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Sutta Piṭaka

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S

Sabar no need to accept śabda as an independent source

of cognition, but reduced it to inference. Śabda or
▶ Tolerance (Jainism) testimony has been defined by the Nyāya thinkers
as the instruction (upadeśaḥ) of a reliable person.
This testimony is admitted as different from sense
perception since the object apprehended by it is
Śabda beyond the reach of the senses nor can it be
regarded as a case of inference, since it does not
Madhumita Chattopadhyay fulfill the three conditions required for a valid
Department of Philosophy, Jadavpur University, inference. But the cognition that is generated by
Kolkata, West Bengal, India testimony with regard to such supernatural objects
as svarga, agnihotra, etc., is free from all sorts of
doubt, and hence has to be admitted as valid. The
Synonyms Buddhists, however, do not accept this view
regarding testimony. Their observation is that
Testimony or verbal cognition there is no real connection between a word and
its object; that is, no word can give us any infor-
mation regarding the reality of an object. The
Definition Buddhist logician Dharmakīrti in his text
Pramāṇavārttikam holds that since words do not
A variety of cognition which arises from the utter- have any inseparable relation (nāntarī yakatva)
ance of words or linguistic signs. with the objects, the words cannot establish the
existence of the objects. They are only expressive
of the intention of the speaker. At the basis of this
Buddhists on Sabda observation lies the main thesis of Buddhist epis-
temology, namely, that one can prove the exis-
The Nyāya as well as the Mīmāṃsā systems of tence of an object on the basis of something else
Indian thought made very detailed analysis of the only if there exists an inseparable relation between
notion of śabda pramāṇa or testimony as a means the two. In the case of āgama, any inseparable
of valid cognition in order to provide rational relation between the word and the object cannot
arguments for justifying the authenticity of the be found. If there were such a relation, the nature
Vedas. The Buddhists, on the other hand, in their of the object could have been ascertained from the
insistence on admitting only two pramāṇas found utterance of the word. But that is not the case.
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2017
K.T.S. Sarao, J.D. Long (eds.), Buddhism and Jainism, Encyclopedia of Indian Religions,
DOI 10.1007/978-94-024-0852-2
1024 Śabda

From the mere utterance of the word “fire” no one inference. The statement of a trustworthy person
is able to get fire. Hence, the existence of the (like Buddha and others) can easily be regarded as
object cannot be proved from words. In other reliable with reference to objects which are
words, testimony is not a pramāṇa with regard directly verifiable. Even when the statement refers
to the actual real object. From this, however, it to an object which is not directly verifiable, it can
would be wrong to conclude that śabda or testi- be considered equally as reliable, so long as no
mony does not have any worth. The worth of it contrary results are perceived. Since the knowl-
lies in expressing the intention of the speaker. edge generated by the statements of a trustworthy
These words are produced on the basis of the person reveals the object in an indirect manner,
intention (vivakṣā) of the speaker. Since there Dignāga considers such knowledge to be of infer-
is a causal relation between the words and the ential nature. Dharmakīrti offers two arguments to
intention of the speaker, a necessary relation justify the view of Dignāga. The first justification
(nāntarī yakatābhāva) between them has to be for considering the āgama as a sort of inference
admitted. Thus being inseparably connected, centers round the character of non-disagreement
words can make the intention of the speaker with reality (avisaṁvādaka) which is shared in
known. So words, even though they form an common by the āgama and inference as pramāṇa.
āgama fundamentally cannot provide one with The knowledge of inaccessible objects, though is
any information regarding the reality of the object. produced by the words of a reliable person, does
Dignāga, the master logician of the Buddhist not only inform of the intention of the speaker but
school, has regarded the knowledge based on the informs about the nature of reality also. The sec-
words of a reliable person to be an inference on ond justification that is offered by Dharmakīrti is
the ground that both inference and testimony are that through his own power of perception and
avisaṁvādaka, that is, do not disagree with real- inference a person can apprehend the correctness
ity. He includes it within inference. By regarding ś of the truth concerning the objects to be aban-
abda to be an inference the Buddhist logician doned (namely, suffering) and of the truth of the
wants to recognize the fact that human behaviors object to be attained (namely, the avoidance of
are often dependent on the guidance of such ś suffering) as also of the causes for such suffering
abda. From the āgama a person comes to know and absence of suffering. All of these have been
about the great blessings and the great misfortunes taught by a reliable person, namely, Lord Buddha.
which result or do not result when one performs or These statements are true since they do not dis-
does not perform some act. So when an act, pos- agree with reality. So it can be concluded that the
itive or negative, has to be performed, the ordinary cognition originating from āgama with regard to
individual feels it better to act in the manner as things beyond the grasp of a human being is an
prescribed by the āgama. Taking such practical inference. However, there is a word of caution.
considerations into account Dignāga regarded Since words do not have any inseparable connec-
āgama to be a pramāṇa that is an inference. tion with reality, in the context of āgama as infer-
According to the Buddhists, an āgama or ence the possibility of error cannot be eliminated.
a reliable statement is one (1) whose words are So any inference based on words cannot be
coherent, (2) for which there are means that are authentic. The authenticity of the āgama variety
appropriate for attaining the desired end, and of inference depends on the authenticity of the
(3) which expresses what is useful to a human speaker.
being. The trustworthiness of such āgama state- The question that arises immediately is
ments about perceptible and imperceptible entities concerning an authentic speaker: Is there really
can be determined through the two pramāṇas such a speaker whose words can enable one to
recognized by the Buddhists, namely, perception have valid knowledge about such inaccessible
and inference. The basis of such determination is objects? The Buddhists do not accept the notion
that the information contained in such sentences is of an āptapuruṣa as admitted by the Naiyāyikas
not contradicted by either perception or by nor can they deny the existence of such a person.
Śabda 1025

So they try to prove their existence through an in two different senses, the first one in a purely
argument of the following form: epistemological sense, meaning the source of
valid cognition, and the second sense has a more
1. Ordinary human beings are possessed of vir- general connotation where authority means right
tues and faults which determine the rightness measure. According to Dignāga, Lord Buddha is
and wrongness of their behavior. a means of valid cognition regarding religious
2. All things which are sometimes inferior and authority through his perfection in cause and
sometimes superior must have an opposite. effect, in order to produce reverence. The cause
3. The faults have the quality of becoming infe- here refers to the Buddha’s striving for the welfare
rior and superior. of the world and his being the teacher while effect
4. Therefore, there is an increase and decrease of refers to Buddha’s being the well-gone and his
the faults by the influence from the opposite being the savior. Buddha has perfected and
thing. saved himself, but he has also saved others by
5. The faults are produced from ideas (vikalpa). teaching them the road to ultimate salvation,
6. Therefore, even if a person has the material a road which he himself has traversed. This con-
cause of all faults, these faults are decreased stitutes, according to Dignāga, the condition for
by means of the repeated practice of a certain Buddha’s being a pramāṇa. In the second chapter
virtue of the mind. of the text Pramāṇavārttika Dharmakīrti also
7. When this virtue attains a maximum, the faults offers arguments to prove that the doctrines of
are bound to be completely destroyed. Lord Buddha are pramāṇa. For Dharmakīrti ś
8. Therefore, it is quite possible that a person free abda or testimony refers to words used in
from faults exists. a coherent meaningful sentence which teaches
suitable means and expresses what is useful to
The question that arises immediately is, even man. Coherently formulated sentences which
though a person is free from faults at present, how refer to practicable methods to gain something
can it be ascertained that he will remain so after- and which disclose a desirable human goal, can
ward also. The answer that the Buddhists offer is communicate knowledge of objects really helpful
that the person who has once made himself free to the hearer, even though such sentences do not
from faults cannot fall prey to faults later. Their reveal particular objects themselves as direct per-
argument is as follows: First he has given up all ception does. The teachings of Lord Buddha con-
the faults, secondly he is free from the suffering stitute trustworthy knowledge and reveal to the
which is connected with the actual occurrence of hearers objects that were not known before. Bud-
anger, etc., or with future existence, and thirdly he dha has pointed out to others the facts of the useful
does not shrink from the taste of felicity in the things that are to be realized and informed them of
perfect calmness. Moreover, all kinds of faults the truths which were so far unknown to them. S
originate from the notions of “I,” “mine,” etc., Further Buddha does not deceive others with
(satkāyadṛṣṭi) which arise because of nescience. regard to the ultimate goals of human aspiration.
So long as such nescience exists in human beings Since his words are nondeceptive in character and
there is attachment to the self which is the root provide new information, he can be considered as
cause of all hatred, anger, and other faults. Hence a source of valid cognition. The trustworthiness of
for the person who has set himself free from the Buddha is proved to the extent to which a person
nescience through the repeated practice of no-self, really acquires for himself the objects taught by
there is no possibility that these defects will arise him. With regard to objects which are accessible
once again in him. to perception and inference, the teachings of Bud-
Dignāga in the introductory verse of his dha are found to be trustworthy when the hearer
Pramāṇasamuccaya has regarded Buddha as finds the objects producing desired results. On the
pramāṇabhūta, a pramāṇa on religious matters. other hand, with regard to objects which are
It seems that Dignāga is using the word pramāṇa imperceptible, the trustworthiness of his teachings
1026 Sacred Biography (Buddhism)

is inferred from his trustworthiness regarding per- 4. Yaita H (1987) Dharmakirti on the authority of Bud-
ceptible matters. Thus Dharmakīrti limits the dhist scriptures (Agama): an annotated translation of the
Pramāṇavārttikasvavṛtti, adv 213–217. J Nanto Soc
scope of scripturally based inferences to cases Buddh Stud 58:1–57
where the objects are radically inaccessible and 5. Yaita H (1988) Dharmakīrti on the person free
hence beyond the range of ordinary ratiocination. from faults: an annotated translation of the
By such limitation he is able to preserve infer- Pramāṇavārttikasvavṛtti, adv 218–223. Nanto Bukkyo
Kenkyukai II:433–445
ences to be objectively grounded and at the same 6. Hayes RP (1988) Dinnaga on the Interpretation of
time show his difference from the Mīmāṁsā and Signs, Studies of classical India 8, Dordrecht: Kluwer
Sāṁkhya schools that cite scriptural passages as Academic Press
a means of proof even in the context of ordinary 7. Kajiyama Y (1966) An introduction to Buddhist Phi-
losophy, Memoirs of the Faculty of Letters, Kyoto
properties like the impermanence of sound. University, Kyoto
Hence, according to the Buddhists, testimony or 8. Hattori M (1968) Dinnaga on Perception, being the
śabda can be considered as an inference when it is Pratyaksa paricchedah of Dinnaga’s Pramanasamuccaya
applied to radically inaccessible objects. It is from the Sanskrit Fragnents and the Tibetan versions,
Cambridge: Hervard University Press
a special indirect case of inference because of
the fact that it turns on inductive generalization
presupposing the correctness of direct perception
or ordinary inferences. In a nutshell, the Bud-
dhist’s view is that there is no need to postulate
Sacred Biography (Buddhism)
śabda as a separate means of knowledge; it is to be
▶ Hagiography (Buddhism)
considered as a special variety of inference.

Cross-References Saddharmapundrīka Sūtra

˙˙
▶ Dharmakīrti (c. A.D. 600–660) Mangala Ramchandra Chinchore
▶ Dignāga Department of Philosophy, Centre for Studies in
▶ Knowledge (Buddhism) Classical Indian Buddhist Philosophy and
▶ Logic (Buddhism) Culture, University of Pune, Pune, Maharashtra,
▶ Mantra India
▶ Omniscience
▶ Philosophy (Buddhism)
Synonyms

The Lotus Sūtra

References

1. Chattopadhyay M (2007) Walking along the paths of

Buddhist epistemology. D.K. Printworld, New Delhi Definition
2. Dharmakīrti (1989) The Pramāṇavārttika of Acārya
Dharmakīrti with the commentaries Svopajñavṛtti of Mahāyāna-Buddhist text, one of the Vaipulya-
the author and Pramāṇavārttikavṛtti of
sūtras, sacred Nava-dharmas (nine-texts) of the
Manorathanandin, ed. Pandeya RC. Motilal
Banarsidass, Delhi Nepālese Buddhism
3. Van Bijlert, Vittorio A (1989) Epistemology and spiri-
tual authority: the development of epistemology and
logic in the old Nyāya and the Buddhist school of Lotus of the Right Mode to Live Life
epistemology with an annotated translation of
Dharmakīrti’s Pramāṇavārttika-II(Pramāṇasiddhi), vv
1–7, WSTB 20. Arbeitskreis fur Tibetische und It is a Mahāyāna-Buddhist text [1] originated in
Buddhistische Studien, Vienna India, having popularity and high respect all over
Saddharmapundrīka Sūtra 1027
˙˙

the world among the practitioners of Buddhism, Buddhism is not only meant for intellectuals,
especially followers of Tendai sect in China and nor for strict practitioners, but it is a means to
Nirchiren sect in Japan. It is translated into Euro- attain Nirvāṇa to all, without any kind of
pean languages like French, German, English, and discrimination – rich and poor, men and women,
is also available in Tibetan translated form by children and age-old, belonging to any religion
Surendrabodhi as well as Chinese along with six and region, etc. Naturally very few Bhikkhus, who
commentaries. It is one among the sacred Nava- were following Vinaya with extreme austerities
dharmas (nine-texts) of the Nepalese Buddhism alone are entitled to attain Nirvāṇa, a belief pre-
venerated with devotion and known as a part of dominant among the followers of early Bud-
the Vaipulya-sūtras. It consists of 27 chapters dhism, was required to be altered by new version
(Parivratas). that all can attain Nirvāṇa, and to give hope and
It is a mixed form of writing - combination of popularize the thoughts of the Buddha. Expansion
verse and prose. The First part is prose and it is cannot be made unless inclusive and accommoda-
then followed by verses. Verses present summary tive framework is adopted, and that task was
of the proceeding portion in details. “Lotus” is undertaken by some such works in the initial
a symbol of purity and perfection, because it orig- stages of Mahāyāna Buddhism and Saddharma-
inates in mud but not defiled by mud, just like the puṇḍarī ka-sūtra was one among them.
Buddha, who was born as a human being in this A lay-person is not able to understand and
world but he was above the worldly affairs. digest highly philosophical thoughts; rather, she/
“Lotus” seeds/fruits are ripped is indicated when he is most of the time governed by emotions,
it is blossomed, same is the case with the Buddha, instincts, and passions. But if she/he is convinced
when he had realization of the Bodhi (ultimate by telling the stories and dialogues, by giving
truth/enlightenment), then only he started beautiful similes and parables, she/he can under-
preaching the truth on request of the interested stand doctrines of Buddhism [3]. And, exactly this
ones. It is “Puṇḍarī ka (white-lotus)” clean and new mode of presentation is adopted by the
simple truth, taught by the Buddha having various Saddharma-puṇḍarīka-sūtra. At that time,
petals of (chapters) of the doctrines exposing its people were interested in attaining the highest
natural beauty and glory. It is “lotus” of moral hues enlightenment by faith and trying to seek compas-
and colors attracting those bees to suck the honey sion (Karuṇā) of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas;
readily available, like the Buddha’s thoughts dis- hence, emphasis is on devotion to the Buddha.
tributing sweet honey to all kinds of devotees They were worshiping, by using whatever
without any discrimination. was available with them – externally or
Historically it is an important text [2] where potentially – the relics, erecting Stūpas, scribbling
paradigm shift from Hī nayāna to Mahāyāna is pictures, constructing images and idols of the
noticeable, or a mode of synthesizing the three Buddha. By using devotion as a means one can S
Yānas into one, viz., Śrāvaka-yāna, Pratyeka- attain the Buddha-hood: This was their belief. In
buddha-yāna, and Bodhisattva-yāna into Bud- this context, especially Upāsakas, Upāsikas and
dha-yāna. It is seen that there was a need to Śrāvakas believed in the compassion of the Bud-
synchronize and systematize the differences of dha, that he is the only survivor and final solace to
opinion and respectively various strands taken all kinds of problems they are facing and hence
by the exponents of them from early Buddhist surrender to him unconditionally. Faith and reason
tradition, and by transcending the limitations or can go together which is the backbone of
by bracketing the internal contradictions, an inclu- Mahāyāna Buddhism: This is elaborated in this
sive model of understanding teaching of the Bud- work. Even though one is living in a house, which
dha is insightfully articulated and put forth by the is set on fire of craving and ignorance, one can
Mahāyāna. In such a context, perhaps, it was survive and successfully lead a life, provided
important to confront the problems originated Buddha pours his grace. Thus, he is physician
that are faced by the then followers of Buddhism. and protector, to provide medicine to our spiritual
1028 Saddharmapundrīka Sūtra
˙˙

illness. So by using whatever is good, it is essen- and he taught it to others, and further it is pre-
tial to obtain his grace [4]. served by his followers; and (III) Saṁbhoga-kāya
Although one (any human being) is born as (enjoyment through creative embodiment) – The
human a being and is distinctively different, if images one imagines and creates through the
one uses the present life as a chance, one can inborn potentialities and gets manifested in arche-
morally and spiritually progress. All human type-forms are embodiments for joy and happi-
beings have at least two assets and they are ness for years together for all. In the early
endowed with certain capacities as skillful Buddhist literature, one can at the most trace the
means to develop – Prajñā (wisdom) and Karuṇā former two but the last one is a unique contribu-
(compassion). If everybody uses these two assets tion of this text.
skillfully, each one can become perfect and attain It is believed by the followers that even by
the Nirvāṇa (emancipation). It is this thought that reading or worshiping this text, one can get
is used and expanded in this book. That is why enlightenment (Bodhi) and attain Nirvāṇa
through this book, it is learnt that Buddhist arts (emancipation).
and crafts were used as a means to attain perfec-
tion and tranquility. There is a glorification of the
Buddha and his preachers in the form of Bodhi- Cross-References
sattvas, which appear to be endowed with strange
and mystical powers. It also speaks of Dhārinī s ▶ Bhikkhunī
(mystical-spells) to overcome difficulties faced, ▶ Bodhi
and when one is surrounded by annoying states ▶ Bodhisattva
of affairs. Some scholars [5] have attempted to ▶ Dhāraṇī
find out similarities of the present text with Brah- ▶ Dharma
manical texts like Brāhmaṇa-graṅthas, Atharva- ▶ Hī nayāna
veda, etc. on the one hand and Christian legends ▶ Karuṇā
on the other. ▶ Mahāyāna
When this work originated, perhaps, due to the ▶ Mahāyāna Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra
passage of time, people were finding it difficult to ▶ Nirvāṇa
correlate themselves with the Buddha. In order to ▶ Prajñā
establish the proximity and make Buddha’s ▶ Pratyeka-Buddha
thoughts relevant even in changing circumstances ▶ Śrāvaka
and situations, it was, perhaps, felt essential to ▶ Stūpa
find out new ways and means. Mahāyāna Bud- ▶ Tri-kāya
dhism provides that skillful-bridge by creating ▶ Upāsaka
a new idea of Saṁbhoga-kāya (emergence of the ▶ Vinaya
Buddha from time-to-time). In the early Buddhist
texts, one never comes across the idea of Tri-kāya.
However, in the Saddharma-Puṇḍarī ka-Sūtra, References
for the first time, perhaps, it is articulated and
expounded. The Buddha or reality is manifested 1. Vaidya PL (ed) (1960) Saddharma-Puṇḍarika-Sūtra.
in three different ways (Kāyas – bodies/forms/ Mithila Institute, Darbhanga
2. Obermiller E (1999) Bu-Ston: the history of Buddhism
modes of existence): (I) Nirmāṇa-kāya (human in India and Tibet. Sri Sadguru Publications, Delhi
form of embodiment) The Buddha actually 3. Warder AK (2000) Indian Buddhism, 3rd edn. Motilal
lived as a human being in this world – i.e., his Banarsidass, Delhi
spatiotemporal emergence in this world, (II) 4. Sangharakshita (1987) A survey of Buddhism: its doc-
trines and methods through ages. Tharpa Publications,
Dharma-kāya (thoughts/doctrines as an embodi- London
ment of truth) – Thoughts of the Buddha emerged 5. Winternitz M (1993) History of Indian literature, vol II.
through his enlightenment and realization of truth Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, pp 290–297, 367, 397
Sakadāgāmin 1029

in early Buddhism. A sakadāgāmin has thereby

Sadharana become a “once-returner,” in the sense of being
one who “returns,” āgāmin, only “once,” sakid,
▶ Nigoda more to be reborn in the sensual world before
reaching final liberation and thereby freedom
from any rebirth.

Sadharmachakra Prāvartana
Mahāvihāra The Once-returner

▶ Sārnāth In early Buddhist thought, the scheme of the four

levels of awakening reflects the gradual eradica-
tion of the fetters, saṃyojana, that are considered
to be what binds an unawakened worldling to
Sadhu continued existence in the cycle of saṃsāra.
A stream-enterer, who has gained the first level
▶ Śramaṇa of awakening, has eradicated three of these fetters.
These three are the fetter of personality view,
sakkāyadiṭṭhi, in the sense of the notion of
a permanent self, the fetter of doubt, vicikicchā,
Sagga in particular doubt regarding the nature of what is
wholesome and what is unwholesome, and the
▶ Heaven (Buddhism) fetter of dogmatic clinging to rules and vows,
sī labbataparāmāsa, as in themselves sufficient
for reaching liberation.
The next two fetters to be overcome are sensual
Sahishnutaa lust, kāmarāga, and ill will, vyāpāda. In regard to
their overcoming, a once-returner has already
▶ Tolerance (Jainism) made substantial progress, since he or she has
considerably weakened both. Their complete
eradication, however, is only accomplished with
the next and third level of awakening, the attain-
Sakadāgāmin ment of non-return, anāgāmin, whereby one will
no longer return to be born in the sensual world.
Bhikkhu Anālayo The realization of once-return requires the S
Center for Buddhist Studies, University of development of insight, vipassanā, and tranquil-
Hamburg, Balve, Germany ity, samatha, a meditative development of the
mind that needs to be based on a firm foundation
in moral conduct. To proceed from stream-entry to
Synonyms once-return and from there to the higher stages of
awakening calls for contemplating the five aggre-
Once-returner; Sakṛdāgāmin (Sanskrit) gates affected by clinging as impermanent, unsat-
isfactory, and devoid of a self ([2], Vol. III,
p. 168). These five aggregates are according to
Definition early Buddhism the chief constituents of an indi-
vidual, comprising the aggregates of bodily form,
The sakadāgāmin is one who has reached the feeling, perception, volitions, and consciousness.
second of the four levels of awakening recognized The above contemplation therefore implies that all
1030 Sakadāgāmin

aspects of subjective experience should be seen as to attain absorption, jhāna, however, is not going
constantly changing, as therefore unable to pro- to return to “this world” in the next life ([3],
vide lasting satisfaction, and as therewith not fit to Vol. II, p. 126). Such a one will be reborn in
be considered as a permanent self. Indeed, if one a higher heavenly sphere beyond the sensuous
takes anything to be permanent or satisfactory or field, namely, in the fine-material or immaterial
a self, or else if one does not regard Nirvāṇa as heavenly worlds, the rūpaloka and arūpaloka.
happiness, then one is incapable of gaining once- This certainly does not mean that all once-
return or any of the other levels of awakening ([3], returners are bereft of deeper levels of concentra-
Vol. III, p. 442). tion. But if all once-returners were at the same
The development of insight for the attainment time also able to attain absorption, the concept of
of once-return comes into being through having a “once-returner” would be superfluous, since not
had association with superior persons, having a single once-returner would ever return “to this
heard the Dharma, having attended wisely, and world.” Hence, the very expression “once-return”
having practiced in accordance with the Dharma shows that the development of concentration up to
([2], Vol. V, p. 410). The most basic requirement the level of absorption attainment cannot be
for the gaining of once-return, however, is the a requirement for gaining this level of awakening.
existence of a Buddha, since due to his teaching Some once-returners may, however, develop
the path to once-return and to the other stages of deep levels of concentration and even gain the
awakening is revealed to humanity ([3], Vol. I, immaterial attainments, arūpa samāpatti, where
p. 23). according to early Buddhist meditation theory the
Although a once-returner has made substantial deeply concentrated mind perceives merely
progress when compared to a stream-enterer or boundless space, or boundless consciousness, or
even an unawakened worldling, he or she has nothingness, or else reaches such depth of con-
not yet fully realized the Buddha’s teaching ([1], centration that perception as such appears almost
Vol. II, p. 252). This is only accomplished by absent. Such a once-returner could then be reck-
those who have gained the highest level of awak- oned a “body witness,” kāyasakkhin, in the sense
ening: the arahants. An arahant has also fully of having directly witnessed these profound expe-
developed five mental faculties, indriya, that are riences ([3], Vol. I, p. 120). If, however, the fac-
of central importance for progress along the ulty of confidence or faith should have been
early Buddhist path to deliverance. These are predominant during progress along the path,
confidence or faith, energy, mindfulness, concen- then the resulting once-returner is “freed by con-
tration, and wisdom. A once-returner has devel- fidence” or “freed by faith,” saddhāvimutta. In
oped these five mental faculties only to some case wisdom was foremost, then such a type of
degree ([2], Vol. V, p. 202). once-returner belongs to those who have “attained
Some discourses indicate that, unlike a non- to view,” diṭṭhipatta.
returner, a once-returner has only completed the A discourse reports how differences between
training in morality, but not necessarily in concen- once-returners, who emphasized different quali-
tration ([3], Vol. I, p. 232 and [3], Vol. IV, p. 380). ties during their progress on the path, caused
This suggests that, in order to become a once- some confusion in the mind of a lay disciple.
returner, concentration does not need to be devel- The father of this lay disciple had lived
oped up to the level of absorption, jhāna. This a celibate life, while the uncle had not done so,
much can also be deduced from a once-returner’s yet the Buddha declared both to have passed away
level of rebirth. A once-returner is so called as once-returners ([3], Vol. III, p. 347). According
because he or she will be reborn once again in to the explanation given in this discourse, both
“this world,” the kāmaloka, which according to had been able to gain the same level of awakening
early Buddhist cosmology comprises the human because the uncle’s stronger wisdom had compen-
world and the lower celestial spheres. Someone sated for his comparatively less developed moral
who has developed concentration up to the ability conduct.
Sallekhanā (Jainism) 1031

This passage also shows that the gain of once-

return is not the sole domain of monastics. In fact, Sāketa
other discourses report that many lay followers
had reached this level of awakening ([1], Vol. II, ▶ Ayodhyā (Buddhism)
p. 93 and [1], Vol. II, p. 218). Gender also has no
say in these matters, since women are most cer-
tainly capable of gaining once-return, just as they
are able to attain any of the other stages of awak- Sakrdāgāmin
ening ([3], Vol. IV, p. 276). A discourse records ˙
that even some women from the harem of ▶ Sakadāgāmin
a king had been able to become once-returners
([4], p. 79).
The gaining of once-return is reckoned in
early Buddhism as one of the supreme fruits of Śāliputra
living the celibate life ([2], Vol. V, p. 26). In fact,
it is for the sake of this and the other stages of ▶ Sāriputta
awakening that such a life should be lived under
the Buddha ([1], Vol. I, p. 156). A monk who
gains once-return will be able to reach the
other shore just like a young ox will be able to Sallekhanā (Jainism)
cross the Ganges ([5], Vol. I, p. 226). Among
unawakened mankind, whose predicament is Whitny M. Braun
comparable to being immersed in water, the Center for Jain Studies, Claremont Lincoln
once-returner is one who emerges from the University, Claremont, CA, USA
water and is in the process of crossing over
([3], Vol. IV, p. 12).
Synonyms

Anasana; Samadhi-marana; Santhara

Cross-References

▶ Anāgāmin
Definition
▶ Arahant
▶ Insight
The centuries-old ritual of fasting combined with
▶ Liberation (Buddhism)
meditation unique to Jain dharma in which the S
▶ Sotāpanna
adherent gradually and systematically reduces
their food consumption until death.

References
Introduction
1. Carpenter JE, Rhys Davids TW (eds) (1890–1911) The
Dīgha Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London
2. Feer L (ed) (1888–1898) The Saṃyutta Nikāya, 5 vols.
Sallekhana is considered by Jains, both
Pali Text Society, Oxford Swetambara and Digambara, to be the ideal
3. Morris R, Hardy E (eds) (1885–1900) The Aṅguttara method of meeting death [1]. In Jain dharma,
Nikāya, 5 vols. Pali Text Society, London Sallekhana embraces death voluntarily and is the
4. Steinthal P (ed) (1885) The Udāna. Pali Text Society,
London
ultimate act of ahimsa or nonviolence, which pre-
5. Trenckner V, Chalmers R (eds) (1888–1896) The vents the practitioner from accruing karma [2].
Majjhima Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London The origin and precise definition of the word
1032 Sallekhanā (Jainism)

Sallekhana are unclear, but the most commonly Please instruct me sir. I have come forward to
accepted definition is “properly thinning out the seek. . .Sallekhana, (the vow of) which will remain
in force as long as I live. I am free of all doubts and
passions of the body” [3, 4]. anxieties in this matter. I renounce, from now until
the moment of my last breath, food and drink of all
kinds. [3]
The Rationale of Sallekhana Assuming that permission is granted, the per-
son either decides independently or consults with
The concept of ahimsa is at the core of the Jain
their physician as to the approximate amount of
faith. Each Jain throughout their life should ide-
time he or she has left to live and then develops
ally avoid thoughts that give rise to passions or
a program of fasting prescribing the gradual
violence. The existential goal is to avoid the accu-
decrease in the amount of food and drink they
mulation of karma by practicing ahimsa through-
consume to coincide with the level of rigor that
out one’s life. Karma prevents the soul or jiva
has taken in their vow of Sallekhana [9].
from separating from the physical form and
According to Jain teaching, a member of the
achieving ultimate liberation or moksa which is
laity who accepts this vow should give up all
understood as the permanent release from the
personal relationships, friendships, and posses-
cycle of birth and death [2]. Accumulated karma
sions as well as both physical and emotional
will also influence the physical form and
attachments of any form to this life [10]. They
circumstances in which the soul may manifest in
forgive relatives, companions, friends, enemies,
the next life [5]. Thus, when a Jain reaches the end
and servants or acquaintances and should ask for
of their life, they can opt to take the vow of
the pardon of all the sins and suffering he or she
Sallekhana and in doing so endeavor toward
committed or caused in his or her lifetime. They
either achieving liberation or improving the phys-
then discuss honestly with their guru all the sins,
ical form their jiva will next inhabit. A Jain can do
including sinful acts that they asked others to
this by striving to practice the ultimate form of
commit, as well as the acts of sins they encour-
aparigraha or nonpossession by (a) giving up all
aged others around them to commit. During the
of their worldly possessions, including possession
period of this vow, the adherent should eliminate
of their own body, and (b) gradually reducing their
from their mind all the grief, fear, regret, affection,
consumption of other jivas in the form of food and
hatred, prejudice, and other passions to the fullest
drink [5]. Ultimately, Sallekhana brings about the
extent [11].
end of life through the rejection of life-sustaining
The vow can be taken in three different forms
elements such as food and water.
representing three different levels of rigor.

1. The longest vow of Sallekhana is 12 years in

The Ritual duration.
2. The medium vow is 1 year in duration.
The decision to take the vow of Sallekhana is open 3. The short vow is anything up to 6 months in
to both lay Jains and ascetics who foresee that the duration [7].
end of their life is very near due to either old age,
senility, mental illness, terminal illness, severe The process of Sallekhana is meant to be
famine, attack from an enemy or a wild animal, a gradual one. Initially, the adherent should grad-
or in some cases loss of chastity [6–8]. Any Jain ually reduce food consumption until they only
who is faced with any of the aforementioned survive on liquids and then downgrade slowly
conditions can approach their guru or spiritual from drinking only milk to drinking only juice
mentor and express their wish to take the vow of and finally water. Ultimately, they will give up
Sallekhana. They do so by saying the words: water as well and experience a complete and
Sallekhanā (Jainism) 1033

total fast. During this process, the adherent should with Jains from around the country traveling to
also give up all the passions they once had as they pay their respects to the adherent. However, since
are considered mental weaknesses, and they 2006, the High Court of Rajasthan in Jaipur has
should become engrossed in their meditation been deliberating over a public interest litigation
without paying attention to their physical body. filed by human rights activists seeking to have
There are five transgressions the adherent is Sallekhana classified as “suicide” and thus illegal
advised to avoid, which are: under the Indian constitution. Further, the legal
argument against Sallekhana posits that because
1. Wishing to postpone death women are statistically more likely to engage in
2. Wishing death would come sooner the practice, it is inherently misogynistic and akin
3. Fearing death to the Hindu ritual of widow self-immolation
4. Thinking of friends and relatives at the time of known as Sati which has been illegal in India
death since 1829 [9], though there is no evidence in
5. Hoping for some sort of reward after death classical Jain teaching to suggest the presence of
[3, 7] misogyny or gender bias.
Debate over the legality of Sallekhana stems
It is recommended that a person who has taken from the argument over whether or not the ritual,
the vow of Sallekhana select a place to sit for the which is in essence voluntary death, is by defini-
fast where legal authorities do not object to such tion suicide. Jain teaching argues that Sallekhana
a vow. Ideally, it should be a place where other is not suicide as suicide implies an act of instant
people do not visit and are unlikely to interfere violence directed toward oneself due to grief,
with the process. Traditionally, a person taking depression, emotional imbalance, or perhaps the
Sallekhana should find a quiet place in the forest, expectation of fame. However, Sallekhana is seen
preferably under a tree, and then focus on nothing as the ultimate act of nonviolence because it is not
and nothingness and allow themselves to be over- instigated by any of the aforementioned motives
taken by the natural forces around them, their body nor does it result in the destruction of jivas [13].
reclaimed, and their soul released for either rein- According to the sadhus and sadhvis, who are
carnation or released into the cosmos if it has male and female mendicants, as well as Jain
attained liberation or moksa [12]. The translations scholars, Sallekhana is a pleasant death freely
of the original texts say that in order for Sallekhana chosen by the adherent. The practitioner leaves
to commence properly, the person must sit in silent the world without a care or concern, and a great
meditation and bear all discomfort [12]. It says that euphoria is experienced followed by a peaceful
if insects and vermin bite him, he must not defend death. Many eyewitness accounts tell of the
himself or rub the wound because that would inter- Sallekhana adherent laughing and smiling during
fere with natural process [3]. the final stages of their death. Opponents of S
Sallekhana counter that this perceived euphoria
is simply a physiological response to the body
Sallekhana in India Today being deprived of nutrition [9].

