PROJECT WORK

Political Science

Submitted To- Dr. Raka Arya (Associate Professor)

Submitted By- Bhavya Jha
(2017BALLB05)
 FEMINISM

Feminism, as defined by the Oxford Dictionary, simply means “The advocacy of women's rights
on the ground of the equality of the sexes.”
However, ‘feminism’ is a term with a lot more weight and power than that reflected by the basic
meaning quoted above.

Feminism is essentially a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that
share a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve political, economic, personal, and
social equality of sexes. This includes seeking to establish educational and professional
opportunities for women that are equal to those for men.
Feminist movements have campaigned and continue to campaign for women's rights, such as-
the right to vote, to hold public office, to work, to earn fair wages or equal pay, to own property,
to receive education, to enter contracts, to have equal rights within marriage, and to have
maternity leave. Feminists have also worked to ensure access to legal abortions and social
integration, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment, and domestic violence.
Changes in dress and acceptable physical activity have often been part of feminist movements.
Generally considered to be the main force behind major historical societal changes for women's
rights, particularly in the West, Feminist movements have achieved Female Suffrage, Gender
Neutrality, Reproductive Rights for women (including access to contraceptives and abortion),
and the right to enter into contracts and own property.
Although feminist advocacy has generally, mainly focused on women's rights, some feminists
argue for the inclusion of men's liberation within its aims because they believe that men are also
harmed by traditional gender roles. Feminist Theory, which emerged from feminist movements,
aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived
experience; it has developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues
concerning gender.

HISTORY
Feminism appeared in the Western society during the end of medieval period as a philosophy of
life with social status of women its core idea and tried its best to promote a general concept of
humanity rather than sex-based division that prevailed in the Western society.
The so-called anti-male domination movement initiated by modern Western feminists took the
shape of a revolutionary movement paving way for the evolution of feminist activism in a later
period. They strove for achieving individual rights in social, economic and political life of
women so as to enhance their individual potential in various fields of their activities. This
attitude was very much evident in the theories of the 20th century feminist thinkers.

However, the newly emerged feminism in modern Western society had helped women only to
lose their individual identity and live and behave like man by voluntarily adopting masculine
qualities. It also failed in promoting values and individual identity among Western women and to
provide an everlasting solution to the actual problems faced by women in the modern world.

The history of the modern western feminist movements is divided into three "waves". Each wave
dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues.

The First Wave

The term first-wave was coined in March 1968 by Martha Lear writing in The New York Times
Magazine. It was a period of feminist activity and thought that occurred during the 19th and
early 20th century throughout the world.
It focused on legal issues, primarily on gaining the right to vote. Its primary objective was to
remove the De Facto (unofficial) inequalities persisting in the society.
The movement successfully brought about legal changes in countries such as the United States of
America, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Denmark, Persia (present-day Iran),
Netherlands and Sweden, with legislations being enacted in each of these nations which
abolished certain sexist practices in addition to establishing rights which were previously
available only to men.

The Second Wave

Second-wave feminism is a feminist movement beginning in the early 1960s and continuing to
the present; as such, it coexists with third-wave feminism. Second-wave feminism is largely
concerned with issues of equality beyond suffrage, such as ending gender discrimination.
By the mid 20th century, in some European countries, women still lacked some significant
rights. Feminists in these countries continued to fight for voting rights. Feminists continued to
campaign for the reform of family laws which gave husbands control over their wives. For
instance, in France married women did not receive the right to work without their husband’s
permission until 1965.
Feminists have also worked to abolish the "marital exemption" in rape laws which precluded the
prosecution of husbands for the rape of their wives. Earlier efforts by first-wave feminists to
criminalize marital rape in the late 19th century had failed; this was only achieved a century later
in most Western countries, but is still not achieved in many other parts of the world.
Second-wave feminists see women's cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and
encourage women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized and as
reflecting sexist power structures. The feminist activist and author Carol Hanisch coined the
slogan "The Personal is Political", which became synonymous with the second wave.
Continental European countries, Egypt and Latin America faced the most prominent changes.

