, the CCP did not benefit.

• There were certain shared aims for the GMD and the CCP;
• Support for the GMD came largely from the urban areas and the commercial classes. Sun
Yixian was fairly idealistic and wanted to utilize the CCP’s support among the peasantry and
workers to gain popular support. The GMD felt that this would give impetus to the military
advance against the warlords in the North;
• The CCP members had to join the GMD as individuals and they could see the value of being
part of a stronger party. Despite some objections, the CCP members were ordered by
Comintern to join with the GMD, because the aim was to subvert the GMD from within. The
CCP saw the opportunities created by the Northern advance to spread their ideology among the
people;
• After Sun’s death in 1925, tensions between the left and right factions within the GMD
developed and Jiang Jieshi became leader and military commander. Tensions were developing
between the CCP members and the GMD over the issue of dual membership and the
Communists’ influence within the organization. Resolutions were passed to limit the number of
official positions they could hold. Stalin ordered the CCP members to accept this and remain in
the GMD;
• The Northern Expedition (1926–1927) was successful and with the capture of Shanghai, Jiang
gained access to the wealth and influence of the powerful business interests who were opposed
to the trade union movements. With their support Jiang turned on the Communists in the 1927
White Terror and the surviving CCP members fled to the countryside;
• Some candidates may conclude that the First United Front enabled the CCP to survive and
consolidate because it had allowed CCP members to work unhindered with peasant groups.
This contributed to their ultimate popularity and also to Mao’s theory about peasant revolution.
His adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese situation became the driving force behind the unity
and determination of the CCP until the ultimate victory in 1949. Other candidates may argue
that the purge of the Communists and the failure of the First United Front indicated that the
GMD benefitted more than the CCP. Jiang and the GMD had gained the ascendancy and ruled
China for the next twenty years;
which the candidate agrees with the claim that the First United Front was of more benefit to the
Chinese Communist Party (CCP) than to the Guomindang (GMD).
24. Evaluate the reasons why the Nationalists were defeated in the Chinese Civil War (1946–1949).
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the reasons
why the Nationalists were defeated in the Chinese Civil War of 1946 to 1949, which include both
Nationalist weaknesses and Communist strengths.

• Candidates may begin by assessing the situation at the end of the Sino–Japanese War,
particularly with regard to how both sides were impacted by this conflict, but it is important that
candidates should keep to the time frame in the question;
• Weaknesses of the Nationalists could include discussion of any of the following: the narrow
urban GMD (KMT) support base; the authoritarian nature of Jiang’s leadership; corruption;
harsh treatment of the people; war weariness; demoralized troops and mass desertions; failure
to achieve the Three Principles and general lack of any substantial social and economic reform;
ineffective use of US aid which led to its withdrawal; inflation caused by Nationalist
mismanagement of the economy;
• Strengths of the Communists may include a discussion of the following factors: CCP’s
ideological appeal to the peasants; promises of land reform; high morale and discipline amongst
the troops; strong leadership; effective propaganda; Nationalist troop defections to the Red
Army; the acquisition of Japanese military equipment from Manchuria;
the Nationalists were defeated in the Chinese Civil War during the period 1946 to 1949.
Impact of the world wars on South-East Asia
25. Examine the impact of the First World War and the Second World War on political developments in
French Indo-China.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the impact of
both the First and Second World Wars on political developments in French Indo-China.
Responses should focus specifically on the impact of the two wars on political developments.

• Vietnam: Ho Chi Minh was greatly affected by the events of both the First World War and the
Russian Revolution. In 1925 he created the Vietnamese Revolutionary Youth League in China.
By the 1920s two new nationalist groups had emerged in Vietnam: the Viet Nam Quang Phuc
Hoi and the Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang. Both groups proposed armed resistance against the
French but were quickly suppressed. Ho Chi Minh founded the Indochinese Communist Party
and they gained significant peasant support throughout the 1930s. A communist-led coalition of
Vietnamese nationalists, known as the Viet Minh, was formed by Ho Chi Minh in 1941. Its aim
was to fight both the French and the Japanese and ultimately achieve independence for
Vietnam. The nature of the Japanese occupation increased support for both nationalism and
communism. At the end of the war Ho Chi Minh announced the independence of Vietnam;
• Cambodia: The First World War had little direct impact on developments in Cambodia although
national consciousness was emerging amongst the educated urban elite. In 1936 Son Ngoc
Thanh began publishing Nagaravatta, the first Khmer language newspaper. This paper
criticized French colonial policies, foreign domination of their economy and the lack of
opportunities for educated Khmer. In the Second World War Japanese calls of “Asia for the
Asians” gained support amongst Cambodian nationalists. Demonstrations broke out following
the arrest of a politically active Buddhist monk, Hem Chieu. The Vichy authorities arrested the
demonstrators and imprisoned the leaders for life. In the final months of the war the Japanese
disbanded the Vichy French administration and King Sihanouk responded by decreeing an
independent Kampuchea;
• Laos: The Laotians by and large accepted French control until the Second World War. In July
1940 Lao Nhay (Lao Renovation Movement) attempted to stage a coup d’état in Vientiane;
although it failed, the students involved founded a new organization, Lao Pen Lao (Laos for the
Lao). During the Second World War many Laotians fought alongside French agents using
guerrilla tactics;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the impact of both
wars on political developments in French Indo-China.
26. “Sukarno’s collaboration with the Japanese was a key factor in the success of the Indonesian
Independence Movement.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
which the candidate agrees with the claim that Sukarno’s collaboration with the Japanese was a
key factor in the success of the Indonesian Independence Movement.

• The importance of Sukarnos’s collaboration with the Japanese should be assessed in depth. In
1942 the Japanese invaded the Dutch East Indies. Both Sukarno and Hatta were willing to
support the Japanese and were given control of Poesat Tenaga Rakjat whose objective was to
encourage the Indonesian people to support Japanese occupation;
• Sukarno was also in charge of militia units totalling 2 million by 1945. By mid-1945 the
Japanese accepted the establishment of an Indonesian quasi-legislature, which was allowed to
discuss the future of Indonesia as an independent state;
• Following the Japanese unconditional surrender Sukarno and Hatta declared Indonesian
independence and began to take control. Indonesian militia from the Second World War
prepared for Allied intervention. British forces arrived in September and Sukarno attempted to
appease the British by showing a willingness to establish a parliamentary democracy. Open
conflict soon broke out and the British managed to gain control of key ports and the Dutch
occupied the Outer Islands. However, the British wanted to withdraw and allowed Dutch forces
to replace them. The British did encourage negotiations to take place between the Dutch and
the Indonesians;
• Other factors that may be considered include the beginnings of the Cold War, which also
benefited the independence movement as Sukarno was seen as preferable to the Communists
gaining power. In November 1946 the Linggadjati Agreement was signed. Sukarno agreed to
accept Dutch sovereignty in the short term as long as there would be future discussions on the
issue of independence. The Indonesian Communist Party rebelled against Sukarno’s actions
but this was quickly put down and this gained Sukarno support from the US;
• The Dutch broke the Linggadjati Agreement in 1947 and 1948 with massive offensives against
Republican forces. Hatta and Sukarno were captured. There was international outrage towards
the Dutch and the US put huge pressure on the Netherlands to release Sukarno and Hatta and
agree to talks. The Dutch were eventually forced to accept Indonesian Independence in 1949;
which the candidate agrees with the claim that Sukarno’s collaboration with the Japanese was a
key factor in the success of the Indonesian Independence movement.
The People’s Republic of China (1949–2005)
27. Evaluate Mao’s achievements as a nation builder in China between 1949 and 1976.
of both the strengths and limitations of Mao Tse-Tung as a nation builder during the period
1949 to 1976.

• Candidates may make a distinction between Mao, the popular revolutionary leader who gained
power in 1949, and Mao, the nation builder, who made mistakes;
• Some candidates may initially discuss Maoism: concepts of land redistribution, peasant
socialism, working alongside the peasants, class struggle, gender equality, right thinking,
rectification, continuous revolution, the mass line, the Yan’an Spirit and Chinese nationalism;
and evaluate the extent to which Mao disappointed in the application and achievement of these
as a nation builder;
• Mao’s policies and campaigns throughout the 27-year period include: the New China
reconstruction period (1949–1952); the First Five Year Plan (1952–1957); the 100 Flowers and
Anti-Rightist Campaigns (1956–1957); the Great Leap Forward (1958–1961); the moderate
period (1961–1965); the Socialist Education Movement (1962); and the Great Proletarian
Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). Candidates may consider how far these contributed towards
building a nation;
• Mao’s achievements in foreign policy may also be evaluated, including Sino–Soviet relations
and Mao’s rapprochement with the United States in 1972 and its importance in the recognition
of the People’s Republic of China as a nation;
• Mao’s achievements in relation to the contributions of some of the leaders may also be
discussed: Lin Biao, Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping, Zhou Enlai, Peng Dehuai and Jiang Qing;
• Some candidates may mention the CCP’s reassessment of Mao in July 1981 and/or the split of
70 % good and 30 % bad that has become the accepted Chinese assessment of Mao;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on Mao’s
achievements as a nation builder in China during the period.
28. Examine the reasons why Deng Xiaoping emerged as the most powerful leader in China by 1982.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the various
reasons why Deng Xiaoping emerged as the most powerful leader in China by 1982. The question
relates to the rise to power of Deng Xiaoping rather than his long-term policies as leader of China,
and candidates will need to identify why Deng was designated “paramount leader” by 1982.