In India today, Sallekhana most commonly takes

place in an ashram or holy place, however, Directives Against Sallekhana
because it is sanctioned as a religious death, and
it is technically acceptable to perform Sallekhana While Sallekhana is encouraged in Jain teaching
in the home, in a monastery, or in the wilderness. and is put forth as the most noble method of
In most current cases, the process of Sallekhana is reaching the end of one’s life, there are clear and
a more public event than described in the sutras, definite directives against the adoption of this vow.
1034 Samadhi-Marana

If one is a productive member of society or a sadhu Diaspora communities because of fear of possible
or sadhvi who is still fully capable of studying the legal interference [9].
Jain scriptures, then Sallekhana is not permitted
[14]. A classic example of this is the story of
the great Jain sadhu and scholar Acharya Cross-References
Samantabhadra. He suffered from a chronic and
incurable disease which some say was leprosy. ▶ Ahiṃsā (Jainism)
He wished to take the vow of Sallekhana due to ▶ Dharma (Jainism)
the impossibility of living a life in accordance with ▶ Karma (Jainism)
the religious restrictions placed on a sadhu. He
approached his guru for permission. His guru told
him that because he was of such great intelligence References
and capable of significant scholarship, he must live
on and contribute to Jain literature and deal 1. Jain J (1999) Religion and culture of the Jains, 4th edn.
Bharatiya Jnanpith Publishing, Delhi
with whatever hardships might confront him.
2. Glasenapp H (1991) Doctrine of Karman in Jain phi-
Permission to die was denied, and Acharya losophy. P. V. Research Institute, Varanasi
Samantabhadra wrote several works before he ulti- 3. Jaini P (1979) The Jaina path of purification. Motilal
mately died as a result of Sallekhana years later. Banarsidass, Delhi
4. Varni J (1999) Saman suttam. Bhagwan Mahavir
Today, he is regarded as one of the greatest minds
Memorial Samiti, New Delhi
in the history of Jain philosophy [3, 15]. 5. Babb L (1994) The great choice: worldly values in
a Jain ritual culture. Hist Relig 34:23
6. Sogani K (2005) Jainism: ethico-special perspective.
Jaina Vidya Samsthana Publishing, Rajasthan
Alternatives to Sallekhana 7. Tukol T (1976) Sallekhana is not suicide. Lalbhai
Dalpatbhai Institute, Ahmedabad
For Jains who fear that they may die an accidental 8. Vallely A (2002) Guardians of the transcendent: an
death or possibly pass away in their sleep before ethnography of a Jain ascetic community. University
of Toronto Press, Toronto
ever being able to take the vow of Sallekhana,
9. Braun W (2008) Sallekhana: the ethicality and legality
there is a prayer ritual known as Pratikramana. of religious suicide by starvation in the Jain religious
This prayer ritual allows for the practitioner of the community. Int J Med Law 27(4):913–924
faith to express remorse for the acts of himsa 10. Laidlaw J (1995) Riches and renunciation: religion,
economy and society among the Jains. Clarendon,
committed while they were awake and the acts
Oxford
of himsa they may commit in their sleep. The 11. Laidlaw J (2005) A life worth leaving: fasting to death
evening ritual, known specifically as Devasi as telos of a Jain religious life. Econ Soc 34:178–200
Pratikramana, may be performed before bedtime 12. Choudhury P (1956) Jainism in Bihar. Indu Roy
Choudhury, Patna
and ostensibly serves to allow the person to
13. Chapple C (2002) Jainism and ecology: nonviolence
express their desire to strive toward ahimsa, in the web of life. Harvard University Press for the
divine consciousness, and liberation [3]. Center for the Study of World Religions, Cambridge,
MA
14. Jain C (2004) Selections from the Jaina Law. Jaina
Vidya Samsthana, Rajasthan
Demographics 15. Roy A (1984) A history of the Jainas. Gitanjali Pub-
lishing House, New Delhi
Sallekhana has rarely been documented outside of 16. Davis D (1990) Old and thin. Second Opin 15:6
India. However, an increasing number of aging
members of Jain Diaspora communities are seek-
ing to practice the ritual in their adopted home-
lands [9]. There have been documented cases in Samadhi-Marana
the United States [16]. However, accurate records
are not publicly kept in India or within the ▶ Sallekhanā (Jainism)
Samantabhadra 1035

principal Bodhisattva. In the Avataṃsaka Sūtra,

Samantabhadra “the Buddhas of ten directions describe the Bodhi-
sattva Samantabhadra as present in all lands, sit-
Ram Kumar Rana ting on a Jeweled Lotus Throne, beheld by all. He
Department of Buddhist Studies, Faculty of Arts, manifests all psychic powers, and is able to enter
University of Delhi, Delhi, India infinite meditations. The Samantabhadra always
fill the universe, With various bodies flowing
everywhere, With concentration, psychic power,
Synonyms skill and strength, In a universal voice teaching
extensively without hindrance” [7].
Fugen (Japanese); Kuntu Zangpo (Tibetan); Based on the above, Samantabhadra is not an
Pu Xian and Bian ji (Chinese); Viśvabhadra ordinary Bodhisattva, but a being of cosmic pro-
portions and implications. He symbolizes the
practices and merits of all Bodhisattvas which
Definition must be fulfilled in order to attain Buddhahood.
His vows and practices exemplify the ideal course
Samantabhadra, the patron of the Lotus Sūtra, is of conduct for the Buddhists. This course of con-
a celestial Bodhisattva of Eastern region in duct is exemplified by the pilgrimage of youth
Mahāyāna Buddhism associated with Buddhist Sudhana in the final chapters of Avataṃsaka
practices and meditation. Sūtra (Bhadracarīpraṇidhāna) [6]. The result is
the knowledge of, and the merging into, the uni-
verse of identity and interdependence, which is
Preliminary the experience of the perfectly enlightened
Buddhas. One must, in a sense, become
The word Samanta signifies Universally Samantabhadra in order to truly take up the
Extending or General whereas Bhadra means Bodhisattva way.
Great Virtue or Sage [5]. Samantabhadra, there- The Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra prescribes the exten-
fore means Universal Virtue or Universal sive worship and makes offerings to the innu-
Worthy, which is derived from these words. merable Buddha’s of the ten directions whom the
Samantabhadra also represents the principle of devotees visualize face to face through the power
universal love or compassion. He is also of Samantabhadra’s vows, with deep faith and
known as the Bodhisattva of Great Activity. understanding. Among all, the offerings of the
Samantabhadra is a Bodhisattva in Mahāyāna Dharma are paramount, which include the offer-
Buddhism associated with Buddhist practice ing of following all the Buddha’s instructions, of
and meditation. He is the patron of the Lotus benefiting all sentient beings, of embracing and S
Sūtra and, according to the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, sustaining all sentient beings, of taking upon
made the ten great vows which are the basis of oneself the sufferings of others, of vigorously
a Bodhisattva. In China, Samantabhadra is known fostering the root of merit, of swerving not from
as Pu Xian (Universal Worthy) and Bian ji (Uni- the Bodhisattva’s duty, and of never departing
versal Fortune), and is also associated with fun- from the thought of Enlightenment [1]. There
damental principle (Ch. Li), whereas the upon, the Bodhisattva resolves: “I will never
Bodhisattva Mañjuśri is associated with wisdom abandon, but continue to practice, this vast,
(Ch. Zhi) [5]. great and supreme offering without cessation in
Samantabhadra in the Avataṃsaka Sūtra: bodily, vocal, and mental deeds without wari-
One of the primary scriptural sources for ness” [1].
Samantabhadra is the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, vener- In the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, the Buddha states
ated as one of the most important scriptures of that Samantabhadra made ten great vows in his
Mahāyāna Buddhism in China, where he is the path to attain Buddhahood [6]:
1036 Samantabhadra

1. To pay homage to all Buddhas organs. When the purity of his repentance is
2. To praise all the Buddhas achieved, the Samantabhadra will appear before
3. To make abundant offerings (i.e., give him and accompany him all the time, even in his
generously) dream continuously preaching in the Law [2].
4. To repent misdeeds and evil Karmas The Samantabhadra, abiding before him, will
5. To rejoice in others’ merits and virtues also teach and explain to him all karmas and
6. To request the Buddhas to continue teaching environments of his former lives, and will cause
7. To request the Buddhas to remain in the world him to confess all the sins he committed in the
8. To follow the teachings of the Buddhas at all course of his innumerable past lives. This would
times lead him to the contemplation of the revelation of
9. To accommodate and benefit all living beings the Buddha to the men. Then by the power of this
10. To transfer all merits and virtues to benefit all contemplation and by the adornment of the
beings preaching of the Samantabhadra, the follower
will obtain the purity of the six organs, he will
The ten vows constitute the most important feel the joy of body and mind, and freedom from
practices extolled in the popular Mahāyāna Sūtras evil thoughts. Consequently, he will devote him-
and have become a common practice in East self all the more to this Law. Such six laws are the
Asian Buddhism, particularly the tenth vow, aspiration to Buddhahood and are the ones that
with many Buddhists traditionally dedicating beget the Bodhisattvas before the Buddhas, if
their merit and good works to all beings during they confess their previous sins and repent six
Buddhist liturgies. organs sincerely. The devotees are exhorted
The Samantabhadra Bodhisattva Dhyāna to observe the law of meditating on the
Sūtra: The Samantabhadra Bodhisattva Dhyāna Samantabhadra, and discriminate and explain it
Sūtra introduces the true nature of Samantabhadra widely to all the gods and men of the universe. So
as boundless in the size of his body, boundless in that after the extinction of the Buddha, all his
the sound of his voice, and boundless in the form disciples obediently follow the Buddha’s
of his image. Desiring to come to this world, he words and practice repentance; in such case all
makes use of his free transcendental powers and these practitioners are doing the work of
shrinks his stature to the small size (of a human Samantabhadra and those who practice in this
being). Because the people in Jambudvipa have manner see neither evil aspects nor the retribu-
the three heavy hindrances, by his wisdom power tion of evil karmas. Having received the sixfold
he appears transformed as mounted on a white laws, next he must zealously practice the
elephant [2]. unhindered brahma-conduct; raise the mind of
A kind of visualization of Samantabhadra and universally saving all living beings [2].
countless Buddhas is also described in this Sūtra This Sūtra also illustrates that “The
which prescribes practitioners to focus their minds Samantabhadra was born in the eastern Pure
uninterruptedly on the Great vehicle for a day or Wonder Land” [2]. He is usually depicted on
three times for 7 days. Then they will be able to a six-tusked, seven-legged magical snowy white
visualize Samantabhadra taking time according to elephant holding a wish-fulfilling gem and a book
the magnitude of the impediment of their Karmic of the Dharma (Lotus Sūtra). Here, the elephant
burdens ranging from 7 days, one birth, two symbolizes practice and awareness, while the six
births, to the three births [2]. The practitioner has tusks represent overcoming attachment to the six
to begin with a resolve to see Samantabhadra on senses. They also represent the Six Perfections in
the basis of his previous blessings than he should which the Bodhisattva pursues his spiritual culti-
pray Samantabhadra to reveal himself. Having vation to attain enlightenment also to save other
done this, the followers should pay homage to sentient beings.
the Buddhas in all directions and the law of repen- The Lotus Sūtra: Samantabhadra also plays an
tance which includes the purification of six sense important role in the Lotus Sūtra, another
Samantabhadra 1037

important Sūtra in Mahāyāna Buddhism, in which the Avataṃsaka Sūtra as their basic instruction,
his role as the Dharma Protector and Propagator of Samantabhadra and Mañjuśri flank Vairocana
the Lotus Sūtra are discussed [7]. In this Sūtra, the Buddha, the principle Buddha of this particular
chapter on Samantabhadra opens with arrival of Sūtra. Samantabhadra has other identities in the
Samantabhadra along with equally endowed Tang Dynasty Tantric School of Buddhism, which
countless Bodhisattvas, and other beings from was popular and influential in few metropolitan
the eastern direction arrive dramatically on the centers of the eighth and ninth centuries, as Pu
Vulture peak to pay homage to the Śākyamuni Xian Yan Ming (Samantabhadra Who Lengthens
Buddha and to listen to the preaching of the Life span). Samantabhadra is believed by many
Lotus Sūtra and accept it [8]. Chinese Buddhists to have resided at Mt. E Mei of
In the presence of the Buddha, Samantabhadra Si Chuan Province [5].
makes a vow to protect and guard all those who In Esoteric Buddhism: In Esoteric Buddhism,
accept and uphold this sūtra. Not only this, he Samantabhadra is also known as Vajradhara and
assured for them freedom from decline and any Viśvabhadra [5], the different names represent
harm from all sorts of evil beings. Samantabhadra different attributes and essence qualities,
also promises to help the person(s) who accepts, lineages of Sadhanā, and esoteric transmission.
upholds, reads, and recites the Lotus Sūtra prop- Samantabhadra appears in the Vajrayāna tantric
erly so that they can gain insight and acquire text the Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra as the Primordial
Samādhis and Dharanis of repetition and the Ādi Buddha, the “embodiment” (Sanskrit: kaya)
Dharma sounds expedient. Further, if the practi- or “field” (Sanskrit: Kṣetra) of “timeless aware-
tioner recites the sūtra for 21 days then ness, gnosis” (Sanskrit: Jñāna) awakened since
Samantabhadra manifests himself riding on his from the time immemorial. Therefore, in Tibetan
six-tusked white elephant surrounded by innu- Buddhism the Nyingma, or “Old Translation”
merable Bodhisattvas before that person to preach school, the Śākya, and the Bon schools view
and instruct him the Law for his benefit and joy. Samantabhadra as the Primordial Buddha. In
He also gives a Dharani capable of protecting him the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism,
from all possible harms physical as well as spiri- Vajrayāna, Samantabhadra is considered a
tual. So, Samantabhadra bears responsibility to Primordial Buddha, who is the embodiment of
guard and protect Lotus Sūtra as well as the dev- enlightenment or ultimate reality (Dharmakāya)
otees who copy it, make others to copy, accept, in indivisible Yab-yum union with his consort
uphold, read, recite, and memorize this sūtra cor- Samantabhadri [4]. However, the Kagyu and
rectly and practice as prescribed in the Lotus Gelug schools use Vajradhara to represent the
Sūtra. This resolution is further strengthened by Primordial Buddha.
the vow the Samantabhadra has taken to employ In short, Samantabhadra embodies all the vir-
his transcendental powers to guard and protect tues extolled in the Mahayana Tradition; physi- S
Lotus Sūtra, and Śākyamuni Buddha promises to cally he is beyond the limits of time and space, and
use his transcendental powers to guard and protect he is described in an Esoteric tradition as the unity
those who accept and uphold the name of Bodhi- of awareness, appearances, and emptiness, the
sattva Samantabhadra [8]. For this reason, in nature of mind, and natural clarity with unceasing
Japan, Samantabhadra (Jap. Fugen) is worshipped compassion. This is how the Samantabhadra is
as the patron and protector of their favorite text, known from the very beginning [3].
the Lotus Sūtra, particularly by the Tendai, Shin-
gon, and Nichiren sects.
In Mahāyāna Buddhism: Unlike his more pop- Cross-References
ular counterpart Mañjuśri, Samantabhadra is only
rarely depicted alone and is usually found in ▶ Bodhisattva
a trinity on the right side of Śākyamuni, riding ▶ Mañjuśrī
on a white elephant. In those traditions that accept ▶ Vajrayāna (Buddhism)
1038 Samatha

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application of the mind, vitakka and vicāra. The
degree of unification and inner pervasion with
rapture and happiness experienced at this point
Synonyms is, according to the early Buddhist discourses,
comparable to mixing bath powder with water
Calm; Śamatha (Sanskrit); Tranquility for the purpose of taking a bath, where all the
powder is thoroughly permeated and mixed with
the water ([1], Vol. I, p. 74).
Definition With further deepening of concentration, initial
and sustained application of the mind fall away
In conjunction with insight, vipassanā, samatha and the mind remains effortlessly stable and uni-
as mental calm or tranquility is a central aspect of fied. At this point, the experience of rapture and
the systematic cultivation of the mind in happiness is not only based on aloofness from
Buddhism. sensuality, but additionally born of the inner con-
fidence and stability that result from the depth of
concentration, once the second absorption has
Tranquility been reached. The aloofness and stability of such
concentration accompanied by intense inner rap-
In early Buddhist meditation theory, to develop ture and happiness finds an illustration in the
samatha means to “settle” the mind, in the sense image of a lake on top of a mountain which is
of making it steady, quiet, and concentrated. The fed by spring water welling up from within.
development of samatha requires in particular the Eventually rapture, pī ti, fades away and only
overcoming of certain mental states or conditions happiness, sukha, remains. A sense of balance and
Samatha 1039

inner clarity pervades this experience which by reached, which is based on the notion of “bound-
way of further deepening of concentration has less consciousness.” At this point, not only matter
become the attainment of the third absorption. is left behind, but also space.
The discourses compare the degree to which the Attending to this refined experience of bound-
whole experience at this stage is one of being less consciousness as something that is insubstan-
immersed in happiness and profound concentra- tial in every respect, the notion of “nothingness”
tion with the example of lotus flowers that are can become the basis for attaining the third imma-
completely immersed in water. terial attainment. By now, not only matter and
Once even the subtle happiness of the third space, but even the notion of the experiencing
absorption is left behind, the fourth absorption mind is being transcended.
can be attained, which transcends the dichotomy Still another step can be taken at this point.
of pleasure and displeasure, being firmly and This requires letting go of any notion at all,
unshakably established in equanimity and deeply whereby the fourth immaterial attainment of
stable concentration. The inner purity of this expe- “neither-perception-nor-non-perception” can be
rience and its total withdrawal from the outer reached. At this stage, the experience is so subtle
world finds an illustration in the image of that it is no longer possible to say whether there is
a person who is completely wrapped up in perception or not.
a white cloth, from head to toe. Progress through the four immaterial attain-
Based on the attainment of the fourth absorp- ments thus takes place by a sublimation of the
tion, according to early Buddhist meditation the- object of meditation, based on the depth of con-
ory the mind has acquired such inner power and centration reached with the fourth absorption. In
ability that the development of various supernat- other words, the development of the four absorp-
ural abilities and powers becomes possible. These tions depicts a deepening of concentration with
include telepathic knowledge of the minds of any meditation object, whereas the four immate-
others and the recollection of one’s own past rial attainments are based on a specific progressive
lives, just to mention two examples. refinement of the meditation object.
Alternatively, based on the fourth absorption Within the context of the noble eightfold path,
the immaterial attainments can be developed, pro- which succinctly describes what from an early
found experiences of mental tranquility that tran- Buddhist perspective is required for progress to
scend any experience related to what is material. liberation, the development of samatha by way of
Experiencing these requires going beyond the the four absorptions has its place under the head-
object of meditation, which formed the basis for ing of “right concentration.” Such right concen-
the progress through the four absorptions, and tration needs to be developed in cooperation with
which now is replaced by a set of progressively rightly directed view, intentions, speech, action,
subtler notions. livelihood, effort, and mindfulness. S
With the first of these immaterial attainments, The development of samatha leads to a high
the former meditation object, which due to the degree of mastery over the mind and thereby
unification of the mind during absorption has forms a basis for the development of insight,
become an all embracing experience, is refined vipassanā. When insight is developed by a calm
by being replaced with the notion of “boundless and steady mind, such insight will be able to
space.” In other words, the boundlessness of the penetrate into the deeper regions of the mind and
former object remains, but the object itself is thereby bring about true inner change.
allowed to disappear, whereby the experience of While vipassanā has the purpose of leading to
matter is fully left behind. the destruction of ignorance, the practice of tran-
The next step requires turning attention back to quility is reckoned to be specifically aimed at the
the mind that, by being absorbed in the notion of abandoning of passion ([2], Vol. I, p. 61). This,
boundless space, has become boundless itself. In however, does not mean that these two aspects of
this way, the second immaterial attainment can be meditation represent two different paths leading to
1040 Samatha

two different goals. The above distinction only no fixed pattern to be followed in this respect. One
intends to draw attention to the specific task or type of practitioner may have gained mental tran-
quality of these two interdependent aspects of quility but is not yet endowed with the higher
Buddhist meditation. wisdom of insight, while another may be endowed
The experience of deep stages of concentration with the higher wisdom of insight without having
is one of intense pleasure and happiness, brought gained mental tranquility ([2], Vol. II, p. 92). In
about by purely mental means, which eclipses any both cases, an effort should be made to develop
pleasure arising in dependence on material what is still lacking. Some may practice insight
objects. In this way the development of samatha first and then develop tranquility, others may build
can become a powerful antidote to sensual desires, up mental tranquility right at the outset and only
by divesting them of their former attraction. then turn to insight, and still others may develop
Even though samatha on its own would not be both in conjunction ([2], Vol. II, p. 157).
able to lead to awakening, it thus does have an According to early Buddhist meditation theory,
important function to perform for progress toward any of these approaches is capable of leading to
that aim. Hence, the path leading to the uncondi- liberation, if eventually insight and tranquility are
tioned requires both samatha and vipassanā ([3], both brought into being. Thus, there appears to be
Vol. IV, p. 359), both have to be developed as no fixed rule, according to which the development
integral parts of the noble eightfold path. To bor- of one of these two meditative qualities inevitably
row from a poetic image found in the discourses, has to precede the other. Much rather, the task
mental tranquility and insight are a “swift pair of appears to be one of developing both in harmoni-
messengers,” capable of carrying the message of ous cooperation. As a stanza proclaims:
Nirvāṇa along the road of the noble eightfold path There is no meditative absorption for those without
([3], Vol. IV, p. 195). wisdom,
The basic difference between samatha and There is no wisdom without meditation,
vipassanā can be illustrated with the help of mind- Those who have meditative absorption and
wisdom,
fulness of breathing, since this meditation practice Are close to Nirvāṇa ([4], 372).
can be developed in both modes. The difference
here depends on what angle is taken when observ-
ing the breath, since emphasis on various phe- Cross-References
nomena related to the process of breathing stays
in the realm of variegated sensory experience and ▶ Ānāpānasati
thus is more geared toward the development of ▶ Bhāvanā
insight, while emphasis on just mentally knowing ▶ Dhyāna/Jhāna
the presence of the breath leads to a unitary type of ▶ Iddhi
experience and is thus capable of producing deep- ▶ Insight
ening levels of mental tranquility. ▶ Liberation (Buddhism)
In the early Buddhist discourses, the terms ▶ Meditation
samatha and vipassanā seldom occur alone and ▶ Metta
most often are found together. This conveys the ▶ Muditā
impression that their relationship should be one of
coexistence and cooperation. A calm mind sup-
ports the development of insight and the presence References
of insight in turn facilitates the development of
deeper levels of tranquility. Therefore, tranquility 1. Carpenter JE, Rhys Davids TW (eds) (1890–1911)
and insight are at their best when developed in The Dīgha Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London
2. Morris R, Hardy E (eds) (1885–1900) The Aṅguttara
skilful cooperation.
Nikāya, 5 vols. Pali Text Society, London
Concerning the interrelation between tranquil- 3. Feer L (ed) (1888–1898) The Saṃyutta Nikāya, 5 vols.
ity and insight, the discourses indicate that there is Pali Text Society, Oxford
Samavasarana (Jainism) 1041
˙

4. von Hinüber O, Norman KR (eds) (1994) The and also attains complete awareness of every
Dhammapada. Pali Text Society, London (references other existent entity in the universe in all their
are by stanza)
5. Bodhi (2002) The Jhānas and the lay disciple. In: qualities and continually changing modes. As
Premasiri PD (ed) Buddhist studies, essays in honour the fourth of five auspicious events (kalyāṇaka)
of Professor Lily de Silva. University of Peradeniya, in the lives of a tīrthaṅkara, or Jina, the moment of
Sri Lanka, pp 36–64 omniscience is a central focus in Jain dharma.
6. Brahmāli (2007) Jhāna and Lokuttara-jjhāna. Buddh
Stud Rev 24(1):75–90 Thus, the samavasaraṇa is one of the most elabo-
7. Bucknell RS (1993) Reinterpreting the Jhānas. J Int rate symbolic images of Jainism. It is frequently
Assoc Buddh Stud 16(2):375–409 represented in art and architecture, but it also
8. Cousins LS (1973) Buddhist Jhāna, its nature and functions as an ethical ideal of planetary peace
attainment according to the Pali sources. Religion
3:115–131 and coexistence among people, devas, and crea-
9. Cousins LS (1992) Vitakka/Vitarka and Vicāra, stages tures, inspired by the Jina’s teachings.
of Samādhi in Buddhism and yoga. Indo-Iranian The Ādipurāṇa of Jinasena, among many other
J 35:137–157 Jain āgamas and commentaries, contains
10. Griffiths PJ (1983) Buddhist Jhāna, a form-critical
study. Religion 13:55–68 a detailed description of the samavasaraṇa, both
11. Gunaratana H (1996) The path of serenity and insight, as a cosmological event and an architectural mar-
an explanation of the Buddhist Jhānas. Motilal, Delhi vel. In this account, the samavasaraṇa arena is
12. Shankman R (2008) The experience of Samādhi, an constructed by multiple devas, often atop a large
in-depth exploration of Buddhist meditation.
Shambala, Boston mound, immediately after a tīrthaṅkara attains
13. Stuart-Fox M (1989) Jhāna and Buddhist scholasti- omniscience. The structure itself is an elaborate
cism. J Int Assoc Buddh Stud 12(2):79–110 and highly precise architectural design meant to
ensure the seamless arrival of innumerable and
diverse guests, a receptive state of listening and
collective harmony throughout the tīrthaṅkara’s
Śamatha message, and the peaceful departure of all. It
disappears after the speech concludes ([3],
▶ Samatha p. 117).
The samavasaraṇa consists of four circular
(or rarely, square) layers. The base of the assembly
is the widest, surrounded by a tall wall and cov-
Samavasarana (Jainism) ering an area of 12 km2 that was prepared by the
˙ devas specifically for the occasion. Gates are
Brianne Donaldson embellished with Jain motifs such as umbrellas,
Claremont School of Theology, Claremont, CA, crocodiles, and svastikas and strategically placed
USA at the four cardinal points of the circular structure S
to ensure guest’s unimpeded movement and visual
access to the Jina located at the apex of the
Definition samavasaraṇa under a sacred Aśoka tree.
The tree provides refuge for the tīrthaṅkara in
Samavasaraṇa (also Samosaraṇa) refers to the the tradition of a forest sanctuary. It also mimics
“the coming together” of the great assembly of the shelter designs of traditional Buddhist and Jain
people, gods (devas), and animals of that occurs shrines (caitya-gṛha) that offer a covered space for
when a great Jain teacher, called a tīrthaṅkara, pilgrims to visit a stūpa or reliquary. The Aśoka
achieves kevala-jñāna. Kevala-jñāna is often tree, native to India and renowned for its medici-
translated as omniscience. However, it is more nal properties, is said to have sheltered Mahāvīra
accurately described as the moment in which when he renounced the world. Some commentar-
a jīva, meaning the immanent life force within ies describe an inner chamber beneath the tree
every living entity experiences its true nature made of crystal and gems that reflect all the
1042 Samavasarana (Jainism)
˙

entities in the universe, akin to the Jina’s omni- The speech of the tīrthaṅkara is characterized
science. Below the branches, the tīrthaṅkara sits by unique attributes. Not only is it amplified to
on a soft cushion. The body of the Jina is often reach the ears of all five-sensed creatures in the
depicted as four-sided, having been replicated universe, but it also emanates as a monolingual,
three times, either by devas or by a self-replicating divine sound (divya-dhvani) that is transformed
power, so that four images of the omniscient into the language or communicative mode of each
teacher face each of the cardinal directions. The listener. The message is believed to instruct
terms pratimā-sarvatobhadrikā and caumukha (deśanā-labdhi) a listener on the soul’s potential
designates an image that is auspicious on all four for right knowledge and inspire a renewed com-
sides ([9], p. 20). mitment to spiritual practices, full or partial renun-
Surrounding the tīrthaṅkara on the second ciation, virtuous conduct, nonviolence, and
level are the gaṇadharas, or disciples, who are a fresh reception of the sūtras, texts, and spiritual
venerated leaders of ascetic communities, teachings of the ācāryas, even among animals.
followed by omniscient ascetics who have not The Aupapātika Sūtra within the Śvetāmbara
yet achieved karmic liberation. Other highly canon, one of many explanatory āgamas elucidat-
developed monastics join the audience, followed ing the original 12 Jain aṅgas, includes narratives
by female ascetics, male and female devas, and to the laity regarding devas and Mahāvīra’s
lay men and women. Each group enters serenely preaching that figure significantly in later ideas
by paying homage to the enlightened teacher of the samavasaraṇa, becoming an important fea-
through salutation and circumambulation. Five- ture of Jain art and temple architecture.
sensed animals such as fish, reptiles, birds, and Sculptors, painters, artisans, architects, and
mammals fill the third level, coexisting without temple builders were given creative license to
any animosity between one another or with represent the samavasaraṇa as long as they
humans. The samavasaraṇa is considered to be maintained the central design elements, most spe-
an event of such rare inspiration that ascetics, cifically the Jina in the center, preferably in
laypeople, animals, and gods are encouraged to a seated position ([8], p. 231). As a flat painting,
come in spite of great distance. Hence, the fourth the samavasaraṇa might be confused with
and lowest level is reserved for the celestial vehi- a maṇḍala, but the presence of a four-faced
cles and any mode of transport used to travel to the teacher in the center and three concentric rings
event. Crowds of people and animals also gather of people, animals, and vehicles will always
peacefully and orderly around the periphery of the reveal the image to be of the Jain assembly.
structure, calmed and transfixed by the presence of Metal, marble, or handmade replicas of the lay-
the all-perceiving Jina. ered auditorium are also found in many Jain tem-
The appearance of the tīrthaṅkara sitting in the ples including a bronze recreation thought to be
samavasaraṇa is considered one of the most auspi- over 400 years old in the Neminātha temple in
cious acts of beauty, humility, wisdom, and truth Ghogha, India. At Mount Śatruñjaya in Gujarat,
that any creature can witness. It is captured in the a sacred Śvetāmbara pilgrimage site, visitors can
opening line of the Namaskāra-mantra that honors gaze on large panels decorated with circular
those Jinas, also called arhats, who have overcome depictions of samavasaraṇa. At Pāvāpurī in
anger, ego, deceit, and greed and who possessed Bihar, the location of Mahāvīra’s death and liber-
certain karmic impressions that enabled their spir- ation circa 527 B.C.E., visitors can find an older
itual leadership. The tīrthaṅkara’s sermon begins and newer samavasaraṇa shrine near the main
with an acknowledgment of the mokṣa-mārga, the mandir, or temple.
central Jain affirmation that the “three-jewel” path In some cases, temple architecture itself
of right knowledge, right perception, and right reflects the symbols, staircases, and hospitable
action leads to liberation. levels of the assembly arena. One primary
Same-Sex Desire 1043

example of this is the māna-stambha columns that References

stand before Digambara temples. These “pillars of
pride” are thought to destroy conceit in those who 1. Balbir N (1994) An investigation of the textual sources
on the samavasaraṇa. In: Bruhn K, Balbir N, Bautze
gaze on them. Each is topped with four faces of
J (eds) Festschrift Klaus Bruhn. Verlag für
the Jina seated in samavasaraṇa. Orientalistische Fachpublikationen, Reinbek
Although the samavasaraṇa is said to be a 2. Caillat C (1999) Traces of a “trifunctional” structure in
refuge of equality and welcome for all, the Jaina tradition? Approach Jaina Stud Philos Logic
Ritual Symb 11:60
Vijayadharmasūri, a revered ācārya of the
3. Cort J (2010) Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and
Śvetāmbara Tapā Gaccha subsect, composed Idols in Jain History. Oxford University Press, New
a collection of responses in the seventeenth cen- York.
tury addressing various aspects of the assembly 4. Dundas P (2004) Beyond anekāntavāda: a Jain
approach to religious tolerance. In: Sethia T (ed)
hall. In his commentary, he points out that female
Ahimsā, Anekānta and Jainism. Motilal Banarsidass,
ascetics and divine beings must stand while male Delhi
human and divine beings sit as a sign of traditional 5. Harini MR (2005) Jaina paintings. Jaina archaeological
(and persistent) gender hierarchy ([4], p. 123). heritage of Tamilnadu, (Lucknow: Bharatvarshiy
Digambar Jain Mahasbha, 2005) p 68
Jain scholar Paul Dundas has further demon-
6. Hegewald J (2007) Meru, Samavasarana and
strated that, according to Vijayadharmasūri’s Siihhasana: the recurrence of three-tiered structures in
responses, some of the 363 types of heretics Jaina cosmology, mythology and ritual. In:
established by medieval Jainism may also be Bhattacharya G, Mitra GMM, Sinha S (eds) Kalhār
(white water-lily): studies in art, iconography, architec-
excluded from the assembly ([4], p. 124). This
ture, and archaeology of India and Bangladesh. Kaveri
raises the question whether the samavasaraṇa Books, Delhi
truly represents an inclusive vision wide enough 7. Owen L (2012) Carving devotion in the Jain Caves at
to accommodate diverse viewpoints and species Ellora, vol 41. Brill, Boston
8. Titze K (2001) Jainism: a pictorial guide to the religion
or if it depicts an under-examined vision of phil-
of non-violence. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
osophical, patriarchal, and humanist superiority 9. Tiwari MNP (1995) Jaina iconography: evolution and
latent within Jain dharma. Among devout Jains, appraisal. Studies in Jaina art and iconography and
however, the samavasaraṇa remains a preeminent allied subjects in honour of Dr. UP Shah, p 15
motivating image of personal devotion, spiritual
expansion, and nonviolent coexistence.
At this point in the current time cycle (kāla-
cakra), there are no more samavasaraṇa gather- Samaya
ings expected, as Mahāvīra was the last
tīrthaṅkara of this epoch. However, the holy ▶ Time (Buddhism)
assembly will convene again during the upswing
(utsarpiṇī) of the next time cycle. Additionally, S
Jain cosmography posits the ongoing presence of
20 tīrthaṅkaras in mahāvideha-kṣetra, a geograph- Sambodhī
ical zone separated from our current universe that
remains conducive to the perpetual teaching and ▶ Bodhagayā
gathering of the samavasaraṇa.

Cross-References Same-Sex Desire

▶ Namaskāra Mantra ▶ Homosexuality (Buddhism)
▶ Tīrthaṅkara (Jainism) ▶ Homosexuality (Jainism)
1044 Samgha
˙

forward. However, as time went by, admission to

Samgha the Saṃgha was properly regulated through an
˙ intricate and well-defined procedure that consisted
K. T. S. Sarao of two stages: pabbajjā (“the going forth”) or the
Department of Buddhist Studies, University of lower ordination and upasampadā (ordination) or
Delhi, Delhi, India the higher ordination. One must be at least 8 years
old to be admitted to the pabbajjā. On being admit-
ted one becomes a sāmaṇera (novice) and gets an
Synonyms
upajjhāya (preceptor or spiritual teacher) and an
ācariya (master). In order to become a sāmaṇera,
Sangha; Saṅgha
the prospective candidate shaves one’s beard and
head, puts on the kasāyavattha (yellow/red/orange-
Definition colored robe), prostrates before the upajjhāya, and
declares thrice his faith in the Tisaraṇa (Three
The order of ordained Buddhist monks and nuns. Jewels) consisting of the Buddha, the Dhamma,
and the Saṃgha. Thereafter, the ācariya teaches
The word Saṃgha, derived from saṃ [adj. inde- the ten rules (dasasikhāpadāni) to the sāmaṇera.
clinable prefix implying conjunction and com- As per these ten rules, he is expected to refrain from
pleteness] + √ghan/han [to go (used rarely in stealing, unchastity, lying, taking intoxicants, eat-
classical literature, and when used it is regarded ing food at inappropriate times, entertaining pro-
as a fault of composition)], is a word in Pāli and grams consisting of singing, dancing, music, etc.,
Sanskrit meaning association, assembly, or com- wearing perfume and using decorative accessories,
munity and most commonly refers in Buddhism to sitting on high chairs and sleeping on luxurious
the order of ordained Buddhist monks and nuns beds, and accepting gold and silver. The sāmaṇera
(see [4]). The Saṃgha is the third of the Tisaraṇa becomes a regular member of the Saṃgha, i.e.,
(Three Jewels) in Buddhism, the Buddha, the a bhikkhu (fully ordained monk), only after the
Dhamma, and the Saṃgha. The Saṃgha has upasampadā for which one must be at least
a twofold meaning in Buddhism, i.e., it is not 20 years old. Initially, ordination into the Saṃgha
only an organization of monks and nuns but also took place through the Buddha alone. However,
a confederation that makes them one unified insti- with the expansion of the work of ordination, the
tution. In other words, the Saṃgha is far more Buddha vested the power of ordination in other
than an organized proselytizing institution. bhikkhus and bhikkhunī s.
The foundations of the Saṃgha were laid in an The Buddhist Saṃgha is an order of persons
environment of ancient India’s homeless who live by receiving alms. They must take a vow
almsmen’s community. It was in this type of envi- of poverty, renounce all material possessions, and
ronment that not only provided the basic guiding must not practice any profession in order to make
principles to the Buddhist Saṃgha but also molded profit. They depend upon the munificence of the
its fundamental character in many ways. However, laity for the supply of essentials for sustenance:
with the passage of time, the Saṃgha developed its food, clothing, shelter, and medicines. Initially,
own unique character. Members of the wandering the monks lived at roots of the tress, in grottoes
community took up residence in well-endowed and caves, on hills, in cemeteries, in forests, open
monasteries, and the unitary Saṃgha became plu- spaces, or on straw heaps. A small percentage of
ral. Some of these monasteries became metamor- monks still live like this and are generally known
phosed into well-known centers of learning in the as the araññakas (forest dwellers). However, with
concluding phase and began drawing scholars from the passage of time, as the Saṃgha grew in size as
places located far and wide. well as popularity, influential and rich patrons
Originally, one could enter into the Saṃgha by offered support for the construction of permanent
just responding the Buddha’s call to come residences. As a consequence, majority of the
Samkhāra 1045
˙

monks and nuns began to live in monasteries References

located in the vicinity of human settlements and
became known as the ārāmikas (monastery 1. Horner IB (1938–1966) The book of the discipline
(Vinaya Piṭaka), 6 vols. Pali Text Society, London
dwellers). Originally, the monks were enjoined
2. Prebish C (1975) Buddhist monastic discipline: the
to live only on alms, but in courses of time, the Sanskrit Prātimokṣa Sūtras of the Mahāsaṃghikas and
rule was relaxed and they were allowed to accept Mūlasarvāstivādins. Pennsylvania State University
invitations when extended to a particular Saṃgha Press, University Park
3. Sparham G (2004) Saṅgha. In: Buswell RE (editor-in-
as a body, or to a group of individual monks or
chief) Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Macmillan Refer-
nuns. Each Saṃgha was defined by a shared rec- ence USA, New York, pp 740–644
itation of the Pātimokkha at the bimonthly 4. https://archive.org/details/EtymologyOfSangha. Accessed
Uposatha (confession ceremony) and an 24 Nov 2014
earmarked sī ma (boundary) established for the
purposes of the different ceremonies such as the
Vassāvāsa (rainy retreat) and the Uposatha.
Samjhanaa
Initially, the general code of behavior followed
by the Buddhists was not much different from the
▶ Education (Jainism)
one followed by other ascetics. However, after the
number of Buddhist monks and nuns grew substan-
tially and it became imperative to have an appropri-
ate code of conduct to control undisciplined Samkhāra
members, the Buddha decided to formulate ˙
a disciplinary code of conduct (Vinaya) in tune Bhikkhu Anālayo
with his own teaching (buddhavacana). Once this Center for Buddhist Studies, University of
process of preparing the code of conduct began, Hamburg, Balve, Germany
revision, emendation, and expansion of these rules
continued till final form in the shape of the Vinaya
Piṭaka was achieved. All aspects of the lives of the Synonyms
bhikkhus and the bhikkhunī s have been dealt with
in the Vinaya Piṭaka. The code of conduct consists Formations; Saṃskāra (Buddhism); Saṃskāra
of matters relating to the probationary period and (Sanskrit)
initiation, training under the ācariya and upajjhāya,
daily chores of life pertaining to food, dress, and
other articles of use, lodgings and the manner of Definition
residing in them, different religious ceremonies
such as the Uposatha, the Vassāvāsa, the Pavāraṇā, The term saṅkhāra combines kāra, “making,” S
and the Kaṭhina, ecclesiastical procedure for the with the prefix saṃ, “together,” and thus has the
imposition of punishment, as well as release from literal sense of a “making together.” Such making
guilt, schism in the Saṃgha, and the procedure for together can convey an active as well as a passive
settling disputes among the members. The bhikkhus sense, representing that which makes together and
and the bhikkhunī s were provided with separate that which is made together.
codes of conduct by the Buddha. In its early Buddhist usage, the term saṅkhāra
thus has three main meanings:

Cross-References • As the fourth of the five aggregates, khandha

• As the second link in the formula of dependent
▶ Bhikkhunī arising, paṭicca samuppāda
▶ Dhamma • As anything conditioned, this being the most
▶ Pātimokkha general sense of the term
1046 Samkhāra
˙