The Third Wave

Third-wave feminism is an iteration of the Feminist Movement that began in the early 1990s
United States and continued until the fourth wave began around 2012.
Born in the 1960s and 1970s as members of Generation X, and grounded in the civil-rights
advances of the second wave, third-wave feminists embraced individualism and diversity and
sought to redefine what it meant to be a feminist. Rebecca Walker, an American writer, feminist,
and activist, regarded as one of the prominent voices of Third Wave Feminism published an
article in 1992, an excerpt from which reads:

So I write this as a plea to all women, especially women of my generation: Let Thomas’
confirmation serve to remind you, as it did me, that the fight is far from over. Let this dismissal
of a woman's experience move you to anger. Turn that outrage into political power. Do not vote
for them unless they work for us. Do not have sex with them, do not break bread with them, do
not nurture them if they don't prioritize our freedom to control our bodies and our lives. I am not
a post-feminism feminist. I am the Third Wave.

The third wave saw the emergence of new feminist currents and theories, such as
intersectionality, womanism (within black feminism), sex positivity, transfeminism, and
postmodern feminism.

Third-wave feminists often focused on "micro-politics" and challenged the second wave's
paradigm as to what was, or was not, good for women, and tended to use a post-structuralist
interpretation of gender and sexuality.

Present Day: The Fourth Wave

Fourth-wave feminism is the resurgence of interest in feminism that began around 2012 and is
associated with the use of social media. The focus of the fourth wave is justice for women and
opposition to sexual harassment and violence against women.
Fourth-wave feminism is "defined by technology", characterized particularly by the use of
Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Tumblr, and blogs such as Feministing to challenge
misogyny and further gender equality. The focus is on sexual harassment, workplace
discrimination, body shaming, sexist imagery in the media, online misogyny, assault on public
transport, and intersectionality.
One criticism of fourth-wave feminism is that because it depends on technology; the key
problem is the disproportionate access to and ownership of digital media devices. The fourth
wave is left with the inherent classism created by giving the biggest voice to those who can
afford and use technology. It is also argued that when people participate in Twitter activism, they
may not feel the need to do anything else to help the effort.

Feminism in India
History
In India, women's issues first began to be addressed when the state commissioned a report on the
status of women to a group of feminist researchers and activists. The report recognized the fact
that in India, women were oppressed under a system of structural hierarchies and injustices. The
respectable position, intellectual and spiritual freedom and economic independence enjoyed by
the ancient Indian women had deteriorated. The influence of male domination in society, the
high inflow of foreigners and above all, the physical and biological limitations of women had
gradually changed the general attitude of society towards them and they were viewed as inferior
to men- physically, mentally and intellectually.
Women have had and continue to surmount survival through an array of oppressive patriarchal
family structures: age, ordinal status, relationship to men through family of origin, marriage and
procreation as well as patriarchal attributes. Problems faced by them in the Post-Vedic period are
as follows-