• Candidates may refer to factors such as Deng’s long history within the Chinese Communist
Party (CCP), and his military connections (eg he was a military leader during the Civil War
1946–1949);
• In 1961 Mao was sidelined and Deng, with Liu Shaoqi, introduced more moderate and
pragmatic measures to end the famine and restore the economy. Mao reasserted his power
during the Cultural Revolution and Deng was purged and exiled to the countryside;
• Zhou Enlai, China’s Foreign Minister and premier, used his influence with Mao to have Deng
re-instated as vice-premier in 1974. In 1975 Deng worked with Zhou drafting the Four
Modernizations, a new economic reform programme;
• In January 1976 Zhou Enlai died and, in April 1976, thousands rallied in Tiananmen Square in
memory of him. The Gang of Four blamed Deng and he was dismissed from all his posts while
Hua Guofeng was promoted to premier and Mao’s successor. Mao died in September and Hua
arrested the Gang of Four in October. After this, calls to reinstate Deng were made by the
people and from inside the Party. One year after Zhou’s death, Tiananmen Square again filled
with pro-Deng rallies, with popular support another reason why Deng emerged as leader after
Mao;
• In July 1977, Deng returned to all his former posts and he proceeded to undermine Hua’s
authority. In preparation for the Third Plenum of the Eleventh Party National People’s Congress
in 1978, Deng criticized Hua’s adherence to Mao’s ideology and advocated new directions;
• The Four Modernizations were accepted at this meeting as the basis for future economic
development and began to be successfully implemented between 1978 and 1982. Thus Deng’s
economic appeal was also a reason;
• The Gang of Four were tried and sentenced in 1980–1981. Hua was removed from office by
1982;
Deng emerged as the most powerful leader in China by 1982.
Cold War conflicts in Asia
29. To what extent was the Vietnam War responsible for the rise of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia?
which the Vietnam War was responsible for the rise of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia. Candidates
should assess the impact the Vietnam War had on the rise of the Khmer Rouge, as well as
considering other factors that could be regarded as responsible for the rise.

• The leader of Cambodia, Sihanouk, had tried to keep Cambodia neutral as far as its position in
the Vietnam War was concerned. However, North Vietnamese troops began to use Cambodian
territory to supply their forces stationed in South Vietnam, which resulted in US bombing raids in
1969 on Cambodia. These bombing raids reduced support for Sihanouk and also benefited the
Khmer Rouge because people fled the cities for the countryside;
• Sihanouk was deposed by General Lon Nol in 1970. This unpopular move, combined with
continued US bombing and the increasing influence of the NVA in Cambodia further increased
support for the Khmer Rouge;
• Following his removal from power Sihanouk began to support the Khmer Rouge. Sihanouk's
popular support in rural Cambodia allowed the Khmer Rouge to extend its influence over the
Cambodian people. Many people in Cambodia who helped the Khmer Rouge against the
Lon Nol government thought they were fighting for the restoration of Sihanouk;
• In March 1970, the North Vietnamese invaded Cambodia claiming that the invasion was at the
request of the Khmer Rouge. The NVA quickly overran large parts of Cambodia, defeating
government forces and turning the newly acquired territories over to the Khmer Rouge;
• Candidates may consider other factors that led to the rise of the Khmer Rouge such as
long-term social and economic problems or the policies and tactics of the Khmer Rouge;
which the Vietnam War was responsible for the rise of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia.
30. To what extent were foreign powers responsible for the outbreak of the Korean War?
which foreign powers were responsible for the outbreak of the Korean War. Candidates should
assess the roles of foreign powers, most notably the USSR, US, China and the United Nations, in
the outbreak of the Korean War, as well as considering other factors which could be regarded as
responsible for the outbreak of the war.

• Candidates may include some context of the impact of the beginnings of the Cold War on the
Korean peninsula. At the Yalta Conference it was decided that Korea should be temporarily
divided along the 38th parallel. The emerging Cold War conflict saw the declaration of two
Korean states in 1948, the Communist north and a non-Communist south. The Soviet-backed
communist regime in the North was led by Kim Il Sung, and the Americans supported the
anti-communist Syngman Rhee, who became leader of the Republic of Korea (ROK);
• The importance of the UN intervention should also be addressed. The North Korean invasion of
the South in June 1950 intensified US fears of the spread of communism. A vote in the UN
Security Council authorized UN intervention, and US forces (joined by those of other
non-Communist powers) entered the conflict, pursuing the North Koreans towards the Yalu
River border with China. The USSR was absent during the UN vote, which enabled the US to
gain UN authorization;
• The People’s Republic of China wanted to preserve a North Korean Communist State (the
DPRK) to serve as a buffer between Manchuria and the US-dominated ROK. The PRC was
concerned that the US had broken its promise not to cross the 38th Parallel. The Chinese
planned a surprise attack, secretly moving troops across the Yalu. China did not declare war
and claimed the troops to be “volunteers” so that it could officially deny responsibility. Chinese
“volunteers” drove the UN forces back to the 38th parallel where the war reached a stalemate
until a ceasefire in 1953. The DPRK became a bastion of Communism under Kim Il Sung and
formed a close alliance with China;
• Candidates may suggest other factors were also responsible such as the oppressive nature of
Syngman Rhee’s regime before war broke out. Thousands of suspected Communists were
jailed or killed. Others fled to prepare for guerrilla war against the US-sponsored Republic Of
Korea government. Other factors also included the Cold War and Kim’s desire to unite the
Korean peninsula.
which foreign powers were responsible for the outbreak of the Korean War.
Developments and challenges in South Asia after 1947
31. Discuss the nature of the problems facing Pakistan, and the extent to which they had been
resolved by the end of the 20th century.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question. In this case candidates
should discuss the nature of range of social, political and economic problems facing Pakistan, and
also assess the extent to which those problems had been resolved by the end of the 20th century.

• Pakistan was created from the two regions where Muslims were the majority but this resulted in
the new nation being a divided one, separated by Indian territory. East Pakistanis felt exploited
by the West Pakistan-dominated central government. Linguistic, cultural, and ethnic differences
also contributed to the estrangement of East from West Pakistan. This division into East and
West Pakistan would eventually lead to conflict and the creation of Bangladesh in 1971;
• Kashmir also added to the problems facing the new Pakistani government. Kashmir quickly
became disputed territory with India and Pakistan, was a cause of wars between the two
nations in 1965, 1971 and 1999, and was clearly not resolved by 2000;
• The economic situation in Pakistan was also very difficult. The wealth of British India had been
granted to India whereas Pakistan initially had little to support it. Pakistan had hoped for a
share of India’s material, financial, and military assets but this was not to be. Millions of
refugees on both sides of the divide also caused further difficulties. Economic problems
remained an ongoing issue. However, during the Khan era there were improvements in both
agricultural and industrial sectors, partly as a result of US funding;
• Jinnah had held the country together in these early days but his death led to a power vacuum.
Prime ministers that followed him lacked his strength of personality to deal with the regional
issues and religious differences/extremism that would continue to hinder Pakistan’s
development up until the end of the century;
• Violence, instability and dictatorial rule dominated the new nation. In 1958 a military
government was established and martial law declared, which would last over three years;
• The role of religion in politics would also remain an ongoing issue for Pakistan. Jinnah
managed to promote religious equality and tolerance but the prime ministers that followed failed
to do so. Ayub Khan had attempted to bring about a series of social reforms regarding
women/family life but many conservative Muslims saw them as too western. Under Zia’s
leadership of Pakistan religious tradition would dominate all aspects of daily life. Islamization
therefore became the guiding principle in Zia’s plan to reform Pakistan, to reassure its unity, and
to galvanize the country to meet all threats, both foreign and domestic;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the nature of the
problems facing Pakistan and the extent to which they had been resolved by the end of the 20th
century.
32. To what extent could Indira Gandhi’s leadership of India be regarded as successful?
which Indira Gandhi’s leadership of India could be regarded as successful. Candidates should
assess a range of Indira Gandhi’s policies and actions to determine the extent to which they were
successful.

• Indira Gandhi was the prime minister of India for three consecutive terms from 1966 to 1977
and for a fourth term from 1980 until her assassination in 1984, and was the dominant figure in
India for almost two decades. Her political career was often dogged by controversy;
• Positive social developments made under her leadership could include social equality, dealing
with the caste system, women’s rights, health, religious divisions, and education. However,
some of her policies, such as controlling population growth through a forced sterilization
programme, were disliked because of their authoritarian nature;
• A good deal had already been accomplished by her father (Jawaharlal Nehru) in terms of
economic development, as a result of a series of Five Year Plans. Indira’s economic policies
were initially a continuation of Nehru’s. She introduced left wing economic policies and
promoted agricultural productivity. However, by the mid-1970s India was facing an economic
crisis, to which it could be argued she failed to respond effectively;
• Indira’s style of leadership of India was often criticized. She was found guilty of electoral
malpractice in the 1975 elections and her support for her son Rajiv led to accusation of
nepotism and corruption. Indira was authoritarian by nature and her most controversial
measure was the State of Emergency in 1975, which enabled her to stay in power. In 1984 she
authorized the Indian army to forcibly enter the Sikh sacred Golden Temple in Amritsar to arrest
insurgents. She was assassinated in 1984 by a disgruntled Sikh bodyguard;
which Indira Gandhi’s leadership of India could be regarded as successful.
Developments in Oceania after the Second World War (1945–2005)
33. Evaluate the significance of immigration patterns in shaping society in Australia and New Zealand
since the Second World War.
significance of immigration patterns in shaping society in both Australia and New Zealand during
the period 1945 to 2005. In 1945 both Australia and New Zealand were conservative societies
strongly influenced by a British political, legal, economic and cultural heritage. Prior to 1945 both
countries had restricted immigration policies; after 1945 employment needs for modernization and
development meant both countries embarked on extensive immigration campaigns.