The Aggregate of Saṅkhāras discourses, which represents mainly the volitional

aspect of mental experience. The fact that in
In early Buddhist thought, the individual is ana- descriptions of the aggregates the term saṅkhāra
lyzed into five aggregates affected by clinging, usually occurs in the plural form as well as the
which are bodily form, feeling, perception, inherent nuance of the expression as a referent not
saṅkhāras, and consciousness. The saṅkhāras as only to what “makes together” but also to what “is
the fourth of these five aggregates represent the made together” may have influenced the choice
conative aspect of mental experience and thus of the saṅkhāras as a heading for other mental
stand predominantly for volition. In this role, the factors and qualities.
aggregate of saṅkhāras comprises past, present,
and future volitional formations, be they internal
or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, Saṅkhāras in Dependent Arising
(concerned with what is) far or near.
While the aggregates of feeling and conscious- Early Buddhism analyzes the arising of dukkha –
ness relate to the sense doors, the aggregates of a term whose meaning ranges from barely notice-
perception and saṅkhāras relate to the sense able dissatisfaction to outright suffering as inher-
objects, that is, to forms, sounds, smells, tastes, ent features of human existence – with the help of
touches, and mental objects ([1], Vol. III, p. 60). a series of conditions. The standard way of
This suggests that, whereas feeling and conscious- representing these conditions is by way of 12
ness are to some degree more on the inner and links, which begin with ignorance as the root
receptive side of mental experience, perception cause and lead up to the arising of dukkha.
and saṅkhāras reach out to the object, so to say, In the context of this scheme, the saṅkhāras
recognizing it and reacting to it. In short, as an form the second link that leads from the first link
aggregate the saṅkhāras represent that part of the of ignorance, avijjā, to the third link of conscious-
mind which reacts to experience. ness, viññāṇa. According to the traditional inter-
A discourse describes how someone with tele- pretation, saṅkhāras in this context represent the
pathic powers is able to recognize the operation of karmically active volitional formations responsi-
the saṅkhāras in another’s mind ([2], Vol. III, ble for rebirth and continued existence. That is, in
p. 104). According to this passage, once the voli- the context of dependent arising the saṅkhāras are
tional direction of such a saṅkhāra has been recog- the creative principle responsible for various
nized through the exercise of telepathic powers, it forms of existence.
will be possible to predict the type of thought that is The function of the saṅkhāras in the context
about to arise in the other person’s mind. This of rebirth can be seen, for example, in a
indicates that the saṅkhāras as volitional formations discourse which describes how someone
represent the beginning stages of mental activity, endowed with confidence or faith, morality,
the first inclination or tendency that precedes the learning, generosity, and wisdom may have the
arising of thought, whose nature is determined by aspiration to be reborn in a favorable situation as
the directional input provided by the saṅkhāras. a human or in a heavenly realm. If this mental
During later developments of Buddhist philos- aspiration is developed and repeatedly culti-
ophy, the connotations of the term saṅkhāra as an vated, the person in question will indeed be
aggregate expanded until it came to cover a wide reborn in that situation or realm ([3], Vol. III, p.
range of meaning, becoming an umbrella term for 99). That is, repeatedly developing these types
various mental factors. In this way, the saṅkhāras of saṅkhāras is what leads to the particular
came to stand for anything mental apart from the type of rebirth. Another discourse indicates that
other three aggregates of feeling, perception, and an aspiration for a favorable rebirth can
consciousness. also become effective if it is based on the meri-
This goes beyond the implications of the torious deed of giving to recluses and Brahmins
aggregate of saṅkhāras in the early Buddhist ([2], Vol. III, p. 258).
Samkhāra 1047
˙

The importance of one’s mental inclination is An example of the active sense can be found in
again highlighted in another discourse, which a passage which explains that unwholesome
reports a discussion between the Buddha and things arise due to a cause, sasaṅkhārā, not with-
two ascetics who had undertaken the practice of out a cause ([5], Vol. I, p. 82). The same general
adopting the behavior of a dog and a cow, respec- sense recurs in another passage according to
tively ([3], Vol. I, p. 387). The discourse indicates which pain or pleasure arises due to a cause,
that the mental inclination resulting from such sasaṅkhārā ([1], Vol. V, p. 213). In these
a way of practice will simply lead to rebirth as instances, saṅkhāra refers to the presence of
a dog or a cow. The principle behind this is that a “cause” or a “condition.”
saṅkhāras of a particular type will lead to The passive mode of the term saṅkhāras in its
a corresponding type of rebirth. Hence, someone general usage stands for all conditioned phenom-
whose saṅkhāras are similar to those of an animal ena. Examples of this usage can be found in two
will be reborn as an animal. discourses ([2], Vol. II, p. 198 and [1], Vol. III,
In more general terms, if saṅkhāras are of p. 146), which describe the splendor and immense
a harmful nature, for example, they will lead to wealth possessed by a former king, all of which
a rebirth where harmful types of experiences are has changed and passed away. The word used in
predominant. The same principle holds for this context to refer to the former splendor and
saṅkhāras of a wholesome nature, which will wealth is saṅkhāra. A similar usage occurs in
lead to a positive type of rebirth. In this way, another discourse, which describes a worldwide
according to early Buddhism, each living being drought that leads to the drying up of all water and
creates and forms its own character and existence, the destruction of all life, illustrating the imper-
both in past lives and at every moment of present manent nature of all saṅkhāras ([5], Vol. IV,
existence. This continuous process of creating p. 100). Thus, all of existence can be covered by
and forming takes place through the medium of the term saṅkhāra, in the sense of things that are
saṅkhāras. produced through conditions.
The same general usage underlies what
according to tradition was the last instruction
Saṅkhāras in General given by the Buddha before passing away, which
highlights the impermanent nature of all condi-
The term saṅkhāra in its general sense can cover tioned phenomena, vayadhammā saṅkhārā ([2],
all five aggregates. Such a usage occurs in a verse Vol. II, p. 156). This theme recurs in a set of
by a monk, who told a gang of criminals intending stanzas, according to which all saṅkhāras are
to murder him that he was free from fear, since impermanent and unsatisfactory and all dharmas
from his perspective there was no “I” to be killed, are not-self ([6], 277–279).
but only saṅkhāras will pass away ([4], 715). Of all saṅkhāras (in the sense of conditioned S
A similar usage recurs in a verse by a nun ([1], phenomena), the noble eightfold path is the best
Vol. I, p. 135), who in reply to a challenge points ([5], Vol. II, p. 34). This noble eightfold path is
out that the challenger’s notion of a (substantial) a summary of what according to early Buddhism
“being” was mistaken, since in reality there is just is required for progress to liberation, namely,
a heap of saṅkhāras. rightly directed view, intentions, speech, action,
As mentioned above, the term saṅkhāra can livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.
assume an active as well as a passive sense. In the Although the noble eightfold path is conditioned
case of the more general usage of the term, the and thus takes part in what is covered by the term
active mode underlies occurrences where the saṅkhāra in its widest usage, the goal itself is
expression saṅkhāra represents the cause or con- beyond all saṅkhāras ([6], 154). According to
dition for something, while in the passive mode early Buddhism, Nirvāṇa is neither “formed” nor
the saṅkhāras stand for whatever is a product of “made up” or “conditioned,” but rather is “uncon-
conditions. ditioned,” asaṅkhata ([7], p. 80).
1048 Sammāditthi
˙˙

Thus, only Nirvāṇa lies beyond the range of

saṅkhāras even in their most general sense, being Samsāra (Buddhism)
in fact the “stilling of all saṅkhāras.” Such stilling ˙
of all saṅkhāras, a stanza exclaims, is happiness K. T. S. Sarao
indeed ([6], 368, 381). Department of Buddhist Studies, University of
Delhi, Delhi, India

Cross-References
Synonyms
▶ Causality (Buddhism)
▶ Khandha Bhavacakka; Bhavacakra; Transmigration
▶ Paṭicca Samuppāda

Definition
References
Nonstop cycle of birth, decay-and-death, rebirth,
1. Feer L (ed) (1888–1898) The Saṃyutta Nikāya, 5 vols. redecay-and-redeath whose beginning is unknown
Pali Text Society, Oxford and which is characterized by mental and physical
2. Carpenter JE, Rhys Davids TW (eds) (1890–1911) The
Dīgha Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London suffering.
3. Trenckner V, Chalmers R (eds) (1888–1896) The
Majjhima Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London In Buddhism, the term saṃsāra (transmigration
4. Alsdorf L, Norman KR (ed) (1966) Thera- and lit. faring on, journeying, circulating, continu-
Therīgāthā. Pali Text Society, London (references are
by stanza) ously flowing [like a river]) refers to the
5. Morris R, Hardy E (eds) (1885–1900) The Aṅguttara nonstop cycle of birth (jāti), decay-and-death
Nikāya, 5 vols. Pali Text Society, London (jarāmaraṇa), rebirth (abhijāti, āgati), and
6. von Hinüber O, Norman KR (eds) (1994) The redecay-and-redeath. This process is also known
Dhammapada. Pali Text Society, London (references
are by stanza) as bhavacakka (Sk, bhavacakra) ([9], pp. 529,
7. Steinthal P (ed) (1885) The Udāna. Pali Text Society, 576) that arises out of avijjā (Sk, avidyā, igno-
London rance) and is characterized by impermanence and
8. Hamilton S (1996) The saṃkhārakkhanda. In: id. Iden- psychophysical suffering (Pāli, dukkha; Sk,
tity and experience, the constitution of the human being
according to early Buddhism. Luzac Oriental, London, duḥkha) ([1], Vol. ii, p. 6). The commencement
pp 66–81 of this process cannot be known with certainty. In
9. Vetter T (2000) Saṅkhāra. In: id. The ‘Khandha Pas- fact, it is viewed as beginningless. As described
sages’ in the Vinayapiṭaka and the four main Nikāyas. by the Buddha to monks in one of the suttas:
Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien,
pp 27–63 “Incalculable is the beginning, brethren, of this
faring on. The earliest point is not revealed of the
running on, fairing on, of beings cloaked in igno-
rance, tied to craving” ([5], Vol. ii, p. 120). Every
living being (jī va) in the universe participates in
Sammāditthi this process of one existence after another (gati
˙˙
bhavābhava cuti upapatti. [8], p. 664) running
▶ Ethics (Buddhism)
into myriads of existences. In the Buddhist view
of saṃsāra, “beings generally rise and fall, and
fall and rise through the various realms, now
experiencing unhappiness, now experiencing hap-
Samsāra piness. This precisely is the nature of saṃsāra:
˙ wandering from life to life with no particular
▶ Rebirth (Buddhism) direction or purpose” ([2], p. 119). The only way
Samsāra (Buddhism) 1049
˙

to escape saṃsāra is through the attainment of realms and three lower realms: the three higher
nibbāna (Sk, nirvāṇa). realms are the realms of the gods, demigods, and
The driving force behind this stream-like con- humans; the three lower realms are the realms of
tinuous flow of existences is determined by the the animals, hungry ghosts, and hell beings. Life
moral consequences of a being’s kamma (Sk, in none of these realms is eternal. Nor is it free
karma, volitional act) of body, speech, and mind from the prospect of suffering. In other words,
in the present existence and in the preceding exis- irrespective of the real, higher or lower,
tences. These moral consequences are called a wandering being cannot escape the sufferings
kammavipāka (fruition of the volitional acts) of birth, death, and rebirth.
([6], Vol. iii, pp. 150, 160) which can occur in The devaloka consists of different heaves
the present existence or in a future existence. It is where the devas lead extremely long lives full
generally postulated that within saṃsāra the of pleasure and abundance. The devas are
effects of good moral actions lead to wholesome overwhelmed with the joys and pleasures so
rebirths, while the effects of bad moral actions much that they constantly remain distracted and
lead inevitably to unwholesome rebirths. Thus, never think to practice the dharma. On exhausting
as pointed out by Damien Keown, “karma func- their good karma, they are reborn in one of the
tions as the elevator that takes people from one other realms. The asuras have pleasure and abun-
floor of the building to another. Good deeds result dance almost as much as the gods, but they suffer
in an upward movement and bad deeds in from jealousy and constant wars among them-
a downward one” ([4], p. 797). selves and with the devas. Animals suffer from
In general, though with some qualification, rebirth being exploited by humans and attacked and eaten
in the lower realms is considered to be the result of by other animals. They generally lead their lives
relatively unwholesome (akuśala/akusala), or bad under constant fear. Hungry ghosts suffer from
(pāpa) karma, while rebirth in the higher realms the extreme hunger and thirst. The lives of the hell
result of relatively wholesome (kuśala/kusala), or
good (puṇya/puñña) karma. Correspondingly, the beings are the worst of all. They have to undergo
lower the realm, the more unpleasant and unhappy extreme forms of suffering for very long periods
one’s condition; the higher the realm the more of time in different hells. The manussaloka is
pleasant, happy, and refined one’s condition. One considered the best realm to attain liberation
should note, however, that this hierarchy does not
constitute a simple ladder which one, as it were, from the saṃsāra. This is so because it is consid-
climbs, passing out at the top into nirvāṇa. ([2], ered as the most appropriate realm for practicing
p. 119) the dharma due to the fact that humans are not
completely distracted by pleasures like the devas
Release from the cycle altogether, nibbāna
or asuras or by extreme suffering like the beings
(Sk, nirvāṇa) can be realized only by those beings
in the lower realms.
who attain correct insight and realization of the
truth of the Buddha’s teachings. S
Cosmologically, the saṃsāra consists of six Cross-References
distinct domains of existence within which living
beings are reborn depending upon their kamma. ▶ Kamma
These six domains of existence are the devaloka
(the deva realm), asuraloka (the realm of the
asuras or demigods), manussaloka (Sk, References
manuṣyaloka, human realm), tiracchānaloka
(Sk, tiryagyoniloka/tiraścayoniloka, animal 1. Feer ML (ed) (1889) The Saṃyutta Nikāya, reprint,
realm), petaloka (Sk, pretaloka, hungry ghost vol 2. Pali Text Society, London
2. Gethin R (1998) Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford
realm or realm of the spirits of the dead), and
University Press, Oxford
niraya (Sk, naraka, the hell realm). These six 3. Halder JR (1977) Early Buddhist mythology.
realms are typically divided into three higher Manohar, Delhi
1050 Samskāra
˙

4. Keown D (2000) Buddhism: a very short introduction. Definition

Oxford University Press, Oxford
5. Rhys Davids CAF, Woodward FH (eds) (1922) The
book of the kindred sayings (Saṃyutta Nikāya), vol 2. The third of the five divisions of the Sutta Piṭaka.
Pali Text Society, London
6. Rhys Davids TW, Carpenter JE (eds) (1911) The The Saṃyutta Nikāya is a Buddhist scripture, the
Dīgha Nikāya, vol 3. Pali Text Society, London third of the five nikāyas (collections) in the Sutta
7. Sadakata A (1997) Buddhist cosmology: philosophy
and origins (trans: Gaynor Sekimori). Kōsei, Tokyo Piṭaka, which in turn is one of the “three baskets”
8. Stede W (ed) (1918) Cullaniddesa. Pali Text Society, (Tipiṭaka). It is one of the basic works in which early
London Indian Buddhist teachings on topics such as suffer-
9. Tin, Pe Maung Tin (trans) (1971) The path of purity, ing, impermanence, selflessness, four noble truths,
being a translation of Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga,
combined reprint. Pali Text Society, London and the eightfold path have been given in detail. It
10. Williams P (2002) Buddhist thought. Taylor & has received its title from the fact that its discourses
Francis, London (suttas) have been grouped together (saṃyutta) in
accordance with their respective subject matters.
According to the tradition, the total number of suttas
in the Saṃyutta Nikāya should be 7,762 ([10],
Vol. i, p. 17). However, the number as given in the
Samskāra
˙ edition of the Pali Text Society comes to only 2,889.
The reason for this ambiguity is that the manuscripts
▶ Saṃkhāra
often just have key words to be worked-out into full-
fledged suttas in the absence of unambiguous guide-
lines as to how this is to be done. As a result, this
kind of manuscript tradition differs entirely from the
Samskāra (Buddhism) one that exists in either the Dīgha Nikāya or the
˙ Aṅguttara Nikāya, where the text is given in full and
▶ Saṃkhāra only occasionally passages repeated verbally have
been left out. The Saṃyutta Nikāya, on the other
hand, can be contracted into a basic minimum and
can then again be expanded by using the key words.
Buddhaghosa wrote a commentary (aṭṭhakathā) on
Samyaka Sambodhi
it called the Sāratthappakāsinī in the fifth century.
The Saṃyutta Nikāya is divided into five main
▶ Bodhi Tree
vaggas consisting of a total of 56 sections, called
saṃyuttas. Each of these 56 saṃyuttas has been
further subdivided into minor vaggas (chapters).
The five main vaggas are as follows:
Samyutta Nikāya
˙ 1. The Sagātha Vagga consisting of 11 saṃyuttas
K. T. S. Sarao contains verses.
Department of Buddhist Studies, University of 2. The Nidāna Vagga consisting of 10 saṃyuttas
Delhi, Delhi, India explains the chain of causation
(paṭiccasamuppāda).
3. The Khandha Vagga consisting of 13
Synonyms saṃyuttas explains the five khandhas.
4. The Saḷāyatana Vagga consisting of 10
Book of the kindred sayings; Collection of saṃyuttas explains the six sense organs with
connected discourses; Mixed Āgama; their objects.
Saṃyuttāgama 5. The Mahā Vagga consisting of 12 saṃyuttas.
Samyutta Nikāya 1051
˙

The suttas in the different saṃyuttas have been substantial differences among themselves. These
put together on the basis of at least three different differences indicate that changes were introduced
criteria. The suttas of a saṃyutta either (1) deal into one another, or both, of the narratives at some
with any specific point or any specific area of the time, but the tradition has not changed since then
Buddhist doctrine or (2) they speak of some cate- for the obvious reason that the texts were preserved
gories of gods, demons or human beings or (3) in by the Dīgha-bhāṇakas and the Saṃyutta-
them some admirable person appears as a hero or bhāṇakas independent of each other ([7], p. 50).
speaker ([12], p. 53). For instance, the Dhātu The suttas of the Saṃyutta Nikāya generally
Saṃyutta (saṃyutta no. 14) contains suttas are much shorter than those of the Dīgha Nikāya
where the Buddha speaks on the dhātus (ele- or the Majjhima Nikāya. The Sagātha Vagga is
ments), while the Bala Saṃyutta (saṃyutta no. totally different from the other vaggas and is
50) is composed of suttas which deal with the rather similar in some respects to the Sutta-Nipāta.
five balas or powers, viz. saddhā (faith), viriya The most important part of this vagga are the
(energy), sati (mindfulness), samādhi (equanim- verses which also occur occasionally elsewhere
ity), and paññā (wisdom). However, this method in the Tipiṭaka. It has been suggested that parts of
is very repetitive. For instance, the 207 suttas of the Sāgatha Vagga appear to be very old, actually
the Saḷāyatana Saṃyutta (saṃyutta no. 35) just well near to the Vedic texts [5].
relate to the six sense organs. It has been The Saṃyutta Nikāya corresponds to the
suggested that most probably this repetitiveness Saṃyukta Āgama found in the Sūtra Piṭakas of
arose due to the fact that there existed a large various Sanskritic early Buddhists schools, frag-
number of suttas on the same subject, collected ments of which survive in Sanskrit and in Tibetan
from different individuals and monasteries, etc., translation. A complete Chinese translation from the
all being of equal religious merit and hence Sarvāstivādin recension, known as the Zá Ahánjī ng
deserving to be included in the collection ([12], (“the Mixed Āgama”), appears in the Chinese Bud-
p. 57). At the same time, it must be recognized that dhist canon. It was translated into Chinese by
this method of arrangement also means that the Baoyun in the years 435–436 C.E. [1].
Saṃyutta Nikāya contains some of the most An examination of the Zá Ahánjī ng shows that it
important tenets of Buddhism. A good example includes a number of sūtras which appear in the
of this is the Sacca Saṃyutta (saṃyutta no. 56). It Aṅguttara Nikāya of the Pāli Tipiṭaka ([8], p. 181).
contains 131 suttas that relate to various aspects of This would seem to indicate that at the time
the Four Noble Truths. Thus, the large number of when the āgamas were collected, the distinction
the suttas is basically the outcome of a practice between the “connected” and the “numerical” clas-
that involved a thorough treatment of the same sifications was not very clearly drawn ([7], p. 54).
topic from all angles in accordance with a fixed A comparison of the Sarvāstivādin, Kāśyapīya, and
pattern to the complete exhaustion of both the Theravādin texts reveals a substantial consistency of S
topic and the reader. As suggested by K.R. Nor- content, although each recension contains sūtras/
man, this type of arrangement, however, repre- suttas not found in the others [4]. On this basis, it
sents an obvious editorial practice, and the has been argued that the remarkable congruence of
existence of a number of the suttas elsewhere in the various recensions suggests that the Saṃyutta
the canon probably indicates a conscious selection Nikāya/Saṃyukta Āgama was the only collection to
of material to group together in this way ([7], be finalized in terms of both structure and content in
p. 50). Further, as the suttas were classified in the pre-sectarian period ([11], pp. 31, 37–52).
two different ways and as some of the saṃyuttas
deal with numerical subjects, there is inevitably an
overlap between the Saṃyutta Nikāya and the Cross-References
Aṅguttara Nikāya in the Pāli canon. Occasionally,
different versions of the same sutta in the Saṃyutta ▶ Aṅguttara Nikāya
Nikāya and within the nikāyas elsewhere show ▶ Buddhaghosa
1052 Samyuttāgama
˙

▶ Buddhist Councils
▶ Dīgha Nikāya Sanchi
▶ Four Noble Truths
▶ Majjhima Nikāya ▶ Sāñcī
▶ Paṭiccasamuppāda
▶ Rājagaha (Pāli)
▶ Tipiṭaka
Sāñcī

K. T. S. Sarao
References Department of Buddhist Studies, University of
Delhi, Delhi, India
1. Anālayo B (2007) Mindfulness of breathing
in the Saṃyukta-āgama. Buddh Stud Rev 24(2):
137–150 Synonyms
2. Feer ML (1884–1898) The Saṃyutta Nikāya, 5 vols.
Pali Text Society, London Boṭaśrī-Parvata; Cetiyagiri; Kākanādaboṭa;
3. von Hinüber O (1996) A handbook of Pāli literature.
Walter de Gruyter, Berlin Kākaṇāva; Kākaṇāya; Kanakheda; Sanchi;
4. Keown D (2004) A dictionary of Buddhism. Oxford Vedisāgiri
University Press, London
5. Lanman ChR (1893) Rigveda V.40 and its Buddhist
parallel. In: Festgruss an Rudolf von Roth zum Definition
Doktor-Jubillaum, 24 August 1893. Stuttgart,
pp 186–190
6. Law BC (1983) A history of Pāli Literature, reprint, A Buddhist monastic complex located in central
vol 1. Indological Book House, Delhi India near Vidiśā.
7. Norman KR (1983) A history of Indian literature: Pāli
literature. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden
The monastic complex of Sāñcī (modern spelling:
8. Pande GC (1957) Studies in the origins of Buddhism.
University of Allahabad, Allahabad Sanchi) (lat. 23
290 N and long. 77
450 E)
9. Rhys Davids CAF, Thera SS, Woodward FL (trans) occupies a hilltop at a distance of about 10 km
(1917–1930) The book of the kindred sayings. 5 vols. from the prosperous central Indian town of Vidīṣā
Pali Text Society, London
where major road and river routes crisscross.
10. Rhys Davids TW, Carpentier JE, Stede W (eds)
(1886–1932) The Sumaṅgala-Vilāsinī: Buddhaghosa’s In the ancient sources, this site has been
commentary on the Dīgha Nikāya, 3 vols, Pali Text variously mentioned as Cetiyagiri, Kākanaya,
Society, London Kākanādaboṭa, and Boṭa-Śrī-Parvat. Sāñcī is one
11. Sujato B (nd) A history of mindfulness: how insight
of the oldest and most continuously occupied
worsted tranquility in the Sattipaṭṭhāna Sutta. https://
sites.google.com/site/santipada/bhantesujato’swork. extant Buddhist sites in India. Sāñcī’s over 50
Accessed 15 Jan 2012 monuments including stūpas, vihāras, assembly
12. Winternitz M (1983) A history of Indian Literature, halls, temples, and freestanding pillars date from
revised edn (trans) V, vol 2. Motilal Banarsidass,
the reign of King Aśoka (third century B.C.E.) to
Srinivasa Sarma, Delhi
13. Woodward FL (ed) (1929–1937) The Sārattha- around 1200 C.E. Sāñcī is particularly significant
ppakāsinī, Buddhaghosas commentary on the as it has almost all types of Buddhist architectural
Saṃyutta Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London forms. Some of these structures were erected on
the foundations of earlier ones. General Taylor,
a British officer, was the first known Western
historian to document in English the existence of
Sāñcī in 1818. The site was looted and ravaged by
Samyuttāgama treasure hunters and amateur archeologists till the
˙ initiation of proper restoration work in 1881. John
▶ Saṃyutta Nikāya Marshall was largely responsible for restoring
Sāñcī 1053

Sāñcī, Fig. 1 The Great Stūpa (Stūpa no. 1)

Sāñcī, Fig. 2 Stūpa no. 3

1054 Sāñcī

most of the structures to their present condition Sāriputta and Moggallāna, is a modern temple
between 1912 and 1919. built in the 1960s to mark the celebrations of
Of the important monuments on the main ter- 2,500 years of Buddhism.
race are Great Stūpa (also known as Stūpa 1) Originally commissioned by King Aśoka (third
(Fig. 1), Stūpa 3 (Fig. 2), Pillar 10 (Aśoka Pillar), century B.C.E.), the Great Stūpa is the oldest stone
Temple 18 (Mauryan apsidal), and Temple 17 structure in India. Aśoka installed by the side of
(fourth century). Temple 17 (Fig. 3), consisting this stūpa, a polished pillar of the Chunar sandstone
of a flat-roofed square sanctum with a portico and with a capital similar to the one at Sārnāth. Built
four pillars, was built during the early Gupta over the relics of the Buddha, the nucleus of this
period and is possibly the earliest extant stone stūpa was a simple hemispherical brick structure.
temple in the Indian subcontinent. Its interior Its construction work was personally supervised by
and three sides of the exterior are plain, but the Aśoka’s wife, Devī, who was the daughter of
front and the pillars are carved quite elegantly. a merchant of Vidiśā. The stūpa was vandalized
Temple 45 (tenth century C.E.) is located in the sometime in the second century B.C.E. It has been
eastern area, and Temple 40 is in the southern suggested by some scholars that Puṣyamitra Śuṅga
area. Begun during Aśoka’s rule, Temple 40 was who overtook the Mauryan kingdom in a coup
enlarged during the Śuṅga period (ca. second to d’état may have been behind this vandalism. How-
first centuries B.C.E.) and again later. Monastery ever, during the reign of later Śuṅga kings, the
51 (Fig. 4) and Stūpa 2 are located on the western stūpa was enlarged with stone slabs to nearly
slope. Cetiyagiri Vihāra, housing the remains of twice its original size. The dome was flattened
near the top and crowned by three superimposed
chatras (parasols) within a square railing. The
dome was set on a high circular drum meant for
circumambulation, which could be accessed via
a double staircase. Copiously carved monumental
gateways (toraṇas) (Fig. 5) facing the cardinal
directions and a stone pathway enclosed by
a balustrade encompassing the entire edifice were
added in the first century B.C.E. With their yakṣī s
(Figs. 6 and 7), the whole of the surface of the
toraṇas is covered with bas-reliefs portraying inci-
dents from the life of the Buddha (such as the Great
Departure: see Figs. 8 and 9) and depictions of the
various Jātaka tales such as Vessantara (Figs. 10
Sāñcī, Fig. 3 Temple 17 and 11), Mahākapi, Chhaddanta, Sāma, and

Sāñcī, Fig. 4 Monastery 51

Sāñcī 1055

Sāñcī, Fig. 5 Temple

no. 18

Sāñcī, Fig. 6 Stūpa no. 2

Sāñcī, Fig. 7 Temple and Monastery no. 45

1056 Sāñcī

Alambusā Jātaka. Four-seated images of the Bud- a sculpture, would often choose their favourite
dha, each under a chatra and facing the four scene from the life of the Buddha and then have
toraṇas against the drum of the stūpa, were the their names inscribed on it, thus, accounting for the
last addition to the stūpa made during the Gupta random repetition of particular episodes on the
period. Although made of stone, the gateways were stūpa. On these stone carvings the Buddha is not
carved and constructed in the manner of wood and depicted as a human figure, but is represented by
were covered with narrative sculptures showing various attributes, such as his footprints, the horse
scenes from the life of the Buddha. There was no on which he left home, or a canopy under the bodhi
direct royal patronage, and the Great Stūpa’s 600 tree at the time of his enlightenment.
short inscriptions in Prakrit show that its patrons Stūpas 2 and 3 were built during the second
almost entirely consisted of monks, nuns, mer- century B.C.E. Stūpa 2 (Fig. 12) yielded the
chants, and commoners. It has been suggested body relics of ten Buddhist therās, including
that devotees, who donated money toward Kaśyapagotra and Majjhima who had been given
the task of spreading Buddhism in the Himalayas.
This stūpa is also noteworthy for its decorative
bas-reliefs, mostly enclosed inside medallions.
Stūpa 3, modeled after Stūpa 1 and located by its
side, is of great sanctity as it contained the relics of
Moggallāna and Sāriputta. The ground balustrade
and a single toraṇa of this stūpa were constructed
during the first century B.C.E. and first century
C.E., respectively. Stūpa 5, built in the sixth cen-
tury C.E., is known for an image of the Buddha
built against its southern face. Stūpas 12, 13, 14,
and 16, with square bases, belong to the sixth and
seventh centuries C.E.
Apart from the Aśokan pillar (Fig. 13), there
are other freestanding stone pillars of which Pillar
25 belongs to the Śuṅga period and Pillars 26 and
35 to the fifth century C.E. Pillar 35, now broken,
had originally on its abacus a standing image of
Vajrapāṇi, now exhibited in the local Museum.
Temple 18 (Fig. 14), a seventh-century apsidal
Sāñcī, Fig. 8 The Great Departure (north toraṇa) sanctuary with a stūpa (now extinct), was

Sāñcī, Fig. 9 The Great Departure (east toraṇa)

Sāñcī 1057

Sāñcī, Fig. 12 Aśokan pillar

Sāñcī, Fig. 10 North gateway (toraṇa)

Sāñcī, Fig. 13 A Yakṣī on the east toraṇa

Sāñcī, Fig. 11 A Yakṣī on the north toraṇa be dated earlier than the sixth century C.E., though
some of them were built over the ruins of earlier
constructed on top of the base of an earlier Śuṅga- ones. The most imposing among these vihāras is
period apsidal hall. Temple 31, which contains Monastery 51, planned in the typical monastic style
a large image of the Buddha, is an oblong-pillared with an open brick-paved courtyard with an
shrine with a flat ceiling. None of the vihāras can enclosing veranda and beyond it an assortment of
1058 Sandha(ka)

Sāñcī, Fig. 14 Vessantara Jātaka

Sāñcī, Fig. 15 Vessantara Jātaka

cells. Monasteries 36, 37, and 38, dateable to the References

seventh century C.E., are almost of the same
design, except on a smaller scale. Monasteries 36 1. Cunningham A (1854) The Bhilsa topes or
Buddhist monuments of Central India. Smith, Elder,
and 37 had central platforms. Monasteries 36 and
London
38 were originally two storied. The remains of 2. Dehejia V (ed) (1966) Unseen presence: the Buddha
Monastery 45 (Fig. 15) belong to two different and Sanchi. Marg, Bombay
periods, the seventh–eighth and tenth–eleventh 3. Dehejia V (1992) Collective and popular bases of early
Buddhist patronage: sacred monuments, 100 BC-AD
centuries C.E. This monastery is noteworthy for
250. In: Miller BS (ed) The powers of art. Oxford
its temple built over the ruins of an earlier temple University Press, Delhi, pp 35–45
which is still standing with the lower part of its 4. Dehejia V (1997) Indian art. Phaidon, London
spire. Monasteries 46 and 47, dated to the eleventh 5. Maisey FC (1892) Sanchi and its remains: a full
description of the ancient buildings, sculptures, and
century C.E. and built on the ruins of earlier mon-
inscriptions. Reprint, Indological Book House,
asteries, belong to one complex. Monastery 46, Delhi, 1972
reachable via Monastery 47, has a courtyard 6. Marshall JH (1936) A guide to Sanchi, 2nd edn. Man-
with cells on three sides. Monastery 47 is a court ager of Publications, Government of India, Delhi
7. Marshall JH (1940) The monuments of Sāñchī.
flanked by a pillared veranda with a small cell and
Probsthain, London
a long room behind it on the south, a covered 8. Mitra D (1971) Buddhist monuments. Sahitya Samsad,
colonnade on the west, and a pillared veranda on Calcutta
the north leading to an antechamber and shrine at
the western end and at the back to a corridor with
five cells.
Sāñcī has been listed among the UNESCO
World Heritage Sites since 1989. Sandha(ka)

▶ Homosexuality (Jainism)
Cross-References

▶ Aśoka
▶ Jātaka
▶ Puṣyamitra Śuṅga Sandhi/Samdhi-nirmocana-Sūtra
▶ Stūpa ˙
▶ Vihāra ▶ Sandhinirmocana Sūtra
Sandhinirmocana Sūtra 1059

traditional practitioners and on the other hand

Sandhinirmocana Sūtra the need to conceptually philosophize are the con-
straints under which Mahāyāna-Sūtras seem to be
Mangala Ramchandra Chinchore composed. It is in this context that the present text
Department of Philosophy, Centre for Studies in also seems to be written.
Classical Indian Buddhist Philosophy and Originally, it might have been composed, in
Culture, University of Pune, Pune, Maharashtra, first or second century, because it attempts to
India provide definitive explanations and systematic
clarifications for contradictory statements from
the earlier Sūtras. It attempts to develop a kind
Synonyms of Buddhist hermeneutic [1], transcending the
apparent paradoxes, which had emerged in the
Sandhi/Saṃdhi-nirmocana-Sūtra; Scripture then intellectual climate. On the one hand, there
unlocking the mysteries; The sutra of the explana- was a need to understand Buddha’s thoughts for-
tion of the profound and secrets meaning mulated in the form of doctrines for common
masses, and on the other, some strict practitioners
of Buddhism stressed on a view that conceptual
Definition understanding is imaginary fabrication (Sk.
Prapaṅca), and hence is ultimately void/meaning-
Mahāyāna Buddhist text, text of the Sūtra litera- less (Sk. Śūnya). It is a Yogācāra text attempting
ture-form, Abhidharma-text, Yogacara-text. to highlight the importance of Yoga essential to be
practiced by all without exception and discrimi-
Sandhi/Saṃdhi-nirmocana-Sūtra, is a Mahāyāna nation for developing virtues through the Perfec-
Buddhist text, and is written in the Sūtra litera- tion of Wisdom (Sk. Prajñā-pāramitā) [2].
ture-form. It consists of mixed-style, having both Further, since Asaṅga (fourth century) has written
verse and prose. It was originally written in San- a commentary on it, it is generally held that it
skrit, which unfortunately is lost. Like many early cannot be later than Asaṅga.
Mahāyāna-Sūtras, it is very difficult to get the Both the Sandhinirmocana-Sūtra and its
exact date of origin and name of author of the Bhāṣya (commentary) by Asaṅga exist in Tibetan
Sandhinirmocana-Sūtra. It is a general consensus [3] and Chinese [4]. The scholars hold a view that
that Mahāyāna-Sūtras were composed, perhaps, the present form of its composition in which it is
in the beginning of the first century, when earlier available in Tibetan and Chinese, seems to have
Buddhism was felt to be restrictive and internal been not earlier than the third century C.E. It is
controversies were attempted to be transcended reported by the historians that this Sūtra was
by articulating such a new more accommodative translated from Sanskrit into Chinese four times S
framework. This new form attempted to reconcile at different periods, though currently complete
two kinds of controversies – one, 18 sects within and reliable versions of its translation in Chinese
early Buddhism, and another, to combat the by Xuanzang and in Tibetan by Woncheuk exist.
charges from external non-Buddhist opponents. Further, it is claimed that Tibetan translation is,
It was an attempt to settle the incompatibilities perhaps, influenced by Chinese version of it. The
due to expansion and adoption of new framework, Sandhinirmocana-Sūtra available in Chinese is
by way of providing clarification and establish- popularly known as “the Sutra of the Explanation
ment of a new transformational format in conso- of the Profound Secrets” and is translated from
nance with the teachings of the Buddha. Hence, Tibetan into English as “Scripture Unlocking the
Sūtra is a transit literature form, which is Mysteries” [5].
attempting to connect early Buddhism with later Etymologically “Sandhi” means “connection,
Buddhism, traditionally known as Hı̄ nayāna with conjoining, combining, union, reconciliation,pffi
Mahāyāna. On the one hand orthodoxy of transition.” “Nirmocana” means “nir þ muc
1060 Sandhinirmocana Sūtra