 The crime against women by the foreign invaders had increased. Women also suffered
from the torture and sexual harassment from the male members of their own society. In
order to safeguard them from various unfavorable circumstances, the law-givers had
imposed restrictions on the society which restricted the individual freedom of women.
 Patriarchal system became a prominent feature of Indian society the power of male
domination had appeared in almost all fields of individual and social life. The tradition,
culture and high ideals attributed to women by the ancient seers were overthrown by the
newly evolved male dominated society.
 Frequent pregnancies and the problems connected with child rearing had forced women
to depend on the male members of society and this dependency was exploited by the
dominating males. This, in turn, brought the women to withdraw themselves from the
mainstream of the society
 The society in general was against imparting education to females and the ambition of the
girls to gain knowledge and spiritual salvation became a mirage. They had lost their
intellectual freedom and the power of creativity.
 Lack of Vedic education had made women unfit to recite Vedic mantras and kept her
away from Vedic sacrifices. When the Vedic sacrifices were replaced by ancestral
worship, women were considered as impure due to their menstrual cycle. They were
exempted from all religious activities. As a result, women’s participation in religious rites
gradually dwindled in society and men were regarded as eligible for offering religious
rites.
 The society had insisted on absolute virginity for the brides and parents feared about the
security of their girl child. Virgins, who had the misfortune of being criminally assaulted,
had therefore hardly any chance of an honorable marriage. So they preferred to give their
daughters in marriage at an early age. The girl who married at a very early age could not
receive any education and so there was a considerable decline in the rate of female
education.
 The marriage became obligatory and in the custom of pre-puberty marriage, owing to the
immature age, the girl child was incapable of choosing her life-partner and therefore had
no voice in the settlement of her marriage. It was the parents who selected the
bridegroom for their daughter according to their own interests. The economically
backward families considered wealth as the criterion for selection of the bridegroom and
they preferred to give their daughters in marriage for getting the highest bride price over
choosing a suitable groom for her.
 The uneducated and inexperienced wife was unable to take up the responsibilities,
consequently leaving the household management and authority in the hands of the elder
members of the husband’s family who imposed their power and authority on her,
subjecting her to mental and physical harassment. The early marriage resulted in early
maternity and its periodic recurrences presented her with many health problems, forcing
her to depend completely on her husband and other members of his family.
 The ill effects of the custom of dowry, which demands a high price for the bridegroom in
the marriage market, coupled with the recurring demand for financial support from her
parents that often lead to torture by the husband and his family members, used to make
life miserable to the women ultimately forcing many innocent women to commit suicide
at their husband’s house itself.
 Polygamy, which the society had allowed in favor of its male members, let the
dominating husband entering into a second marriage without the consent of his first wife
while compelling her to stay in the same house along with his second wife. Her physical
and mental harassment at the hands of the husband and his family members become
worse with the arrival of his second wife. Along with this, the society had given the
husband the freedom to supersede his wife, if he felt any discomfort from her side, the
 right to send her away if she was not able to deliver a boy child and to punish her for this
misfortune.
 Widows too led a painful and dreadful life and were sidelined from the mainstream of the
society. They were subjected to severe sufferings due to the irrational customs prevailing
in the society. ‘Sati’ was one such custom by which the widow of the dead man had to
burn herself in the funeral pyre of her husband in order to `purify’ him from sins which
he had committed. There also existed a custom known as ‘Sankalpa’, wherein the widow
of the dead man was forcefully burned by tying her with the body of the husband in his
funeral pyre. Whereas, the society allowed the widower to remarry just after he had
performed the funeral rites of his deceased wife, remarriage was prohibited to the widows
and they were forced to lead an ascetic way of life, which was the main intention behind
the irrational custom of ‘Tonsure’. Another custom called ‘niyoga’ or temporary union of
the widow with her brother-in-law which became the order of the day was against India’s
cultural heritage which had given the sister-in-law, the noble position of mother.
 The right to inherit the paternal property to single and unmarried daughters had ceased to
exist in due course of time. The joint ownership of the husband and wife on the family
property of the husband had existed only in theory. In real life, she had enjoyed no
freedom in his family and had no legal right for her share in his property. Even
‘Stridhana’ which was regarded as the woman’s private property was in the hands of the
husband and other members of his family. As a result, the woman had also lost her
economic independence under the domination of the male.

Deterioration in the status and position of women in the later period in the history of India had
badly affected the existing social order disturbing the social equilibrium. Various social
organizations and reformers at different ages had adopted measures to patch up this disorder and
prevent further disturbance in the social equilibrium by improving the living condition of
women, who were the custodians of India’s cultural heritage. They had taken efforts to
reinterpret ancient scriptures for helping women to attain economic independence, freedom, as
well as social and political identity in the social life.

The 19th century was the period that saw a majority of women's issues come under the spotlight
and reforms began to be made.
Unlike the Western feminist movement, India's movement was initiated by men, and later
joined by women. Unlike in the West, men in India were active supporters and sympathizers of
women and the guiding force behind the open fight against the unjust customs and practices that
prevailed in society. Many of the social as well as religious reformers during 18th and 19th
century had realized the need for women’s welfare for the material as well as spiritual
advancement of India. They also wanted to bring women into all fields of activities.

Feminism as an initiative by women started independently a little later in Maharashtra by

pioneering advocates of women's rights and education, Savitribai Phule, who started the first
school for girls in India, Tarabai Shinde who wrote India's first feminist text, and Pandita
Ramabai, who criticized patriarchy and caste-system in Hinduism, married outside her caste and
converted to Christianity.