• For Australia, immigration patterns discussed may include: Calwell as Minister for Immigration
in 1945 commented that Australia must “populate or perish”. Calwell wanted ten British for
every non-English-speaking immigrant but this was unattainable, so immigrants from continental
Europe were encouraged. The ethnic mix of immigrants changed significantly over the
decades;
• For New Zealand, there was a similar pattern with accepting displaced persons, British
immigration and post-war assisted immigration schemes. In 1950, the National Government
brought skilled immigrants from the Netherlands and other Northern European countries. New
Zealand also had limited visas for unskilled labour from the Pacific Islands, but the racially
restricted immigration policy was not changed until 1987. New Zealand’s economy and social
patterns were also shaped by the demands of Maori urbanization and the immigration of a
greater number of Pacific Islanders;
• Initially, immigrants were given little government help and were expected to assimilate. Many
experienced prejudice and overseas qualifications were not recognized. Nevertheless,
immigration contributed to creating Australia’s and New Zealand’s post-war prosperity because
it allowed the economies to expand rapidly;
• Successive waves of immigrants caused demographic changes and stimulated the expansion of
infrastructure and essential services such as education and welfare. Immigration also impacted
on the social and cultural nature of Australian and New Zealand societies. This was apparent
by the 1980s and 1990s in the development of a café culture; changes to liquor licensing laws;
diversity of sports played; religious composition; etc;
• On the surface, both countries became much more open and tolerant societies, although there
were still instances of racism and discrimination. Nevertheless, elements of traditional
conservative societies still remained: the considerable influence of Australia’s Returned
Servicemen’s League (RSL) and New Zealand’s Returned Services Association (RSA); the
formation of radical right-wing anti-immigration parties;
immigration patterns in shaping society in Australia and New Zealand during the period.
34. Examine the changes in the foreign and economic policies of either Australia or New Zealand that
led to the development of closer relations with countries in Asia and the Pacific Islands between
1945 and 2000.
of the changes in both the foreign and economic policies of either Australia or New Zealand
between 1945 and 2000. The focus of the response should be specifically on the changes in these
policies that led to closer relations with countries in Asia and the Pacific Islands, so developments
such as changes in relations with Britain should be discussed within this context.

• The Second World War caused Australia and New Zealand to realize that they could not
depend on Britain for defence. This led to the ANZUS Pact (1951) between Australia, New
Zealand and the United States providing mutual defence;
• The rise of Communism in Asia presented another perceived threat and in 1954 Australia and
New Zealand joined the South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). These agreements
assumed a policy of forward defence so that Australia and New Zealand sent forces to resist
North Korea’s invasion of South Korea and to fight communist insurgents in Malaya, Borneo
and Vietnam;
• Australia and New Zealand were involved with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) countries and the Pacific Island states to promote regional cooperation on security
issues. Australia and New Zealand played key role in the Colombo Plan, which provided
developing nations in the region with aid and expertise;
• Britain’s entry into the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1972 reduced the access of
former British colonies and dominions in the region to British trade and markets. This caused
New Zealand to turn to East and South East Asia as economic partners, particularly to China.
Both countries formally recognized the People’s Republic of China in 1972 and these bilateral
relationships grew to become most important;
• Australia gave support to the United Nations and its activities in the region, including leading an
international peacekeeping force to East Timor in 1999 when Indonesia withdrew. Another
focus for Australia was relations between the developed and developing nations in the region;
• New Zealand was instrumental in establishing the South Pacific Forum in 1971, which in 1999
became the Pacific Island Forum. Australia was also a member of this group, which met
annually to discuss issues of mutual concern to the region such as economic development,
tourism, trade, security and education;
• Much of New Zealand’s foreign policy was focused on the Pacific region and economic
assistance was given to projects in the South Pacific Island states. In the late 20th century
New Zealand followed an increasingly isolationist policy and a strong anti-nuclear stance
opposed to French and US policies in the region;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the changes in
the foreign and economic policies that led to the development of closer relations with countries
in Asia and the Pacific Islands in the period.
Social, cultural and economic developments in Asia (excluding China, Japan and India)
(1980–2005)
35. To what extent has technology transformed the society and economy of two countries in the
region (excluding China, Japan and India)?
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question. Candidates should select
any two countries in the region (apart from China, Japan and India) and assess the extent to which
technology has transformed both their society and economy. Popular countries chosen for
discussion are likely to include South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore, but any two countries from the
region (apart from China, Japan and India) are acceptable.

• Computing and communication technologies significantly transformed most countries in the
region during the last two decades of the 20th century. A key development was the mass
production and widespread use of computers and cellular phones. During the 1980s millions of
computers made their way into schools, homes, business, and industry and were responsible
for transforming the nature of society and economic progress;
• By 1983 cellular phones became widely available and from 1990 to 2000, worldwide mobile
phone subscriptions grew from 12.4 million to 750 million. Growth was rapid even in the
developing world where cellular phones provided a solution to a shortage of landline
connections;
• The World Wide Web became accessible to the public in 1991 and most countries had a
connection to it by 1999. The economic impact of the World Wide Web has been significant.
Without the World Wide Web, for example, globalization would not have occurred to the extent it
has, transforming the way individuals and companies interact with each other. The ability to
share information on a global scale has also had political consequences as it presented new
opportunities for communication and information-sharing in countries where this had previously
been difficult;
• The response should focus on how technology has transformed both the society and the
economy of the countries selected for discussion. As part of the discussion of the impact on
society the ways technology has transformed education, medicine, sport and the arts could all
be considered;
• Candidates should be able to discuss the extent to which these developments transformed any
two countries in the region. They should consider the different ways digital technology has
transformed the economy and society of those nations. While many of the results identified are
likely to be positive in nature, stronger candidates may also have considered the problems
brought about by these new technologies, the extent to which they really have had an impact on
society, or inequality in the impact on different groups in societies;
which technology transformed the society and economy of the two countries selected for
discussion.
36. Discuss the extent to which women gained equality in one country in the region by 2005 (excluding
China, Japan and India).
which women gained equality in one country from the region (apart from China, Japan and India)
by 2005. The detail of candidates’ responses will vary according to the country they choose to
discuss.

• The time frame for this question is 1980 to 2005. Candidates may discuss the status of women
prior to this time frame as a means of establishing the extent to which this changed, but this
should not be the main focus of the response;
• Candidates should give details of policies, attitudes and/or actions of governments towards
women to measure the extent to which they did gain equality;
• Candidates may give political examples such as political representation and participation in
politics at local and national level, etc;
• Candidates may give economic examples such as greater social mobility, access to new
careers, property and inheritance legal rights, etc;
• Candidates may give social examples such as increased educational opportunities, access to
healthcare especially family planning, etc;
• Candidates may give examples from culture and sport such as women’s sporting events being
given more prestige, equal pay and credit given to women in the arts, film, music, etc;
which women gained equality in the country selected for discussion by 2005.
SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/EU
History
Higher level
Paper 3 – history of Europe
Specimen paper
2 hours 30 minutes

–2– SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/EU
Monarchies in England and France (1066–1223)
1. Examine the reasons for William I’s success in establishing his authority as King of England.
2. To what extent were the Capetian kings of France successful in extending the royal demesne in the
period from 1137 to 1223?
Muslims and Jews in medieval Europe (1095–1492)
3. Examine the reasons for the collapse of Islamic rule in Spain.
4. “The most significant impact of Jewish persecution was the loss of skill and ability from economic
and cultural life.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
Late medieval political crises (1300–1487)
5. Examine the reasons for English success in the Hundred Years War in the period from
1415 to 1427.
6. Compare and contrast the political challenges facing Henry VI and Edward IV of England.
The Renaissance (c1400–1600)
7. To what extent was the social and political structure in Florence responsible for the origins of the
Renaissance?
8. Discuss the role and significance of Lorenzo de Medici in the patronage of art in Renaissance Italy.
The Age of Exploration and its impact (1400–1550)
9. Evaluate the significance of Henry the Navigator in the 15th-century exploration of Africa.
10. Examine the importance of religion as a motive for European exploration.