= to loose, to make free, to liberate from, to of awakening (Sk. Pariniṣpanna). It is absolute

abandon.” It means liberating from conjunction, and ideal reality having its own nature (Sk. Sa-
freedom from union, loosing the bonds of attach- svabhava).
ments, abandoning the ties of alliance. Thus, Ultimate reality or absolute consciousness
“Sandhinirmocana” connotes “making free from itself is not null and void (Sk. Śūnya), but any
the bondage of worldly affairs (Sk. Saṃsāra), expression to communicate its nature is empty
which conjoins man with the world.” It is a text (Sk. Śūnya) and is impossible to communicate
that enables to untie the knots of conceptual con- (Sk. Nirabhilapya). Ultimate reality is beyond
fusions, or provides insights into the modes of thoughts and imagination (Sk. Vijñapti), though
release from the bonds of mundane world it involves consciousness (Sk. Vijñāna). And there
(Saṃsāra) to attain emancipation (Sk. Nirvāṇa). is a difference between content of consciousness
Secondarily, it may mean abandoning the ties of (Sk. Vijñapti) and consciousness (Sk. Vijñāna/
restrictive or delimited understanding of the Citta), the former is causative and the latter is
teachings of the Buddha, emanating from the ear- nominative. Realization of the ultimate reality is
lier (Tripiṭakas-scriptures) and new Sūtra’s free from conceptual construction – characteriza-
(Mādhyamika tradition of Buddhism). It empha- tion and differentiation based on it. It is because of
sizes on practicing Yoga instead of mere attachments on the conventional plane that names
speculative philosophization and conceptual and characteristics are attached to things, objects,
understanding. and entities. Conventional reality/imaginary
It is an attempt to present Abhidharma (that world (Sk. Saṁvṛtti/Vyavahāra-sat) is based on
which leads one toward the highest teaching) tra- experiential reality (Sk. Paratantra), though ulti-
dition of early Buddhism in a novel manner, while mately nothing exists having characteristics/
people were facing dilemmas of understanding true nature (Svabhāva) of its own. It is due to series
nature of the Ultimate reality (Sk. Paramārtha- of consciousness (Sk. Citta-Santati) or the act of
sat). It is a text which for the first time clearly being conscious (Sk. Vijñapti), apparently in the
asserts positively that the Ultimate reality exists, conventional world (Sk. Vyavahāra-sat), traces of
and is of the nature of pure consciousness attachment (Sk. Vāsanās) take the form of char-
(Sk. Citta). It advocates triple-tiered nature of real- acteristics (Sk. Kalpanā). Only on the level of
ity, based on the functions of consciousness. thoughts (Parikalpita), there is repetition of exis-
The conventional world, which one normally tence (Sk. Punarbhava) of continuity/transmigra-
experiences, is dependent upon and determined tion of consciousness (Sk. Santāna), but not on
by subjective sensations (Sk. Vijñapti), that is, the facts as everything is susceptible to change
existence of things/beings in the external world and hence is impermanent (Sk. Anitya). Ulti-
depends on the other/knower (Sk. Paratantra). mately, everything is realized to be empty (Sk.
But the nature of consciousness (Sk. Vijñāna/ Śūnya), having no substantial existence (Sk.
Citta) is dependent on cognition, which is Anātma), however it is real conventionally
a function of consciousness. Both, things cog- (Sk. Parataṅtra).
nized in the world and the cognition of it, could It is essential first to start philosophical inquiry
be explained by the relation of interdependence with the present status of having wrong opinions/
(Sk. Paratantra). illusory ideas (Sk. Parikalpita), in order to arrive
Cognition of existence is explained with the at correct comprehension of the ultimate reality
help of concepts and ideas, which is imaginary (Sk. Pariniṣpanna), and then acquire clarity in
construction or articulation of expression of understanding current trends of ideas and increase
thoughts (Sk. Parikalpita). However, behind profundity. By denying all principles, beliefs, and
experiential world (Sk. Paratantra), ultimate real- characteristics, it is possible to cognize true nature
ity (Sk. Paramārtha-sat/Pariniṣpanna) in the of the ultimate reality. If one starts philosophical
pure form of consciousness (Sk. Vijñāna/Citta) inquiry with nothingness (Sk. Pariniṣpanna) of
exists, which can be realized by the full perfection which the true nature of the ultimate reality is,
Sangītipariyāyapada 1061

then one cannot understand anything. Hence, one ▶ Śūnyatā

gets confused or baffled. The nature of Ultimate ▶ Tathāgata
Reality (Sk. Paramārtha-sat/Tathatā) is incon- ▶ Tripiṭaka
ceivable and beyond expression, nonetheless it is ▶ Vijñāna
to be experienced and realized by developing ▶ Xuanzang (Hieun-Tsang)
insight/wisdom (Sk. Prajñā) by oneself. ▶ Yogācāra
In the Sandhinirmocana-Sūtra, great Bodhi-
sattvas question the Buddha about the nature of
consciousness, the character of the ultimate real- References
ity, the stages of the Bodhisattva-yāna, and the
embodiment of the Tathāgata. The Buddha 1. Keenan JP (2000) The scripture on the explication of
underlying meaning [translated from Chinese of Hsiian-
responds with the clear voice of perfect realiza-
Tsang (Taisho Volume 16, Number 676) into English].
tion, illuminating the ten steps (Sk. Daśa-bhumis) Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research
in meditative practices (Sk. Samādhi-Yoga) and 2. Powers J (1995) Wisdom of Buddha: the
views that eliminate obstacles in enlightenment Saṃdhinirmocana-Sūtra [translated from Tibetan into
English]. Dharma, Berkeley
(Sk. Bodhi) [6]. Śūnyatā is a perspective/point of
3. Thomas C (1999) Buddhist yoga: a comprehensive
view to look at reality (Sk. Dṛṣṭi) and by adopting it course [translated from Tibetan into English].
insightfully everybody has to overcome ones own Shambhala, South Asia Editions
illicit understanding or misconceptions by himself. 4. Warder AK (2000) Indian Buddhism, 3rd revised edn.
Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, pp 407–411
By clear and exact comprehension of meaning, one
5. Sutra of the explanation of the profound and
can understand the true nature of reality. secrets meaning, PDF of the Sandhinirmocana-sutra in
Sandhinirmocana-Sūtra is divided into Tibetan
eight parts/sections/chapters (Sk. Parivratas), 6. Sangharakshita MS (1987) A survey of Buddhism: its
doctrines and methods through ages. Tharpa, London
presented in the form of series of dialogues
between the Buddha and various Bodhisattvas.
During these dialogues, the Buddha attempts to
clarify disputed meanings present in the early
Mahāyāna and the early Buddhist schools, and Sangha
ultimately emphasizes on the need to practice
Yoga in the form of Prajñā-pāramitā. ▶ Saṃgha

Cross-References
Saṅgha
▶ Abhidharma (Theravāda) S
▶ Anātman ▶ Saṃgha
▶ Asaṅga
▶ Bodhisattva
▶ Citta
▶ Dāsa Saṅgīti
▶ Hī nayāna
▶ Mādhyamika ▶ Buddhist Councils
▶ Mahāyāna
▶ Mahāyāna Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra
▶ Nirvāṇa
▶ Paramārtha Sangītipariyāyapada
▶ Prajñāpāramitā
▶ Saṃsāra ▶ Dhammasaṅgaṇī
1062 Sañjaya Belatthiputta
˙˙

In the Brahmajāla-sutta of the Dī gha-Nikāya,

Sañjaya Belatthiputta Sañjaya perhaps has denied the fourfold
˙˙ categorisation of understanding the world,
Mangala Ramchandra Chinchore namely, is, is not, neither is-is not, nor is-is not.
Department of Philosophy, Centre for Studies in When one does not have any definite and firm
Classical Indian Buddhist Philosophy and answer to anything, one prefers to be silent over
Culture, University of Pune, Pune, Maharashtra, everything. It is a kind of indeterminism and
India Agnosticism, leading toward pluralism. In the
entire world including human life, there is uncer-
tainty and complete chaos. He was sceptical about
Definition trans-world identity, God, and morality.
Nothing is absolutely good or bad, what one
Ájī vaka, holder of Amarāvikkhapavāda, one of calls good becomes bad also. It is not only due to
the six well-known śrāmaṇic thinkers, learned, variation in time, place, context, or individual, but
well-known ascetics and acclaimed philosophers, even simultaneously nothing can be held as good
and senior contemporary of the Buddha. or bad essentially. Everything is contextual and
uncertain. One is often caught in a hopeless and
helpless situation, which cannot be controlled.
Amarāvikkhapavādi Buddhas’ Rather, one is a passive recipient of what happens
Opponent in the life and the world at large. One cannot
create new, nor can apriorily anticipate destruc-
At the time of the Buddha, thinkers were haunted tion. There are neither laws of nature operating
and obsessed by mental unrest. It was a search for exceptionlessly nor is human purpose able to plan
peace, joy, and happiness undertaken by all. They one’s own destiny with certainty, or even God to
realised the futility of speculations and extreme determine without discrimination at his will.
austerity of asceticism, and hence society was Hence, it is better to take things as they happen
denouncing worldly affairs. People were disillu- and live with them passively.
sioned by philosophy, and lost in the fog of mys- No one can ascertain firmly answers to issues
tical religious practices. Enthusiasm was replaced like existence of the other world (Sk. Paraloka),
by vulgarised quibbling and wrangling, with inde- existence of God as a creator, sustainer, or
cisive thoughts. Glorification of Gods and destroyer, relation between actions and reward/
annoyed by injuring multitude of supernatural punishment, etc. Rather, by dealing with such
powers led mankind to disappointment and suf- eternal metaphysical questions, one’s mind gets
fering. This situation culminated into making man diverted from actual facts of life. Sañjaya [2]
sceptic and lost in confusion. denied giving answer to: Is world eternal/non-
Obviously, unending questions and, without eternal, infinite/finite? Whether a perfect man con-
behaving morally, rejecting the social sanctions tinues to exist after death Is there any reward/
and faith was the mode adopted by some punishment – retribution for one’s own right/
people. Amongst them, Sañjaya-Belaṭṭhiputta wrong deed? He preferred silence [3]. Instead of
(/Bolāṭṭhiputra) is prominently known for his responding to and entangling ourselves in such
doctrine of Amarāvikkhapavāda (in Sanskrit unending futile questions, it is better to enjoy the
Vikṣapavāda) (skepticism). He was a senior con- present state of life in which one is placed. By
temporary of the Buddha. He was from Rajagrha, finding out conclusive and convincing answers to
the capital of Magadha. such questions, one is lost in the jungle of ideas
Sañjaya-Belaṭṭhiputta was not only an and loses peace and happiness, as there is no end
upholder of the Vikṣapa-vāda (scepticism, which to such discussion and reflection. That is why it is
diverts mind from metaphysical theories), but also known as eternal unending questions (Pali-
an advocate of Aniścitatā-vāda (uncertainty) [1]. Amarāvikkhepikās).
Sankrityayan, Rahul 1063

Can one be assured that by giving alms, responsibility by his new world order (Pali-
performing rituals, sacrificing things, or by mak- Dhamma). It is because of this reason perhaps,
ing penance one can get happiness in the present Mahā-moggallana and Sāriputta, who were previ-
life or in future, or can one guarantee that those ously disciples of Sañjaya, became, later on, well-
who do wrong deeds are punished and suffer for known disciples of the Buddha [4].
what they do? Hence, everything that happens is
unknown and unknowable from the point of view
of establishing conclusive proof. Cross-References
Similar questions were also put forth to the
Buddha, but he remained silent. This was because, ▶ Aṣṭāṅgamārga
contrarily, the Buddha believed that although ▶ Dhamma
chance and contingency play a vital role in the ▶ Dī gha Nikāya
happenings in the world or human life, there is ▶ God (Buddhism)
a need to be moral. Life is not hopeless and help- ▶ Śī la
less, rather one can plan rightly and follow proper ▶ Śramaṇa
modes of action to build moral character (Sk. śī la) ▶ Nirvāṇa
and emancipate oneself (Sk. Nirvāṇa). There is ▶ Pratī tya Samutpāda
a possibility to develop and hope for betterment
in each one’s life. Like a rationalist or a positivist, References
he was not interested in destroying the common
man’s psychological support derived from the con- 1. Kasyapa BJ (ed) (1961) Dīgha-Nikāya. Pali Text Pub-
cept of God, but that does not mean he advocated lication Board, Bihar Govt, Nalanda
and upheld the metaphysical entity of God, or 2. Walsh M (1995) The long discourse of the Buddha:
a translation of the Dīgha-Nikāya (1. Brahmajāla-
possibility of existence of the other world. sutta-pp 67–90 and 2. Sāmañnaphala-sutta –
Interdependence (Sk. Pratī tya-samutpada) on the pp 91–109). Wisdom, Boston
one hand opens the possibility of explaining pain 3. Warder AK (2000) Indian Buddhism, 3rd edn. Motilal
and suffering in human life, and on the other hand Banarsidass, Delhi, pp 38–41
4. Winternitz M (1993) Sāmañnaphala-sutta (i.e. the sec-
the Eightfold path (Sk. Aṣṭāṅgika-mārga) articu- ond sutta) of the Dı̄ gha-Nikāya. History of Indian lit-
lates the possibility of its control. The former is erature, vol II. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, pp 36–191
substituting causal determinism by sequential order
of explication of facts, which is a blow given by the
Buddha to the indeterminism advocated by
Sañjaya. But even on the account of the latter, Sankrityayan, Rahul
purposiveness and intentionality is involved,
which too is opposition to uncertainty upheld by K. T. S. Sarao S
Sañjaya. Thus, there is neither complete chaos and Department of Buddhist Studies, University of
disorder, nor absolute/strict determinism. There is Delhi, Delhi, India
a possibility to bring in order and hope for peace in
human life. Rather, even a bad person, if follows
the path laid down by the Buddha, can become Definition
good, like Aṅgulimāla, and emancipate in this
world itself. And this great sense of hope is impor- Indian scholar, linguist, traveller, nationalist, and
tant in human life given by the Buddha. author of more than 150 books. He is particularly
On the background of the collapse of morality known for his contribution to Tibetan Studies and
and disintegration of social order, which
Electronic supplementary material: The online version
Sañjaya upheld and attempted to promote as the
of this chapter (doi:10.1007/978-94-007-1988-0_1879)
nature of reality, contrarily Buddha provided the contains supplementary material, which is available to
foundations of morality, accountability, and authorized users.
1064 Sankrityayan, Rahul

Buddhism, especially his feat in bringing a large Himachal, he went to Tibet at least four times
collection of manuscripts from Tibet, now housed disguised as a Buddhist monk. He also travelled
in the Patna Museum. extensively in Sri Lanka, Soviet Union, Far East,
Iran, Afghanistan, and Western Europe. His
Rahul Sankrityayan, often called mahāpaṇḍita travels earned him the sobriquet as the originator
(great scholar), was one of the most widely “science of travel.” During one of his trips to
travelled scholars of India, who spent 45 years of Tibet, this polymath managed (in the guise of
his life on travel and away from home. He became a Buddhist monk) to travel to Tibet thrice, bring-
a Buddhist monk and eventually moved towards ing back with him 1619 valuable manuscripts and
Marxist Socialism. He was arrested and jailed for thankha paintings preserved there employing 16
nearly 3 years for his anti-British writings and mules to bring these to India and translating many
speeches. of them en route. A special section of the Patna
Rahul Sankrityayan was born Kedarnath Museum houses these manuscripts and paintings
Pandey on 9 April 1893 to an Orthodox Hindu and is named after Sankrityayan.
Bhūmihār-Brāhmaṇa family in Pandha village of Sankrityayan was married when very young and
Azamgarh district in Uttar Pradesh. He was the never came to know anything of his child-wife
eldest of five brothers and one sister. As his (though she is said to have been in the crowd that
mother died early, he was brought up by his came to see him when he visited his village after
grandmother. Though he received formal educa- 34 years). Although he did not have any formal
tion only up to grade eight in his village pāṭhaśālā education, in view of his knowledge and command
through the medium of Urdu language, over the subject, University of Leningrad
Sankrityayan later learned and mastered many appointed him Professor of Indology in
languages (as many as 34 according to his biog- 1937–1938 and again in 1947–1948. Accepting
rapher Machwe). However, he mostly wrote in an invitation for teaching Buddhism at Leningrad
Hindi. He picked up his wanderlust from his University during his stay in Soviet Russia
maternal grandfather, Ram Sharan Pathak, who a second time, he met and got married to Ellena
was an ex-soldier and had impressed young Narvertovna Kozerovskaya and had a son (Igor)
Kedarnath with his tales of adventure. He points with her. Ellena and Igor were denied exit visa by
out in his autobiography that reading a couplet of the Communist authority to accompany
Ismael Meruthiin grade three Urdu-book (Śair kar Sankrityayan to India when the latter completed
duniyā kī ghāfil zindgānī fir kahāṅ, zindagī gar his assignment. Later in India, Sankrityayan got
kuchh rahī to naujavānī phir kahāṅ) added fuel to married to Dr Kamalā (1920–2009) of Indo-
this fire to wander. At age 9, he ran away from Nepalese origin and with her had a daughter (Jayā
home in order to see the world. After having gone Pathak) and a son (Professor Jeta Sankrityayan of
to Calcutta via Varanasi, he later returned and North Bengal University). In the 1950s, he
completed his middle school. accepted a teaching job at a Sri Lankan University
He lived as a Vaiṣṇava sañnyāsī from 1914 till and was made a Tripiṭakācāriya. While in Sri
1930 and was known as Damodar Svāmī . Later, Lanka, he suffered seriously from diabetes, high
he took up the name Rahul after converting to blood pressure, and a mild stroke. After returning
Buddhism in 1930. Between 1921 and 1927, he to Darjeeling, he was struck by a second stroke in
participated in the freedom movement. As 1961 and lost his memory as a result. His wife took
a result, he was arrested and spent some time in him to Russia in 1962 for treatment, but there was
the prisons at Buxar and HazariBagh. Between the no improvement. He was brought back to Darjee-
years 1936 and 1944, he actively participated in ling where he breathed his last on 14 April 1963.
peasant movement and spent 29 months in jail Sankrityayan was an Indologist, a multilingual
(1940–42) for being a member of the Communist linguist, a Marxist theoretician, and a creative
Party of India. Besides extensive travels within writer of varied interest. One of his most famous
the Himalayas especially Ladakh and northern books is Volgā se Gaṅgā in which historical
Santati 1065

elements are remarkably interwoven with fiction

whereby he provides an account of the migration
of Āryans from the steppes of Eurasia to the
regions around Volga River and thence across
the Hindu Kush into the India subcontinent.
Merī jī van-yātrā, an autobiography in five
lengthy volumes, offers a captivating account of
his life. His other important books, running into
a total of about 50,000 pages, include Baudh Darś
an, Darshan Digdarshan, Ghumakkar Shastra,
Ghumakkar Swami, Kanaila ki Katha, Kinnar
desh mein, Lhasa ki or, Madhya Asia kā Itihās,
Mahamanav Buddha, Manava Samaj, Mansik
Sankrityayan, Rahul, Fig. 1 Commemorative Stamp on
Gulami, Rgvedic Arya, Sāmyavād hī kyoṅ,
Rāhul Sankrityayan
Sūdkhor kī Maut, Tibbat mein Baudh Dharm,
Tumhārī Kṣāyā, and Vaigyānik Bhautikvād.
Born a Brāhmaṇa, Kedarnath Pandey’s peripa- him by issuing a commemorative stamp on him
tetic life took him from being an orthodox Hindu (Fig. 1).
sañnyāsī to an Ārya Samājist proselytizer, to
becoming a Buddhist monk and then a dedicated
Marxist. He was drawn to the rationality of Bud- References
dhism while studying it as an Ārya Samājist pros-
1. Ahir DC (1993) Himalayan Buddhism, past and pre-
elytizer primarily with the aim of discrediting it sent: Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan centenary
but becoming a Buddhist monk in Sri Lanka and volume. Sri Satguru Publications, New Delhi
acquiring the name by which he became known. 2. Gaeffke P (1978) Hindi literature in the twentieth cen-
tury. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden
His visits to the Soviet Union converted his
3. Machwe P (1978) Rahul Sankrityayan. Sahitya
Congress socialism into fully fledged commu- Akademi, New Delhi
nism. Sankrityayan felt that despite being 4. Sankritayan R (1951–1967) Merījīvan-yātrā, 5 vols.
a rational modern system of thought that offers ĀdhunikPustak Bhavan, Kalkattā (vol 1)/KitābMahal,
Ilāhābād (vols 2–5)
a progressive agenda and freedom from moribund
5. Sankrityayan R (1970) Buddhist dialectics. In:
customs, Buddhism did not exactly meet his Sankrityayan R et al (eds) Buddhism: the Marxist
expectations as it remained status-quoist in nature approach. People’s Publishing House, New Delhi,
and was a religion, due to “belief in rebirth, yogic pp 1–8
6. Sharma RS (1993) Rahul Sankrityayan and social
mysticism and some other views.”
change. In: Indian history congress, 1993
He wrote in very simple Hindi so that common 7. Sharma RS (2009) Rethinking India’s past. Oxford S
readers may be able to take advantage of his writ- University Press, New Delhi
ings. He was also aware of the limitations of Hindi
literature and took pains to make up for this short-
coming (Fig. 1). He was awarded the Sahitya
Akademi Award in 1958 for his book Madhya Sannyāsī
Asia kāItihās and the Padma Bhushan by the Gov-
ernment of India in 1963. The Government of India ▶ Śramaṇa
has constituted two awards in his honor, viz., Rahul
Sankrityayan National Award for contribution to
Hindi travel literature and Mahāpanḍit Rāhul
Sānkrityāyan Paryaṭan Puraṣkār for contribution Santati
in the field of travelogue, discovery, and research in
Hindi. In 1993, the Government of India honored ▶ Time (Buddhism)
1066 Santhara

through this practice, he established a strong con-

Santhara nection with the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī and
attained a high level of realization.
▶ Sallekhanā (Jainism) When Śāntideva’s father passed away, the min-
isters of the kingdom wanted to make Śāntideva
the next king, and they prepared for his enthrone-
ment ceremony. But before the ceremony,
Śānti Varnam Śāntideva had a dream indicating that there is no
use to become a king. So he left everything
▶ Śāntideva behind.
He went to the monastic university of Nālandā,
where he became a monk under Paṇḍita
Jayadeva, who gave him the name Śāntideva.
Śāntideva Although directions were given, he studied and
practiced on his own focusing on teachings of the
Mangala Ramchandra Chinchore Buddha and putting it into practice. He secretly
Department of Philosophy, Centre for Studies in composed two treatises, viz., the Śī kṣā-
Classical Indian Buddhist Philosophy and samuccaya [Compendium of Trainings] and the
Culture, University of Pune, Pune, Maharashtra, Sūtra-samuccaya [Compendium of Sutras] that
India consolidated the meaning of the Piṭakas.
Although Śāntideva had these great qualities of
realization and renunciation, he remained com-
Synonyms posed and silent in Nālandā, without doing any-
thing outwardly. To the other students, he seemed
Bhusukū; Śānti Varnam; Shyiwa Lha; Zhi ba lha to be the laziest person, so they called him
bhusukū, [one who just eats, sleeps, and goes out
to the toilet (Bhu comes from bhukta, which
Definition means eating. Su comes from susta, which
means sleeping. And kū comes from kuchiwa,
Śāntideva was a Tantric-Buddhist master and which means just walking)]. The contemporary
the author of Śīkṣā-samuccaya and students thought that he was a disgrace and liabil-
Bodhicaryāvatāra. ity to them, because everybody else was studying
and debating, and giving teachings – busy in
Śāntideva was born to King Kalyāṇavarman in the doing something and in contrast Śāntideva was
southern country of Saurāṣṭra (modern Gujarat) doing nothing. They wanted to expel him, but they
[1]. His father was King Kalyāṇa Varnam, and his could not find an excuse, because he had done
given name was Śānti Varnam. A mythical-story is nothing wrong. If you do not do anything, you
in vogue about his life. He had a great faith in the cannot do anything wrong! So he did not break
Mahāyāna teachings, great respect for his teachers, any rules or do anything that was against the law.
and he was diligent in his studies. He was always Since they could not just ask him to go away, they
helpful to the king’s ministers and to all the sub- tried to find a vicious/cunning way to expel.
jects. He was very compassionate to the poor, the Somebody formulated a new rule and made it
sick, and the downtrodden, and used to help them mandatory to all the students to give a teaching.
by giving aid and protection. He also became very So that when his turn will come he will be exposed
learned and skillful in all the arts and sciences. and will run away. They took the permission and
During his youth, he met a wandering Yogī , requested the teachers to execute it. They planned
who gave him the teachings of the extreme aus- and plotted it in such a way that his teacher will
terities to get the (Tī kṣṇa Mañjuśrī Sādhanā), and have to order him to teach, and then he will fail to
Śāntideva 1067

teach. They invited the whole community around He refused their proposal, but settled their differ-
the university to come and listen to Śāntideva. ences and doubts about the work, viz., Bodhicar-
They really wanted to make him run away! yāvatāra, saying that it has 10 chapters and 1,000
Finally, when the time came for him to give the stanzas. Then he told them the location of the two
teaching, Śāntideva just appeared on the throne. other books. Śāntideva had written the texts on
No one saw him arrive or climb onto the thorny- palm leaves and hidden them under the thatched
seat deliberately prepared to make fun of him, and straw-roof in his room. He gave them the reading
they could not find out how he got there. Then transmission and explanations of these texts also.
Śāntideva said, “What kind of teaching should The Bodhicaryāvatāra was written for all
I give? Something that has been given before or beings generally, but especially for the then pre-
something which has never been given before?” sent 500 Paṇḍitas of Nālandā, to show them the
Of course, everybody shouted, “Something new!” genuine path of a Bodhisattva. It is said that there
Śāntideva replied, “I have three modes of teach- were 108 commentaries written on the Bodhicar-
ings, but I will not prefer to present before you the yāvatāra in India.
Śī kṣā-samuccaya (Compendium of Trainings), Śāntideva [2], composed three works, viz., first
which is too long and you will be tired to know he wrote Śī kṣā-samuccaya [3] [Compendium of
the details. So too I will not give the teaching in Trainings], which is an explanation in detail and/
brief form, viz, Sūtra-samuccaya (Compendium or elaboration of teaching of the Buddha, then
of Sūtras), because you will not be able to digest Sūtra-samuccaya [4] [Compendium of Sūtras]
it. Rather taking into consideration the ability of which is citation of extracts in the form of Sūtras
mixed audience, I will give you the Bodhicar- in brief from various (approximately 110) works,
yāvatāra, which is of middle length discourse.” and finally Bodhicaryāvatāra [5], which is
Śāntideva then recited the Bodhicaryūvatāra a middle length mode of preaching the doctrines.
from memory, and it is said that many people The Sūtra-samuccaya does not seem to be
saw Mañjuśrī in the sky above his head as he a separate work, but appears to be a brief com-
recited the text. It is a legend that when Śāntideva mentary on his Śī kṣā-samuccaya only.
reached the thirty fourth verse of the ninth chapter, Śāntideva was, perhaps, interested in
which is said to be the most difficult part of the highlighting the importance of practice, rather
work, he and Mañjuśrī were lifted off the ground, than philosophical aspect of Buddhism [6] that is
and rose up higher and higher into the air until reflected in his works, viz., Śī kṣā-samuccaya and
they disappeared. Afterward, everyone was very Bodhicaryāvatāra. According to all the philo-
impressed! A few Paṇḍitas with extraordinary sophical traditions in general and Buddhism in
memory had written down notes, but when they particular, human birth is a rare opportunity to
tried to compare their notes, there were different purify the Śī la (moral-character) by practicing
opinions on what was said. According to the the Bodhisattva-yāna. To live life as a human S
Paṇḍitas from Kāshmīra, the text had nine chap- being is a golden chance to rise oneself to the
ters and seven hundred stanzas. But a group of status of Bodhisattva in this very life, provided
Paṇḍitas from central India thought it had ten one follows the Six-Pāramitās, viz., Dāna (char-
chapters and one thousand stanzas. In addition, ity), Śī la (moral-character), Kṣānti (peace and
they did not know what Śāntideva meant by these tranquility), Vīrya (brevity), Dhyāna (medita-
two books, i.e., Śī kṣā-samuccaya [Compendium tion), and Prajñā (insightful wisdom) [7]. By
of Trainings] and Sūtra-samuccaya [Compendium constant recollection of the three jewels, viz.,
of Sūtras], which were merely referred to in the Buddha (the exemplar), Dhamma (the way to
teaching. So they searched for Śāntideva all over follow), and Saṁgha (a group of true followers/
India, and after quite some time, they found him at practitioners), one can understand teaching of the
the Stūpa of Sri Dakṣiṇa, in the South. The Buddha, but practicing it in individual life insight-
Nālandā scholars went there and invited fully alone can bring in integrity and perfection.
Śāntideva to come back to Nālandā and teach. Morality is not a matter of theoretical discussion
1068 Śāntideva

on universal abstract principles, but it has some- later on by Dipaṅkar Śrijñāna alias Ātiṣa, espe-
thing to do with performing certain actual cially his Śī kṣā-samuccaya, and held to be a
practices – the ethical codes of conduct – in indi- great Siddha among the 84 Siddhas of Vajrayāna
vidual life. Buddhism [12].
A lay person can start with reverence and faith
to the Buddha and Bodhisattvas, and slowly can
progress with perseverance and consistency to get
Bodhi (enlightenment). Nonetheless, enlighten- Cross-References
ment is not individual selfish goal, rather it is to
be used for the benefit of those who are suffering ▶ Bodhi
in the society. In the Mahāyāna Buddhism, it is ▶ Bodhisattva
living life for the sake of others that is emphasized ▶ Dhamma
and hence use/application of the realization of ▶ Dipaṅkara Śrijñāna
truth is essential. Thus, Bodhi (enlightenment) ▶ Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta
does not become the final goal of life but actually ▶ Mahāyāna
living life selflessly for removing pain and suffer- ▶ Mañjuśrī
ing (Duḥkha) of others – all kinds of living ▶ Nālandā
creatures – in society is the significant purpose ▶ Pāramitās
of life. And while doing this humane-duty, one ▶ Piṭakas
has to find out creative ways and means skillfully ▶ Prajñā
[8] – either hidden in oneself or others – to over- ▶ Śī la
come the problems of life. Obviously, various ▶ Tantric Buddhism
aspects of personality need to be developed, tak-
ing into consideration different problems faced
contextually. In doing service to humanity, one References
has to minimally use his own endowed potential-
ities, viz., Karūṇā (compassion) and Prajñā 1. Chattopadyaya D (ed) (1997) Taranatha’s history of
(wisdom). By using Karuṇā (compassion) and Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
2. Chattopadyaya D (ed) (1997) Taranatha’s history of
Prajñā (wisdom) insightfully, one can follow the
Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
path of ideal human being (Bodhisattva); and 3. Vaidya PL (ed) (1961) Śīkṣā-samuccaya. The Mithila
gradually become a perfect person or an exemplar. Institute, Darbhanga
As compared to Śī kṣā-samuccaya, it seems 4. Winternitz M (1993) History of Indian literature,
vol II. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
Bodhicaryāvatāra is much popular among the
5. Vaidya PL (ed) (1960) Bodhicaryávatára. The Mithila
Western scholars, perhaps, due to its theological/ Institute, Darbhanga’
religious character; and having some apparent 6. Warder AK (2000) Indian Buddhism, 3rd edn. Motilal
similarity with Christen devotion and faith [9]. It Banarsidass, Delhi
7. Obermiller E (1999) Bu-Ston: the history of Buddhism
is because of this reason perhaps Bodhicar-
in India and Tibet. Sri Sadguru Publications, Delhi
yāvatāra is translated into modern European 8. Winternitz M (1993) History of Indian literature,
languages like French, German, English, Italian, vol II. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
etc. Both the above-mentioned works are 9. Nariman JK (1972) Literary history of Sanskrit
Buddhism, 2nd edn. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
available in Tibetan and Chinese [10]. Śāntideva
10. Sangharakshita (1987) A survey of Buddhism: its
is dated in between Dharmapāla and Sri Harsa, doctrines and methods through ages. Tharpa Publica-
i.e., approximately middle of the seventh tions, London
century C.E. 11. Keith D (1998) Buddhist masters of enchantment: the
lives and legends of the Mahasiddhas. Inner Tradi-
May be due to the mystical story about life and tions, Rochester
works, Śāntideva was known as a Tantric- 12. Sankrityayana RB (1937) 84 Siddhas of Buddhism.
Buddhist [11]. He was followed and referred to Indian Press (in Hindi), Chaukhambha, Varanasi
Sāriputta 1069

perhaps took from the village where he was born.

Saptabhangī Besides him, at least seven members of the family,
including three younger brothers (Cunda, Upasena,
▶ Syādvāda (Jainism) and Revata), three sisters (Cālā, Upacālā, and
Sisupālā), and a nephew (Uparevata), are known
to have joined the Buddhist saṃgha. He was older
than the Buddha and was born on the same day as
Śāradvatīputra Moggallāna. Both Sāriputta and Moggallāna
belonged to rich families and were childhood
▶ Sāriputta friends, their families having maintained an unbro-
ken friendship for seven generations. Once after
having watched a mime play, the two friends real-
ized that the world is impermanent and hence
Sāraṅganāth
decided to give up the lives of householders. Ini-
tially, they became the disciples of Sañjaya
▶ Sārnāth
Belaṭṭhiputta, one of the six famous heretical
teachers of the Buddha’s time. However, having
found no satisfaction under him or many other
Śāriputra teachers, they wandered unsatisfied all over India.
Later, promising that whoever first found what they
▶ Sāriputta were looking for would tell the other, they parted
company.
While wandering about in Rājagaha, Sāriputta
met the Buddhist monk Assaji who converted
Sāriputta him to Buddhism. He became a sotāpanna (entered
the stream to enlightenment) after hearing from
K. T. S. Sarao Assaji a stanza on Paṭiccasamuppāda (Sk:
Department of Buddhist Studies, University of pratī tyasamutpāda, Dependent Arising). Thereaf-
Delhi, Delhi, India ter, he found Moggallāna and repeated before him
the stanza that he heard from Assaji. Moggallāna
also became a sotāpanna. Then the two decided to
Synonyms pay a visit to the Buddha at Veḷuvana. They also
requested Sañjaya, their former teacher,
Śāliputra; Śāradvatīputra; Śāriputra; Sāriputta to accompany them. But he refused. However, 250
Thera; Sārisambhava; Śārisutta; Upatissa disciples of Sañjaya joined them and were ordained S
by the Buddha. Except Sāriputta and Moggallāna,
they all attained arahantship. Moggallāna attained
Definition arahantship on the seventh day after his ordination,
but it was not till a fortnight later that Sāriputta
Chief disciple of the Buddha. became an arahant after hearing the Buddha preach
the Vedānapariggaha Sutta to Dīghanakha at
Sāriputta (Sk: Śāriputra) was the chief disciple Rājagaha.
(aggasāvaka) of Gautama Buddha. He was born On the day that Sāriputta and Moggallāna were
to brāhmaṇa parents called Vaṅganta and ordained, the Buddha declared them to be his
Rūpasāri. It was because of his mother’s name chief disciples. Some monks were upset at the
that he came to be known as Sāriputta (Son of newcomers being shown such an honor. But the
Sāri). His personal name was Upatissa, which he Buddha pointed out that they deserved this due to
1070 Sāriputta

their dedication and resolve in their previous lives. Being the chief disciple, Sāriputta was
The Buddha also pointed out that the other monks entrusted by the Buddha with the task of looking
should follow the examples of these two ideal after matters relating to the welfare of monks. The
disciples. In the Saccavibhaṅga Sutta of the Buddha placed great faith in him and Moggallāna
Majjhima Nikāya, the Buddha thus distinguishes for the purposes of keeping the Buddhist Order
them from the others by saying that “Sāriputta pure. When Devadatta created a schism in the
trains in the fruits of conversion, Moggallāna Buddhist Order and went away with 500 of the
trains in the highest good. Sāriputta can teach monks to Gayāsīsa, the Buddha entrusted the task
and clarify the Four Noble Truths; Moggallāna, to Sāriputta and Moggallāna of winning those
on the other hand, teaches by his psychic marvel.” monks back. They did so successfully. It was
In the Anupada Sutta of the Majjhima Nikāya, the quite usual for Sāriputta and Moggallāna to travel
Buddha acclaims Sāriputta as a quintessential together at the head of the monks. When Rāhula,
example of a perfect disciple who had perfected the Buddha’s son, was ordained, Sāriputta was his
himself in virtue, concentration, perception, preceptor and Moggallāna his teacher. Both
patience, and deliverance. However, at the same Moggallāna and Sāriputta not only deeply cared
time, the Buddha did not hesitate in censuring about each other but also had great mutual admi-
Sāriputta whenever needed. For instance, once ration. Sāriputta’s verses (nos. 1179–1181) in
when the Buddha sent away some novices for praise of Moggallāna and Moggallāna’s in praise
making noise, Sāriputta was censured for having of Sāriputta (nos. 1176–1778) in the Theragāthā
misunderstood the purpose behind such a move. are a good example of their respect and admiration
According to one of the Jātaka stories, Sāriputta for each other. Their love for the Buddha was their
had a weakness for meal cakes (piṭṭhakhajjaka); strongest bond, and whenever they were away
however, on realizing that they tended to make from him, they were able to converse with him
him greedy, he took a vow not to eat them ever. through extrasensory means.
Sāriputta was declared by the Buddha as fore- He was a scrupulous follower of the discipline
most among those who possessed wisdom and as rules laid down by the Buddha. Thus, a rule had been
inferior only to himself in wisdom. The Buddha laid down that forbade the eating of garlic by monks,
would often just suggest a topic, and Sāriputta and when Sāriputta was afflicted by an illness and
would give a detailed discourse on it, and hence knew that by eating garlic he could be cured; even
win approval of the Buddha. There are several then he did not violate the rule till permission was
instances in the Pāli Tipiṭaka of Sāriputta given by the Buddha for him to do so. The
instructing and preaching to monks on different Dhammapada Commentary describes how, at the
topics. From time to time, these discourses monastery where Sāriputta lived, he often took
supplemented the Buddha’s own discourses. round of the whole building, arranging things,
Consequently, he became known as cleaning and sweeping the un-swept areas, and fill-
Dhammasenāpati (commander of the Dhamma). ing up empty pots with water, etc. Despite this there
Sāriputta’s special proficiency was in the were occasions when he was criticized by other
Abhidhamma, and the textual order of the monks. For instance, in a story related in the
Abhidhamma is said to have originated with Dhammapada Commentary, Sāriputta was once
him. Perhaps the best known of Sāriputta’s charged with greed and the Buddha had to personally
discourses are the Dasuttara Sutta and the Sangī ti explain to the monks that Sāriputta was innocent. It
Sutta. Mention is also made of special discourses was Sāriputta’s habit to regularly visit sick monks.
the Mahā Rāhulovāda Sutta and the Anāthapiṇ- Moreover, Sāriputta was so enthusiastic in encour-
ḍikovāda Sutta which were preached by Sāriputta aging and recognizing merit in fellow monks that he
to Rāhula and Anāthapiṇḍika, respectively. At the once went around lavishing praise on Devadatta for
end of the discourse, Anāthapiṇḍika is said to his psychic (iddhi) powers, which made it hard for
have remarked that he had never heard such him when subsequently he had to declare, at the
a sermon before. behest of the saṃgha, Devadatta’s wickedness.
Sārisambhava 1071