The efforts of Bengali reformers included abolishing sati, which was a widow's death by burning
on her husband's funeral pyre, abolishing the custom of child marriage, abolishing the disfiguring
of widows, introducing the marriage of upper caste Hindu widows, promoting women's
education, obtaining legal rights for women to own property, and requiring the law to
acknowledge women's status by granting them basic rights in matters such as adoption.

By the late 20th century, women gained greater autonomy through the formation of independent
women's own organizations. By the late thirties and forties a new narrative began to be
constructed regarding "women's activism".

The three phases of Indian Feminism are as follows:

The First Phase: 1850-1915

The colonial venture into modernity brought concepts of democracy, equality and individual
rights. The rise of the concept of nationalism and introspection of discriminatory practices
brought about social reform movements related to caste and gender relations.
This first phase of feminism in India was initiated by men to uproot the social evils of sati
(widow immolation), to allow widow remarriage, to forbid child marriage, and to reduce
illiteracy, as well as to regulate the age of consent and to ensure property rights through legal
intervention. In addition to this, some upper caste Hindu women rejected constraints they faced
under Brahminical traditions.
However, efforts for improving the status of women in Indian society were somewhat thwarted
by the late nineteenth century, as nationalist movements emerged in India. These movements
resisted 'colonial interventions in gender relations' particularly in the areas of family relations. In
the mid to late nineteenth century, there was a national form of resistance to any colonial efforts
made to 'modernise' the Hindu family. This included the ‘Age of Consent’ controversy that
erupted after the government tried to raise the age of marriage for women.
Several Indian states were ruled by women during British colonial advance including Jhansi
(Rani Laxmibai), Kittur (Rani Chennama), Bhopal (Quidisa Begum) and Punjab (Jind
Kaur).

The Second Phase: 1915-1947

During this period the struggle against colonial rule intensified. Nationalism became the pre-
eminent cause. Gandhi legitimized and expanded Indian women's public activities by initiating
them into the non-violent civil disobedience movement against the British Raj. He exalted their
feminine roles of caring, self-abnegation, sacrifice and tolerance; and carved a niche for those in
the public arena. Peasant women played an important role in the rural satyagrahas of Borsad and
Bardoli.
Women-only organizations like All India Women's Conference (AIWC) and the National
Federation of Indian Women (NFIW) emerged. Women were grappling with issues relating to
the scope of women's political participation, women's franchise, communal awards, and
leadership roles in political parties.
The 1920s was a new era for Indian women and is defined as 'feminism' that was responsible for
the creation of localized women's associations. These associations emphasized women's
education issues, developed livelihood strategies for working-class women, and also organized
national level women's associations such as the All India Women's Conference. AIWC was
closely affiliated with the Indian National Congress and worked within the nationalist and anti-
colonialist freedom movements. This made the mass mobilization of women an integral part of
Indian nationalism. Women therefore were a very important part of various nationalist and anti-
colonial efforts, including the civil disobedience movements in the 1930s. However, feminist
agendas and movements became less active right after India's 1947 independence, as the
nationalist agendas on nation building took precedence over feminist issues.
Women's participation in the struggle for freedom developed their critical consciousness about
their role and rights in independent India, resulting in the introduction of the franchise and civic
rights of women in the Indian constitution. There was provision for women's upliftment through
affirmative action, maternal health and child care provision (crèches), equal pay for equal work
etc.
The state adopted a patronizing role towards women. For example, India's constitution states
that women are a "weaker section" of the population, and therefore need assistance to function as
equals. Thus, women in India did not have to struggle for basic rights as did women in the West.

The Third Phase: Post-1947

Post independence feminists began to redefine the extent to which women were allowed to
engage in the workforce. Prior to independence, most feminists accepted the sexual divide within
the labor force. However, feminists in the 1970s challenged the inequalities that had been
established and fought to reverse them. These inequalities included unequal wages for women,
relegation of women to 'unskilled' spheres of work, and restricting women as a reserve army for
labor. In other words, the feminists' aim was to abolish the free service of women who were
essentially being used as cheap capital.
Feminist class-consciousness also came into focus in the 1970s, with feminists recognizing the
inequalities not just between men and women but also within power structures such as caste,
tribe, language, religion, region, class etc. This also posed as a challenge for feminists while
shaping their overreaching campaigns as there had to be a focus within efforts to ensure that
fulfilling the demands of one group would not create further inequalities for another.
Now, in the early twenty-first century, the focus of the Indian feminist movement has gone
beyond treating women as useful members of society and a right to parity, but also having the
power to decide the course of their personal lives and the right of self-determination.