The Reformation (1517–1572)
11. To what extent were the attitudes of the German princes responsible for the spread of Lutheranism
in Germany between 1517 and 1547?
12. Examine the importance of the Council of Trent for the Catholic Church.
Absolutism and Enlightenment (1650–1800)
13. Compare and contrast the political impact of Enlightenment ideas in two European states
you have studied.
14. Examine the impact of monarchical patronage on the arts in any one country from the region.
The French Revolution and Napoleon I (1774–1815)
15. To what extent do you agree with the claim that Louis XVI caused the French Revolution?
16. Evaluate the success of Napoleon I’s domestic policies in the period from 1799 to 1815.
France (1815–1914)
17. Examine the causes and significance of the Revolution of 1830.
18. Evaluate the extent of political instability in the French Third Republic between 1871 and 1890.
Society, politics and economy in Britain and Ireland (1815–1914)
19. “Unrealistic and overambitious demands were the main reason for the failure of Chartism.”
20. Evaluate the success of Disraeli’s foreign policy.
Turn over
Italy (1815–1871) and Germany (1815–1890)
21. Examine the consequences of Austrian dominance in Italy between 1815 and 1849.
22. “Bismarck was the sole architect of German unification, 1862 to 1871.” To what extent do you
agree with this statement?
Imperial Russia, revolution and the establishment of the Soviet Union (1855–1924)
23. Compare and contrast the domestic policies of Alexander II and Alexander III.
24. Examine the reasons for Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War.
Europe and the First World War (1871–1918)
25. Evaluate the claim that German foreign policy was the main cause of the First World War.
26. Discuss the effects of the First World War on the civilian population in any one European country.
European states in the inter-war years (1918–1939)
27. Evaluate the reasons for the survival of the Weimar Republic in the period from 1918 to 1923.
28. Examine the reasons for the Nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War.
Versailles to Berlin: Diplomacy in Europe (1919–1945)
29. “The Treaty of Versailles was a fair and reasonable peace.” To what extent do you agree with
this statement?
30. Evaluate the successes and failures of the League of Nations in Europe.
The Soviet Union and post-Soviet Russia (1924–2000)
31. Discuss the reasons for Stalin’s success in the struggle for power during the period 1924 to 1929.
32. Evaluate the success of Brezhnev’s domestic policies.

Post-war western and northern Europe (1945–2000)
33. Examine the reasons for, and the extent of, European integration between 1945 and 2000.
34. Discuss the challenges to the establishment of democracy in Spain up to 1982.
Post-war central and eastern Europe (1945–2000)
35. Examine the extent of economic and social change in any one country in Central or Eastern
Europe from 1989 to 2000.
36. “Popular support for local Communist parties was the main reason for Soviet dominance in
Eastern Europe during the period 1945 to 1955.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/EU/M
Markscheme
Specimen
History
Higher level
Paper 3 – history of Europe
38 pages
–2– SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/EU/M

organized.
places.
approach.
coherence.
task.
Monarchies in England and France (1066–1223)
1. Examine the reasons for William I’s success in establishing his authority as King of England.
William I’s success in establishing his rule in England in the decades after 1066. William I, Duke of
Normandy (1028–1087), also known as William the Conqueror, and as William I of England, ruled
from 1066 until his death in 1087.

• William I’s use of force, including the harrying of the north, to enforce his authority following the
victory at Hastings;
• William I’s implantation of a new French-speaking military, bureaucratic and ecclesiastical elite
to govern his kingdom;
• William I’s use of castles as a means of imposing military authority and control;
• William I’s administrative policies, including the Domesday Survey and the growth of written
governance;
• William I’s continuation of some pre-existing institutions and systems, including the office of earl
and sheriff, the use of writs and the re-introduction of Geld as a tax;
• William I’s use of force to suppress rebellions in the north and southwest; for example, the
rebellion in 1069 was crushed and many leaders executed;
• William I’s control over the Church in England;
William I’s success in establishing his authority as King of England.
2. To what extent were the Capetian kings of France successful in extending the royal demesne in
the period from 1137 to 1223?
which the Capetian kings of France were able to extend their lands during the reigns of Louis VII
and Philip II.

• The prospect of the absorption of Aquitaine following Louis’s marriage to Eleanor;
• The inability of Louis VII to resist the expansion of Angevin rule and influence into Aquitaine,
Normandy and Brittany;
• Louis VII’s interventions in the family politics of Henry II in order to seek to divide his enemies
and their territories;
• Philip II’s early expansion of the royal demesne through purchase, eg Amiens and Tournai;
• Philip II’s successful war against Henry II in 1187 to 1189, resulting in the conquest of Touraine
and Maine;
• Philip II’s successful war against John, and the conquest of Normandy (1203–4);
• The Albigensian Crusade and the successful extension of royal power into the South of France;
which the Capetian kings of France were able to extend their lands during the period.
Muslims and Jews in medieval Europe (1095–1492)
3. Examine the reasons for the collapse of Islamic rule in Spain.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, the reasons
for the collapse of Islamic rule in Spain.

• The reasons for the collapse of Islamic rule may be found in a combination of Islamic problems
and changes in the Christian world;
• Constant strife amongst Muslim kingdoms weakened the Muslim grip on power, whereas the
Christian kingdoms joined together and became stronger;
• Muslim states made alliances with Christian states to fight other Muslim states, which increased
Christian wealth and power while weakening the Muslim states;
• The Almohads and Almoravids could not restore Muslim power due to strife between them and
their unpopularity with many Muslims in Spain;
• The Christians in Spain received major reinforcements from Europe as part of the crusading
movement. This allowed them to be victorious at Las Navas de Tolosa which was a major blow
to Muslim power;
• Military orders, such as the Templars, established themselves in Spain to fight against the
Muslims and added strength to Christian armies;
• Christian states gained in wealth and power by adopting Muslim knowledge, technology and
military tactics;
the collapse of Islamic rule in Spain.
4. “The most significant impact of Jewish persecution was the loss of skill and ability from economic
and cultural life.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
which the candidate agrees with the claim that the most significant impact of Jewish persecution
was the loss of skill and ability from economic and cultural life. Candidates should discuss the
significance of this particular impact of Jewish persecution, as well as discussing the relative
significance of other impacts, both of the persecution on the Jews themselves and also of the
persecution on society.

• The persecution of Jews in medieval Europe worsened during the Crusades, and Jews were
also blamed for the spread of the Black Death;
• The Jewish persecution had a significant impact on economic and cultural life. Many Jews
previously held important roles in finance and, in Spain, Córdoba had previously been a centre
for Jewish scholarship and philosophy;
• The persecution was evident throughout Europe. Under the Almohads many Jews and
Christians were expelled from Islamic Spain. There were restrictions on the official posts Jews
could hold in medieval Europe, such as the restrictions introduced by Pope Gregory VII, and
numerous expulsions, such as the expulsions from England under Edward I and France under
Charles IV;
• The impact on Jewish people of this persecution included violent riots and attacks on Jewish
populations. This included massacres such as the Strasbourg massacre (1349) and the
massacre in Seville in 1391. Following the massacre in Seville many synagogues were
converted into churches and Jewish buildings were burnt down, and violence spread to other
areas such as Barcelona;
• In both Sicily and Spain, Jews were forced to wear badges to identify themselves, and were
forced to live in segregated areas;
• The time period for this question runs until 1492, allowing candidates to include discussion of
the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition under Ferdinand and Isabella, and the Alhambra
Decree of 1492;
which the candidate agrees with the claim that the most significant impact of Jewish persecution
was the loss of skill and ability from economic and cultural life.
Late medieval political crises (1300–1487)
5. Examine the reasons for English success in the Hundred Years War in the period from 1415
to 1427.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the reasons
why King Henry V and his brothers were able to conquer Normandy and much of North-West
France in the years 1415 to 1427.

• The incapacity of Charles VI, contrasted with the vigour and ambition of Henry V;
• The significance of the Civil War in France; division between Burgundy and Orleans;
• The impact of the battles of Agincourt (1415) and Verneuil (1424); and the conquest of
Normandy (1417);
• The role of English archers and men-at-arms in the military successes of this period;
• The role of Parliament in enabling war finance for Henry V’s armies;
• The impact of the Treaty of Troyes (1420);
• The successful continuation of the war under John, Duke of Bedford, following Henry V’s death;
English success in the Hundred Years War in the specified period.
6. Compare and contrast the political challenges facing Henry VI and Edward IV of England.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case by comparing
and contrasting the problems faced by Henry VI and Edward IV during the Wars of the Roses.

• Comparison: both Henry VI and Edward IV had insecure titles derived from conquest and
debatable hereditary claims;
• Comparison: Both Henry VI and Edward IV had queens who polarized their opponents:
Margaret of Anjou and Elizabeth Woodville;
• Contrast: Henry VI faced a wave of unpopularity due to his perceived responsibility for defeats
in France, whereas Edward IV secured a French pension in the 1470s to deter him from
invading;
• Contrast: the Lancastrian family was broadly loyal to Henry VI, whereas Edward IV experienced
disloyalty from his brother Clarence, and the Earl of Warwick;
• Contrast: Henry VI was incapable of ruling for much of his reign, whereas Edward IV was
competent and able from the beginning of his reign;
• Contrast: Henry VI was overwhelmed by the strength of political opposition in the 1460s,
whereas Edward IV was secure during much of his reign, and died as king;
• Contrast: Henry VI faced major popular opposition in Parliament and during the 1450 uprising;
whereas Edward IV had more support in the south;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences in the political challenges
facing the two rulers, not simply give a description of the nature of those challenges. Thematic
approaches are therefore likely to be more successful than end-on comparisons.
and differences between the political challenges facing Henry VI and Edward IV of England.
The Renaissance (c1400–1600)
7. To what extent was the social and political structure in Florence responsible for the origins of the
Renaissance?
which the particular social and political structure in Florence was responsible for the origins of the
Renaissance. Florence was extremely powerful and influential at this time, as well as having
strong traditions of humanism and civic organization.