Sāriputtā’s compassion for the poor and his ▶ Mahāyāna

eagerness to help them are the subject-matter of ▶ Rāhula
several incidents mentioned in the Pāli Tipiṭaka. ▶ Rājagaha (Pāli)
Sāriputta was also known for the possession of ▶ Saṃyutta Nikāya
boundless patience. This is testified by a story ▶ Sāvatthī
related in the Dhammapada Commentary in ▶ Sotāpanna
which a brāhmaṇa struck him on the head, to test ▶ Theravāda
his patience, as he entered a town for alms. Another ▶ Tipiṭaka
quality for which Sāriputta was known was his ever ▶ Vimalakīrti
willingness to learn from others, however lowly. ▶ Vimalakīrti-Nirdeśa-Sūtra
Sāriputta is identified with various characters in as ▶ Xuanzang (Hieun-Tsang)
many as 73 Jātakas. While Śāriputta is depicted
consistently positively in the Theravādin texts, his
References
portrayal in some of the Mahāyāna texts is not so
flattering. For instance, in the Vimalakī rtinirdeśa 1. Fausböll V (ed) (1977–1897) The Jātaka, 6 vols.
Sūtra, Śāriputra is portrayed as someone who was Luzac, London
not able to comprehend the Mahāyāna doctrines 2. Feer ML (ed) (1884–1889) The Saṃyutta Nikāya,
easily delivered by Vimalakīrti and others, and is 5 vols. Pali Text Society, London
3. Hecker H (1994) Maha-Moggallana. Buddhist Publi-
either reprimanded or overpowered in debate by cation Society, Kandy
a number of discussants. 4. Li R (trans) (1996) The great Tang dynasty record of
According to the Dhammapada Commentary, the western regions. Numata Center for Buddhist
when Sāriputta once went to his native village to Translation and Research, Berkeley
5. Ñyānaponika T, Hecker H (2003) Great disciples of
visit his mother, she abused both him and his the Buddha: their lives, their works, their legacy.
companions profusely. She was completely Wisdom, Boston
against the Buddha as all her children had joined 6. Ñyānaponika T (1966) Sāriputta: the marshall of the
the Order and left her desolate in spite of the vast Dhamma. Buddhist Publications Society No. 90/92,
Kandy
wealth which lay her house. However, shortly 7. Norman HC (ed) (1906) The commentary on the
before he died, Sāriputta preached to her, and Dhammapada, 4 vols. Pali Text Society, London
she became a sotāpanna. Sāriputta’s death took 8. Olderberg H (ed) (1879–1883) The Vinaya Piṭakaṃ,
place a few months before the Buddha and 5 vols. Pali Text Society, London
9. Oldenberg H, Pischel R (eds) (1990) The Thera- and
2 weeks before Moggallāna on the full moon Theīgāthā (with appendices by K.R. Norman &
day of the month of Kattikā. The Saṃyutta Nikāya L. Alsdorf), 2nd edn. Pali Text Society, Oxford
records that he died at Nālagāmaka, his native 10. Thich H-V (1989) A critical study of the life and
village where his body was cremated. Cunda works of Sāriputta Thera. Linh Son Research Institute,
Vietnam
wrapped Sāriputta’s relics in the latter’s water- 11. Trenckner V, Chalmers R (eds) (1888–1896) The S
strainer and took them to Sāvatthī with his beg- Majjhima Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London
ging bowl and outer robe. Xuanzang saw the stūpa
erected over the relics of Sāriputta in the town of
Kālapināka.
Sāriputta Thera

Cross-References ▶ Sāriputta

▶ Abhidhamma Piṭaka
▶ Anāthapiṇḍika
▶ Devadatta Sārisambhava
▶ Iddhi
▶ Jātaka ▶ Sāriputta
1072 Śārisutta

ascetics from very ancient times, even before the

Śārisutta emergence of the Buddha. Sārnāth enjoys a high
position in the Buddhist world and is one of the four
▶ Sāriputta great places named by Buddha at the time of his
death in the Mahaparinibbāna Sutta ([3], Vol. ii, p.
141). The seed of the Saṃgha was also sown here
with the conversion of Yasa and his 54 friends [4].
Sārnāth

Arvind Kumar Singh Origin of the Names

Department of Buddhist Studies, Faculty of Arts,
University of Delhi, Delhi, India Sārnāth represents the site of the ancient
School of Buddhist Studies and Civilization, Ṛṣipatana or Mrigadāva (variantly Mrigdāya).
Gautam Buddha University, Greater Noida, The first name owes its origin to the fall
UP, India (Patana) of the bodies of 500 Pratyeka-Buddhas
(Ṛṣis) at this place after their attainment of
Nibbāna (isayo ettha nipatanti uppatanti cāti-
Synonyms Isipatanaṃ) [5], while the latter is derived from
the legend that the king of Varanasi, moved by the
Dharmachakrajinavihāra; Isipatana; Khema- spirit of self-sacrifice of Bodhisattva, born as
uyyāna; Migadāya; Sadharmachakra Prāvartana a dear named Nyāgrodha-miga (Banyan Deer),
Mahāvihāra; Sāraṅganāth; Silun or Silulin granted security to the herds of deer to roam freely
in the wood of Sārnāth ([6], Vol. i, p. 145f).
Isipatana Migadāya, associated with Sārnāth, has
Definition been described as the scene of Nandiyavatthu [7].
Mrigadāva meaning “deer park” is the place
Sārnāth (Mrigadāva, Migadāya, Rishipattana, where holy men (Pāli: Isi, Sanskrit: Ṛṣi) fell to
Isipatana) is the Deer Park where Siddhārtha earth. Now the question that calls for solution is
Gautama delivered his first sermon called about “Migadāya” and “Mrigadāva” where
The Turning of the Wheel of the Dhamma “Dāya” means gift and forest but in Childer’s
(Dhammacakkappavattana) which resulted into Pāli Dictionary, it was used in the sense of forest.
the birth of Buddhism [1], and Buddhist Saṃgha No scholar has raised any objection. So, we
was founded by the Buddha with Pañcavaggiyas, inclined to accept that it was Mrigadāva.
yassa, and others. Buddhaghoṣa in his commentary on Mahāpadāna
Sutta says that it was Isipatana Migadāya that
came to be called Dharmachakra Prāvartana
Introduction [7]. The French scholar Senart does not admit
that the name Isipatana comes from Isipatana. He
In Sārnāth, being the spot of Dharmachakra says that besides this name, two other names of the
Prāvartana, a number of temples and monasteries place are known, viz., Ṛṣipatana and Ṛṣivadana.
had been constructed since the age of the Buddha According to the Mahāvastu, this place is also
[2]. The name is applied to an extensive group of known as Ṛṣivadana and also occurs in the Gāthās
Buddhist ruins situated near Vārānasī (Banārasa) of the Lalitavistāra. It-sing and other Chinese
district of Uttara Pradesh in India. The name writers have used the word “Silun” or “Silulin”
Sārnāth probably initially associated with Deer to translate the word “Migadāya” which means
Park but later on associated with Śaiva temple called “the land given to the deer” [7].
to the southeast of the Dhammekha Stūpa. The No antiquarian, whether Foreign or Indian, has
place seems to have been sacred and the resort of yet properly dealt with the age and origin of the
Sārnāth 1073

modern name of Sārnāth. During the sixth century Several other incidents connected with the
B.C.E., it was called Mrigadāva, and Pāli Litera- Buddha, besides the preaching of the first sermon,
ture bears the testimony to this fact. It had also are mentioned as having taken place in Isipatana.
been known by this name during the time of The Buddhist Saṃgha was originated here after
Aśoka and Kaṇiṣka as well as at the time of the the conversion of Yassa and his followers into it
pilgrimage of Faxiang and Xuanzang. When this ([9], Vol. i, p. 15f), the rule which prohibits the
place was devastated by the Mohammedans, the use of sandals made of talipot leaves ([9], Vol. i,
temple of the Sāraṅganāth was not in existence p. 189), the rules forbidding the use of certain
and most probably built here in consequence of kinds of flesh, including human flesh ([9], Vol. i,
the same movement which led to the establish- p. 216ff), and twice Māra visited him ([10], Vol. i,
ment of a holy place at Bodhagayā. The meaning p. 105f). Apart from Dhammacakkappavattana
of Sāraṅganāth is “the lord of deer.” Hence, it Sutta, several other Suttas were preached by the
seems that the Hindus have been worshipping Buddha while staying at Isipatana which are the
the Buddha as Mahādeva Sāraṅganāth [7]. Pañca Sutta ([10], Vol. iii, p. 66f), the Rathakāra
Sārnāth, according to Alexander Cunningham, is or Pacetana Sutta ([11], Vol. i, p. 110f), the two
a contraction of Sāraṅganāth [8]. Owing to the Pāsa Suttas ([10], Vol. i, p. 105f), the Samaya
sanctity thus attached to it, the place continued Sutta ([11], Vol. iii, p. 320ff), the Katuviya Sutta
to be a leading center of Buddhism till the ([11], Vol. i, p. 279f.), a discourse on the
last days of the faith in northern India, under Metteyyapañha of the Parāyana ([11], Vol. iii,
such names as Dharmachakra Vihāra, p. 399f), and the Dhammadinna Sutta ([10],
Saddharmachakra Vihāra, and Saddharmachakra- Vol. v, p. 406f). According to Pāli Literature, it
pravartana Vihāra. is evident that some of the prominent Bhikkhus
According to the Pāli Aṭṭhakathās, in the past, had conversations at Isipatana from time to time,
Isipatana was known by the same name at the time viz., between Sāriputta and Mahākotthita ([10],
of Phussa Buddha, Dhammadassī, and Kassapa, Vol. ii, p. 112f, Vol. iii, p. 167f, Vol. iv, pp. 162f,
who were born here. But more often, Isipatana 384ff) and one between Mahākotthita and Citta-
was known by different names at the time of Hatthisāriputta ([11], Vol. iii, p. 392f), and another
other different Buddhas like in Vipassī's time discourse helps Channa in his difficulties ([10],
known as Khema-uyyāna. It is the custom for all Vol. iii, p. 132f).
Buddhas to go through the air to Isipatana to According to the Mahāvaṃsa, there was a large
preach their first sermon [5]. community of monks at Isipatana in the second
century B.C.E. which is corroborated by the
description found in the Mahāvaṃsa that 12,000
Depiction in Buddhist Literature monks under Dhammasena from Isipatana went to
Sri Lanka at the foundation ceremony of the S
The Buddha after attaining the Bodhi, he left Mahāthūpa in Anurādhapura ([12], Vol. xxix, p.
Uruvelā and traveled to Isipatana to join and 31). Xuanzang [8] found, at Isipatana, 1,500 monks
teach Pañcavaggiya Bhikkhus, who left him in the studying the Hīnayāna. The Divyāvadāna men-
middle when he gave austere penances and came tions Aśoka as intimating to Upagupta his desire
here. The Buddha was of the view that they were to visit the places connected with the Buddha’s
able to understand his Dhamma quickly. It was activities and to erect thūpas there, and his visit is
here that he preached his first sermon, the confirmed by Aśoka’s Rock Edict (No. viii).
Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, on the full moon
day of Āsālha ([9], Vol. i, p. 10f). According
to commentaries on Buddhist literature, it is History of Sārnāth
believed that all the Buddhas preached their
first sermon at the Migadāya in Isipatana; it is one According to V. A. Smith, “The history of Indian
of the four avijahitatthānāni (unchanging spots). sculpture from Aśoka to the Mahommedan
1074 Sārnāth

conquest might also illustrated with fair complete- continued to flourish is not definitely known, but
ness from the finds of Sārnāth alone”. The history the evidence of monuments and inscriptions
of Sārnāth begins from the Pāli sources which are proves that it was still thriving at least in the
indicated by the ruins of monuments, and inscrip- twelfth century C.E. and probably owed its
tions found here attest the rule of Aśoka, the downfall to Qutbuddin Aibak, who devastated
Suugas, the Guptas, and later kings [7]. King Benares in 1194 C.E. [14]. Things took a turn
Aśoka visited Sārnāth in 249 B.C.E. and erected for the worse when Muslim hordes overran India
several monuments to mark his pilgrimage, nota- and started their trail of destruction. After the
bly, the Dhamek Stūpa, Dharmarājika Stūpa, diaspora of the Saṃgha in India, Sārnāth became
and the Aśokan pillar surmounted by the famous deserted and was forgotten for about 600 years
Lion Capital, which is now the crest of India. [13].
Archeological excavations have brought to light
about a dozen carved railing pillars ascribable to
the Sunga period. An inscription of King Discovery of Sārnāth
Aśvaghosa, written on the pillar of Aśoka at
Sārnāth, indicates that toward the beginning of In 1794, Sārnāth came to the notice of the world
first century C.E., he exercised control over under tragic circumstances. Jagat Singh, Dewan
Sārnāth [7]. During the reign of King Kaṇiṣka of Raja Chet Singh of Benares, dismantled the
(78 C.E.), Sārnāth was a center of religious activ- famous Dhammarājika Stūpa to collect bricks
ity, and the famous colossal Bodhisattva image and stones for building a market [7]. A stone
with a large parasol was installed by the Bhikkhu box containing green marble casket with human
Bala. Though the Gupta kings did not do anything relics, probably of the Buddha, was found which
directly tending to the improvement of this was thrown into Gaṅgā River by Jagat Singh. So,
place, yet there is no doubt that some of the they were lost forever. This act of vandalism
architectural improvements were affected during would have gone unnoticed. But a report was
their rule [7]. During the Gupta period (fourth to published by Jonathan Duncan in Asiatic
sixth century C.E.), the Dhamek Stūpa was Researches about discovery of Sārnāth due to
encased with carved stones, the Mūlagaṅdhakuṭi which in 1815, Mackenzie began explorations
main shrine was enlarged, and the famous and discovered some more sculptures. In
Preaching Buddha image, a gift of King 1835–1836, Cunningham carried out excavations
Kumāragupta, was added [13]. and recovered over 40 sculptures and carved
In 520 C.E., Sārnāth had its share of destruc- stones. Another tragedy struck when they were
tion during the invasion of the Huns under carted away in his absence together with 60 cart-
Mihirakula. But after the Huns were defeated, loads of stones from the shrines as construction
Sārnāth again flourished under the Buddhist material for two bridges and some buildings in
king, Harṣavardhana (606–647 C.E.), and contin- Benares [13]. Further excavations were continued
ued to be a living shrine under the Pāla kings on and off from 1851 to 1922, which exposed the
(eighth to twelfth century C.E.). The reign of Dhamek Stūpa, the Dhammarājika Stūpa,
Harṣavardhana must have initiated fresh religious Mūlagaṅdhakuṭi, Aśokan Pillar, and the ruins of
activity and restorations of the earlier building at several monasteries [14].
Sārnāth. Xuanzang visited Sārnāth during the time
and left a vivid description of it. The last known
patron of Sārnāth was Queen Kumāradevi, wife of Objects of Worship at Sārnāth
King Govindachandra Gahadwala (1114–1154
C.E.) who built Dhammacakka Jina Vihāra at Chaukhandi: It is an ancient stūpa which com-
Sārnāth, the ruins of which were exposed during memorates the spot where the Buddha met the
excavations in the early twentieth century. For Pancavaggiya Bhikkhus, dating back to fifth cen-
how long after Xuanzang’s visit Sārnāth tury B.C.E., and later enhanced by the addition of
Sārnāth 1075

an octagonal tower constructed to commemorate Aśokan Pillar: It is situated to the west of

the visit of Mughal King Humāyun to Sārnāth Mūlagaṅdhakuṭi under a flat roof and enclosed
in 1588. by railings and surmounted by the famous Lion
Dhamek Stūpa: According to Cunningham, Capital kept at Sārnāth Museum. On the pillar is an
this is remains of an earlier Mauryan Stūpa, prob- inscription called Schism Edict, and it is believed
ably raised by Aśoka on his visit to Sārnāth. that Aśoka issued this to promote harmony among
During the Gupta period, the lower portion was the various Buddhist sects.
encased in stone, having beautiful carvings all Pañcāyatana: To the east of the
round. No bodily relics were found inside this Dhammarājika Stūpa is a sunken shrine under
stūpa, but a slab with Buddha’s creed, a concrete platform made of terra-cotta bricks
“ye dhamma hetuppabhava, etc.” [4] was discov- and modeled to resemble one of the four
ered. According to an inscription of the Pāla square temples of the Gupta period called
king Mahipāla I (1026 C.E.), its original name “Pañcāyatana” believed to be the place
was Dhammacakka Stūpa, and on the basis Dhammacakkappavattana.
of this, the Archeological Survey of India Lion Capital: It is the most magnificent sculp-
claims that this spot marks the site of the first ture of Mauryan art, which once crowned the
sermon [13]. Aśokan Pillar at Deer Park. The abacus has
Dhammarājika Stūpa: The ruins of the a Dhammacakka wheel and four animal, i.e.,
Dharmarājika Stūpa are a short distance north of bull, elephant, horse, and lion, representing four
the Dhamek Stūpa and consist of a circular base of auspicious signs of the Buddha. The four lions
what remained after the wanton act of destruction represent the roar of the Buddha in the four direc-
by Jagat Singh. The original stūpa built by King tions. The Lion Capital is the crest of India and the
Aśoka was enlarged twice during the Gupta Dhammacakka wheel is the emblem of its national
period [8]. The Dhammarājika Stūpa was built flag [2].
by Aśoka to enshrine the bodily relics of the Colossal Bodhisatta Image: This colossal
Buddha at the time of his redistributing the relics standing image is of red sandstone donated by
from the seven original stūpas and enshrining the Bhikkhu Bala during the reign of King
them in a number of other stūpas at different Kanishka and represents the best tradition of
places. However, some scholars are of the opinion Mathurā art.
that the Dhammarājika Stūpa marks the site of the Preaching Buddha Image: The seated Buddha
first sermon [4]. image, in Dhammacakka Mudrā or Preaching
Mūlagaṅdhakuṭi: North of the Dhammarājika Posture, is one of the magnificent creations of
Stūpa are the ruins of it where the Buddha spent Gupta art. This famous sculpture was a gift of
the first rains retreat. According to the King Kumāragupta.
Dhammapada Commentary, it was donated by S
the rich man Nandiya, and as soon as the Buddha
accepted the gift, a celestial mansion arose in Sārnāth School of Buddhist Art
Tavatimsa heaven awaiting its owner,
Nandiya – the area between the ruins of the main With the advent of the Kushāna Dynasty in north
shrine and believed to be the site of the India, Buddhism witnessed a new phase of reli-
Cankamana, the promenade where the Buddha gious and artistic activities. Though Mathurā was
did his walking meditation which is supported the center of this renaissance, Sārnāth also
by the discovery of the famous colossal Bodhi- flourished. The colossal image of Bodhisattva
sattva image installed at this site by Bhikkhu was one of the master pieces of this period. The
Bala [7]. Another modern Mūlagaṅdhakuṭi was ancient relics discovered at Sārnāth serve as an
built by Mahābodhi Society where enshrined ideal school and excellent examples of the various
certain Buddhist relics discovered at Taxilā, styles of art of ancient India [7]. Buddhist art
Nāgārjunikoṇḍa, and Mirpur-khās in Sindh [1]. reflects very faithfully all the important aspects
1076 Sarvabījaka

of Buddhism. Sārnath became a prominent center 6. Fausböll V (ed) (1877–1897) The Jātakas, vol I.
of Buddhist Art during the Gupta period which Trubner, London
7. Bhattacharya BC (1924) The history of Sārnāth or the
marks the golden era of Indian Art. The main Cradle of Buddhism. Pilgrims Publishing, Varanasi
centers of Buddhist art during this period were 8. Beal S (2008) Buddhist records of the Western world,
Mathurā, Sārnāth, and Nālandā. The Buddhist Reprint. Low Price Publication, Delhi
images of Mathurā and Sārnāth are some of the 9. Oldenberg H (ed) (1879–1883) The Vinaya Piṭaka,
5 vols. Williams and Norgate (PTS), London
best specimens of Indian art, never equaled by any 10. Freer ML (ed) (1884–1898) The Saṃyutta Nikāya,
art creations of later period. Sārnāth sculpture vols 3. PTS, London
used cream-colored sandstone capable of high 11. Morris R, Hardy E (eds) (1885–1900) The Aṅguttara
levels of detail and finish. Speaking of Sārnāth Nikāya, vol IV. PTS, London
12. Gieger W (tr) (1908 & 1912) The Mahāvaṃsa. PTS,
style, Sārnāth Buddha image is quite possibly the London
fifth century Chunār sandstone image of the 13. Chan KS (2001) Buddhist pilgrimage. Buddha
seated Buddha in Dharmachakra Mudrā. Sārnāth Dhamma Education Association, Malaysia
style was active from about 300–700 C.E. It is 14. Annual reports on Sārnāth, 1906–1907, p 68;
1907–1908, p 43; 1914–1915, p 97; 1919–1920,
believed that Xuanzang must have visited Sārnāth p 26; 1921–1922, p 42 of Archaeological Survey of
and seen the seated Buddha, the purest incarnation India, Government of India
of the Gupta ideal in Art [1]. Overall, the Buddha
image developed into a proportional, harmonious,
and refined figure during the Gupta dynasty. This
classical figure had such visual appeal that it
influenced the art of many other countries. Sarvabījaka

▶ Ālaya-vijñāna

Cross-References

▶ Aśoka Sarvajñatā, Sabbaññutā (Pali)

▶ Banaras (Buddhism)
▶ Bodhi Tree ▶ Omniscience
▶ Buddhaghosa
▶ Buddhist Art
▶ Faxian (337–422 C.E.)
▶ Jātaka Sarvāstivāda
▶ Saṃgha
▶ Xuanzang (Hieun-Tsang) Charles Willemen
International Buddhist College, Songkhla,
Thailand
References

1. Bapat PV (1987) 2500 years of Buddhism, Reprint. Definition

Publication Division, Delhi, 1956
2. Ahir DC (1986) Buddhist shrines in India. B. R. Pub-
lishing Corporation, Delhi
Sarvāstivāda is a Buddhist school, “claiming
3. Rhys Davids TW, Rhys Davids CAF (eds) (1899, (
vāda) that everything (sarvam) exists (asti).”
1910 & 1957) Dīgha Nikāya (the dialogues of the Its adherents split from the main Sthaviravāda
Buddha), vols 3. PTS, London trunk during Aśoka’s council, ca. 244 B.C.
4. Mitra D (1971) Buddhist monuments. Sahitya Sansad,
Calcutta
Because a very considerable part of the pri-
5. http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/i_/isip mary literature only exists in the Chinese
atana.htm language, and because the Sarvāstivādins of
Sarvāstivāda 1077

Kaśmīra are traditionally seen as representative of used Sanskrit and established a new “orthodoxy”
all Sarvāstivādins, quite some confusion has in Kaśmīra. The vinaya was abbreviated to ten
existed about the question: Who are the recitations, called Daśabhāṇavāra. Many stories
Sarvāstivādins? Authors such as Paramārtha (avadāna, jātaka) were left out, but the rules were
(499–569 A.D.), who probably is himself respon- not changed [8]. A basic Gandharan abhidharma
sible for the text of the so-called Samayabhedo- text, the Aṣṭagrantha, was rewritten in Sanskrit
paracanacakra, Taishō ed.2033, attributing the and renamed Jñānaprasthāna. Six more texts
text to Vasumitra of the Sarvāstivāda synod of were established, forming an Abhidharmapiṭaka
ca. 170 A.D., lists Sarvāstivāda and Sautrāntika of seven texts, said to be proclaimed by the Bud-
separately, giving the impression that these may dha himself, Buddhabhāṣita [6]. The traditional
be two different schools, nikāyas. Recently Aṣṭagrantha had its commentaries, Vibhāṣās [7].
Sanskrit vinaya texts and other texts of So, the revised text needed a new commentary, the
Sarvāstivādins, based on Central Asian manu- Mahāvibhāṣā, ca. 200 A.D. The new Sanskrit
scripts from Turpan, have been published. In Kāśmīra “orthodoxy” was ever since that time
Gilgit, Sanskrit texts have been found. also known as Vaibhāṣika. The traditional western
Mūlasarvāstivāda literature exists in Sanskrit Sarvāstivādins did not immediately adopt the
(e.g., Udānavarga), in Tibetan (e.g., Vinaya), new “orthodoxy.” They kept believing that only
and in Chinese. the sūtras were Buddha’s word. The term
Sautrāntika just makes sense as opposed to
a Buddhabhāṣita Abhidharmapiṭaka. Kumāralāta,
History author of the Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā, Taishō ed.201, is
the reputed first ācārya, master of Sautrāntikas
During the reign of Aśoka (ca. 264–227 B.C.) (second century A.D.) [14]. He is mentioned in
a Sthaviravāda synod was held in Pāṭaliputra, Dharmatrāta’s Udāna (Taishō ed.212), the sixth
presided over by Maudgalyāyana. The member (aṅga) of a Kṣudrakapiṭaka. He is known
Vātsīputrīya Pudgalavādins, Personalists, had as a Dārṣṭāntika and lived ca. 150 A.D. The old
already split from the main Sthaviravāda trunk, long vinaya with its numerous stories (avadāna,
ca. 280 B.C. [2]. Aśoka’s synod resulted in a split dṛṣṭānta) lived on. Some now believe that the
between Sarvāstivādins and Vibhajyavādins, who term Dārṣṭāntika applies to the western
were declared “orthodox.” Sarvāstivādins had Sarvāstivādins who held on to the long vinaya.
new views. Sarvāstivādins then spread along the Some Sautrāntikas may have adopted the “mod-
Ganges to the Gulf of Bengal, but mainly West to ern” brief vinaya from Kaśmīra. The western
Mathurā and to the Gandharan cultural area. Sarvāstivādins gradually adapted to the new
Upagupta, one of the patriarchs, is linked with “orthodoxy,” as is seen in the commentaries on
Mathurā and with a long vinaya. Madhyāntika is the Aṣṭagrantha and in the commentaries on the S
said to have taken Buddhism to Jibin (northwest- Bactrian Abhidharmahṛdaya [16]. This last text,
ern Indian cultural area, i.e., mainly Gandhāra, but a systematic explanation on how to become an
also Bactria, and from ca. 200 A.D. on also arhat, was composed by Dharmaśreṣṭhin (often
Kaśmīra) in the time of Aśoka. He is also linked wrongly called Dharmaśrī), probably first century
with Mathurā. So, Sarvāstivādins with an ancient B.C [9]. It is the oldest systematic abhidharmic
long vinaya were in the Gandharan cultural area yoga manual. The Abhidharmakośabhāṣya [13]
(Uḍḍiyāna, Swat Valley; Gandhāra; Bactria, West of Vasubandhu (ca. 350–430) is, via the Miś
of the Khyber Pass) before the arrival of the rakābhidharmahṛdaya (early fourth century), an
Kuṣāṇas. A Sarvāstivāda synod of traditionally enlarged Abhidharmahṛdaya. This work of the
500 arhats was held in Kaśmīra ca. 170 A.D., Gandharan Vasubandhu provoked the anger of
a new cultural center. The Kuṣāṇa king Kaniṣka Saṇghabhadra in Kaśmīra [5]. Śrīlāta, a teacher
agreed. They revised existing Gandharan texts of Vasubandhu but not a direct disciple of
and sometimes added new compositions. They Kumāralāta, was also criticized. But as the
1078 Sarvāstivāda

westerners became ever more like the “ortho- their opponents, the Mahāsāṅghikas, for example,
doxy,” between 650 and 700 A.D., that is, Mindfulness of Buddha, Buddhānusmṛti, and
between the presence in India of Xuanzang and Contemplation of emptiness. The Yogācārabhūmi,
of Yijing, the term Mūla (basic, root, original) Taishō ed.1579, of Vasubandhu’s elder brother,
sarvāstivāda appears. Now all Sarvāstivādins Asaṅga, incorporates Madhyamaka emptiness of
were united again. Their language was Sanskrit. Mahāsāṅghika origin in its yoga [12].
Their vinaya was the long one, but it probably had Some now think that Sukhāvatī is an excellent
known a long evolution ever since the early period intermediate existence, that Pure Land
in Mathurā. (Sukhāvatī) Buddhism is of Bactrian Sarvāstivāda
In Central Asia both Gandharan and origin.
Vaibhāṣika Sarvāstivādins were represented. In Much of avadāna literature (Divyāvadāna,
Kumārajīva’s Kuqa (344–413) one encounters etc.) may be said to be Sarvāstivāda.
non-Vaibhāṣikas. In China abhidharma is of west- Recent studies about vinaya offer the original
ern origin, Sautrāntika. Sautrāntikas also had an Indian text of parts of the (Mūla) sarvāstivāda
Abhidharmapiṭaka. Abhidharma is all about vinaya [4].
the dharma (sūtras), which is Buddha’s word. The Sarvāstivāda Dharmapada was used by
This abhidharma was really introduced by the Dārṣṭāntika Dharmatrāta (second century) to
Saṇghadeva (late fourth century), translator of establish an Udāna, the sixth of 12 parts, aṅgas, of
the Aṣṭagrantha and of the Hṛdaya. After the Buddha’s teaching. Later, a Dharmapada was
translation of the Miśraka
in Nanjing in collected again from this Udāna, forming a text
435 A.D., an Abhidharma School appeared in known as Udānavarga of Mūlasarvāstivāda affil-
southern China. It was replaced by a “Kośa” iation [3].
School when Paramārtha’s translation of the Famous non-Vaibhāṣikas from Central India,
Abhidharmakośabhāṣya came out in 568 A.D. influenced by Mahāsāṅghika ideas, are
This development shows that abhidharma in Harivarman (ca. 300 A.D.) and Aśvaghoṣa (ca.
China is Sautrāntika Sarvāstivāda. Xuanzang 100 A.D.) [17].
introduced the Vaibhāṣika abhidharma in the sev- It is important to put Sarvāstivādins in place
enth century, just before it disappeared in India (Central India, Gulf of Bengal, Northwestern
itself. Nālandā was a center of non-Vaibhāṣikas. India, Central Asia, China) and in time (before
Tibet enters the Buddhist world in or after Kaniṣka’s synod). Before ca. 170 one may
Mūlasarvāstivāda times. see old Sautrāntika-Dārṣṭāntika Sarvāstivādins,
and new ones after that time.

Literature
Cross-References
Besides the already mentioned abhidharma liter-
ature [1, 10, 11, 15], it is now known that ▶ Abhidharma (Theravāda)
yogācāra (bhūmi), (stages) in the practice of ▶ Antarābhava
yoga, is the subject of quite a few manuals ▶ Aśvaghoṣa
which are of Sarvāstivāda affiliation, for example, ▶ Buddhist Councils
Saṇgharakṣa’s Yogācārabhūmi (Taishō 606), ▶ Gandhara
translated in Chinese in 284 A.D. The subdivision ▶ Kaniṣka
of all factors, dharmas, in five categories (matter, ▶ Paramārtha
rūpa; thought, citta; factors associated with ▶ Sautrāntika
thought, caitta; factors not associated with ▶ Sthaviravāda
thought, cittaviprayukta; unconditioned factors, ▶ Upagupta
asaṃskṛta) is a Sarvāstivāda view. Western ▶ Vaibhāṣika
Sarvāstivādins often adopted useful ideas of ▶ Vasubandhu
Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma 1079

▶ Xuanzang (Hieun-Tsang)
▶ Yijing Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma
▶ Yogācāra
K. L. Dhammajoti
Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of
References Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

1. Banerjee AC (1957) Sarvāstivāda literature.

K. L. Mukhopadhyay, Calcutta Definition
2. Bareau A (1955) Les sectes bouddhiques du petit
véhicule. École Française d’Extrême-Orient, Saigon
3. Bernhard FI (1965), II (1968) Udānavarga. III The Sarvāstivāda system developed for the proper
(1990) Byams pa thub bstan rdzoṅ rtse, with the coop- understanding and true insight into the nature of
eration of Dietz S, ed. Champa Thupten Zongtse. existence.
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Gőttingen
4. Chang Jin-il, Vogel C, Wille K (eds) (2002) Sanskrit-
texte aus dem buddhistischen Kanon:
Neuentdeckungen und Neueditionen IV. Vandenhoeck Historical Origin
& Ruprecht, Gőttingen
5. Cox C (1995) Disputed dharmas: early Buddhist the-
The Abhidharma is a system aiming at
ories on existence. International Institute for Buddhist
Studies, Tokyo a systematic analysis and proper understanding
6. Dhammajoti Bhikkhu KL (2009) Sarvāstivāda of the Buddha’s teachings. Its origin is to be traced
abhidharma, 4th edn. Centre of Buddhist Studies, to the sūtras. However, the term Abhidharma,
The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
7. Enomoto F (1996) A Sanskrit fragment from the
although occurring therein, often alongside
Vibhāṣā discovered in Eastern Turkestan. In: San- abhivinaya, does not refer to the Abhidharma
skrit-texte aus dem buddhistischen Kanon: texts constituting the third piṭaka; for in the
Neuentdeckungen und Neueditionen III. Vandenhoeck sūtras, the meaning of Abhidharma seems to
& Ruprecht, Gőttingen
be “about the dhamma,” or “the profound doc-
8. Finot L (1914) Le Prātimokṣa des Sarvāstivādins, Paris
9. Frauwallner E (1995) Studies in abhidharma literature trines.” The following types of sūtra are particu-
and the origins of Buddhist philosophical systems larly noteworthy as having features which
(trans: Kidd S). SUNY Press, New York contributed to the development of the
10. Gómez L (2005) Sarvāstivāda. In: Jones L (ed) Ency-
abhidhamma/Abhidharma in the later specialized
clopedia of religion, 2nd edn. Macmillan Reference
USA, Gale Virtual Reference Library, Detroit sense:
11. Jaini P (1977) Abhidharmadīpa with
Vibhāṣāprabhāvṛtti. Kashi Jayaswal Research Insti- (a) Those featuring Abhidharma-kathā –
tute, Patna
a solemn dialogue between two monks
12. La Vallée Poussin L de (1988) Abhidharmako-
śabhāsyam, 4 vols (trans: Pruden L). Asia Humanities concerning the spiritual path; others listening S
Press, Berkeley are not permitted to interrupt. An example is
13. Lamotte É I (1966), II (1967), III (1970), IV (1976), the Mahāgosiṅga-sutta (Majjhima, I, 212 ff).
V (1980) Le traité de la grande vertu de sagesse de
(b) Those featuring vedalla (Skt. vaidalya):
Nāgārjuna. Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa. Université
Catholique de Louvain, Institut Orientaliste, Lou- Derived from √dal meaning to “crack”/
vain-La-Neuve “open,” this feature signifies the extensive
14. Lüders H (1979) Bruchstücke buddhistischer Dramen: unraveling of the profound doctrinal mean-
Bruchstücke der Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā des Kumāralāta.
ings that have been hidden. In form, it consists
Steiner, Wiesbaden
15. Willemen C (2006) The essence of scholasticism. of a question and answer session on doctrinal
Abhidharmahṛdaya. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi matters with a scope apparently broader than
16. Willemen C (2008) Kumārajīva’s explanatory dis- that in abhidhamma-kathā – either between
course about abhidharmic literature. J Int Coll Post-
the Buddha and the fourfold disciples
grad Buddh Stud 12:27–83
17. Willemen C, Dessein B, Cox C (1998) Sarvāstivāda (with others listening) or among the disciples
Buddhist scholasticism. Brill, Leiden themselves. Vedalla-kathā is also sometimes
1080 Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma

juxtaposed to abhidhamma-kathā, as in The Major Abhidharma Texts

Aṅguttara, ii, 107. Cf. Mahā-vedalla-sutta
(Majjhima, i, 293 ff). Like the Theravādins, the Sarvāstivādins too
(c) Those featuring the vibhaṅga (“analysis/ maintain that the Abhidharma was taught by the
exposition”) style – a brief, summarized Buddha himself. But unlike the Theravādins who
teaching is elaborated upon by the Buddha claim that the whole set of their canonical
or a competent disciple. The significance of Abhidhamma texts was authored by the Buddha,
vibhaṅga being the elaboration on brief teach- the Sarvāstivādins ascribe their seven canonical
ings became distinctive at least by the time of texts to individual authors: (1) Dharma-skandha
formation of the nikāya/āgama collections. In by Śāriputra, (2) Saṅgīti-paryāya by
the Madhyamāgama, there are some 35 sūtras Mahākauṣṭhila, (3) Prajñāpti-śāstra by Mahā-
grouped as “*vibhaṅga recitations.” Like- maudgalyāyana, (4) Vijñānakāya by Devaśarman,
wise, there are some 12 suttas grouped under (5) Prakaraṇa-śāstra by Vasumitra,
the Pāli Vibhaṅga-vagga. (6) Jñānaprasthāna by Kātyāyanīputra, and
(d) Those featuring mātṛkā/mātikā – originally, (7) Dhātukāya by Pūrṇa. Of these, the first three
meaning a matrix or list of headings belong to the earlier period, and the rest may be
purporting to systematically summarize the grouped under the later period. The
Buddha’s teaching, e.g., the list of 37 doc- Jñānaprasthāna was upheld as the supreme
trinal topics often known as bodhipakṣya- authority by the Vaibhāṣikas who called it the
dharmas. The term mātṛkā came to be further “body,” in contrast to the other six which were
developed to connote whatever textual basis called the “feet.”
that serves as a standard source. The The Sarvāstivāda school may be said to have
Vaibhāṣikas mention mātṛkā unambiguously been effectively established by Kātyāyanīputra (ca.
as being synonymous with Abhidharma and 150 B.C.) with his Jñānaprasthāna. Eventually the
upadeśa (see below) and cite as mātṛkā the orthodox Sarvāstivādins based in Kaśmīra com-
early Sarvāstivāda canonical texts: the posed the Abhidharma-mahāvibhāṣā, a gigantic
Saṅgī tiparyāya, the Dharma-skandha, and commentary (translated by Xuan Zang into 200
the Prajñapti-śāstra. Many scholars in fact fascicles) on the Jñānaprasthāna, and came to be
believe that Abhidharma evolves from known as the Vaibhāṣikas on account of their
mātṛkā. upholding the sanctioned Sarvāstivāda views in it.
(e) Those featuring upadeśa – an expository or But encyclopedic as this commentary is, its orga-
exegetical discourse. This refers to the last of nization leaves much to be desired as a text for
the twelvefold classification of the Buddha’s a systematic comprehension of the Sarvāstivāda
teachings. Saṃghabhadra explains this as doctrines. This partly results from its structure
follows, equating it with mātṛkā and being dictated by that of the Jñānaprasthāna and
Abhidharma: partly owing to the compilers’ style of branching
off too frequently from one topic to another in
Upadeśa refers to the non-erroneous (aparyasta,
aviparī ta) revealing, answering of objections and
discussing a given doctrinal position. This fact,
ascertainment, of the preceding [eleven] members. coupled with a reaction on the part of some masters
(See § 3) According to some, upadeśa also refers to to its excessive adherence to the Jñānaprasthāna
analytical explanations, in accordance with reason- orthodoxy, led to the subsequent compilations of
ing, given by those who have seen the truth of the
profound meanings of the sūtras, or by other wise
various manuals, culminating in Vasubandhu’s
ones. It is none other than what is called mātṛkā, for, famous Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya which came to
when the meaning of other sūtras is to be explained, be commented upon by various masters of varying
this serves as the mātṛkā. It is also called degrees of orthodoxy. Vasubandhu (ca. fourth cen-
abhidharma, on account of its being face to face
(abhi) with the characteristics of dharmas, and of its
tury C.E.) states that he, in the main, follows the
being a non-erroneous unraveling of the character- Kaśmīrian Vaibhāṣikas in expounding the
istics of dharmas. ([23], p. 595b). Sarvāstivādin doctrines. However, in many places,
Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma 1081