Impact
Western-educated Indians introduced equality in the early nineteenth century. However, the term
did not gain meaning or become an operational principle in Indian life until the country gained
independence in 1947 and adopted a democratic government. The Indian Constitution then
granted equality, freedom from discrimination based on gender or religion, and guaranteed
religious freedoms. Also, seven five-year plans were developed to provide health, education,
employment, and welfare to women. The sixth five-year plan even declared women "partners in
development."

Employment
In general, in the uneducated and rural sections of Indian society, which form a major percentage
of the total population, women are seen as economic burdens. Their contributions to productivity
are mostly invisible as their familial and domestic contributions are overlooked.
Indian women were contributing nearly 36 percent of total employment in agriculture and
related activities, nearly 19 percent in the service sector, and nearly 12.5 in the industry
sector as of the year 2000.
High illiteracy rates among women confine them to lower paying, unskilled jobs with less job
security than men. Even in agricultural jobs where the work of men and women are highly
similar, women are still more likely to be paid less for the same amount and type of work as
men. Although the Government of India has tried to eliminate inequality in the workforce,
women still receive unequal treatment.

Globalization
Feminists are also concerned about the impact of globalization on women in India. Some
feminists argue that globalization has led to economic changes that have raised more social and
economical challenges for women, particularly for working-class and lower-caste women.
Multinational companies in India have been seen to exploit the labor of 'young, underpaid and
disadvantaged women' in free trade zones and sweat shops, and use "Young lower middle class,
educated women," in call centers. These women have few effective labor rights, or rights to
collective action.
In addition to this, multinational corporations are seen to advertise a homogenous image of ideal
women across the country is argued to cause an increase in the commoditization of women's
bodies. This is also manifested in the form of nationalist pride exhibited through Indian women
winning international beauty pageants. According to some feminists, such developments have
offered women greater sexual autonomy and more control over their bodies. However, many
other feminists feel that such commoditization of female bodies has only served the purpose of
feeding to male fantasies.

Education
Some of the main reasons that girls are less likely to reach optimal levels of education include
the fact that girls are needed to assist their mothers at home, have been raised to believe that a
life of domestic work is their destined occupation, have illiterate mothers who cannot educate
their children, have an economic dependency on men, and are sometimes subject to child-
marriage. Many poor families marry their daughters off early to get the dowry money so she is
unable to complete her education.
In 1986, the National Policy on Education (NPE) was created in India, and the government
launched the programme called Mahila Samakhya, whose focus was on the empowerment of
women. The programme's goal is to create a learning environment for women to realize their
potential, learn to demand information and find the knowledge to take charge of their own lives.
In certain areas of India, progress is being made and an increase in the enrolment of girls in
schools and as teachers has begun to increase. By 2001 literacy for women had exceeded 50%
of the overall female population, though these statistics were still very low compared to world
standards and even male literacy within India. Efforts are still being made to improve the level of
education that females receive to match that of male students.

Modernization
Modern influences are affecting the younger generations in parts of India, where girls are
beginning to forgo the more traditional ways of Indian life and break gender stereotypes.
In more flourishing parts of the country, the idea of "dating", or more specifically openly dating,
has come into play, and the terms "girlfriend" and "boyfriend" are being used. Some women
have landed highly respectable careers, and can be seen across Bollywood billboards and
advertisements.
However, this is not the norm throughout the country; such modernizations and the women
behind them face serious resistance from anti-liberalists. The country is still severely male-
dominant and unwelcoming to such movements that go against sex and gender traditions in
India.