• Florence was a self-governing city state, in contrast to, for example, Milan. Social status was
closely linked to occupation – power was mostly held by elite families of bankers and
merchants;
• The self-governance of city states such as Florence fostered competition between city states
such as Florence, Venice, Pisa and Siena; the rivalry between these city states during the
period helped to inspire them to new achievements in a variety of areas of endeavour;
• Candidates may discuss the importance of patronage of the arts in Florence; particularly the
importance of the ambitions of individual patrons and rulers such as Lorenzo de Medici;
• Candidates may discuss the extent to which other factors, such as economic factors, could be
regarded as responsible for the origins of the Renaissance; for example, Italy’s location linking
northern Europe to the Mediterranean world and the East, and to the world’s trade routes.
Florence in particular had gained a great deal of wealth from trade and industry, particularly
from cloth and banking;
• Candidates may discuss the extent to which other factors, such as religious and ideological
factors, could be regarded as responsible for the origins of the Renaissance; for example, crises
in the Catholic Church such as the Avignon Papacy controversy led to a dissatisfaction with
medieval values, or the strong tradition of humanism in Florence;
which the particular social and political structure in Florence was responsible for the origins of
the Renaissance.
– 10 – SPEC/3/HISTS/HP3/ENG/TZ0/EU/M
8. Discuss the role and significance of Lorenzo de Medici in the patronage of art in Renaissance Italy.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the role and
significance of Lorenzo de Medici in the patronage of art in Renaissance Italy. The Medici family
dominated politics in Florence for much of the 15th century, and Lorenzo was particularly
renowned for being an artistic patron for artists such as Michelangelo.

• Lorenzo as the patron of individual artists such as Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Verrocchio and
Botticelli;
• Lorenzo was also a literary patron, expanding the library begun by his father;
• Lorenzo supported the development of Humanism, bringing together philosophers to discuss
classical texts and helping Florence to become an important centre of Renaissance Humanism;
• Lorenzo’s pride and ambition for the city of Florence was expressed in his own spending on
public projects;
• Some recent historians argue that although Lorenzo de Medici played an important role in the
patronage of art in Italy, his significance is sometimes exaggerated or overstated;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the role and
significance of Lorenzo de Medici in the patronage of art in Renaissance Italy.
The Age of Exploration and its impact (1400–1550)
9. Evaluate the significance of Henry the Navigator in the 15th-century exploration of Africa.
significance of Henry the Navigator in the 15th-century exploration of Africa.

• Henry’s patronage of exploration, including his supposed creation of a community of
cartographers on the Sagres peninsula, including Jehuda Cresques;
• Henry’s involvement in both enslavement and conversion and the debate over his reputation;
• The importance of expeditions ordered by Henry under the leadership of sailors such as
Cadamosto, Eanes, Velho, Perestrelo, Zarco and Teixeira;
• His patronage of the University of Lisbon, and its link to his scientific interests;
• His patronage of naval design to facilitate explorations of longer duration;
• The failure of the expedition to Tangier in 1437;
Henry the Navigator in the 15th-century exploration of Africa.
10. Examine the importance of religion as a motive for European exploration.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the relative
importance of religion as a motive for European exploration in the 15th and early 16th centuries.
There are numerous possible motives for European exploration, and candidates must assess the
relative importance of religion.

• Religious motives: desire to convert people in new lands; continue the Crusades against Islam;
contact Christian kingdoms in Africa that some people believed to exist;
• Commercial motives: searching for gold, spices and other luxury products from the East; the
Ottoman conquest of Byzantium threatened to close trade routes to the East – new ones had to
be opened;
• Political motives: European countries saw exploration as a way to increase their wealth and
strategic power versus rivals; patronage of influential leaders such as Henry the Navigator
inspired the movement;
• Individual motives: ambitious individuals such as Columbus and Cabot set out to seek personal
fortunes and influence; stories of the East by individuals such as Marco Polo inspired others to
seek these territories;
• Other reasons for exploration: improvements in ship design, navigational instruments and maps
made increased exploration possible;
religion as a motive for European exploration.
The Reformation (1517–1572)
11. To what extent were the attitudes of the German princes responsible for the spread of Lutheranism
in Germany between 1517 and 1547?
which the attitudes of the German princes were responsible for the spread of Lutheranism in
Germany in the first half of the 16th century.

• The power of the German princes and their instincts for political autonomy, eg Frederick the
Wise, Elector of Saxony;
• The resistance of German princes to Papal taxation and, especially, the sale of indulgences
within Germany;
• Luther’s challenge to the position and authority of the Papacy over the Church in the German
states;
• The appeal of Lutheran doctrine and ideology to other Humanists and Reformers;
• The importance of the printing press, hymns and church music in disseminating Lutheran ideas;
• The use of Luther by the German princes as a means of asserting their autonomy against
Charles V;
• The variety of pressures on Charles V, from France, his own Spanish kingdoms, and from the
Turks, preventing concerted action against the Lutherans in Germany;
which the attitudes of the German princes were responsible for the spread of Lutheranism in
Germany in the first half of the 16th century.
12. Examine the importance of the Council of Trent for the Catholic Church.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, the
importance of the Council of Trent (1545–1563). Candidates are likely to focus on the importance
of the Council itself, and also of the reforms that it introduced, such as the reissuing of the Vulgate
Bible, improved education for priests, and the tightening of discipline.

• The Council of Trent is often regarded as the beginning of a period of Catholic revival, and
was a response to the Protestant Reformation. It played an important role by providing a
re-assertion of Catholic doctrine against Protestant ideas such as “Justification by Faith Alone”;
• The Council clarified Catholic doctrines and teachings. It had a direct impact on Church
practices; for example, the decision was taken to increase regulation of the texts used in Mass
ceremonies, a decision that was implemented through the Roman Missal of 1570;
• The Council rejected compromise with the Protestants, and affirmed the existing structure of the
Catholic Church;
• The Council had limitations; for example, it was heavily dominated by Italian bishops, and only a
small percentage of the bishops eligible to attend actually did so. The Council took a long time
to actually come about, because of factors such as the opposition of Clement VII and the wider
political instability in Europe;
• The Council of Trent was an important factor in bringing about reform in the Catholic Church,
but there were other factors that drove reform too. For example, candidates may discuss the
relative importance of the Council as compared to the role of individual priests, preachers and
leaders such as Ingnatius of Loyola, or may discuss the importance of new religious orders,
especially the Jesuits;
the Council of Trent for the Catholic Church.
Absolutism and Enlightenment (1650–1800)
13. Compare and contrast the political impact of Enlightenment ideas in two European states you have
studied.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, discussion of
both similarities and differences in the political impact of Enlightenment ideas in two European
states. The detail of candidates’ answers will vary according to the particular states they choose to
discuss, but candidates should make links between the ideas of the Enlightenment and the extent
to which these led to political change in their chosen examples. Candidates should focus their
response on the political impact of Enlightenment ideas, rather than on a detailed philosophical
discussion of the ideas themselves.

• Candidates may identify Enlightenment ideas of particular relevance, such as the focus on
reason rather than on tradition and faith;
• How these ideas could promote change or be used to support existing regimes;
• The French example is likely to be especially popular as one of the two states used in the
comparison, but is not required;
• The ways in which Enlightenment ideas had an impact on public opinion and debate, and led to
desire for political reform;
• How Enlightenment ideas influenced discussion around individual rights and political
constitutions;
• The use of Enlightenment ideas in strengthening nation states;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences in the political impact of
Enlightenment ideas in the two states chosen for discussion, not simply give a description of the
features of those ideas, or an account of the impact in each. Thematic approaches are
therefore likely to be more successful than end-on comparisons.
and differences between the political impact of Enlightenment ideas in two European states.
14. Examine the impact of monarchical patronage on the arts in any one country from the region.
should show a clear understanding of how patronage operated and may argue that it was positive
or negative for the development of the arts.

• The detail of candidates’ answers will vary according to the country they choose to discuss;
• Monarchs used the arts to reinforce their position;
• The impact of financial support for artistic endeavour supplied by monarchs;
• The arts were moved away from domination by the Church with the rise of monarchical
patronage, and the impact that this had;
• Discussion of the impact on the arts could include the impact on architecture, music, drama and
literature as well as painting and sculpture;
monarchical patronage on the arts in the country selected for discussion.
The French Revolution and Napoleon I (1774–1815)
15. To what extent do you agree with the claim that Louis XVI caused the French Revolution?
which it was the misjudgments of Louis XVI that caused the French Revolution rather than any
other factors.