he explicitly favors the doctrinal standpoints of the all dharmas. This is called “dharma-pravicaya.”
Sautrāntikas, a group of masters “who take the This true determination is ultimately achieved
sūtras but not the śāstras as the authority” ([28], when true spiritual insight – as opposed to mere
p. 11). Vasubandhu’s brilliant critique of the intellectual understanding – into the true nature of
Vaibhāṣika doctrines was answered by the equally things is generated in a process known as “direct
brilliant Saṃghabhadra, his contemporary and realization” (abhisamaya).
a staunch Vaibhāṣika, in the *Nyāyānusāra. Other A dharma is an ultimate constituent of
more concise manuals followed, such as reality – or an ultimate real – and is articulately
Skandhila’s Abhidharmāvatāra which aims at defined as “that which sustains its intrinsic char-
expounding the totality of the Sarvāstivāda acteristic (svalakṣaṇa-dhāraṇāḍ dharmaḥ) (see
doctrines in a scheme of eight categories [2], p. 2). Thus, matter (rūpa) is a dharma because
(Padārtha) – five aggregates (skandha) and the it always possesses a unique intrinsic characteris-
three unconditioned (asaṃskṛta) – while steering tic of rūpaṇa/rūpaṇā: the nature of visibility and
clear of sectarian disputations. possessing resistance and susceptibility to gradual
decay. Likewise, sensation (vedanā) is a dharma,
being always a real force uniquely enabling the
fact of sensation; likewise, understanding (prajñā)
Definition, Nature, and Purpose
which uniquely enables the fact of understanding,
etc. Abhidharma investigates into these intrinsic
Although the term Ābhidharmika can refer gener-
characteristics as well as the common characteris-
ally to anyone who specializes in the study and
tics (sāmānya-lakṣaṇa) obtaining among a given
transmission of the Abhidharma doctrines, it
connected group of dharmas. On the basis of this,
is often used specifically to refer to the main-
Abhidharma further examines the mutual inclu-
stream Sarvāstivāda masters. Thus, when the
sion/subsumption (saṃgraha) of dharmas in
Mahāvibhāṣā enumerates the various interpreta-
respect of intrinsic characteristics as well as the
tion of “Abhidharma,” the first is given as that of
causal interaction.
the Ābhidharmikas, followed by other interpreta-
“Dharma-pravicaya” is also the Ābhidharmika
tions ascribed to individual masters – such as
definition for prajñā. This prajñā is a faculty of
Vasumitra and Dharmatrāta – and to other
understanding, i.e., a force which enables our
schools, such as the Dharmaguptaka. This
experience of understanding. In the Sarvāstivāda
Ābhidharmika interpretation is as follows:
system, therefore, prajñā must not be taken to
According to the Ābhidharmikas, it is so called mean exclusively “wisdom,” less still, the wisdom
because (i) it can properly and utterly determine
(vi-niś-√ci) the characteristics of all dharmas; (ii) of an arhat or the Buddha. It denotes the force of
it can properly examine and penetrate the dharmas, understanding that can assume various forms
(iii) it can directly realize (abhi-sam-√i) and realize and admits various levels: an understanding that S
(sākṣāt-√kṛ) with regard to all dharmas; (iv) it can may be either correct or erroneous, pure or
get to the very bottom of the profound nature of
dharmas; (v) through it, the wisdom-eye of the impure, with-outflow (sāsrava) or outflow-free
noble ones comes to be purified; (vi) it is only (anāsrava), strong or weak, etc. In its outflow-
through it that the nature of the dharmas, subtle free form, it is that which properly determines the
from beginningless time, comes to be revealed; nature of dharmas. And at its highest sublimated
(vii) what it expounds is not contradictory to the
nature of the dharmas – one who is extremely well- level, it is the perfect wisdom of the Buddha.
versed with regard to the specific and common The above Ābhidharmika definition of
characteristics in the abhidharma cannot be faulted “Abhidharma” clearly speaks of Abhidharma as
in any way and made to contradict the nature of the true or pure wisdom. In keeping with this
dharmas; (viii) it can refute and defeat all the heret-
ical views. ([3], pp. 4a13–25) Ābhidharmika definition, Vasubandhu gives this
as the definition of “Abhidharma” in the absolute
More succinctly, Abhidharma is the proper sense, i.e., at the level of absolute truth. At the
examination and determination of the nature of conventional truth, however, “Abhidharma” also
1082 Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma

refers to the with-outflow prajñā – derived from p. 595b). In brief, Abhidharma is the explicit
listening, reflection, and cultivation (śruta-cintā- (nī tārtha) and definitive (lākṣaṇika) teachings of
bhāvanā-mayī prajñā) or innately acquired the Buddha, in contrast to the sūtras which are
(upapattipratilambhikā) – which helps to bring generally implicit (neyārtha) and intentional
about the pure (i.e., outflow-free) prajñā. The (ābhiprāyika).
Abhidharma śāstras, too, inasmuch as they
serve as a means or as requisites (saṃbhāra) for
the acquisition of this pure prajñā, are also to be
considered as Abhidharma. The 75 Dharmas Grouped Under Five
The prefix “abhi-” in the above definition of Categories
Abhidharma signifies “facing” or “being face to
face” (abhimukha) which underscores the signifi- In the process of dharma-pravicaya, by thor-
cation of direct realization (abhi = abhisamaya) oughly subjecting the complexity of sentient
into the true nature of dharmas. The definition of experience to a process of analysis – whether
Abhidharma as direct realization and pure prajñā based on direct empirical observation or on
too brings out its soteriological function: While it a deduction of the unique causal efficacy
is true that in the course of development the a particular entity (e.g., a mental force) – the
Abhidharma methodology came to acquire Sarvāstivāda Abhidharmikas arrive at the follow-
a distinctive feature of what might be called ing list of some 75 types of ultimate reals
“scholasticism,” it preserves throughout the cen- (dharma), divided into five fundamental
turies its primacy of spiritual motivation and its categories:
commitment to systematically mapping out the
Buddhist path of emancipation from the unsatis- I. Rūpa (matter, 11):
factoriness (duḥkha) of sentient existence. This
1. Cakṣur-indriya (visual 6. Rūpa-artha (visual
soteriological function from the perspective of faculty) object)
Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma is presented; thus: 2. Śrotra-indriya (auditory 7. Śabda-artha
fac) (auditory obj)
Because apart from the examination of dharmas 3. Ghrāṇa-indriya 8. Gandha-artha
(= prajñā = abhidharma), (olfactory fac) (olfactory obj)
there is no excellent means for the appeasement
of the defilements. 4. Jihvā-indriya (gustatory 9. Rasa-artha
And it is on account of the defilements that fac) (gustatory obj)
beings wander in the existence-ocean. 5. Kāya-indriya (tangible 10. Spraṣṭavya-artha
For this reason, therefore, it is said, the fac) (tangible obj)
[abhidharma] is taught by the Master. ([2], p. 2) 11. Avijñapti-rūpa (noninformative matter)

For the Sarvāstivāda Ābhidharmikas, the

II. Citta (thought)
Abhidharma is “the word of Buddha” (Buddha-
III. Caitasika dharmas (thought-concomitants,
vacana) as much as the sūtra and the Vinaya. Nay,
46):
it is sūtra par excellence and indeed the very
authority/criterion for ascertaining the true sūtras
1) Mahābhūmika dharmas (universal dharmas,
(sūtra-pramāṇa) – true teachings of the Buddha.
10):
Saṃghabhadra argues that in the twelvefold divi-
sion of the sūtra-piṭaka (sūtra, geya, vyākaraṇa), 1. Vedanā (sensation) 6. Prajñā (understanding)
upadeśa (“exposition,” the 12th division) repre- 2. Cetanā (volition) 7. Smṛti (mindfulness)
sents the Abhidharma; it serves as the criterion for 3. Saṃjñā (ideation) 8. Manaskāra (mental
non-erroneously unraveling and ascertaining the application)
true meanings of all the other 11 divisions ([23], (continued)
Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma 1083

4. Chanda 9. Adhimokṣa (resolve/ IV. Cittaviprayukta saṃskāra dharmas (condi-

(predilection) determination) tionings disjoined from thought, 14):
5. Sparśa (contact) 10. Samādhi (concentration)
1. Prāpti (acquisition) 8. Jāti-lakṣaṇa
(production-
characteristic)
2) Kuśala-mahābhūmika dharmas (skillful uni-
2. Aprāpti 9. Sthiti-lakṣaṇa
versal dharmas, 10): (non-acquisition) (duration-characteristic)
3. Nikāyasabhāga (group 10. Jarā-lakṣaṇa
1. Śraddhā (faith) 6. Apatrāpya (shame) homogeneity) (deterioration-
2. Apramāda (diligence) 7. Alobha (non-greed) characteristic)
3. Praśrabdhi (calm) 8. Adveṣa (non- 4. Āsaṃjñika 11. Anityatā-lakṣaṇa
hatred) (ideationlessness) (impermanence-
4. Upekṣā (equanimity) 9. Avihiṃsā characteristic)
(harmlessness) 5. Āsaṃjñi-samāpatti 12. Nāma-kāya (words)
(ideationless attainment)
5. Hrī (modesty) 10. Vīrya (vigor)
6. Nirodha-samāpatti 13. Pada-kāya (phrases)
(cessation attainment)
3) Kleśa-mahābhūmika dharmas (universal 7. Jī vitendriya (vital 14. Vyañjana-kāya
dharmas of defilement, 6): faculty) (syllables)

1. Moha (delusion) 4. Āśraddhya V. Asaṃskṛta dharmas (unconditioned

(lack of faith)
dharmas, 3):
2. Pramāda (non-diligence) 5. Styāna (torpor)
3. Kauśī dya (slackness) 6. Auddhatya 1. Ākāśa (space)
(restlessness)
2. Pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (cessation through deliberation)
3. Apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (cessation independent of
4) Akuśala-mahābhūmika dharmas (unskillful deliberation)
universal dharmas, 2):
I. The totality of rūpa-dharmas comprises (i)
1. Ahrī kya (non- 2. Anapatrāpya the primary matter comprising the four great ele-
modesty) (shamelessness) ments (mahābhūta; “great reals”) – earth
(pṛthivī ), water (ap), fire (tejas), and air (vāyu);
5) Parī ttakleśa-bhūmika dharmas (defilements (ii) 11 derived matter (upādāya-rūpa/
of restricted scope 10): bhautika) – five sense faculties (indriya), five
corresponding objects (artha/viṣaya), and
1. Krodha (anger) 6. Mrakṣa noninformation matter (avijñapti-rūpa). The four
(concealment)
great elements are also subsumed under the
2. Upanāha (enmity) 7. Mātsarya (avarice)
3. Śāṭhya 8. Māyā
objects of touch (spraṣṭavya) together with S
(dissimulation) (deceptiveness) other derived tangibles because their functions
4. Írṣyā (jealousy) 9. Mada (pride) can only be experienced through touch. They
5. Pradāśa (depraved 10. Vihiṃsā have the intrinsic nature of solidity (khara),
opinionatedness) (harmfulness) humidity (sneha), heat (uṣṇatā), and mobility
(ī raṇā), respectively, and perform the functions
6) Aniyata dharmas (indeterminate dharmas, 8): of supporting (dhṛti), cohesion (saṃgraha),
maturation (pakti), and extension (vyūha),
1. Kaukṛtya (remorse) 5. Rāga (greed) respectively. The Sarvāstivāda acknowledges
2. Middha (sleep) 6. Pratigha (hostility) a total of 11 tangibles. The other seven are
3. Vitarka (reasoning) 7. Māna (conceit) smoothness (ślakśṇatva), coarseness (karkaś
4. Vicāra (investigation) 8. Vicikitsā (doubt) atva), heaviness (gurutva), lightness (laghutva),
1084 Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma

coldness (śī ta), hunger (jighatsā), and thirst vow (saṃvāra, “restraint”), e.g., of abstaining
(pipāsā). from killing (2, 8, 205, 208, etc.).
The four great elements exist inseparably from II–III. No thought or thought-concomitant can
one another, being coexistent causes (sahabhū- arise singly; they necessarily arise in conjunction
hetu; see § 6.(4)) one to another. Nevertheless, (saṃprayoga). For instance, any thought neces-
rūpa-dharmas are manifested and experienced in sarily arises with the set of 10 universal thought-
diverse forms on account of the difference in concomitants (sensation, etc.). When a skillful
intensity or substance of one or more of the four thought-concomitant arises, it necessarily does
elements. so together with the thought involved, the set of
Although the so-called derived rūpas are 10 universal dharmas, and the set of 10 skillful
already existing as ontological entities, their aris- universal thought-concomitants (faith, etc.).
ing and functioning are dependent (upādāya) on In a conjunction, the thought and thought-
the great elements. In this sense, the latter are said concomitants (i) arise at the same time, (ii) share
to be their cause. One set of the four great ele- the same basis (āśraya), (iii) take the same cogni-
ments serves as the cause of an atom (paramāṇu) tive object (ālambana), (iv) have the same mode
of the derived rūpa in a fivefold manner: (i) As of activity/understanding (ākāra), and (v) each
generating cause (janana-hetu) – the derived has a singularity of substance (dravya – e.g.,
rūpas arise from them, like a child from the par- a single thought conjoined with a single species
ents. (ii) As reliance cause (niśraya-hetu) – they of sensation, a single species of ideation).
are influenced by them, like a pupil under IV. The category of “conditionings disjoined
a teacher. (iii) As supportive cause (pratiṣṭhā- from thought” represents an Abhidharma devel-
hetu) – they are supported by them. (iv) As opment going beyond the matter–mind dualism of
maintaining cause (upastambha-hetu) – they the Theravāda and other schools. These dharmas
are their cause of non-interruption. (v) As are forces that are neither physical nor mental, but
development cause (upabṛmhaṇa-hetu) – they whose efficacy can exercise in both domains.
are their cause of development ([2], p. 102 f; [3], Their nature and function are best illustrated
p. 663a). with the example of “acquisition” (prāpti), a force
The non-informative (avijñapti) matter is which links a dharma – whether physical or men-
a special type of rūpa, being invisible, nonresis- tal, conditioned or unconditioned – to a sentient
tant, and nonspatialized. Nevertheless, it is said to being. Thus, when, say, a sensual craving arises in
be of the nature of matter since its supporting basis the sentient being, he comes to “possess” this
(āśraya) – the four great elements – is resistant dharma called sensual craving, which has always
matter. In terms of the āyatana classification, it is been existing in the universe, thanks to this force,
subsumed under the dharma-āyatana rather “acquisition,” which as it were ties (like a rope)
than the rūpa-āyatana and is referred to as the craving to him. The acquisition of this craving,
“matter subsumed under the dharma-āyatana” once projected, serially flows on in the person
(dharmāyatana-saṃgṛhī ta-rūpa). This is the even when the craving does not arise
medium of preservation of the karmic efficacy manifestly – e.g., when the person’s mental stream
projected from a momentary bodily or vocal is of a skillful or neutral nature. For this reason, he
karma. It is “noninformative” because it is is continuously possessed of this craving. When,
a karmic action that does not inform us of the as a result of spiritual praxis, the person comes to
mental state of its doer. Once projected, it con- be freed from (to “abandon,” pra-√hā) this crav-
tinues to exist as a series until either the ing, it is not that the dharma called craving as an
corresponding karmic effect is retributed or ontological entity comes to be destroyed, but
when a certain condition is met with – such as rather, that the serial continuity of its acquisition
the person’s death. Eventually, it came to be par- is cut off from him.
ticularly emphasized as the karmic efficacy When one comes to attain Nirvāṇa, it cannot be
projected when one solemnly takes an ordination that the unconditioned dharma arises as an effect
Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma 1085

of a path which is conditioned (see below). What one also thereby acquires the cessations
is produced by the path is the acquisition (itself independent of deliberation, of all forms of
a conditioned dharma) of the Nirvāṇa, which unfortunate rebirth (durgati) – one will no
links the latter to the practitioner. longer be reborn in any such unfortunate
V. In the Sarvāstivāda system, the domain of plane of existence.
the unconditioned, just as the domain of the con- 3. Space (ākāsa). This is not to be confounded
ditioned, is pluralistic. There are three types of with conditioned space, called the space ele-
conditioned dharmas: ment (akāśa-dhātu), which is visible in the
openings in windows, doors, cleavages,
1. “Cessation through deliberation etc. Such spaces, though nonobstructive in
(pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha),” namely, through an nature, are nonetheless obstructed by material
effort of understanding (prajnā; pratisaṃkhyā things. The unconditioned space, in contrast, is
is explained as prajñā-viśeṣa) the true nature of beyond space and time and is characterized by
dharmas. For each instance of abandoning being neither obstructive to, nor obstructed
a defilement, there arises a corresponding by, any material thing. Its reality is to be
instance of its cessation (nirodha) which is comprehended from the fact that there exists
a real entity – and not a mere absence of the the conditioned space which accommodates
defilement – contributing to the absolute pre- conditioned things and provides the venues
vention of the defilement’s future arising. for their activities. This does not mean that
There are therefore as many instances of ces- space can exercise any activity, but that it
sation through deliberation as they are serves as a necessary contributing factor –
instances of with-outflow entities to be discon- a “dominant condition” (adhipati-pratyaya) –
nected from. through a sequence of conditionality, making
2. “Cessation independent of deliberation” possible the fact of cognition of things in
(apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha). These are cessations space–time:
acquired without specifically applying any
effort of understanding but simply on account The unconditioned Space has no activity. Neverthe-
less, it can serve as the proximate adhipati-pratyaya
of deficiency in the required conditions for for the various space-elements. These various
a dharma’s arising. For example, when the space-elements can serve as the proximate
present eye and the mental faculty are focusing adhipati-pratyaya for the various Great Elements.
on a particular object giving rise to its visual These various Great Elements can serve as the
proximate adhipati-pratyaya for the resistant
consciousness, it is not possible for any of the derived matters. These resistant derived matters
five sensory consciousness to arise with regard can serve as the proximate adhipati-pratyaya for
to any of the other objects (visibles, sounds, the various mental citta-caitta-dharmas.
etc.) existing in that same moment. There arise If Space were non-existent, such a successive
causal sequence cannot be established. Hence the
S
accordingly the cessations independent of intrinsic nature and characteristic of Space exist,
deliberation of these latter instances of sensory lest there be such a fallacy; they must not be denied.
consciousness by virtue of the deficiency in the ([3], p. 389a)
conditions for their arising. However, these
cessations are not mere absence of conditions; The conditioned dharmas, which arise into
they are in each case a distinct, real entity space–time and their operation therein, are
efficacious in absolutely preventing the possi- described by two terms: (1) saṃskṛta
ble re-arising of the said consciousnesses. (“compounded”), indicating their aspect of being
Besides such mundane occurrences in our causally produced, and (2) saṃskāra (“condition-
daily experience of cognizing sensory ing”), indicating their aspect of being condition-
objects, there are other spiritually significant ing forces that contribute to the arising and
instances, e.g., when through spiritual striving operation of other conditioned dharmas. The
one attains stream-entry (srota-āpatti), unconditioned dharmas are in complete contrast:
1086 Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma

Being transcendent to space and time, they are its own fruit” (*svaphala-ākṣepa-sāmarthya).
neither causally produced nor do they operate as Since this efficacy exists necessarily and uniquely
causes. However, they can serve as “condition qua in every present dharma, it comes to be officially
object” (ālambana-pratyaya) inasmuch as they adopted by the Sarvāstivādins as the criterion for
can be apprehended as cognitive objects. The temporal distinction of conditioned dharmas:
Sarvāstivāda Ābhidharmikas would also concede When a dharma has not yet exercised this
that in some special sense and in conformity to “activity,” it is said to be future; when this activity
worldly parlance, it is permissible to speak of the is being exercised, it is said to be present; and when
unconditioned dharmas as “efficient causes” it has been exercised, it is said to be past. This
(kāraṇa-hetu; see § 6) inasmuch as they do not theory is ascribed to Vasumitra who asserts that
hinder the arising of other dharmas. Although while a dharma’s intrinsic nature remains
not causally produced, the cessation through unchanged always, its temporal distinction is pos-
discernment may also be expediently spoken sible in terms of its three distinctive temporal
as a “disconnection-fruit” (visaṃyoga-phala) “positions/stages” (avasthā) distinguished in
inasmuch as it is acquired (pra-√āp) through the respect of its activity. The Vaibhāṣikas – certainly
efficacy of the noble path – even though it is not Samghabhadra, for one – also advocate
directly produced by it ([2], p. 91). Dharmatrāta’s theory that the same dharma,
though always unchanged in respect of its intrinsic
nature, exists in different “modes” (bhāva) in the
Sarvāstivāda vs. Vibhajyavāda three temporal periods ([23], pp. 632c, 633c).
In this tenet of “all exist,” Saṃghabhadra artic-
The Sarvāstivāda’s fundamental standpoint is that ulates on the nature of the “existent” (sat). He
all the above categories of dharmas – both the defines an existent as “that which is capable of
conditioned and the unconditioned – as unique, serving as the object-domain for generating
ultimate reals exist throughout time. This doctrine a cognition (buddhi)” ([23], p. 621c). Accord-
is expressed by the statement “all exists” (sarvam ingly, any act of cognition at all – be it a true
asti), hence the name of the school, Sarvāstivāda. cognition (as that through spiritual insight), or an
This “all” therefore firstly indicates the reality of imagination, or an illusion, or even a cognition of
each and every ultimate factor that is truly “absence,” etc. – necessarily presupposes an exis-
a “dharma,” i.e., that exists uniquely in its intrin- tent object. These existent objects, of course, may
sic nature (svabhāva) and that uniquely “main- be either relative existents such as a “person” (a
tains its intrinsic characteristic” (svalakṣaṇa- notion derived from a composite comprising
dhāraṇa; see § 3). It further indicates that every the five aggregates: matter, sensation, ideation,
conditioned dharma is existent throughout the conditionings, and consciousness) or absolute
three periods of time, future, present, and past, existents such as matter, sensation, and other
and this fact is expressed by stating that its intrin- dharmas. This Sarvāstivāda doctrine that
sic nature “always exists” (sarvadā asti). But this a notion or concept (prajñapti) is necessarily
tritemporal existence must not be misunderstood based ultimately on some absolute reals came to
as permanent existence – all conditioned dharma importantly influence the epistemological and
necessarily traverses time; the unconditioned ontological doctrines of the subsequent Buddhist
dharmas alone, which transcend temporality, are schools, particularly the Yogācāra.
permanent. This standpoint of Sarvāstivāda (/sarvāstitva)
Although the intrinsic nature of a dharma exists is diametrically opposed by those known as the
always, its “activity” (kāritra) is momentary, being “distinctionists,” Vibhajyavāda, who include the
exercised only in the single present moment. This Sautrāntikas, the Mahāsāṃghikas, and others.
“activity” is defined as a dharma’s efficacy for They hold, in contrast, that only the present – or,
inducing the next moment of its own existence in for some, the present and those karmas that have
its serial continuity. It is its “efficacy for projecting not yet given fruits (adattaphala) – exists; the
Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma 1087

future and the past dharmas do not exist. The their own stage. . .. On account of their being
long-drawn-out controversy on Sarvāstivāda vs. a cause applicable to all defiled dharmas, they
Vibhajyavāda is an extremely important historical are established [as a cause] separate from the
fact that must not be overlooked by any Buddhist homogeneous causes and [also] because they
historian for a proper perspective of the under- are the cause of [defiled dharma-s] belonging
standing of the development of Buddhist thought to other categories [of abandonability] (five
in which its reverberation is continuously seen in categories: (i)–(iv) defilements are
various forms throughout the centuries (both abandonable either through insight into the
within and outside India). four Truths, or (v) through the path of cultiva-
tion) as well, for, through their power, defile-
ments belonging to categories different from
Doctrine of Causality theirs are produced” ([2], p. 89). The
Vaibhāṣikas hold that three defilements are
Another important doctrinal contribution of the universal: doubt (vicikitsā), view (dṛṣṭi), and
Sarvāstivāda is their theory of causality, innovated ignorance (avidyā), which are abandonable by
by Kātyāyanīputra in his Jñānaprasthāna. Prior to insight into unsatisfactoriness, the cause of
this, the Sarvāstivādins had been sharing with unsatisfactoriness, together with their con-
other Buddhists the doctrine of the four condi- joined and coexistent dharmas” ([3], p. 90c;
tions: (1) condition qua cause (hetu-pratyaya), [23], p. 416c).
(2) equal-immediate condition (samanantara- 4. Coexistent cause (sahabhū-hetu). “The co-
pratyaya), (3) condition qua object (ālambana- existent [causes] are those that are reciprocally
pratyaya), and (4) condition of dominance effects. . .. For example: the four Great Elements
(adhipati-pratyaya). are co-existent [causes] mutually among
Kātyāyanīputra proposes for the first time, the themselves; so also, thought and the
doctrine of six causes: dharmas that are thought-accompaniments
(cittānuvartin). . . [The case of the co-existent
1. Efficient cause (kāraṇa-hetu). This is the most cause] is like the staying in position of three
generic cause, either in the sense of a general sticks through their mutual strength/
causal contribution or simply of being support – this establishes the causal
nonobstructive: “A conditioned dharma has relationship (hetuphalabhāva) of the co-exis-
all dharmas, excepting itself, as its efficient tents” ([2], pp. 83–85). Co-nascence is
cause, for, as regards its arising, [these a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for
dharmas] abide in the state of non-obstructive- two or more dharmas to be coexistent causes.
ness” ([2], p. 82). Saṃghabhadra articulates that in brief, this
2. Homogeneous cause (sabhāga-hetu). This causal category obtains in only three cases: S
obtains in the case of a mental series, and “[i] among those that share the same effect; or
among physical matter. “The similar dharmas [ii] that are reciprocally effects; or [iii] where
are the homogeneous causes of dharmas sim- by the force of this, that dharma can arise. Such
ilar [to them], for, e.g., the five skandhas which co-nascent [dharmas] have a cause–effect rela-
are skilful, are [the homogeneous causes] of tionship, [i.e., are coexistent causes]” ([23],
the five skilful skandhas, among themselves. p. 419c).
Likewise the defiled and the non-defined 5. Conjoined cause (saṃprayuktaka-hetu),
five skandhas, [in each case, among a subset of the coexistent causes. As stated
themselves]. . .” ([2], p. 85). above, thought and concomitants necessarily
3. Universal cause (sarvatraga-hetu). “The uni- arise in conjunction (§ 4.II–III). Mental factors,
versal dharmas arisen previously and belong- in their role of contributing to their mutual
ing to a given stage (bhūmi) are the universal arising and operational coordination, are called
causes of later defiled dharmas belonging to “conjoined causes.” Moreover, being so
1088 Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma

conjoined and coordinated, they accomplish nonexistent cannot be causally

the same activity in grasping the same object. efficacious) – although they may belong to differ-
6. Retribution (/maturation) cause (vipāka-hetu). ent time periods with respect to their own tempo-
This is the karmic cause, leading to a ral frame of reference. That is, A may be past or
corresponding karmic fruit – i.e., determining present or future, and B may also be past or pre-
the specific type of rebirth that a sentient being sent or future – but they must coexist, although not
will experience. The fruit is necessarily morally necessarily be co-nascent. To borrow
neutral (avyākṛta); if the retribution cause leads Dharmatrāta’s terminology, they are both existent
to a desirable (iṣṭa) fruit, it is “skillful” (kuśala); but not necessarily of the same “mode of exis-
if it leads to an undesirable (aniṣṭa) fruit, it is tence” (bhāva). Where A and B are necessarily
“unskillful” (akuśala). Neutral and outflow-free co-nascent, i.e., both existing at the same present
dharmas do not yield any retribution fruit. moment, it reduces to the category known as the
coexistent cause. In fact, in the Sarvāstivāda con-
Since the time of the Dharma-skandha, the ception, all dharmas in their essential nature
Sarvāstivādins have held that retribution causes have always been existent; it is only a matter of
and fruits comprise all five skandhas. That is, not inducing their arising through causes and condi-
only thought and the thought-concomitants but tions. This is the fundamental principle
also the matter accompanying thought underlining the Sarvāstivāda doctrine of causal-
(cittānuvṛttaka-rūpa) and the conditionings ity. Past and future dharmas are also endowed
disjoined from thought – the ideationless attain- with efficacies including that of actually giving
ment (asaṃjñī -samāpatti), the cessation attain- an effect, although it is only a present dharma
ment (nirodha-samāpatti), all acquisitions which that has “activity” – the efficacy of establishing
are unskillful, and skillful but with-outflow the specific causal relationship with the dharma
(sāsrava), and the accompanying characteristics to be produced as its effect.
of the conditioned (saṃskṛta-lakṣaṇa) – can con-
stitute retribution causes (cf. [3], pp. 96a–c).
Of the six causes, the coexistent cause is the Cross-References
most important. For the Sarvāstivādins, the fact of
direct perception (pratyakṣa) cannot be established ▶ Abhidhamma Piṭaka
without the type of simultaneous causality ▶ Abhidharma (Theravāda)
represented by the coexistent cause. This is because, ▶ Buddhist History
given that a sensory faculty and its object last only ▶ Causality (Buddhism)
one single moment (a doctrine commonly accepted ▶ Dharma
by all Abhidharma schools with the exception of the ▶ Karma (Buddhism)
Sāṃmitīya, etc.), if the corresponding conscious- ▶ Paññā
ness (qua effect) were to arise in the second moment ▶ Philosophy (Buddhism)
(as claimed by the Sautrāntikas and others), it ▶ Psychology (Buddhism)
would not have an existent object. If direct percep- ▶ Sarvāstivāda
tion cannot be established, then inferential knowl- ▶ Sautrāntika
edge too would be impossible – and this would ▶ Sthaviravāda
result in the absolute impossibility of any knowl- ▶ Theravāda
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More importantly, the coexistent cause ▶ Tipiṭaka
serves as the only valid paradigm of causation. ▶ Vaibhāṣika
In general, if A causes B, both A and B must be ▶ Vasubandhu
existent at the same time (an utter void or a ▶ Vijñāna
Satipatthāna 1089
˙˙

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1090 Satipatthāna
˙˙

“attending” to something with mindfulness. Thus ground among the parallel versions can be found
satipaṭṭhāna is mental presence through in the following three practices:
established sati, in the sense of fully attending to
the current situation. The word satipaṭṭhāna can • Contemplation of the anatomical constitution
then be translated as “establishing of mindful- of the body
ness,” in the sense of a “presence of mindfulness” • Contemplation of the body as made up of
by way of “attending with mindfulness” to what- material elements
ever is happening. • Contemplation of the decay of the body after
Satipaṭṭhāna is the seventh of the factors of the death
noble eightfold path ([1], Vol. IV, p. 371), which
combines the development of mindfulness with This agreement among the parallel versions
rightly directed view, intentions, speech, action, suggests that a central theme of contemplating
livelihood, effort, and concentration. According the body as a satipaṭṭhāna is to gain insight into
to the standard description of the noble eightfold its true nature and constitution.
path, satipaṭṭhāna consists in being mindful of the According to the fairly similar instructions
following four aspects of experience: given in the parallel versions, contemplation of
the anatomical constitution of the body requires
• Body reviewing its various parts, such as its hair, nails,
• Feelings teeth, etc. Such reviewing could take place by way
• Mental states of an internal scanning of the body or else as
• Phenomena a reflective recollection. This exercise can act as
an antidote to conceit and sensual desire. The first
A more detailed exposition of these four can be five anatomical parts mentioned in this listing are
gathered from the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta ([2], Vol. I, usually taught to Buddhist monks and nuns on their
pp. 55–63, cf. also [3], Vol. II, pp. 290–315) of the day of ordination, no doubt as an encouragement to
Theravāda tradition. The Chinese Āgamas have embark on this particular exercise as a protective
preserved two parallels to the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta. and supportive practice for their celibate life.
These occur in the Madhyama-āgama, probably Contemplation of the body in terms of the
stemming from a Sarvāstivāda transmission line- elements is in most versions based on the four
age (Taishō 1.582b), and in the Ekottarika-āgama elements of earth, water, fire, and wind, with one
(Taishō 2.568a), whose school affiliation is uncer- Chinese version additionally mentioning space
tain. Comparison of these three versions shows and consciousness. According to the traditional
considerable variations, in particular in relation to explanation, the four elements stand representa-
the first and the fourth area for the development of tive for basic qualities of matter, such as hardness,
mindfulness. cohesion, temperature, and motion. Thus, the
The three parallel versions do, however, agree point of such contemplation is to recognize the
on the basic scheme of four satipaṭṭhānas. This presence of these elements as qualities within the
basic scheme occurs also in numerous discourses body. Undertaking this exercise can lead to insight
elsewhere, which usually mention only the bare into the not-self nature of the body, which is but
outline of this scheme, without going into the a combination of material elements and thereby
details of their possible applications as found in no different from any other manifestation of these
the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta. elements found elsewhere in nature.
In regard to the various meditations detailed in The third body contemplation found in all par-
each area, one of the Chinese versions describes allel versions directs mindfulness to different stages
a total of 18 body contemplations, against only 6 of a dead body in decay. Undertaking such contem-
types of body contemplations found in the Pāli plation can be based on having seen a rotting
version and only 4 exercises for contemplation of corpse, a vision that can later be recollected and
the body in the other Chinese version. Common applied to one’s own body or that of others,
Satipatthāna 1091
˙˙

understanding that they all share the same nature. the Vibhaṅga, the historically perhaps earliest text
Similar to the contemplation of the anatomical in the canonical Pāli Abhidharma collection ([4],
parts, this exercise can act as an antidote to conceit p. 199). This agreement between the parallel ver-
and sensual desire. It also quite vividly documents sions and the Vibhaṅga throws into relief the
the impermanent nature of the body, whose final importance of abandoning the hindrances and
destination is none other than death. developing the factors of awakening for progress
According to the instructions found in all par- on the path to realization.
allel versions, the second satipaṭṭhāna requires Regarding the first of these two exercises, the
distinguishing feelings according to their affective hindrances are those factors that particularly
quality into pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral obstruct the proper functioning of the mind and
types. Here, the task is to be aware of the affective therewith all attempts at meditation. The standard
input provided by feeling during the early stages listing enumerates sensual desire, ill will, sloth-
of the process of perception, before the onset of and-torpor, restlessness-and-worry, and doubt. In
reactions, projections, and mental elaborations in regard to these five hindrances, the task of
regard to what has been perceived. satipaṭṭhāna is to recognize their presence or
These three types of feelings are moreover their absence and to gain insight into how they
differentiated into worldly, sāmisa, or unworldly, arise and how they can be overcome.
nirāmisa, occurrences. This introduces an ethical The awakening factors are those seven mental
distinction of feelings, aimed at the crucial differ- qualities that have to be brought into being in
ence between worldly feelings caused by “carnal” order to be able to gain awakening. Mindfulness
experiences and unworldly feelings related to constitutes the first and foundational factor in this
renunciation and spiritual practice. set, followed by investigation of phenomena,
The third satipaṭṭhāna of contemplation of the energy, joy, tranquility, and concentration, with
mind covers the presence or absence of unwhole- equanimity as the seventh awakening factor con-
some states of mind, enjoining recognition when- stituting the culmination point of practice. Con-
ever the mind is under the influence of lust, anger, templation of the awakening factors as
delusion, or agitation. The main task here is to a satipaṭṭhāna is to be aware of their presence or
avoid being carried away by any particular train of absence and to be aware of how they can be
thought and instead to clearly recognize the state brought into being and further developed.
of mind underlying this thought. In this way, the Traditional exegesis sets the four satipaṭṭhānas
motivating forces at work in one’s mind are in opposition to the four distortions, vipallāsa,
uncovered and insight into the working mecha- which are to mistake what is unattractive, unsat-
nism of the mind becomes possible. Contempla- isfactory, impermanent, and not-self, for being
tion of the mind also involves recognizing the attractive, satisfactory, permanent, and a self.
presence or absence of higher states of mind, From this perspective, contemplation of the body S
thereby covering experiences that take place dur- has the potential to reveal the absence of bodily
ing more advanced stages of meditation practice. beauty, observation of the true nature of feeling
Concerning the fourth satipaṭṭhāna, what can counter one’s incessant search for fleeting
remains as the unanimously accepted core of practice pleasures, awareness of the succession of states
in the Pāli and Chinese versions are two exercises: of mind can disclose the impermanent nature of all
subjective experience, and contemplation of phe-
• Contemplation of the five hindrances (not fully nomena can reveal that the notion of a permanent
spelled out in one Chinese version) self is nothing but an illusion.
• Contemplation of the seven factors of This presentation points to the main theme that
awakening underlies each of the four satipaṭṭhānas. Although
the corresponding insights are certainly not
The same two contemplations are also the only restricted to one satipaṭṭhāna alone, nevertheless
exercises listed under the fourth satipaṭṭhāna in this particular correlation indicates which
1092 Satipatthāna
˙˙

satipaṭṭhāna is particularly suitable in order to his role as a teacher ([2], Vol. III, p. 221). These
correct a specific distortion. In the end, however, are his balanced attitude toward three situations:
all four satipaṭṭhānas partake of the same essence
and each of them is capable of leading to realiza- • His disciples do not listen to and do not follow
tion, like different gateways leading to the his teachings.
same city. • Some disciples listen and follow his teachings,
According to a set of verses in the others do not.
Satipaṭṭhāna-saṃyutta, these four satipaṭṭhānas • His disciples do listen to and follow his
form the direct path, ekāyano maggo, for crossing teachings.
the flood in past, present, and future times ([1],
Vol. V, p. 168). The Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta uses In each of these cases, the Buddha remains
the same expression in order to introduce mindful and equanimous. This additional set of
satipaṭṭhāna as the direct path for the purification three satipaṭṭhānas thus throws into relief
of beings and for the realization of Nirvāṇa ([2], a central aspect of mindfulness practice in early
Vol. I, p. 55). Another discourse indicates that, Buddhism, namely, clear awareness of what is
whosoever have escaped, are escaping, or will taking place combined with a balanced and
escape from this world, all of them do so by way equanimous attitude.
of well developing the four satipaṭṭhānas ([5],
Vol. V, p. 195).
Satipaṭṭhāna stands, however, in necessary
Cross-References
interdependence with the other factors of the
noble eightfold path, so that it would be
▶ Ānāpānasati
a misunderstanding to believe that by practicing
▶ Bhāvanā
only mindfulness, awakening can be gained.
▶ Insight
Another important requirement for successful
undertaking of satipaṭṭhāna is that such practice
should issue in insight into the arising and passing
away of phenomena. This importance is References
highlighted in a discourse, according to which
1. Feer L (ed) (1888–1898) The Saṃyutta Nikāya, 5 vols.
such insight marks the distinction between mere
Pali Text Society, Oxford
establishment of satipaṭṭhāna and its complete 2. Trenckner V, Chalmers R (eds) (1888–1896) The
and full “development,” bhāvanā ([1], Vol. V, Majjhima Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London
p. 183). This passage indicates that mere aware- 3. Carpenter JE, Rhys Davids TW (eds) (1890–1911)
The Dīgha Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London
ness of the various objects listed under the four
4. Rhys Davids CAF (ed) (1904) The Vibhaṅga. Pali
satipaṭṭhānas may not suffice for the task of Text Society, London
developing penetrative insight. What is addition- 5. Morris R, Hardy E (eds) (1885–1900) The Aṅguttara
ally required is to move on to a direct vision of Nikāya, 5 vols. Pali Text Society, London
6. Anālayo (2003) Satipaṭṭhāna, the direct path to reali-
their impermanence, to contemplating their aris-
zation. Windhorse, Birmingham
ing and passing away, a requirement in fact explic- 7. Gethin R (1992) The Establishing of mindfulness. In:
itly mentioned in the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta after each id. The Buddhist path to awakening: a study of the
of the exercises. The same section of the Bodhi-Pakkhiyā Dhammā. Brill, Leiden, pp 29–68
8. Kuan TF (2008) Mindfulness in early Buddhism.
Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta also highlights that contempla- Routledge, London
tion should be undertaken internally and exter- 9. Ñāṇaponika (1992) The heart of Buddhist meditation.
nally, presumably in the sense of covering one’s BPS, Kandy
own subjective experience as well as that of 10. Ñāṇaponika (1986) The power of mindfulness. BPS,
Kandy
others.
11. Sīlananda U (1990) The four foundations of mindful-
In regard to the Buddha, the discourses present ness. Wisdom, Boston
a set of three satipaṭṭhānas specifically related to 12. Soma (1981) The way of mindfulness. BPS, Kandy
Sautrāntika 1093