Prominent Feminists
Our analysis of the Feminist Movement will remain incomplete without the mention of these
important feminists of all times-

Western Feminists
1. Kate Millet
Katherine Murray Millett an American feminist writer, educator, artist, and activist, who
attended Oxford University and was the first American woman to be awarded a degree with first-
class honors after studying at St Hilda's College, Oxford. She has been described as "a seminal
influence on second-wave feminism", and is best known for her book Sexual Politics. She
became a spokesperson for the feminist movement following the success of the book, but
struggled with conflicting perceptions of her as arrogant and elitist.
Previously unimaginable "legal abortion, greater professional equality between the sexes, and a
sexual freedom" have been made possible partially due to Millett's efforts.
Millett articulated a theory of patriarchy and conceptualized the gender and sexual oppression of
women in terms that demanded a sex role revolution with radical changes of personal and family
lifestyles. She articulated a theory of patriarchy and conceptualized the gender and sexual
oppression of women in terms that demanded a sex role revolution with radical changes of
personal and family lifestyles.
Millett wrote several books on women's lives from a feminist perspective. For instance, in the
book The Basement: Meditations on a Human Sacrifice (1979), completed over four years, she
chronicled the torture and murder of an Indianapolis teenager Sylvia Likens by her neighbour in
1965 that had preoccupied her for 14 years. With a feminist perspective, she explored the story
of the defenseless girl and the dynamics of the individuals involved in her sexual, physical and
emotional abuse. Millett said of the motivation of the perpetrator: "It is the story of the
suppression of women. Gertrude seems to have wanted to administer some terrible truthful
justice to this girl: that this was what it was to be a woman".
Her bestselling book, Sexual Politics originated as Millett's PhD dissertation and was published
in 1970, the same year that she was awarded her doctorate from Columbia University. A critique
of patriarchy in Western society and literature, the book addressed the sexism and heterosexism
of the modern novelists. Millett questioned the origins of patriarchy, argued that sex-based
oppression was both political and cultural, and posited that undoing the traditional family was
the key to true sexual revolution.
As a symbol of the women's liberation movement, Millett was featured in a Time magazine cover
story, "The Politics of Sex", which called Sexual Politics a "remarkable book" that provided a
coherent theory about the feminist movement.

2. Catharine MacKinnon
Catharine Alice MacKinnon is an American radical feminist, scholar, lawyer, teacher and
activist. Born in Minnesota, MacKinnon attended Smith College and earned her J.D. and Ph.D.
from Yale University. She is the Elizabeth A. Long Professor of Law at the University of
Michigan Law School. As a legal scholar, MacKinnon has addressed the issues of sexual
harassment and pornography.
MacKinnon's ideas may be divided into three central—although overlapping and ongoing—
areas of focus: sexual harassment, pornography, and international work.
A. Sexual Harassment
MacKinnon first became interested in issues concerning sexual harassment when she heard that
an administrative assistant at Cornell University resigned after being refused a transfer when she
complained of her supervisor's harassing behavior, and then was denied unemployment benefits
because she quit for "personal" reasons. It was at an awareness-raising session about this and
other women's workplace experiences, the term "sexual harassment" was coined.
In 1977, MacKinnon graduated from Yale Law School after having written a paper on sexual
harassment. Two years later, MacKinnon published "Sexual Harassment of Working Women",
arguing that sexual harassment is a form of sex discrimination, because the act reinforces the
social inequality of women.
She distinguishes between two types of sexual harassment-
1) "Quid pro quo", meaning sexual harassment "in which sexual compliance is exchanged, or
proposed to be exchanged, for an employment opportunity
2) The type of harassment that "arises when sexual harassment is a persistent condition of
work.”
In 1980, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission followed MacKinnon's framework in
adopting guidelines prohibiting sexual harassment by prohibiting both quid pro quo harassment
and hostile work environment harassment.