• Louis XVI’s decision to intervene in the American War of Independence with the resultant
financial cost and possible spread of Enlightenment ideas via returning French troops;
• Vacillating leadership of Louis XVI; appointment of a succession of ministers (for example
Turgot, Necker, Calonne) but failure to support ministers’ reform measures;
• Louis XVI’s indecision post-1789, sometimes seeming to work with those wanting a
constitutional monarchy, but then Flight to Varennes and discovery of the armoire de fer;
• In order to balance arguments that focus on Louis XVI, there could be other points raised.
These could include social inequality inherent in the Áncien Régime; estates system and
taxation;
• Candidates may also include Enlightenment ideas and their role in the revolution;
• Some candidates may point out the interrelated nature of some of the factors above;
which the candidate agrees with the claim that Louis XVI caused the French Revolution.
16. Evaluate the success of Napoleon I’s domestic policies in the period from 1799 to 1815.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, the aims of
Napoleon I’s domestic policies should be identified so that an evaluation of success can be made.
Aims could include establishment and preservation of the Empire and creating a stable and
efficient state.

• Code Napoléon;
• Concordat with the Pope;
• Administrative, fiscal and economic policies;
• Education reforms;
• The strengthening of the state including law enforcement and repression of opposition;
• The honours and merit system; légion d’honneur;
• Confirmation of ownership of former church and émigré land;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the success of
Napoleon I’s domestic policies in the period 1799 to 1815.
France (1815–1914)
17. Examine the causes and significance of the Revolution of 1830.
should identify the main reasons for the unpopularity of the Bourbon regime and Charles X by
1830. With regard to significance, candidates may comment on the increasing importance of
popular support in maintaining a regime.

• Revival of the Ultras from c1820 including the re-establishment of censorship and adjustment of
the electoral law in the interests of the wealthy;
• Under Charles X from 1824, there was compensation for the émigrés and a clerical revival;
• Growth of an opposition press which became popular as a vehicle for criticism of reactionary
policies;
• Charles X’s choice of Polignac as prime minister in 1829;
• Ordinances of St. Cloud in July 1830;
• Other factors could include economic problems and a poor harvest which increased opposition,
leading to strikes and demonstrations especially in Paris;
• For significance, candidates could argue that the fact that the revolution occurred underlined the
importance of a degree of popular consent for the regime;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the causes and
significance of the Revolution of 1830.
18. Evaluate the extent of political instability in the French Third Republic between 1871 and 1890.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case whether the
French Third Republic was really as unstable as it appeared to be. Candidates may consider
different phases in the life of the Republic within this period or consider the extent of danger
represented by different crises.

• Post-war reconstruction and issues around possible monarchical restoration. The struggle
between the National Assembly and the President (Thiers and MacMahon);
• The changing nature of the National Assembly (increased Republican representation) and the
tension this created with MacMahon;
• The period to 1877 was characterized by a lack of clarity as to whether the Republic would
survive;
• Corruption and scandals, eg the second presidency of Grévy (the sale of honours);
• The rise of Boulangisme and the extent to which Boulanger posed a real threat;
• Throughout the period, there was apparent instability with regular changes of government and
fragmented political parties. However, some may argue that there was in fact a great deal of
continuity in terms of membership of governments;
• An argument could be made that Republican unity against enemies on the Right ensured the
survival of the Republic, suggesting an underlying stability;
political instability in the Third Republic between 1871 and 1890.
Society, politics and economy in Britain and Ireland (1815–1914)
19. “Unrealistic and overambitious demands were the main reason for the failure of Chartism.”
should identify the demands of the People’s Charter, consider the political context in which these
demands were made, and examine levels of Chartist support in order to arrive at an evaluation of
how realistic these demands were.

• The extent to which Chartist support fluctuated according to the state of the economy;
• Post-1832 parliament was unwilling to consider any further electoral reform;
• Other factors for the failure of Chartism include divided leadership as to methods; moral vs.
physical force;
• The flexibility of the response by the British state; on the one hand to react promptly and
effectively to Chartist violence and on the other to legislate to ameliorate social and economic
grievances (Repeal of the Corn Laws, Mines Act);
• Lack of middle class support arguably also undermined credibility;
• Some might argue there was a confusion of social and political aims within the movement
(O’Connor Land Scheme);
• Some candidates may argue that Chartism did not ultimately fail as many of the demands of the
Charter were enacted over the following decades;
which the candidate agrees with the claim that unrealistic and overambitious demands were the
main reason for the failure of Chartism.
20. Evaluate the success of Disraeli’s foreign policy.
should identify the goals of Disraeli’s foreign policy as well as the consequences in order to arrive
at an evaluation of success.

• There is some debate as to how far Disraeli had clear aims, the extent to which he was an
opportunist and how far his policy was driven by decisions of men on the ground, eg in South
Africa and Afghanistan;
• Imperial policy including Suez Canal shares, Empress of India Act, Zulu War, wars in
Afghanistan;
• European policy including Congress of Berlin;
• As far as the Suez Canal was concerned, the route to India was safeguarded and access to the
Empire improved (Australia and New Zealand). French influence was also limited. However, it
did increase the British role in Egyptian affairs which led to problems in the 1880s;
• As far as South Africa and Afghanistan are concerned, candidates may argue that initial military
reverses were overcome; however, at a cost to Disraeli’s popularity. In addition, problems
continued in these areas; later conflicts in South Africa;
• Turning to the Congress of Berlin, Disraeli’s main aim was to limit Russian influence in the
Balkans in order to protect British interests. This was largely successful in the short term
(Russian influence was reduced and Britain gained Cyprus). However, Gladstone’s
denunciation of “Bulgarian atrocities” contributed to Disraeli’s defeat at the 1880 election;
Disraeli’s foreign policy.
Italy (1815–1871) and Germany (1815–1890)
21. Examine the consequences of Austrian dominance in Italy between 1815 and 1849.
should understand the provisions of the Congress of Vienna insofar as they relate to Austrian
dominance in Italy and their impact.

• Direct Austrian rule over Lombardy and Venetia;
• Indirect Austrian rule in the Central Duchies;
• Austrian role in suppression of rebellions, eg in Naples and Piedmont in 1821 and in 1831–2 in
the Central Duchies;
• Austrian role in suppression of 1848 revolutions in Italy and defeat of Piedmont at Novara and
Custoza;
• Some may argue that consequences included the development of a degree of Italian national
consciousness as a reaction to Austrian repression;
• Some may argue that Austria limited the extent of liberal reform in the Central Duchies;
• Austrian defeat of Piedmont in 1849 also meant that Piedmont was seen as a standard bearer
for Italian unification in the following decades. (This point is permissible as consequences of
Austrian dominance could be argued to continue post-1849);
• Some may point out that there were consequences for Austria; arguably its repressive role in
Italy meant that it failed to reform domestically and failed to respond adequately to the growth of
Prussian power in Germany;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the
consequences of Austrian dominance in Italy in the specified period.
22. “Bismarck was the sole architect of German unification, 1862 to 1871.” To what extent do you
agree with this statement?
should consider how important Bismarck’s contribution to German unification was, as well as
looking at the role of others. There could also be some discussion of to what extent Bismarck
planned unification, as implied by the term “architect”, or whether he was an opportunist who
improvised successfully.

• Bismarck’s role in strengthening Prussia (military reforms and economic measures);
• Bismarck’s foreign policy; his resistance to Austrian dominance of the German federation;
• Bismarck’s role in the wars of unification: Danish War of 1864, Austro–Prussian War of 1866
and Franco–Prussian War of 1870–71;
• The use of the term “architect” implies planning by Bismarck; candidates could discuss how far
Bismarck planned each stage of the process, or whether he reacted to events;
• Other factors that led to unification could include growing German nationalism, decline of
Austria, weakness and failure of Napoleon III, role of King William IV of Prussia and the
Prussian military (Roon and Moltke);
• There could also be some consideration of the broader international context in which unification
occurred (non-intervention of Britain and Russia);
which the candidate agrees with the claim that Bismarck was the sole architect of German
unification during the period 1862 to 1871.
Imperial Russia, revolution and the establishment of the Soviet Union (1855–1924)
23. Compare and contrast the domestic policies of Alexander II and Alexander III.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, examining in
detail the reigns of both Tsars and identifying clearly where they were fundamentally in agreement,
such as maintaining the Autocracy and strengthening Russia by encouraging economic growth. It
could be argued that they were both very similar in their aims but differed as to how they could be
achieved.

• Candidates may focus on the contrast between Alexander II as the “Reforming Tsar” and
Alexander III as the “Reactionary Tsar”;
• Discussion should be supported by reference to specific policies, for example, Alexander III’s
reversal of Zemstva power by the appointment of Land Commandants, increasing control of
education, support for the Church etc;
• In terms of the general attitudes of both Tsars, Alexander II was open to western ideas to some
extent whereas Alexander III was very much a Slavophile;
• Comparisons could include the key point that both were determined to maintain the monarchy;
• Both pursued Russian dominance within the Empire; Alexander II being less willing to make
concessions to national minorities after the Polish revolt of 1863;
• Both sought economic growth. It is often forgotten that Alexander III appointed Witte as finance
minister;
• Candidates must give an account of the similarities and differences in the domestic policies of
the two Tsars, not simply give a description of the features of these policies. Thematic
approaches are therefore likely to be more successful than end-on comparisons.
and differences between the domestic policies of Alexander II and Alexander III.
24. Examine the reasons for Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the relative
strength of the Bolsheviks and weakness of the White opposition.