Commentary, on the Jñānaprasthāna, insisted

Satya Vacana that their abhidharma was spoken by the Buddha
himself. Sautrāntikas also had an Abhidhar-
▶ Mantra mapiṭaka, because their treatises, śāstras, taught
“about the dharma (abhidharma).” The
Sautrāntika Udāna, which exists only in Chinese
translation, Chuyao jing, Taishō ed.212, of the
Satyātman Dārṣṭāntika Dharmatrāta (ca. 150 A.D.), also
known as just bhadanta, even mentions the con-
▶ Tathāgatagarbha tents of a fourth Piṭaka, called Kṣudrakapiṭaka,
the contents of which are the Buddha’s teaching in
12 parts, aṅga. The sixth part is called Udāna.
This text also mentions Kumāralāta, the reputed
Sautrāntika first master, mūlācārya, of the Sautrāntikas, who
must have lived in the second century A.D. He was
Charles Willemen from Takṣaśilā in Gandhāra. He wrote the
International Buddhist College, Songkhla, Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā [7]. Its Chinese version,
Thailand Taishō ed.201, has for a long time been erroneously
attributed to Aśvaghoṣa (ca. 100 A.D.),
a Sautrāntika influenced by Mahāsāṅghika
Definition ideas. Much, if not most of the confusion
about the identity of the Sautrāntikas, of
Sautrāntikas are non-Vaibhāṣika Sarvāstivādins Sarvāstivādins, etc., is the result of the
(from the second century on), preceding Sarvāstivāda synod in Kaśmīra, held during
Mūlasarvāstivādins (end of the seventh century). Kaniṣka, ca. 170 A.D. At that occasion an
“orthodoxy,” using Sanskrit and new texts,
The term means: “relying on the sūtras” as the was established. The vinaya was abbreviated
word of the Buddha. Sautrāntikas are a group of to ten recitations, called Daśabhāṇavāra, leav-
Sarvāstivādins who do not believe that the ing out many stories of the traditional long
Abhidharmapiṭaka was proclaimed by the Bud- vinaya. An Abhidharmapiṭaka of seven texts,
dha himself, buddhabhāṣita [10]. The Chinese said to be proclaimed by Buddha himself, was
term is Jingliang, meaning sūtrapramāṇika, tak- established. Some reasons to hold this synod
ing the sūtras as the measure of truth [8, 9]. In were as follows: diversity among Sarvāstivādins
Chinese they are referred to as bu, nikāya. They was too great; rivalry with the Mahāsāṅghikas;
are also known as Saṃkrāntivādins, saying that and establishing Kaśmīra as a new cultural S
the five aggregates, skandhas, pass through exis- center, to the East of the traditional Gandharan
tences [1, 5]. It is now known that the Dārṣṭāntikas cultural area.
(those who use similes, stories, dṛṣṭānta) are
Sautrāntikas. It is likely that the two terms go
together as dharma (Sautrāntika) and vinaya History
(Dārṣṭāntika) [11]. Dārṣṭāntikas use the traditional
long vinaya from Mathurā, with its many stories Sarvāstivādins, “claiming (
vāda) that everything
(avadāna, dṛṣṭānta). The term Sautrāntika makes (sarvam) exists (asti),” split from the main
sense as opposed to the Kaśmīra Vaibhāṣikas, Sthaviravāda trunk during the reign of Aśoka
who appear at the end of the second century (ca. 264–227 B.C.), in Pāṭaliputra, ca. 244 B.C.
A.D., in the time of the Sarvāstivāda synod during This happened during the so-called third council
the reign of king Kaniṣka. Vaibhāṣikas, thus presided over by Maudgalyāyana, who is still
called because of their Mahāvibhāṣā, Great being refuted in the Vaibhāṣika abhidharma
1094 Sautrāntika

(Vijñānakāya). The “orthodox” Sthaviravāda longer. Ever since ca. 200 A.D. they had gradually
group called itself Vibhajyavāda, “Analysts.” adapted to the new “orthodoxy.” This can be seen
Sarvāstivādins then spread East along the Ganges, in the Gandharan Vibhāṣā commentaries on the
but mainly West to Mathurā. Upagupta, one of the Aṣṭagrantha and in the different Abhidhar-
patriarchs, is linked with Mathurā and with the mahṛdaya texts. The Miśrakābhidharmahṛdaya
long vinaya. Madhyāntika, who also had a link of Dharmatrāta (early fourth century) is an
with Mathurā, is said to have taken Buddhism to enlarged
Hṛdaya, and Vasubandhu’s (ca.
the northwestern area, to the Gandharan cultural 350–430 A.D.) Abhidharmakośabhāṣya is based
area, called Jibin in Chinese. Jibin is Uḍḍiyāna on the Miśraka
[6]. The Gandharan Vasubandhu
and Gandhāra, and also Bactria to the West of the had to face the anger of the Vaibhāṣika
Khyber Pass. From ca. 200 A.D. Kaśmīra is part Saṅghabhadra for his Sautrāntika views [3]. It is
of Jibin too [11]. In the Gandharan cultural area in possible to distinguish between old and new
the first century B.C. the two main Sarvāstivāda Dārṣṭāntikas, namely, before and after the
texts were the Gandharan Aṣṭagrantha of Kaśmīra synod. When the Mūlasarvāstivādins
Kātyāyanīputra and the Bactrian Abhidhar- appear, the term Sautrāntika did not immediately
mahṛdaya of Dharmaśreṣṭhin (often erroneously disappear. When Tibet enters the Buddhist world,
called Abhidharmasāra of Dharmaśrī) [4]. When it is in a time of Sautrāntika Mūlasarvāstivādins.
the Vaibhāṣika Sarvāstivādins came into existence In Central Asia both Gandharan and Vaibhāṣika
in the second century A.D. the traditional Sarvāstivādins were represented. In Kuqa one
Sarvāstivādins were called Sautrāntikas. Those sees a Sautrāntika presence in, for example, the
who did not adopt the new shorter vinaya, Daś fifth century, in Kumārajīva’s (344–413 A.D.)
abhāṇavāra, were called Dārṣṭāntikas. It is now time.
possible to call Dharmaśreṣṭhin and Aśvaghoṣa In Jiankang (Nanjing) in southern China
Sautrāntikas, even though the term did not exist abhidharma was Sautrāntika. Saṅghadeva, prob-
in their time. ably of Bactrian origin, introduced the
The western Sarvāstivādins were very hetero- Aṣṭagrantha and the Hṛdaya at the end of the
geneous. All agreed on “everything exists,” but fourth century, but when the Miśraka
was trans-
they had different ideas about what “everything” _
lated by Sanghavarman in 435 A.D., an
or “exists” really meant. “Everything” may mean Abhidharma School was formed. It was replaced
all dharmas, factors, but how many factors are by a “Kośa” School when Paramārtha’s transla-
there (100, 43, 75)? Or does “everything” mean tion of the Kośabhāṣya came out in 568 A.D. In
the aggregates, skandhas? Does “exist” mean China abhidharma is definitely Sautrāntika.
now, in the present only? This is what most seem Xuanzang introduced the Vaibhāṣika abhidharma
to have believed, but there was no agreement in the seventh century, just before it disappeared in
among Sautrāntika Sarvāstivādins [11]. The split India itself. Nālandā was a non-Vaibhāṣika center.
between the Vaibhāṣika and the non-Vaibhāṣika
Sautrāntika Sarvāstivādins lasted until the end of
the seventh century. Between the presence in India Literature
of Xuanzang, middle of the seventh century, and
the presence in India of Yijing, ca. 700 A.D., the Abhidharma literature has already been men-
term Mūlasarvāstivāda appears. They used San- tioned. It is very important to know that
skrit and followed the traditional long vinaya Sautrāntika abhidharma is “practical,” teaches
which by then had undergone quite a long devel- how to become an arhat, how to obtain the
opment. Vaibhāṣikas disappeared. An important superknowledges, abhijñā. For example, the
reason why the western Sarvāstivādins gained the Hṛdaya is a guide book, teaching how to eliminate
upper hand may be the fact that the westerners ignorance, etc. Sautrāntika manuals develop
were hardly different from the Vaibhāṣikas any knowledge, jñāna. Sautrāntikas have a multitude
Sautrāntika 1095

of yoga manuals, often with yogācāra (bhūmi) in Cross-References

the title. The inspiration often comes from
Maitreya, for example, Saṅgharakṣa’s ▶ Abhidharma (Theravāda)
Yogācārabhūmi, translated by Dharmarakṣa in ▶ Antarābhava
284 A.D., Taishō ed.606. The Yogācārabhūmi, ▶ Asaṅga
Taishō ed.1579, of Vasubandhu’s older brother ▶ Aśvaghoṣa
Asaṅga, incorporates Madhyamaka emptiness of ▶ Buddhist Councils
Mahāsāṅghika affiliation in its yoga. It is very ▶ Gandhara
characteristic of non-Vaibhāṣika Sarvāstivādins ▶ Kaniṣka
to use “useful” ideas of their Mahāsāṅghika rivals ▶ Paramārtha
in their own meditative practice. So-called ▶ Pudgalavādins
Yogācāra, Vijñānavāda, as known from ▶ Sarvāstivāda
Vasubandhu’s and Asaṅga’s work, is of ▶ Sthaviravāda
Gandharan Sautrāntika affiliation. Asaṅga, ▶ Upagupta
a Mahīśāsaka monk, continued the Gandharan ▶ Vaibhāṣika
yogācāra tradition. It should be remembered ▶ Vasubandhu
that, as Paramārtha has shown, ever since the ▶ Xuanzang (Hieun-Tsang)
first centuries A.D. Mahīśāsakas were doctrinally ▶ Yijing
hardly any different from Sautrāntika ▶ Yogācāra
Sarvāstivādins. Vasubandhu just continued his
Gandharan Sautrāntika tradition.
Recently the idea was put forward that References
Sukhāvatī is an excellent intermediate existence,
antarābhava, that Pure Land Buddhism is of Bac- 1. Bareau A (1955) Les sectes bouddhiques du
petit véhicule. École Française d’Extrême-Orient,
trian Sautrāntika origin.
Saigon
Much of avadāna literature (Divyāvadāna, 2. Bernhard F I (1965), II (1968) Udānavarga III
etc.) may be said to be of Dārṣṭāntika, Sautrāntika (1990) Byams pa thub bstan rdzoṅ rtse, with the coop-
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3. Dhammajoti Bhikkhu KL (2009) Sarvāstivāda
Dharmatrāta used the Sarvāstivāda Dharmapada abhidharma, 4th edn. Centre of Buddhist Studies,
to establish an Udāna as the sixth part of The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
a Kṣudrakapiṭaka. Later, a Dharmapada was col- 4. Frauwallner E (1995) Studies in abhidharma literature
and the origins of Buddhist philosophical systems
lected from this Udāna again, forming the
(trans: Kidd S). SUNY Press, New York
Mūlasarvāstivāda Udānavarga [2, 12]. 5. Jaini P (1959) The Sautrāntika theory of Bī ja. Bull Sch
The (Jñānakāya) Prodbhūtopadeśa, often Orient Afr Stud 22:236–249 S
called Tattvasiddhiśāstra, Taishō ed.1646, of the 6. La Vallée Poussin L de (1988) Abhidharmako-
śabhāsyam (trans: Pruden L), 4 vols. Asia Humanities
converted brahmin from Central India,
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Harivarman (ca. 300 A.D.), a late disciple of 7. Lüders H (1979) Bruchstücke buddhistischer Dramen:
Kumāralāta, is a Sautrāntika work, influenced Bruchstücke der Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā des Kumāralāta.
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8. Singh A (2007) Buddha’s original logical: the
from the same area, Aśvaghoṣa (ca. 100 A.D.),
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ideas. clopedia of religion, vol 12, 2nd edn. Macmillan Ref-
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11. Willemen C (2008) Kumārajīva’s explanatory dis- once offered food to the Buddhist saṃgha ([14],
course about abhidharmic literature. J Int Coll Post- Vol. iv, pp. 30, 83). Sāvatthī was an entrepot from
grad Buddh Stud 12:27–83
12. Willemen C (1978) The Chinese Udānavarga. where caravans started with as many as 500 cart-
Mélanges Chinois et Bouddhiques 19. Institut Belge loads of wares on the well-recognized routes that
des Hautes Études Chinoises, Brussels connected this city to various parts of the country
and major commercial centers as far to the south
as Patiṭṭhāna ([5], Vol. iv, p. 350). While a con-
siderable volume of commodity production
Sāvaka within the environs of the city may be assumed,
the more important activity may have been in
▶ Śrāvaka commodity exchange, as the city was very conve-
niently located for the distribution of goods along
the sub-Himālayan highlands on the one hand,
Sāvatthī and the riverine territories to the south. It was
perhaps the most important center of early Bud-
K. T. S. Sarao dhism before the rise of imperial Magadha.
Department of Buddhist Studies, University of A number of celebrated personalities, monks,
Delhi, Delhi, India nuns, laymen, and laywomen were either from
the city or first converted to the faith here (See
[16]: Appendices Va and Vb).
Synonyms Sāvatthī was 30 yojanas from Saṃkassa ([5],
Vol. iv, p. 265). The road from Rājagaha to Sāvatthī
Shravasti; Śrāvastī passed through Vesāli, Setavya, Kapilavatthu,
Kusinārā, Pāvā, and Bhogagāmanagara ([14],
Vol. ii, p. 159f). From Sāvatthī the road went
Definition southwards through Sāketa to Kosambī ([6], Vol.
v, p. 302). Sāketa was six yojanas from Sāvatthī,
Capital city of Kosala at the time of the Buddha. a distance which was once covered by Pasenadi
with seven relays of chariots ([14], Vol. i, p. 88;
Sāvatthī (Sk: Śrāvastī) was the capital city of Vol. iii, p. 211; [19], Vol. i, p. 149). We are also told
Kosala at the time of the Buddha ([14], Vol. iii, of a certain festival being celebrated here ([14],
p. 233). King Pasenadi had a palace here with Vol. iv, p. 179). Monasteries such as Rājakārāma,
some kind of enclosure around it ([19], Vol. i, Pubbārama, and Mahallaka Vihāra were situated
p. 149). The Buddha passed most of his monastic near the city ([13], Vol. ii, p. 183; [14], Vol. iv, p.
life at Sāvatthī. The city was situated on the banks 44; [19], Vol. iii, p. 271). There was also a public
of river Aciravatī (modern Rāptī) on which there rest house in the neighborhood of Sāvatthī ([14],
was a bridge of boats. The river carried a consid- Vol. iv, p. 69). Jetavana, a royal garden which
erable volume of commercial traffic conducted by included Anāthapiṇpiṇḍka’s monastery and an
commercial carriers, and it was also a source of assembly hall and became a favorite retreat of the
livelihood for numerous fishers ([14], Vol. i, Buddha, was situated at a distance of about one
pp. 191, 293; Sn.194). Though Sāvatthī once ran mile to the south of Sāvatthī ([15], Vol. i, p. 178;
short of alms ([14], Vol. iii, p. 64), the Jātakas are [19], Vol. iii, p. 88). Andhavana, the black forest,
full of the glory and richness of Sāvatthī, and the was located at a distance of one gāvuta (league)
fact that it was the home of the greatest merchant from the city ([14], Vol. iii, pp. 37, 64). Of the four
banker, Anāthapiṇḍika, is an indication of the Nikāyas, 871 suttas are said to have been preached
accumulation of mercantile capital in the city at Sāvatthī, 844 of which were in the Jetavana, 23
([5], Vol. iv, pp. 144ff, 236ff; Vol. vi, p. 68). in the Pubbārāma, and 4 in the suburbs ([20],
A certain guild of merchants (pūga) at this city Vol. v, p. xviii). According to C.A.F. Rhys Davids,
Sāvatthī 1097

this city was the earliest emporium for the collec- Cross-References
tion and preservation of the discourses as the Bud-
dha mainly lived at this place ([19], Vol. iv, p. vi). ▶ Anāthapiṇḍika
When Faxian (399–414 C.E.) visited here, he only ▶ Faxian (337–422 C.E.)
saw few inhabitants in Śrāvastī ([3], p. 73). ▶ Kapilavatthu
Xuanzang (629–644 C.E.) saw Śrāvastī in desola- ▶ Kusinārā
tion with derelict vihāras including the ruined ▶ Pasenadi
Jetavana ([12], pp. 165–166). ▶ Rājagaha (Pāli)
Saheṭh-Maheṭh, on the south bank of the Rāptī, ▶ Sāketa
on the borders of the Gonḍā and Bahraich districts ▶ Saṃgha
of Uttar Pradesh, is the modern equivalent of the ▶ Vesālī
ancient site of Sāvatthī ([4], p. 330ff; [17], ▶ Xuanzang (Hieun-Tsang)
pp. 133–138). The archaeological records show
that Sāvatthī’s earliest phase, which is pre- References
defense, may be dated to c. 500 B.C.E. ([9],
pp. 2, 47–50). Saheṭh-Maheṭh has two distinct 1. Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India,
sites, 300-m apart, the former representing the New Delhi
2. Archaeological Survey of India Reports, Government
Jetavana and the latter the city proper ([1], Vol. i, of India, New Delhi
pp. 317ff, 330ff; Vol. xi, p. 78fff; [10], p. 286). 3. Beal S (trans) (1869) Travels of Fa-Hien and Sung-Yun:
The site of the city is now represented by Buddhist Pilgrims from China to India (400 A.D. and
a rampart of crescent shape enclosing an area of 518 A.D.). K. Paul, Trench & Trübner, London
4. Cunningham A (1871) Archaeological survey of
about 395 acres. This rampart which may be dated India: four reports 1862-63-64-65, vol I. Govt. Press,
between c. 275–200 B.C.E., circuiting about Simla
5 km, later came to be topped by a burnt-brick 5. Fausböll V (ed) (1877–1897) The Jātakas. Trübner &
wall [18]. It has been suggested that this brick wall Co, London
6. Feer ML (ed) (1884–1898) The Saṃyutta Nikāya,
was thrown up as a protection against an Indo- 5 vols. Text Society, London
Greek invasion during the Śuṅga period ([7], 7. Ghosh A (1973) The city in early historic India. Indian
p. 65). Apart from an inscribed Kuṣāṇa Bodhi- Institute of Advanced Study, Simla
sattva sculpture which says that it was set up in the 8. Indian Antiquary, vol xvii, 1888, Calcutta
9. Indian Archaeol Rev, 1858–1859, New Delhi
Jetavana of Sāvatthī, a large number of stūpas, 10. J Asiatic Soc Bengal lxii, Calcutta
temples, and monasteries have been laid bare 11. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, London
here ([1], Vol. i, pp. 317ff, 330ff; Vol. xi, 12. Li R (trans) (1996) The great Tang dynasty record of
p. 78ff). On the basis of the Bhārhut relief, the western regions. Numata Center for Buddhist
Translation and Research, Berkeley
depicting the Jetavana scene, showing in it two 13. Morris R, Hardy E (eds) (1885–1900) The Aṅguttara
buildings, the Gandhakuṭi and the Kosambakuṭi, Nikāya, 5 vols. Pali Text Society, London S
were identified with the two brick structures in the 14. Oldenberg H (ed) (1879–1883) The Vinaya Piṭakaṃ,
monastic area ([17], pp. 133–138). Though the 5 vols. Pali Text Society, London
15. Rhys Davids TW, Carpenter JE (eds) (1890–1911)
settlement continued in a weak state for quite The Dīgha Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London
some time, its decline began with the downfall 16. Sarao KTS (2009) Origin and nature of ancient Indian
of Kosala. As indicated by the ruins, the suburb Buddhism. Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi
outside the walls of the city must have been very 17. Sahni DR (1908–1909) A Buddhist image inscription
from Śrāvastī. Annual report of the Archaeological
limited. According to an inscription of 1130 C.E., Survey of India. Government of India, New Delhi,
Sāvatthī was granted six villages for the mainte- pp 133–138
nance of the monks ([2]: 1907–1908, p. 39). The 18. Sinha KK (1967) Excavations of Sravasti: 1959. BHU,
Buddhist inscription of 1219 C.E. found at Varanasi
19. Trenckner V, Chalmers R (ed) (1888–1896) The
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Gādhipura ([8], p. 61). ing, vol V. Pali Text Society, London, reprint
1098 Savvannutā (Ardhamāgadhī)
˙˙

wrong. Like the physical, chemical, and biologi-

Savvannutā (Ardhamāgadhī) cal laws, it also deals with cause and effect. Here
˙˙ also there is no effect without a cause. And with
▶ Omniscience the disappearance of the cause, the effect
disappears.
But it is a science with a difference. It is a
science, which cannot be observed, experimented
Schools of Early Buddhism and understood by a man who does not live an
ethical life. Devoid of ethics, in other words,
▶ Theravāda without living a virtuous life and without attaining
purity of mind, nobody can fully understand the
laws of nature discovered by the Buddha.
One may call them spiritual laws or psycho-
Science (Buddhism) ethical laws and know them at the intellectual
level, but one cannot understand them in depth.
Angraj Chaudhary The Buddha himself could discover these laws by
Vipassana Research Institute, Dhammagiri, living a pure and ethical life, by making his mind
Igatpuri, Nashik, Maharashtra, India “concentrated, purified, bright, unblemished, rid
of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady and
imperturbable” [2]. Because these laws are related
Definition to how mind and matter work together, they can-
not be understood outside of one nor can they be
Science has been defined as “knowledge about the experimented in any lab outside of one’s fathom-
structure and behaviour of the natural and physi- long body, where the veracity of these laws can be
cal world based on facts that you can prove, for proved if the mind of the man making experiment
example by experiments” [1]. Its knowledge is the is purified. For precisely understanding these
physical, chemical, and biological laws, which laws, one has to concentrate one’s mind. And
operate, respectively, in the physical, chemical, how can one’s mind with various defilements be
and biological world. The veracity or otherwise concentrated unless he observes ethical precepts
of these laws discovered by external observation to free his mind from them.
can be proved or disproved by experimenting in As far as the physical, chemical, and other laws
outside labs. are concerned, they have been discovered by per-
The laws propounded by the Buddha, on the sons who were not necessarily absorbed in medi-
other hand, are concerned with how one’s mind tation. They kept on observing what happened in
works, what makes it work, and why it works the nature and why and propounded these laws. Of
way it works. These laws are psycho-ethical. course, some amount of concentration on their
What is the nature of the mind and how it works part must have been there, but leading an ethical
are related to the psychology of the mind, and life to achieve concentration of pure mind was not
what are wholesome and unwholesome actions a necessary condition and was not an absolute
and what are their results are related to ethics. condition for them.
Besides, the laws discovered by them can be
experimented by others in any suitable lab. Nei-
Nature of Buddha’s Science ther the discoverers of the laws nor those who
make experiments to prove their veracity are
The science found in Buddha’s teachings is not required to lead a life of virtue, concentration,
what one generally understands by it. It is and wisdom.
a science in the sense that the laws propounded On the other hand, as the Buddha discovered
here can also be experimented and proved right or the laws like the Law of Dependent Origination,
Science (Buddhism) 1099

or Vedanā paccayā taṇhā (sensation gives rise to own experience. It was the direct experience not
desire) or Pubbe hanati attānaṃ, pacchā hanati of a common man but of a very sensitive and pure
so pare (he first hurts his own self before he hurts man, who was free from defilements such as
others), so a man walking on the path shown by greed, aversion, jealousy, anger, etc., which he
him can verify these laws. These laws will remain had annihilated by practicing Vipassana.
a sealed book to those who do not walk on the path His philosophy, therefore, is not based on
shown by him – the path consisting of sī la, abstractions. It does not speculate on “empty
samādhi, and paññā. Only those who achieve first principles” [3] in the words of Robert N.
purity of mind are capable of verifying and under- Beck – a pragmatic thinker. Buddha’s attitude to
standing these laws. speculative philosophy becomes clear from what
he says to Poṭṭhapāda and Mālunkyaputta [4].
When Poṭṭhapāda put ten questions relating to
Buddha’s Scientific Discoveries Based the world and the soul like “Is the world eternal
on Observation by a Mind Purified and or not eternal, Is the world finite or not finite, Does
Sharpened by Leading an Ethical Life the Tathāgata live after death or not and so on, the
Buddha did not answer these questions. Why?
Buddha’s scientific discoveries are, therefore, Because he called them indeterminate questions.
based on observation by a mind purified and Answering such questions, according to him, is
sharpened by leading an ethical life. All the laws not ‘conducive to the purpose, not conducive to
that he discovered relate to how one’s mind Dhamma, not the way to embark on the holy life,
works, how cravings are caused, where precisely it does not lead to disenchantment, to dispassion,
they arise, and why they cause suffering. If one to cessation, to calm, to higher knowledge, to
knows all these, one can eliminate the causes and enlightenment, to Nibbāna” [5]. Instead he
get rid of suffering. explained the Four Noble Truths because their
One of the constituents of the discovery of enunciation “is conducive to the purpose, condu-
these laws is observation. But this is not an ordi- cive to Dhamma, the way to embark on the holy
nary observation. It is an observation made by life; it leads to disenchantment, to dispassion, to
a man who leads a pure ethical life as said above cessation, to calm, to higher knowledge, to
and who has made his mind so sharp, pointed, and enlightenment, to Nibbāna” [6].
pure that he can observe all the minutest things From this it is clear that the philosophy
that happen within him. He can also understand propounded by the Buddha is not speculative but
how he hurts himself first when he is angry with pragmatic. This is also clear from what he says to
somebody before he hurts him if he enables him- Cūlamālunkyaputta who also like Poṭṭhapāda
self to see what happens inside him when he is wanted to know from him the answer to such
angry with somebody. speculative questions. The Buddha said to S
No great scientist, not even a Nobel laureate, can Mālunkyaputta that to insist on knowing the
understand the laws propounded by the Buddha answer to such questions before one agrees to
unless he walks on the path shown by him and lead the holy life is as foolish and fruitless as
unless he achieves concentration of his mind by a man pierced with a poisoned arrow not agreeing
purifying it. And for this he has to observe precepts. to have the arrow taken out by a surgeon until he
knows all about the arrow and the person who shot
it. What would be the result? The result would be
Buddha’s Philosophy of Suffering Is Not that he would suffer great pain and die, but the
Speculative but Born Out of His Own questions would remain unanswered [7].
Experience The Buddha was a different kind of philoso-
pher. The philosophies propounded by other
The philosophy of suffering propounded by the philosophers are based on logic and reasoning
Buddha is not speculative, but it is born out of his and abstract thinking. They, therefore, may be
1100 Science (Buddhism)

controversial and may not be logical. And cer- One’s desires are never fulfilled because the
tainly they are not useful at all for solving the things one desires are not permanent. They are in
existential problems of human life. a constant state of flux. This realization came to
He was not like Leibnitz nor like Heraclitus. him after practicing meditation. This was a sort of
Leibnitz talks about monad – the indivisible sim- “eureka” for him.
ple entity. But how can this concept of monad For practicing meditation concentration of
enable one to end one’s suffering, which is the mind is a sine qua non. The Buddha realized this
greatest truth and an incontrovertible fact of life? while practicing meditation that so long as the
Heraclitus said that one cannot step twice into the mind is not free from defilements like greed, aver-
same river, and he definitely understood that all sion, jealousy, hatred, etc., it cannot be concen-
things are in a constant state of flux [8]. But this he trated. This was another big discovery. He thus
realized at the intellectual level. Had he, like the concluded that in order to drive out defilements
Buddha, realized it at the experiential level, he from mind observation of precepts (sīla) is neces-
would also have become the Buddha by develop- sary. Gradually he learned that observation of sī la
ing nonattachment to worldly things, which attract helps one to achieve concentration of mind, and
one and cause desire in him. One’s desires are not with the help of this concentration, one realizes
always fulfilled because the things, which one the true nature of the objects of the world.
longs for, are not permanent. Therefore, when When one comes to know the true nature of
they change they cause suffering in him. Had things, ignorance goes away and one begins to see
Heraclitus realized the impermanent nature of their true nature. In other words, true knowledge
things at the experiential level and trained his dawns upon him. He sees the objects of one’s
mind not to long for those impermanent things, attachment impermanent, becomes disillusioned,
he would have definitely gone the Buddha way. and concludes that if the objects he longs for are
The Buddha wanted to grapple with the prob- transient and impermanent, how can they make
lem of suffering which is ubiquitous and univer- him happy? This again was a great realization
sal. Suffering is an existential problem not only of born out of his direct experience.
mankind but also of all living beings. No being is Thus the Buddha concluded that one’s suffer-
free from it. All are subject to different kinds of ing is caused by one’s desires and one has desires
suffering, physical and mental. One who is born is for things the real nature of which one does not
subject to old age, disease, and death. He is also know. There is a built-in dynamo inside every-
separated from the one he likes. This is suffering. body. So long as one is ignorant of the real nature
He also has to live with somebody he does not of the objects of the world, the dynamo within one
like. This is also suffering. He does not get what fueled by desires keeps on generating desires.
he wants. This is also suffering. All these are And multiplication of desires causes endless suf-
sufferings from which nobody is free. The Bud- fering. But once one comes to know the real
dha saw it very sensitively and wanted to find nature of the objects one hankers after, one begins
a way out to end it [9]. to develop nonattachment for them. Practice of
This is from where he started. He started with Vipassana meditation helps him a lot. Whenever
the real problem that faced mankind, with nothing one practices Vipassana one experiences that what
abstract and speculative. He saw the problem fac- arises passes away. Nothing is permanent. So one
ing him starkly. He saw the disease. His effort was experiences impermanence (aniccatā). And what-
to know the cause of the disease and find out its ever is impermanent is dukkha [10]. Thus one
medicine as also how and when to take the med- either reduces one’s desires and reduces one’s
icine to be completely free from the disease. suffering proportionately or completely annihi-
In his spiritual journey he learned from his own lates one’s desires and completely eradicates
experience. While practicing meditation he went one’s suffering.
deep into it and realized that one’s suffering is Practice of Vipassana helps one understand
caused by one’s desires for the things one likes. this law as it had helped the Buddha.
Science (Buddhism) 1101

The Buddha thus realized the cause of suffer- propounded by the Buddha, therefore, is based on
ing. It was then just the second step for him to his direct experience. Anybody who practices
know that suffering can be eliminated by remov- Vipassana can see for himself why craving is
ing its cause which is desire. caused, where suffering arises, and how craving
Thus he propounded the philosophy of suffer- and suffering can be ended.
ing from his own experience. He had realized the The Buddha realized all this at the experiential
great importance of observing moral precepts in level by practicing Vipassana and developing his
concentrating his mind. He had also experienced paññā (insight wisdom or understanding based on
the great role of a concentrated mind in seeing his direct experience).
things sharply and clearly as they are, and by He propounded the Four Noble Truths of suf-
practicing Vipassana, he had seen how cravings fering, viz., suffering, its cause, its cessation, and
are caused and how they can be eliminated. By the way leading to its cessation, and preached
practicing Vipassana, it became clear to him that them to the first five disciples. He explained
“wherever in the world there is anything agreeable three aspects of each truth. One should know the
and pleasurable, there this craving arises and first noble truth. This is the first aspect of the first
establishes itself” [11]. noble truth. The first noble truth of suffering
It did not take the Buddha long to conclude that should be comprehended (pariññeyaṃ). This is
cravings can be eliminated by eliminating the called kicca ñāṇa, i. e., knowledge gained while
cause of cravings. And what is the cause of crav- doing. This is its second aspect. When it is thor-
ings? The agreeable and pleasurable in the world oughly comprehended (pariññātaṃ), it is called
are the causes of cravings. By practicing kata ñāṇa, i.e., knowledge gained when done.
Vipassana he knew that even the most beautiful This is its third aspect. Similarly the rest of the
objects of the world are impermanent. They do not truths should also be known comprehensively.
last forever. The natural question was then why The second noble truth of suffering should be
crave for them? Thus he trained his mind to see abandoned (pahātabbaṃ). This is kicca ñāṇa,
the transitory nature of objects and give up his and when it is completely abandoned (pahīṇaṃ),
craving for them. In this way by practicing it is called kata ñāṇa. The third noble truth should
Vipassana he ended his suffering. It means that be realized (sacchikātabbaṃ). This aspect of this
anybody can end his suffering by practicing truth is kicca ñāṇa, and when it is realized
Vipassana. (sacchikataṃ), it is called kata ñāṇa. The fourth
Because he had realized how suffering is noble truth should be developed (bhāvetabbaṃ).
caused and also because he had realized the role This is called kicca ñāṇa, and when it is developed
of morality (sī la) in eliminating it, so, while (bhāvita), it is called kata ñāṇa [13].
propounding the philosophy of suffering, he The Buddha propounded the philosophy of
ethicized it [12]. He was also a great psychologist. suffering by developing his bhāvanāmayā S
He saw the role of our mind in causing craving; he paññā. Therefore his philosophy of suffering can
also saw how to tame this monkey mind, which be understood by developing bhāvanāmayā
now craves for this object and now for that. paññā for which practice of Vipassana meditation
The Buddha thus propounded his is inevitable.
philosophy of suffering with his bhāvanāmayā
paññā, (experiential wisdom) which is
yathābhūtañāṇadassana (wisdom arising from Requisites Necessary for Practicing
seeing the truth as it is). Bhāvanāmayā paññā Vipassana
means insight wisdom developed at the
experiential level. There is no question of it For practicing Vipassana, the nature of the mind
being false or speculative or abstract. It is experi- has got to be understood. The mind is very fickle
ential knowledge (paññā) with which he saw the and unsteady [14]. This is psychology. And for
cause of suffering. The philosophy of suffering concentrating mind observation of sī la is
1102 Scripture of the Descent into Laṅkā

inevitable. Sī la comes under ethics. When one who live a virtuous life, i.e., who observe sī la,
understands the true nature of the objects of the practice samādhi, and are on the way to develop
world for which one craves, this is metaphysics, paññā [16].
Buddhist metaphysics if one may call it so. Apart
from these, Vipassana also means training one’s
mind to give up the old habit pattern of reacting
to sensations that arise on one’s body. Thus
References
Vipassana is a very comprehensive practice to 1. Hornby AS (2000) Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dic-
know the nature of the mind and nature of reality. tionary. OUP
Besides, it is also an effective tool to train one’s 2. Ñāṇamoli B, Bodhi B (trans) (1995) The Middle
mind to learn to behave in a particular way. Length Discourses of the Buddha. Wisdom Publica-
tions, Boston, p 341
Practicing Vipassana the Buddha propounded 3. Beck RN (1979) Handbook in Social Philosophy.
the Law of Dependent Origination, which Macmillan, New York, p 123
explains how one creates saṅkhāras in ignorance, 4. See the Poṭṭhapāda Sutta in the Dīgha Nikāya and the
how saṅkhāras give rise to consciousness, con- Cūlamālunkya Sutta in the Majjhima Nikāya (Unless
otherwise mentioned all books referred to here are
sciousness to nāma-rūpa, etc., and how bhava published by Vipassana Research Institute,
gives rise to jāti and jāti gives rise to old age, Dhammagiri in 1998)
disease, death, and all sorts of sorrows and suffer- 5. See the Cūlamālunkya Sutta in the Majjhima Nikāya
ing. The Buddha also concluded that as effect has 6. Walsh M (trans) (1995) The Long Discourses of the
Buddha. Wisdom Publications, Boston, pp 164–165
a cause and as it can be eliminated by eliminating 7. See the Cūlamālunkya Sutta in the Majjhima Nikāya
its cause, so suffering can be extirpated by elimi- 8. You cannot step twice into the same river, for fresh
nating cravings [15]. waters are ever flowing in upon you –quoted from the
All the links of paṭiccasamuppāda, each of foot note no 1 on p. no 26 of What the Buddha Taught
by Walpole Rahula
which is a law, can be understood by practicing 9. D.2.228
Vipassana. 10. S.2.21 Yad aniccaṃ taṃ dukkhaṃ, yaṃ dukkhaṃ
tadanattā
11. Walsh M (1995) The Long Discourses of the Buddha.
Wisdom Publications, Boston, p 346
One’s Fathom-Long Body Is the Only 12. Chaudhary A (2013) Ehicisation makes Buddhism
Laboratory Where the Laws Propounded a World Religion. In: Essays on Buddhism and Pali
by the Buddha Can Be Experimented literature, 2nd edn. Eastern Book Linkers, Delhi,
pp 90–96
13. S.3.484
But there is a basic difference between the phys- 14. Dh. verse 33
ical laws and the laws connected with the Four 15. Yaṃ kiñci samudayadhammaṃ sabbaṃ taṃ
Noble Truths. In no other laboratory outside this nirodhadhammaṃ
fathom-long body can it be proved that sensations 16. M1. pp 1–8
cause desire. This will be possible only when one,
who wants to prove it, lives a pure life, practices
Vipassana, and observes one’s sensations, pleas-
ant or unpleasant. He will see that he wants to Scripture of the Descent into Laṅkā
have more of pleasant sensations and none of the
unpleasant ones. The former is craving and the ▶ Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra
latter is aversion. Both are the causes of suffering.
Physical laws can be experimented and proved
in outside laboratories by anybody. He may be of
greedy temperament. He may have several defile-
ments. It does not matter. But the laws relating Scripture Unlocking the Mysteries
to the Four Noble Truths propounded by the
Buddha can be experienced and proved by those ▶ Sandhinirmocana Sūtra
Self (Jainism) 1103

attributes and manifestations, there is no such

Secret clear distinction in the Jain religion. Further still,
different texts categorize the modes and attributes
▶ Mysticism (Buddhism) of the self differently. The self, then, is a concept
that is integrated into a greater philosophical sys-
tem and cosmology, a concept understood only in
relation to its place in the greater system. As a full
exploration of Jain philosophy and cosmology is
Self not possible here, the following exposition will
focus on the self as it relates to the three primary
▶ Jīva (Jainism) subsystems of which it is a part: saṃsāra (the
▶ Puḍgala (Puggala) cycle of rebirth and re-death), mokṣa (liberation),
and the karma (moral law of cause and effect) path
that links them.