B. Pornography
MacKinnon, along with late feminist activist Andrea Dworkin, has been active in attempting to
change legal postures towards pornography by framing it as a form of sex discrimination and,
more recently, a form of human trafficking. She (and Dworkin) define pornography as follows-
“We define pornography as the graphic sexually explicit subordination of women through
pictures and words that also includes (i) women are presented dehumanized as sexual objects,
things, or commodities; or (ii) women are presented as sexual objects who enjoy humiliation or
pain; or (iii) women are presented as sexual objects experiencing sexual pleasure in rape, incest
or other sexual assault; or (iv) women are presented as sexual objects tied up, cut up or
mutilated or bruised or physically hurt; or (v) women are presented in postures or positions of
sexual submission, servility, or display; or (vi) women's body parts—including but not limited to
vaginas, breasts, or buttocks—are exhibited such that women are reduced to those parts; or (vii)
women are presented being penetrated by objects or animals; or (viii) women are presented in
scenarios of degradation, humiliation, injury, torture, shown as filthy or inferior, bleeding,
bruised, or hurt in a context that makes these conditions sexual.”
In Toward a Feminist Theory of the State, MacKinnon writes, "Pornography, in the feminist
view, is a form of forced sex, a practice of sexual politics, and institution of gender inequality."
MacKinnon chooses a few points to focus on specifically, depicting the sexual exploitation of
women as a means of showing their inferiority by displaying them as sexual objects, things or
commodities, which dehumanizes them.

C. International Work
In February 1992, the Supreme Court of Canada largely accepted MacKinnon's theories of
equality, hate propaganda, and pornography, citing extensively from a brief she co-authored in a
ruling against Manitoba pornography distributor Donald Butler. The Butler decision was
controversial; it is sometimes implied that shipments of Dworkin's book Pornography: Men
Possessing Women were seized by Canadian customs agents under this ruling. Canadian
authorities raided an art gallery and confiscated controversial paintings depicting child abuse.
.MacKinnon represented Bosnian and Croatian women against Serbs accused of genocide since
1992. She was co-counsel and won a jury verdict of $745 million in New York City on August
10, 2000. The lawsuit (under the United States' Alien Tort Statute) established forced prostitution
and forced impregnation as legally actionable acts of genocide. In 2001, MacKinnon was named
co-director of the Lawyers Alliance for Women (LAW) Project, an initiative of Equality Now, an
international non-governmental organization.

MacKinnon’s Political Theory-

MacKinnon's work largely focuses on the difference between quality of social and economic
conditions for women in both the private and public spheres of life. MacKinnon believes that
society fails to recognize the existing hierarchies present within it that have subordinated women
in particular for such a long time that they have been perceived as natural.
MacKinnon writes about the interrelations between theory and practice, recognizing that
women's experiences have, for the most part, been ignored in both arenas. Furthermore, she uses
Marxism to critique certain points in feminist theory and uses feminism to criticize Marxist
theory. She sees hypocrisy in much of Marx's theory due to his failure to mention women's
oppression in relation to class oppression. MacKinnon notes Marx's criticism of theory that
treated class division as a spontaneous event that occurred naturally. Marx saw class as an
unnatural status quo resulting from the ownership of the means of production while at the same
time thinking of women's responsibility for child-rearing as a "natural" sex role.