• Effective military leadership by Trotsky and political leadership by Lenin (War Communism and
increase in Party control);
• Divisions between and among the Whites and Greens, both in terms of aims and military
objectives;
• Aims of the Bolsheviks were very clear: protection of the Revolution and resistance to foreign
intervention (nationalist aspect);
• Some popular support for the Bolsheviks was linked to policies of land and peace (Brest
Litovsk) and an unwillingness to revert to any approximation of Tsarist rule;
• Bolsheviks controlled central areas and key cities of Russia, giving a geographical advantage
over their opposition;
• Decline of foreign support for the Whites due to a lack of popular support for involvement in
Russia’s Civil War;
Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War.
Europe and the First World War (1871–1918)
25. Evaluate the claim that German foreign policy was the main cause of the First World War.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case examination of
various causes of the First World War and a consideration of the significance of German foreign
policy in provoking the war.

• Weltpolitik, “Place in the sun”; examples could include the First and Second Moroccan crises,
naval race with Britain;
• German failure to renew the Reinsurance Treaty and greater support for Austria-Hungary (eg
the Bosnian crisis of 1908–9 and the “blank cheque” of July 1914);
• Some may argue that the erratic nature of German foreign policy was due to some extent to the
character of Wilhelm II and that this led to distrust of Germany;
• Looking at other causes of the war, candidates could discuss the development of “two armed
camps” between the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance;
• Broader problems of increased nationalism, particularly in the Balkans, led to instability as did
the decline of the Ottoman Empire;
• There could be an examination of the failure to manage the July 1914 crisis successfully by all
the major powers (war had been averted in previous crises);
• Some may argue that many nations were willing to go to war in 1914 as a distraction from
domestic problems (eg Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Britain, France);
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the claim that
German foreign policy was the main cause of the First World War.
26. Discuss the effects of the First World War on the civilian population in any one European country.
should focus clearly on effects of the war on the civilian population in their chosen country and
avoid discussion of military events.

• Britain, Germany, France and Russia are likely to be popular choices, but candidates may write
about any other European country;
• Initial national unity and support for respective governments;
• The impact of conscription including the movement of women into the workforce;
• Economic impact; increased government control of the economy;
• Health of the population and rationing; civilian casualties where appropriate;
• Growth of labour unrest and political radicalism, especially in Germany and Russia;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the effects of the
First World War on the civilian population in the country selected for discussion.
European states in the inter-war years (1918–1939)
27. Evaluate the reasons for the survival of the Weimar Republic in the period from 1918 to 1923.
need to identify the threats to the Republic and the reasons why they were overcome.

• Threats included Spartacist Rebellion, Bavarian Republic, Kapp Putsch, Munich Putsch;
• They were overcome either because of military support for the Republic (Spartacist Rebellion
and Bavarian Republic, Groener Ebert Pact) or popular support (Kapp);
• Mainstream Weimar parties (Centre, SPD, DVP and DDP) had significant levels of popularity in
the country, whereas the extremist parties, KPD, NSDAP and DNVP had limited support;
• Some candidates may argue that in these years the Allies would have intervened against an
overthrow of the Republic by revolutionary or monarchical forces;
• During the crisis of 1923, Ebert as president allowed the use of Article 48 to enable politicians to
take effective decisions to resolve the crisis, eg Stresemann issuing of the Rentenmark and
calling off of Passive Resistance;
the survival of the Weimar Republic in the period 1918 to 1923.
28. Examine the reasons for the Nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War.
should assess why the Nationalists under Franco were able to win the war looking both at the
advantages of the Nationalist side and the weaknesses of the Republicans.

• Nationalist advantages could include the fact that the majority of the armed forces were on their
side; the importance of the experienced Army of Africa could be underlined;
• The role of foreign intervention could be discussed; Nazi/Fascist support for the Nationalists
and the failure of the British and French governments to aid the Republicans; failure of the
Non-Intervention Committee. The extent and significance of Soviet assistance to the
Republican side could be debated;
• Candidates may focus on the degree of political and military organization on both sides; some
may argue that disunity on the Republican side (eg conflicts between PCE and POUM in
Catalonia) was a disadvantage for them and that this contrasted with the way in which different
elements of the Nationalist side worked together: Carlists, Falangists, Army;
• There was arguably clearer leadership on the Nationalist side, with Franco appointed as
Generalísimo in autumn 1936. This contrasted with divisions in the leadership of the
Republican side (for example, Largo Caballero was replaced by Negrín in May 1937);
• Role of the Church in endorsing the Nationalist side; extent to which this helped to generate
popular support in some areas for the Nationalists;
• Role of landowners and big business in supporting the Nationalists financially; and their
alienation from the Republicans;
the Nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War.
Versailles to Berlin: Diplomacy in Europe (1919–1945)
29. “The Treaty of Versailles was a fair and reasonable peace.” To what extent do you agree with this
statement?
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case, examining the
major terms of the treaty with reference to the words “fair “ and “reasonable”. Some may disagree
while others will agree with the statement. In either case, there should be some consideration of
the context in which the treaty was drawn up ie the aftermath of a devastating war, the fact that
Germany admitted defeat but that this was a new democratic Germany, the belief that Wilson’s 14
points would form the basis for negotiations.

• The issue of the “War Guilt Clause” with perhaps reference to different historical theories.
Possibly linking war guilt to the payment of reparations;
• Territorial losses – Alsace-Lorraine, Schleswig-Holstein, Polish Corridor etc, did these conflict
with the principle of National Self-Determination?;
• Disarmament clauses; did these leave Germany unprotected and weak or did they satisfy the
French need for security?;
• Reparations: were these legitimate? Were they too much?;
• Responses that agree with the statement may argue that German aggression was the main
cause of the war, that Germany had suffered little material damage and that actually the peace
could have been much harsher (eg Clemenceau was prevented from pursuing the
establishment of an independent Rhineland state). In addition, comparisons could be made
with the draconian provisions of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk imposed by Germany on Russia in
March 1918;
• Responses that disagree may argue the treaty was a Diktat, that it left Germany unable to
recover economically because of the burden of reparations (although they did not cause
inflation in 1923), that it was unfair to enforce a peace on the new democratic republic when the
justification for such a peace were the policies of the German Empire;
which the candidate agrees with the claim that the Treaty of Versailles was a fair and
reasonable peace.
30. Evaluate the successes and failures of the League of Nations in Europe.
should be able to identify and evaluate the successes and failures of the League of Nations in
Europe to 1939.

• For successes, candidates could focus on the Aaland Islands dispute, the Upper Silesia
settlement, Greek–Bulgarian Crisis of 1925. A variety of non-territorial successes could be
discussed: for example the Nansen passport for displaced persons.
• For failures, many candidates will no doubt discuss the collapse of attempts at disarmament,
the withdrawal of key nations from the League (Germany, Italy) and perhaps the weakness of
the Non-Intervention Committee on the Spanish Civil War.
• The League also failed to act when the Treaty of Versailles was breached; eg German
remilitarization of the Rhineland in March 1936.
• Some candidates may look at weaknesses in the League’s structure as well as the choice of
some nations not to join and the exclusion of others. Even when the Soviet Union joined in
1934, there was little cooperation due to the West’s fear of communism.
• Some candidates may argue that the League was more successful in the 1920s than the 1930s
due to the impact of the Depression in the latter decade. Arguably the Depression led to the
rise of aggressive militaristic states (Germany), who flouted the League and that it led other
states to pursue their own interests in foreign policy with little reference to the League (eg
British policy on sanctions against Italy after the invasion of Abyssinia and the British policy of
Appeasement of Germany).
• A way of linking together successes and failures could be to argue that the League could be
effective in Europe when the issues were related to relatively small powers but that this was not
the case when major powers were concerned
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the successes
and failures of the League of Nations in Europe.
The Soviet Union and post- Soviet Russia (1924–2000)
31. Discuss the reasons for Stalin’s success in the struggle for power during the period 1924 to 1929.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case why Stalin,
who had been very much a bureaucrat in the early years, had by 1929 become the dominant
politician in the party and Trotsky, the hero of the revolution and civil war had been removed.
Responses should indicate that the struggle was very much within the party and took place behind
a debate on the future direction of the Soviet Union both politically and economically – Socialism in
One Country versus Permanent Revolution.

• Stalin’s position as General Secretary and how he used that increased control of the party
(Lenin Enrolment, appointment of supporters to key posts within the party, his control of the
agenda at party meetings etc), his failure to inform Trotsky of the date of Lenin’s funeral, his use
of the Ban on Faction to eliminate rivals.
• Stalin’s flexibility with regard to allies, he formed the Troika with Kamenev and Zinoviev to
undermine Trotsky, then allied with Bukharin and the Right of the Party to eliminate the Left
Opposition.
• His flexibility on economic policy, initially supporting a continuation of NEP when Trotsky was
urging radical economic transformation. By 1929 Stalin reinterpreted the idea of Socialism in
One Country to mean what Trotsky had advocated in 1924
• For balance, responses should consider the weakness/mistakes of rivals such as Trotsky,
Kamenev, Zinoviev and Bukharin.
• Trotsky was seen by some as a threat because of his links with the Army; his adherence to the
idea of Permanent Revolution was unpopular in the party, his failure to attend Lenin’s funeral
was considered disrespectful and he failed to build a power base in the Party.
• Trotsky also lacked political judgment, he voted to suppress Lenin’s Testament to maintain
party unity; it was not until 1926 that the Left Opposition emerged, by which time Stalin had
control of the Politburo. Kamenev and Zinoviev were still doubted because of their lack of
enthusiasm for revolution in October 1917 and Bukharin’s economic ideas were considered too
moderate and unrevolutionary
Stalin’s success in the struggle for power in 1924 to 1929.
32. Evaluate the success of Brezhnev’s domestic policies.
should identify the aims of Brezhnev’s domestic policies and make a judgment as to how
successful his policies were in achieving his aims.

• Brezhnev’s main domestic policy focus was stability after the upheavals of the Khrushchev era.
• This was the case for economic policy where the Liberman reforms were abandoned, despite
initial support from Kosygin. Centralized comprehensive planning remained in place focussed
on heavy industry and defence.
• De-Stalinization was also reversed to some extent with more favourable references to Stalin
being introduced. Brezhnev introduced the “Trust in Cadres” slogan in 1965, welcomed by
established Party bureaucrats.
• As far as dissent was concerned, despite signing the Helsinki Accords on human rights,
dissidents were persecuted; eg Sakharov, Solzhenitsyn.
• In terms of the degree of success, many candidates may argue that in his lifetime, Brezhnev
was successful in re-establishing stability and clamping down on dissent. However, in the
longer term, it could be argued that the Soviet Union paid a heavy price for this success with an
ageing Party leadership and a faltering economy, which would lead to problems in the 1980s
Brezhnev’s domestic policies.
Post-war western and northern Europe (1945–2000)
33. Examine the reasons for, and the extent of, European integration between 1945 and 2000.
reasons for, and the extent of, European integration between 1945 and 2000. Integration should
be taken to mean both political and economic integration. Reasons for economic integration could
include stimulating trade, opening new markets, reducing financial barriers such as national
currencies. Reasons for political integration could include security for individual nations, reduction
of tensions and giving nations more international impact as part of a supranational body.

• Candidates may discuss economic integration, including the various economic bodies
established to promote economic cooperation including Benelux Union, ECSC (European Coal
and Steel Community), the EEC (1958) or Common Market with six members as well as EFTA
(1959). In 1972, negotiations were completed for Britain’s entry alongside Ireland and Denmark
with Greece, Spain and Portugal joining in the 1980s and Austria, Sweden and Finland in 1995.
• In the post-Maastricht Era with the formation of the European Union and the introduction of the
EURO, economic integration became much more developed
• Candidates may consider the economic issues that challenged integration such as the
controversial Common Agricultural Policy, overproduction “butter mountains” etc, fisheries
quotas and constant disputes over Britain’s budget contributions/rebates.
• In terms of political integration in the 1950s organizations such as NATO seemed to obviate the
need for political integration; politicians such as De Gaulle remained suspicious of political
integration. As the EEC expanded in the 1970s the main focus was on economic rather than
political integration.
• In 1979 the European Parliament was formed with directly elected members, but, as closer
monetary union was established post-Maastricht, some member states were anxious about
surrendering national sovereignty, which limited political integration
and the extent of European integration during the period 1945 to 2000.
34. Discuss the challenges to the establishment of democracy in Spain up to 1982.
should focus on the obstacles to the establishment of democracy in Spain, ranging from the legacy
of the Civil War up to the PSOE victory in the elections of October 1982, but with the focus on the
years after Franco’s death in November 1975.

• In general, candidates could discuss the legacy of civil war and repression under Franco; this
meant that deep divisions remained in Spanish society, arguably making a move to democracy
more difficult. An example could be the difficulty with which the PCE was legalized in April
1977.
• Many supporters of the Franco regime were unwilling to accept change, eg Arias Navarro,
prime minister until July 1976, and many in the armed forces. In the latter case, this culminated
in the failed coup of Tejero in February 1981.
• The position of the king was initially weak; seen by many as representing continuity with the
dictatorship, he was nicknamed Juan Carlos el Breve, (indicating that many thought his reign
would be brief).
• The economic context was also a challenge to the establishment of democracy. There were
sharp rises in inflation and unemployment in Spain in the later 1970s.
• Regional separatism was also growing in the aftermath of Franco’s death. Basque terrorism by
ETA was especially important in 1978–81, leading to repression and further terror. Catalan
separatism also grew in this period.
• There were political divisions in the major political parties in this period: in the case of the UCD,
this led to its steady decline from 1980–1982. In the case of the PSOE, the main opposition
party 1977–82, there were splits over whether to keep Marxism as the party’s official ideology,
which was not resolved until an Extraordinary Congress of September 1979
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the challenges to
the establishment of democracy in Spain up to 1982.
Post-war central and eastern Europe (1945–2000)
35. Examine the extent of economic and social change in any one country in Central or Eastern
Europe from 1989 to 2000.
effectively deploy knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the impact of
the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold war on the former satellite states or on
Germany because of eventual unification.

• In order to answer this question successfully candidates need to have undertaken a case study
of social and economic conditions in their chosen country from Central and Eastern Europe
during the period 1989 to 2000.
• Examples of social change could include aspects such as: greater social mobility because of
wider access to educational opportunities; demographic changes; social change as a
consequence of immigration; increased social diversity; more urbanized societies; impact on
living standards (these could be negative as well as positive); changes to life expectancy;
religious change; changes to family life
• Examples of economic change could include aspects such as: the impact of the introduction of
market economics in place of state controlled economies and privatizations of state enterprises.
Employment opportunities (or lack of them); leisure; poverty and wealth could also be
examined.
economic and social change in any one country in Central or Eastern Europe during the period
1989 to 2000
36. “Popular support for local Communist parties was the main reason for Soviet dominance in Eastern
Europe during the period 1945 to 1955.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
which Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe was established in the 10 years after the end of the
Second World War.

• The levels of support for local Communist parties, some of which gained some electoral
support. Most national communist parties were linked with resistance to German occupation.
• The strength of alternative parties and the tactics used by Communist parties, forming alliances
with socialists (Poland, Hungary) to gain access to government and then using that access to
gain control of key institutions such as the police and armed forces (Czechoslovakia)
• Some candidates may argue that many alternative parties lacked credibility because of
association with German occupation, or were too conservative and reactionary (Peasants Party
in Poland), causing more moderate parties to ally with the Communists and thus providing the
Communists with access to political control.
• Other reasons for Soviet dominance that candidates may discuss could include: political
interference and control by Moscow and economic dominance via Comecon.
• Many would argue that the use and presence of Soviet troops was also extremely important in
supporting local Communist parties as they extended their control and ensured Soviet
dominance
which the candidate agrees with the claim that popular support for local Communist parties was
the main reason for Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe in the period 1945 to 1955.

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What are the different types of history papers discussed in the document?

What are the different types of history papers discussed in the document?

What are some of the topics covered in the history higher level paper 3?

What are some of the topics covered in the history higher level paper 3?



Higher level and standard level

Specimen papers 1, 2 and 3

For first examinations in 2017

History higher level and standard level paper 1 specimen markscheme

History higher level and standard level paper 2 specimen markscheme

History higher level paper 3 history of the Americas specimen markscheme

History higher level paper 3 history of Europe specimen question paper

History higher level paper 3 history of Europe specimen markscheme

16 pages © International Baccalaureate Organization 2015

Section A: Military leaders

Source C Reuven Amitai-Preiss, a professor of Muslim history at the Hebrew University of

Source D Map showing the extent of Mongol conquest by 1260.

MONGOL CONQUEST. 1260 0 1500 mi

Extent of Mongol conquest Silk Road 0 1500 km

Questions for Section A

(b) What is the message conveyed by Source D? [2]

Section B: Conquest and its impact

Source A Miguel León-Portilla, an historian and anthropologist, writing in an academic

Source B Hernán Cortés, a Spanish conquistador, writing in a letter to Emperor Charles V

Questions for Section B

(b) What is the message conveyed by Source C? [2]

Section C: The move to global war

The governments of Germany, Italy and Japan have agreed as follows:

Source C Ian Kershaw, a professor of Modern History, writing in an academic book,

Questions for Section C

(b) What is the message conveyed by Source D? [2]

Section D: Rights and protest

Sheriff: “Caught him trespassing on private property!”

Questions for Section D

(b) What is the message conveyed by Source C? [2]

Section E: Conflict and intervention

9. It is our intention to take action within the next 36 hours …

13. Where there’s a will, there’s a way. Let’s go.

Questions for Section E

(b) What is the message conveyed by Source D? [2]

Higher level and standard level

Section A: Military leaders

Award [1] for each relevant point up to a maximum of [3].

(b) What is the message conveyed by Source D? [2]

Award [1] for each relevant point up to a maximum of [2].

Marks Level descriptor

1–2 • There is superficial discussion of one or both sources.

Do not expect all of the above.

Marks Level descriptor

7–9 • The response is focused on the question.

4–6 • The response is generally focused on the question.

1–3 • The response lacks focus on the question.

Section B: Conquest and its impact

• To try to “limit the rising anger” among his people;

Award [1] for each relevant point up to a maximum of [3].

(b) What is the message conveyed by Source C? [2]

Award [1] for each relevant point up to a maximum of [2].

Marks Level descriptor

1–2 • There is superficial discussion of one or both sources.