Indian Feminists
1. Pandita Ramabai (23 April 1858 – 5 April 1922)
Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati was an Indian social reformer, a champion for the emancipation of
women, and a pioneer in education. She was the first woman to be accorded the titles of Pandita
as a Sanskrit scholar and Sarasvati after being examined by the faculty of the University of
Calcutta. Pandita Ramabai was a social worker, scholar and a champion of women's rights,
freedom and education. Pandita Ramabai participated in the freedom movement and was one of
the 10 women delegates of the Congress session of 1889.
in 1880, Ramabai married Bengali lawyer, Bipin Behari Medhvi. The groom was a Bengali
Kayastha, and so the marriage was inter-caste, and inter-regional and therefore considered
inappropriate for that age. They were married in a civil ceremony on 13 November 1880. The
couple had a daughter whom they named Manorama. Ramabai resolved to spend her life
attempting to better the status of women in India. She studied and discussed issues which
surround Indian women, especially Hindu traditions. She spoke against the practice of child
marriage and the resulting constraints on the lives of child widows. Husband and wife had
planned to start a school for child widows, when Medhvi died in 1882.
After Medhvi's death, Ramabai moved to Pune where she founded Arya Mahila Samaj (Arya
Women's Society). The purpose of the society was to promote the cause of women's education
and deliverance from the oppression of child marriage. When in 1882 a commission was
appointed by Government of India to look into education, Ramabai gave evidence before it. She
suggested that teachers be trained and women school inspectors be appointed. Further, she said
that as the situation in India was that women's conditions were such that women could only
medically treat them, Indian women should be admitted to medical colleges. Ramabai's evidence
created a great sensation and reached Queen Victoria. It bore fruit later in starting of the
Women's Medical Movement by Lady Dufferin.
Ramabai was also a poet and scholar. During her life, she traveled widely. In order to learn more
about the education of women and receive training for her lifelong battle to help unshackle the
women in India, she visited most parts of India. She went to Britain in 1883 to start medical
training. During her stay she converted to Christianity. From Britain she traveled to the United
States in 1886 to attend the graduation of the first female Indian doctor, Anandibai Joshi, staying
for two years. During this time she also translated textbooks and gave lectures throughout the
United States and Canada. Her lectures in USA led to Ramabai associations being formed in all
major American cities to raise funds for her causes. She also found time to write and have
published one of her most important books, The High-Caste Hindu Woman. This was also the
first book that she wrote in English. Ramabai dedicated this book to Dr. Joshi, who died in
February 1887, less than six months after returning to India from America. The High-Caste
Hindu Woman, which showed the darkest aspects of the life of Hindu women, including child
brides and child widows, sought to expose the oppression of women in Hindu-dominated British
India. In 1896, during a severe famine Ramabai toured the villages of Maharashtra with a
caravan of bullock carts and rescued thousands of outcast children, child widows, orphans, and
other destitute women and brought them to the shelter of Mukti and Sharada Sadan. A learned
woman knowing seven languages, she also translated the Bible into her mother tongue - Marathi
- from the original Hebrew and Greek.
By 1900 there were 1,500 residents and over a hundred cattle in the Mukti mission and she was
also involved in establishing a Church at Mukti. The Pandita Ramabai Mukti Mission is still
active today, providing housing, education, vocational training, and medical services, for many
needy groups including widows, orphans, and the blind.
2. Tarabai Shinde (1850-1910)
A feminist activist who protested patriarchy and caste in 19th century India, she is known for her
published work, Stripurush Tulana ("A Comparison Between Women and Men"), originally
published in Marathi in 1882. The pamphlet is a critique of upper-caste patriarchy, and is often
considered the first modern Indian feminist text. It was very controversial for its time in
challenging the Hindu religious scriptures themselves as a source of women's oppression, a view
that continues to be controversial and debated today.
Stri Purush Tulana was written in response to an article which appeared in 1881, in Pune
Vaibhav, an orthodox newspaper published from Pune, about a criminal case against a young
Brahmin (upper-caste) widow, who had been convicted of murdering her illegitimate son for the
fear of public disgrace and ostracism and sentenced to be hanged. Having worked with upper-
caste widows who were forbidden to remarry, Shinde was well aware of incidents of widows
being impregnated by relatives. The book analysed the tightrope women must walk between the
"good woman" and the "prostitute". The book was printed at Shri Shivaji Press, Pune, in 1882
with 500 copies, but hostile reception by contemporary society and press, meant that she did not
publish again.
In her essay, Shinde criticised the social inequality of caste, as well as the patriarchal views of
other activists who saw caste as the main form antagonism in Hindu society. Stri Purush Tulana
is probably the first full fledged and extant feminist argument after the poetry of the Bhakti
Period. But Tarabai's work is also significant because at a time when intellectuals and activists
alike were primarily concerned with the hardships of a Hindu widow's life and other easily
identifiable atrocities perpetrated on women, Tarabai Shinde, apparently working in isolation,
was able to broaden the scope of analysis to include the ideological fabric of patriarchal society.
Women everywhere, she implies, are similarly oppressed.

Conclusion
Feminism wave in today’s world has come up really positive. Because it showed how unequal
society was when it came to gender. Women get treated unfairly across the world every single
day. As a change, we could use more women in government positions, more publicity of
women’s sports, more management positions for women in the office workplaces.
The conclusion of feminism is not world peace or love and harmony, but the removal of the
systemic, universal devaluing of women and women's work by society. That will mean more
competition, but also much more sharing and cooperation. It's a different dynamic, and one we
all look forward to experiencing.