Self (Jainism) The Self in Samsāra

˙
Sean Butler The non-liberated self is known as the mundane
Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, CA, self, the self that is embodied and is in saṃsāra.
USA The mundane self is said to be identical with the
body and thus distinct from the “real” self in that
jī va identifies both living substances in the world
Synonyms of saṃsāra and the self/soul that transcends this
existence and is capable of liberation. There are
Ātman; Jī va five types of embodiment of the self: the physical
body, the divine or infernal body, the astral body,
the consummative body, and the karma body. The
Definition mundane self is endowed with the qualities of
remembrance, desire for knowledge, desire for
An unperceivable, eternal entity whose primary activity, desire for movements, and doubt [1]. It
characteristic is sentiency and whose essential is one of an infinite number of selves, it exists
element is knowledge; contrasted with ajī va or independently as a substance, and, according
non-sentient substance. to Kundakunda, the most famous of Jain philoso-
phers, it consists of knowledge, action, and fruit S
[2–6]. The mundane self has four possible
The Ambiguity of the Self in Jainism modes of existence in saṃsāra: hellish exis-
tence, subhuman or animal existence, human
The first thing that one should note when investi- existence, and divine existence. The mundane
gating the Jain notion of the self is that the notion self is thus anchored in saṃsāra by its karmas,
is ambiguous. “Self” might appear in Jain litera- imperceptible matter that attach themselves to the
ture as ātman, jī va, sattva, or jeta, to name only self literally weighing down the self and
a few possible translations. In turn, each of the counteracting the self’s natural tendency to float
above terms has various meanings that a Western up to heaven. The mundane self, which is bound
audience might understand as only loosely corre- by karma, is defiled by its karma which perverts
lated to a distinct concept of self (e.g., ātman its relation to knowledge, perception, feeling,
might mean “breath”). Further, whereas the self belief, age, physicality, status, and power [1, 4,
is often conceptually distinguished from its 7, 8]. It is the goal of the mundane self to
1104 Self (Jainism)

transcend itself through the elimination of karma self takes itself to be the body, the internal self
and achieve liberation. understands that it is distinct from the body, and
the highest self is the liberated, luminous self [11].
These three types of self may be understood in
The Liberated Self terms of a process from outward to inward per-
ception. The least advanced selves on their path to
The liberated self or the real self is the self that is liberation focus their consciousness outward and
free of all karmas. This self is understood as the thus understand the world in terms of bodies and
real or true self because it is purified from the materiality. The self that has progressed in its path
defiling influence of karma and thus is the distinct to liberation to some extent focuses its conscious-
self, unbound to existences other than its own. ness outward but also inward, recognizing that the
The liberated self is said to be pure and perfect soul is distinct from its material incarnation.
existence with infinite consciousness and omni- The liberated self exists outside of saṃsāra, is
science [1, 4, 5, 8, 9]. Though there is some debate free from karmas, and focuses only reflexively
among Jain philosophers today about the omni- on its infinite luminosity. One thus understands
science of the liberated self, it is generally agreed the ambiguity of the self as a relation between the
that the liberated self is omniscient due to the real (liberated) self, karma, and the relative state
inward direction of its consciousness [5, 8]. The of the self in its journey to liberation. Because the
liberated self is two-thirds the size of its last nature of the liberated self is immaterial and free
bodily incarnation and resides in siddha-loka, from karmas, the self that is in saṃsāra must be
the crescent-shaped abode of the enlightened differentiated from the liberated self, and this dif-
beings located at the top of the Jain universe. ferentiation directly relates to the presence of
The essential attributes of the liberated self are karmas. Karmas, thus, make the self dependent
knowledge, faith, energy, and bliss. The liberated on the world around it, perverting the self’s faith
self is immaterial but still substantial and eternal and knowledge which is pure in the liberated,
[3–5, 10]. One should note, however, that the karma-free, state. Thus, the essential attributes of
boundary between the mundane and liberated the liberated self are overpowered or bound by
self is not pristinely clear. Many maintain that karma [1]. The goal of every self is to break free
arhats (sages), Tīrthaṅkaras (fordmakers), Jinas from karma, purifying itself from the defiling
(conquerors), and siddhas (fully liberated beings) influences of karma. It does this through the ces-
are each properly liberated, though not all free of sation of outward action and the inward orienta-
karma (though all free of bad karma) [1, 11]. This tion of faith and perception. Through this process,
distinction is important because it allows for the self transforms through purification to total
omniscient beings to have been embodied in the self-realization [8, 11]. Beginning in a state so
world and deliver what the Jain religion considers bound up with materiality that it is undiffer-
to be the truth(s) about the world and the path to entiable from its material existence, moving
liberation. through a process of right action, faith, and per-
ception, to unadulterated, pure, existence. Each of
these stages and their subprocesses identify the
The Path to Liberation dynamism of the Jain notion of self as a process
reality aiming at liberation.
Much of the ambiguity or seeming inconsistency
in the Jain notion of self becomes more compre-
hensible when viewed from the perspective of its Cross-References
goal of liberation. On its path to liberation, the self
is often divided into three types: the external self, ▶ Dharma (Jainism)
the internal self, and the highest self. The external ▶ Jīva (Jainism)
Senses (Buddhism) 1105

▶ Karma (Jainism) Definition

▶ Omniscience
Special bodily faculties by which sensation is
aroused; bodily organ conveying external stimuli
References to the inner state of the mind.
1. Muniji S (2007) The doctrine of karma and transmi-
gration in Jainism. Sanskar Jain Patrika, Chennai
2. Cort JE (1995) Genres of Jain history. J Indian Philos Buddhist Notion of Sense-organs
23(4):469–506
3. Jain JP (2006) Religion and culture of the Jains.
Bharatiya Jnanpith, New Delhi
In their search for finding out the way for remov-
4. Jaini PS (2001) The Jaina path of purification. Motilal ing suffering, the Buddhist philosophers put
Banarsidass, Delhi emphasis on the importance of knowledge regard-
5. Jain SC (2006) Structure and functions of soul in ing the real objects of the world. Though under-
Jainism. Bharatiya Jnanpith, New Delhi
standing or paññā is required for such an aim, they
6. Muniji S (2007) The doctrine of the self in Jainism.
Sanskar Jain Patrika, Chennai believed that it itself is not sufficient. It has to take
7. Glasenapp HV (1942) Doctrine of karman in Jain help of others, for example, the faculties or the
philosophy. PV Research Institute, Varanasi indriyas together with aggregates, bases, ele-
8. Muniji S (2006) Return to self. Sanskar Jain Patrika,
ments, etc. It is out of such belief that the discus-
Chennai
9. Sikdar JC (1991) Jaina theory of reality. PV Research sion of indriya is made in Buddhist literature.
Institute, Varanasi The term “indriya,” the Sanskrit term for sense
10. Umaswami A (2010) Key to reality in Jainism. organs, is derived from the root “idi” signifying
Digambar Jain Trilok Shodh Sansthan, Hastinapur
11. Muniji S (2007) The Jaina pathway to liberation.
supreme authority (paramaiśwarya). Whatever
Sanskar Jain Patrika, Chennai exercises supreme power or authority is called
an indriya. Thus, in general, indriyas signify
adhipati or ruler – they are controlling faculties
in the sense of bringing about action and are
Seniya Bimbisāra controlling faculties in the sense of sovereignty
which is called the dominant influence. There are
▶ Bimbisāra 22 such controlling faculties which include not
only the cognitive faculties but something more
which plays dominant influence on other aspects
of the individual. 22 such controlling faculties are
Sensation
eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, mind, femininity,
▶ Senses (Buddhism) muscularity, vital principle, pleasure-physical,
pain-physical, mental-pleasure, mental-pain, S
equanimity, faith, energy, mindfulness, concentra-
tion, understanding, I-shall-come-to-know-the-
Senses (Buddhism) unknown faculty, final knowledge faculty, and
final knower faculty.
Madhumita Chattopadhyay In support of the view that the sense organs are
Department of Philosophy, Jadavpur University, of supreme power, the Buddhists point out that the
Kolkata, West Bengal, India six sense organs, namely, the visual one or the
auditory one, are the supports of consciousness
(cittāśraya). They are the principal organs of
Synonyms a being (maulam sattvadravyam) who is again
identified as masculine or as feminine on the basis
Faculty; Feeling; Sensation of puruşendriya and strī ndriya. The duration of
1106 Senses (Buddhism)

a being is maintained by the jī vitendriya or the vital directly arise, and the other four organs, namely,
principle. The individual being becomes contami- eye, ear, nose, and tongue, gradually come into
nated (samkleśa) by the faculties of sensation existence. These sense organs, however, last on
sukha, etc. Its purification is prepared (sambhāra) the basis of the vital organ (i.e., the ṣaḍāyatanas
by the five moral qualities, for example, śraddhā, last so long as the vital organ is there). It is through
and is completed by the last three indriyas. In other the five sensations that the ṣaḍāyatanas enjoy. On
words, for the Buddhists, mere predominance is the other hand, the five faculties, namely, faith,
not the mark of an indriya, but predominance force, memory, absorption, and discernment, are
with regard to the constitution, the subdivision, the support of cessation since they are considered
etc., of a living being and with regard to the basis to be the very basis of that ultimate stage. Nirvāṇa
of his volition and cessation is considered to be the is generated for the first time through the organ
predominating feature of indriya. ājñāsyāmī ndriya, for it is the first pure faculty.
Another account of the senses or the indriyas is Nirvāṇa is developed through the second pure
found in Buddhist literature. In this account, inter- organ and is experienced by the third pure organ
pretation of the elements of existence was made ājñātāvī ndriya, for it is through this faculty that
with a view to distinguish between the cognitive one experiences the satisfaction and well-being of
faculties and their corresponding objects. The deliverance.
cognitive faculties are believed to be six and The Buddhists refute the views of the Sāmkhya
their corresponding objects are also believed to philosophers who maintain that voice (vāk), hands
be six in number. These cognitive faculties as well (pāņi), feet (pāda), the anus (pāyu), and the sexual
as the six categories of objects constitute the organs (upastha) are also indriyas since they also
āyatanas. The term āyatana means entrance. It is have predominance over their respective functions
an entrance for consciousness and mental phe- like speaking, taking, walking, excretion, enjoy-
nomena. Consciousness never arises alone, since ment of pleasure and pain, etc. According to the
it is pure sensation without any content. It is Buddhists, voice cannot be regarded as indriya,
always introduced by two elements: a cognitive since it is not the sole predominating factor with
element and a corresponding objective element. regard to words; some sort of training regarding the
Thus, there are doors (dvāra) through which con- operation of the tongue is essential, which is not
sciousness appears, and these doors are the senses. the case with other sense organs like eye,
For example, through the door of vision (caksur- etc. A newborn baby without any instruction can
indriyam-āyatanam) arises the visual conscious- see the form but cannot speak without any training.
ness of color and shape. This classification in So the character of indriya is not satisfied in the case
terms of āyatana is peculiarly a Buddhist one of voice and, hence, cannot be considered an
which covers all objects of cognition into sense indriya. In fact, the Sāṁkhya philosophers regard
objects and nonsensuous ones. the organs of action (karmendriya) to be supra-
An alternative account of indriya has been sensible like the organs of consciousness, while
proposed in the Buddhist text Vibhāşā. There, 14 the Buddhists believe that words are action of the
indriyas as support of transmigration, origin, tongue which is the locus of the organs of taste.
duration, enjoyment of this support are admitted. Similarly, hands and feet cannot be regarded as
The other indriyas have the same function with indriya, for they are not predominant with regard
regard to Nirvāṇa. According to this view, the six to grasping and walking. Grasping and walking are
organs (şaḍāyatanas), starting with the visual simply arousing the hands and feet in a second
sense organ to the sense organ of mind, are the moment in another place and with a new figure.
supports of this repeated existence in this world Moreover, it is a fact that hands and feet are not
since they are the principal organs of a being. It is indispensable for grasping or walking since lizards
through the two sexual organs of masculinity and and the like can perform similar functions of grasp-
femininity that the two organs of touch and mind ing and walking even in the absence of hands and
Sentient Beings 1107

feet. Further, if the hands and the feet were consid- 4. Poussin L (1990) Abhidharmakośabhāşyam (trans:
ered as indriyas, the throat, the teeth, the eyelids, Pruden LM), vol 1. Asian Humanities Press, Berkeley
5. Rhys Davids CAF (1976) The compendium of philos-
and the joints also would have to be accepted as ophy (tr. of the Abhidhammaţţhasangaha). Pali Text
indriyas, since they function respectively with Society, London
regard to swallowing, chewing, opening and clos- 6. Sāmkŗtyāyana R (ed) (1988) Abhidharmakośah:
ing, and folding up, and anything that exercises its Ācārya Vasubandhupraṇītaḥ. Kāśī Vidyāpīth, Varanasi
7. Sastri SD (ed) (1998) The Abhidharmakosa and
action with regard to its effect. Hence, the term Bhasya of Acarya Vasubandhu with Sphutartha com-
“indriya” is reserved for that which possesses mentary of Acarya Yasomitra. Bauddha Bharati,
predominance. Varanasi
The important feature of the Buddhist discus- 8. Chattopadhyay M (2004) Analysis of Indriya: a Bud-
dhist reflection. In: Narasimha Murthy ML, Sadasiva
sion of indriya is the emphasis on the notion of the Murty R (eds) Work culture and efficiency with special
“supreme development of the faculties”. In the reference to indriyas. Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha,
other schools of Indian philosophy, it is generally Deemed University, Tirupati
believed that in the ultimate stage of liberation, the
sense organs do not perform their normal function.
That is, one does not see forms with the eyes, nor
does one hear words with the ear, etc. Under this Sentient Beings
interpretation the liberated person will have to be
regarded as blind or as deaf, etc., which no one will Sarah Whylly
accept. So the view of Lord Buddha is that in the Religion Department, Florida State University,
stage of liberation a bhiksu also sees a form with Tallahassee, FL, USA
the eyes or hears a word with the ear, and there also
arises in him the idea of what is agreeable or what is
disagreeable or what is both agreeable and dis- Definition
agreeable, but he does not allow his mind to be
overcome by them. Hence, the teaching of Lord Beings with consciousness or sentience; capable
Buddha toward his disciples is not to shut the sense of subjective experience. In Buddhist thought and
organs but to suppress the defilements of the mind literature it is a being of the five skandhas or
like greed, lust, etc., and try to establish equanimity aggregates that is not enlightened.
of insight.

Characterizations of Sentient Beings in

Cross-References Buddhist Thought

▶ Abhidharma (Theravāda) A sentient being is one that possesses Buddha- S

▶ Knowledge (Buddhism) nature within them. This Buddha-nature is a
▶ Mind (Buddhism) potential which may lead the being to attain
▶ Psychology (Buddhism) enlightenment and reach Buddhahood. However,
sentient beings as such are not yet enlightened.
References These beings are ones in whom the five aggre-
gates are thought to be present. These five aggre-
1. Choudhury S (1996) Analytical study of the gates are form, sensation, perception, categorical
Abhidharmakośa. Sanskrit College, Calcutta or volitional judgments, and consciousness. It is
2. Guenther HV (1999) Philosophy and psychology in the these five aggregates that lead to grasping and
Abhidharma. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
3. Haldar A (2001) Some psychological aspects of early
attachment. Beings of the five aggregates are still
Buddhist philosophy based on Abhidharmakosah of subject to the cycle of samsara and experience
Vasubandhu. Asiatic Society, Kolkata suffering.
1108 Sentient Beings

What Kinds of Beings Are Sentient karma, they bring harm to themselves. Toward
Beings? this end, some Buddhist practitioners are careful
even when they drink water to try to avoid
Ideas regarding which beings are sentient and harming beings which might live in it, while
which are not are varied. Considerations for sen- others confine such observances to the dietary
tience have been made with regard to animals and practice of vegetarianism or veganism [1]. It is
plants in addition to humans and other sorts of sometimes unclear in Buddhist literature to whom
beings such as hungry ghosts, demons, or gods. certain injunctions regarding the treatment of
Although all sentient beings are caught up in other sentient beings are directed. Some rules
samsara, human sentience is viewed as being spe- are meant exclusively for sangha members, others
cial since in humans it is characterized by a greater for laity.
degree of freedom and a greater ability to compre- It should be noted, however, that compassion
hend. Thus, humans are morally and spiritually toward living beings is frequently characterized in
more capable than other sorts of beings. This is Indian Buddhist literature as being the lowest
not to say that other types of beings are not capa- form of compassion of the three types of compas-
ble of morality and do not have freedom – it is sion that exist. This classification involves levels
a matter of degree. There are varying views upon of awareness of the nature of all things. The first
whether or not plants can be considered sentient level is compassion toward living beings. The
beings. There has been some suggestion from second is compassion on the impersonal events
scholars that Pāli Buddhism, particularly early of the world after someone realizes that living
Pāli Buddhism, was at least ambiguous on this beings do not exist. The third level is compassion
question while others claim that Tibetan and Jap- which acts within the universe of emptiness. Thus,
anese forms of Buddhism include plants in sen- the first level or compassion toward living beings
tient beings. That which is non-sentient is part of is a kind of emotion that brings about the motiva-
the background environment, the only possible tion to help others. This level should also contain
exception being plant life, as mentioned earlier. the caveat that this sort of emotion is dependent
upon a view of others as distinction beings. The
second level acknowledges that the lives of people
The Role of Compassion Among Sentient are not separate or distinct identity units. The third
Beings level eradicates a view of life as a thing at all and
acknowledges the emptiness of everything [2].
The position of humans as unique sorts of sentient
beings does not mean that humans should exploit
other sentient beings or dominate them. In fact, The Bodhisattva Vow and Sentient
humans, along with all other sentient beings, are Beings
expected to have compassion toward their fellow
beings. The idea of ahiṃsa is particularly relevant A bodhisattva is any person who, in response to
in the conversation on sentient beings. Ahiṃsa is compassion for all sentient beings, aspires to Bud-
noninjury or nonviolence. The first precept of the dhahood so as to benefit all such beings. This
five Buddhist Precepts is to keep from or avoid person possesses bodhicitta or a wish for enlight-
intentional violence toward or the intentional kill- enment which will be of benefit to all sentient
ing of living beings. Emphasis upon the intention- beings still in samsāra. The bodhisattva is one
ality of an act implies that one might be held less whose sole motivation for all activity is the goal
morally blameworthy or perhaps not blamewor- of benefiting all sentient beings in samsāra.
thy at all in instances where harm is caused but not The bodhisattva takes a vow toward this moti-
intentionally. Not only does one bring harm to vation often called the Bodhisattva Vow or Pre-
another being but, because of the effects of cept. This vow involves committing oneself to
Servants 1109

working for the liberation of all sentient beings of animals as in the cases of King Aśoka or King
from samsāra and to leading them to enlighten- Alaungpaya who attempted to legislate killing
ment for the entirety of samsāra. according to the Buddhist injunctions.

The Concept of Sentient Beings and Cross-References

Buddhist History
▶ Ahimsa
Buddhists have less strict views than other tradi- ▶ Asoka
tions such as Jainism with regard to sentient ▶ Ethics (Buddhism)
beings, although the rules governing this treat- ▶ Vegetarianism (Buddhism)
ment vary depending upon the kind of Buddhists ▶ Warfare
involved and the time and place under consider-
ation. Although there is a tradition of vegetarian-
ism in Buddhism, some Buddhists were allowed
References
to eat meat if it was not killed for them in partic-
ular. There have also been injunctions for 1. Findly EB (2002) Borderline beings: plant possibilities
Buddhists to avoid destroying foliage, as sentient in early Buddhism. J Am Orient Soc 122(2):252–263
beings rely upon them for food and shelter. 2. Goodman C (2009) Consequences of compassion.
Oxford University Press, New York
This does not mean that Buddhists have neces-
3. Harvey P (2000) An introduction to Buddhist ethics.
sarily been pacifists. Although nonviolence is Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
a tenet particularly in the Pali Canon, this has 4. Lecso PA (1988) To do no harm: a Buddhist view on
not been evidenced in the historical record. Fre- animal use in research. J Relig Health 27(4):307–312
5. Saddhatissa H (1970) Buddhist ethics: essence of Bud-
quently, war and conflict are viewed as unavoid-
dhism. George Braziller, New York
able aspects of human life and defensive action 6. Spencer RF (1966) Ethical expression in a Burmese
was sometimes viewed as required. However, this Jātaka. J Am Folklore 79(311):278–301
does not mean that war should be waged arbi- 7. Swearer DK (1998) Buddhist virtue, voluntary poverty,
and extensive benevolence. J Relig Ethics
trarily. Attempts at peaceful resolutions are
26(1):71–103
encouraged and the demand for right attitudes
requires that persons cultivate mental tranquility
in order to avoid engaging in violent behaviors.
In the twentieth century, concern arose over
animal research testing that has inspired continued Sentient Substance
debate among some Buddhists. Some Buddhists
take the view that even vaccinations developed ▶ Jīva (Jainism)
S
from animals are to be shunned while others
believe that animal testing allows humans a gain
that is worth the price paid by the suffering of
animals. This view is further qualified by requir- Sepulchral Monument
ing that the benefit to humans needs to be pro-
foundly measurable and that new alternatives for ▶ Cetiya
testing be explored constantly. In earlier times,
objections to the use of animals in ritual sacrifice
or killing animals as part of the halal practice of
the purification of meat were made by Buddhists. Servants
This has translated into laws at certain times
against certain practices considered exploitative ▶ Slaves (Buddhism)
1110 Sgrolma’imgonpo

Sgrolma’imgonpo Shyiwa Lha

▶ Tāranātha ▶ Śāntideva

Shengtian (Chinese) Siddha-loka

▶ Āryadeva ▶ Heaven (Jainism)

Shin Upago Sīla

▶ Upagupta ▶ Good (Buddhism)

▶ Responsibility (Buddhism)

Shingon
Śīla
▶ Vajrayāna (Buddhism)
Mangala Ramchandra Chinchore
Department of Philosophy, Centre for Studies in
Classical Indian Buddhist Philosophy and
Culture, University of Pune, Pune, Maharashtra,
Short Overview of Buddhism
India
▶ Philosophy (Buddhism)
Synonyms

Sk. Śī la-śikṣā/Adhi-śī la,

Shoten (Japanese) Śīla consists of the three factors, namely, right
speech (Sk. Samyak-vāk), right action (Sk.
▶ Āryadeva Samyak-Karmānta), and right livelihood (Sk.
Samyak-Ājī vikā).

Shravasti Definition

▶ Sāvatthī Śī la (Sk.: Śī la-śikṣā/Adhi-śī la) (translated into

English as moral conduct/character) is a part of
the Noble Eightfold Path (Sk. Aṣṭāṅgika-mārga),
which is a way to destroy/control suffering (Sk.
Shuen Shang Duḥkha-nirodha-gāmini-pratipad), the fourth
Noble Truth (Sk. Ārya-satya). Śī la is translated
▶ Xuanzang (Hieun-Tsang) into English as moral conduct/character,
Śīla 1111

personality development facilitative factors, and/ (Sk. Bodhi). But Buddhism does not end by
or virtues convenient in practical life. merely presenting fact-finding analysis, it also
The Buddhist way of life forms three modes of inquires into the possibility of overcoming it by
educating/training/culturing (Sk. Tri-Śikṣā), stipulating concretely certain ways and means to
namely, training/developing moral character (Sk. regulate life. For that, it stresses on conduct,
Śī la-śikṣā/Adhi-śīla), training mind/developing which has to be controlled and channelized by
concentration of consciousness (Sk. Samādhi-ś some codes of moral conduct (Sk. Śī la).
ikṣā/Citta-śikṣā), and developing wisdom and Development of moral conduct/character has
insight (Sk. Prajñā/ Adhi-prajñā), [1] where train- two aspects [4]. One, prohibitive/negative:
ing moral character is given first priority. refraining from certain things already prevalent
as habits or, at present, likely to overpower and
hence need regulating modes and, in future,
Buddhist Character-Building Norms abstaining from attractions, lures, and temptations
of any kind. Second, constructive/positive: they
Śī la is the characteristic mark and fundamental are helpful to develop personality in mundane life
basis of Buddhist ethics. It is not merely ethical and/or insight in spiritual life. Moral character
theory but physical, mental, and verbal modes of (Sk. Śī la) is a stepping-stone toward enlighten-
performing actions and practicing them consistently ment. For enlightenment, first one should have
and conducting conscientiously throughout life. faith in teachings of the Buddha and Buddhist
Whosoever is a follower of Buddhism should way of life, first-hand experience of pain and
observe with his own will certain codes of conduct suffering as the nature of human life and of the
and adopt certain modes of life which are conducive reality correspondingly; and then onwards apply
to building excellence of character and/or develop one’s own in-depth observations by understand-
perfection in personality on the one hand [2] and ing things properly. What is right and what is
correspondingly enable to form a social order and wrong cannot be decided once and for all eter-
peace on the other. These codes are neither author- nally, uniformly, and abstractly in the form of
itative eternal rules nor commandments nor mere theoretical principles. These codes of conduct
theoretical principles. They are formulated by prohibit, refrain, and abstain from doing wrong/
enlightened human beings after experiencing and/ evil acts and inhumane practices on the one hand
or contemplating on life and then, onward, they are and enable to regulate and channelize conduct and
meant to be used with one’s own conviction for the develop ideal personality and virtues and are con-
benefit of all human beings. These vows are com- ducive to the well-being of humanity at large on
monly observable (Sk. Saṁdṛṣṭika), timeless the other.
(Sk. Akālika), verifiable (Sk. Aihipaśyika), fruitful Generally, in Buddhism, it is held that by
(Sk. Anupānāyika), sensed/discovered (Sk. nature one is neither totally good nor completely S
Vedayiyavya), and individually experienced bad, though in the circumstances and situations
(Sk. Pratyātman) by discerning personal insights prevailed and predominated, one behaves
(Sk. Vijñu) [3]. wrongly. But if one is trained, cultured, and nur-
In Buddhism, one can be considered honor- tured in an appropriate way, one can confront
able, gentleman, and excellent (Sk. Ārya) pro- situations courageously, respond to things in the
vided one has good habits, exercises good right way, and regulate behavior in proper direc-
intensions, and uses ethically altruistic means to tion. Buddhism holds that even though the cir-
get freedom from pain and suffering (Sk. cumstances in which one lives are adverse, one
Duḥkha), which is the goal of all human beings. should not be hopeless to bring in change using
To realize the true nature of human beings moral modes of action. It depends by and large
in particular and all sentient beings in general upon how one is trained and develops psycholog-
(i.e., Duḥkha) is, in a sense, enlightenment ical attitude of taking things. Generally, they
1112 Śīla

emphasize on proper/right training of mind, which 4. To refrain from wrong speech, i.e., lying, abus-
takes care of the other two aspects of behavior, ing, harsh words, etc. (Sk. Musāvāda)
namely, bodily and verbal modes of actions. In 5. To refrain from intoxicating drinks and
other words, Buddhism advocates that both bodily drugs that lead to carelessness (Sk.
and verbal actions are regulated by psychological Surāmerayamajjā-pamādatthāna)
states of mind. Although conventionally it is held
that in totality, mind, body, and speech understood Over and above these five precepts/vows/vol-
in depth builds character, according to Buddhism, untary promises (Sk. Pañca-Śīlas), if one wishes
it mainly depends upon the development of psy- to practice a bit more strictly than the usual one,
chological states of mind. The more one dives leading more toward ascetic life, one undertakes
deep into the inner world, the height of spiritual the eight precepts (Sk. Aṣṭa-Śī la ), i.e., three more
growth and/or insightful understanding towards percepts in addition to the above-mentioned five
perfection springs up and blossoms. Thus, proper precepts. One observes a 1-day or a week fast (Sk.
spiritual training (Sk. Adhi-Śikṣā) is important. Uposatha) on the new moon, first quarter moon,
There are certain codes of conduct or modes of full moon, and last quarter moon days living in the
training discovered by the Gautama Buddha and monastery and practicing the eight precepts,
taught to his then prevalent disciples that are later namely:
on used generally for the positive development of
character. They are facilitative to practice Bud- 6. To refrain from eating untimely before sunrise
dhist way of life taking into consideration two and after sunset (Sk. Aparānha-bhojana)
forms of life, stipulated in the form of two sets: 7. To refrain from dancing (Sk. Nṛtya), music/
one for ordained monastic followers (Sk. Bhikṣu- singing (Sk. Saṅgī ta), playing instrumental
saṁgha), namely, monks and nuns (Sk. Bhikṣu- music (Sk. Vādya), and attending entertain-
Bhikṣuṇī ), and another for lay disciples (Sk. ment performances (Sk. Samārādhana)
Puthujana) consisting of householders – men 8. To refrain from wearing perfume/scents and
and women (Sk. Upāsakas-Upāsikās). One using cosmetics (Sk. Gaṅdha-vilepana) and
begins with faith and initiates with reciting three garlands/decorative accessories (Sk. Mālā-
refuges (Sk. Tri-śaraṇas), namely, the Buddha, dhāraṇa)
teachings of Buddhism (Pāli-Dhamma), and the
community of followers (Sk. Saṁgha), as Further, additionally, two more precepts are
a devotional religious regular practice. Accompa- there, thus making it, in total, ten precepts (Sk.
nied with it then is taking the five precepts/vows/ Daśa-Śī la) that are mandatory for all ordained
voluntary promises (Sk. Pañca-Śī la), which are monks and nuns (Sk. Bhikṣu-Bhikṣuṇī ). They are:
common to all, since Buddhism believes that any-
one can get perfection or develop excellence of 9. To refrain from sitting on luxurious high chair
character. Those who are practitioners, they recite or sleeping on luxurious and soft bed, which
them daily to remind promises given by oneself in may cause overindulging in sleep (Sk.
the morning and evening. Any lay person can Uccāsana-mṛduśayyā-śayana)
undertake them voluntarily to facilitate practicing 10. To refrain from accepting gold (Sk. Suvarṇa),
Buddhism. These promises are: silver (Sk. Rajata), and/or money (Sk. Mudrā)

1. To refrain from destroying life of any sentient Over and above these ten precepts/moral
being, i.e., killing excessively living creatures codes, there are 227 rules for ordained monks
(Sk. Pāṇātipāta) (Pāli-Bhikkhus) and 311 for nuns (Pāli-
2. To refrain from taking that which is not given, Bhikkhuṇī ), known as codes of disciplining for
i.e., stealing (Sk. Adinnādanā) release (Pāli- Pātimokkha) and [5] discussed in
3. To refrain from sexual misconduct, i.e., illicit detail in the Vinaya-Piṭaka. It is with reference to
sex (Sk. Kāmesu-micchācāra) practicing these codes strictly or flexibly that there
Śīla 1113

were disputes between Sthaviravādins and understanding (Sk. Prajñā), and further, wisdom
Mahāsāṁghikas of Buddhism. is seen in practicing moral character (Sk. Śīla).
In practicing these codes, one concentrates on Right comprehension and insightful understand-
refraining or abstaining from evil tendencies prev- ing are the indicators of wisdom in behavior [6].
alent within each one by nature, which are likely The three modes of training (Sk. Tri-Śikṣā),
to predominate, and because of which one expe- namely, wisdom/insight (Sk. Prajñā), character/
riences pain and suffering further. Moreover, by morality (Sk. Śī la), and meditation/concentration
observing these promises as daily practices, one (Sk. Samādhi) are also known as precious touch-
attempts to reduce predominance of instincts and stones of perfection/jewels of ideal personality
regulates passions to develop moral virtues, which (Sk. Tri-ratnas). It is, perhaps, because before
lead to perfection or excellence. Here, it is impor- getting introduced or knowing the Buddhist way
tant to note that Buddhist regulations emphasize of life, they are the modes of training (Sk. Adhi/
on individual conduct and concentrate on per- Tri-Śikṣā), but after learning/getting command
sonal/individual aspect of life to be morally over them, they turn out to be the indicators
governed first and, through collection of such of what one has been learnt through practicing
individuals who are observing ethical codes, moral conduct/actual behavior and form virtuous
hope to build a society. These codes are facilita- characteristics of an individual having precious
tive and conducive to practice Buddhist way of jewels of ideal perfection (Sk. Tri-ratnas).
life for any lay person who desires to follow it by Buddhist ethics is based on these Tri-ratnas,
conviction. In the context of Eightfold Path (Sk. which enables one to learn the importance of
Aṣṭāṅgika-mārga) in general and right action (Sk. responsibility, accountability, and independence.
Samyak-Karmānta) in particular, Gautama the They are the three aspects of personality that
Buddha has explained five precepts (Sk. Pañca- are interlinked or interdependent. They are not
Śī la) and ten precepts (Sk. Daśa-Śī la), respec- mutually exclusive, but they conjointly form the
tively. Eightfold Path (Sk. Aṣṭāṅgika-mārga) is core of teaching of the Buddha and operate as
nothing else but a way to control/destroy pain indicators of the development of personality.
and suffering (Sk. Duḥkha-nirodha-gāminī - They are the avenues of becoming free from
pratipad) innovatively discovered by the Buddha pain and suffering (Sk. Duḥkha) and mundane
and taught to all his disciples – known and life/world (Sk. Saṁsāra). They are relevant uni-
unknown, universally. versally with regard to all and give hope to all by
In Buddhism, ideal personality could be built reminding the potentiality to attain the state of
from the three avenues provided by the Buddha emancipation (Sk. Nirvāṇa).
and training of spiritual life is insisted, which Śīla consists of positively adopting and
consists of the three modes of training (Sk. Adhi/ observing in practice wholesome actions (Sk.
Tri-Śikṣā), namely, character/morality (Sk. Śīla), Kuśala-Karma) that are associated with motives S
wisdom/insight (Sk. Prajñā), and meditation/con- and intensions. They have creative psychological
centration (Sk. Samādhi). Ideal/perfect moral con- and ethical basis. And, negatively, they make one
duct (Sk. Śī la) is essential for opening the cautious and refrain anybody from doing
possibility of getting insight/developing wisdom unwholesome actions (Sk. Akuśala-Karma),
(Sk. Prajñā) and then only further can one have respectively. For the Hī nayāna tradition of Bud-
meditation/concentration (Sk. Samādhi). Thus, dhism, good actions (Sk. Kuśala-Karmas) are
there is a sequential order of its enumeration those which are free from the three defilements,
(Sk. Anuloma) for the beginners, but for those namely, greed (Sk. Lobha), hate (Sk. Dveṣa), and
who have already developed control over one’s delusion (Sk. Moha). However, in the Mahāyāna
own conduct, it is indicated and can be verified in tradition of Buddhism, it has to be inspired posi-
their practice in converse order (Sk. Pratiloma), tively by compassion (Sk. Karuṇā) and benevo-
excellence in meditation/concentration (Sk. lent love (Sk. Maitrī ) as well [7]. In the
Samādhi) is reflected in the insightful Mahāyāna tradition, positive development of
1114 Śīla-śiksā
˙

virtues and ideal personality development are 4. (1995) Sāmaññaphala-Sutta (Dīgha-Nikāya-II),

stressed more by practicing virtues par excellence Tipiṭaka, Chaṭṭha Saṇgāyana edn (CD-ROM Version-
3). Vipassana Research Institute, Igatpuri
(Sk. Pāramitās). Freedom to grow and develop is 5. (1995) Pātimokkha, Vinaya-Piṭaka, Tipiṭaka, Chaṭṭha
ethically based on true independence and equality Saṇgāyana edn (CD-ROM Version-3). Vipassana
without any kind of discrimination, but it is Research Institute, Igatpuri
embedded by responsibility and accountability 6. Kasyapa BJ (ed) (1961) Dīgha-Nikāya. Pali Text Pub-
lication Board, Bihar Govt, Nalanda
because, freedom is not to be confused with licen- 7. Vaidya PL (ed) (1961) Śāntīdeva’s Bodhicaryāvatāra
tiousness. On the contrary, in the Hī nayāna tradi- (with Pañjikā of Prajñakaramati). Mithila Institute,
tion, emphasis seems to be on wholesome/ Darbhanga
unwholesome actions (Sk. Kuśala/Akuśala-
Karmas) and the five/ten precepts (Sk. Śīlas –
Pañca or Daśa), respectively. Mahāyānists prefer
to consider virtues par excellence (Sk. Pāramitās) Śīla-śiksā
more and perhaps because of this, in the list of ˙
virtues (Sk. Pāramitās), character/morality (Śīla) ▶ Śī la
gets second enumerative important status.

Cross-References Silulin

▶ Aṣṭāṅgamārga ▶ Sārnāth
▶ Ārya Satyāni
▶ Bodhi
▶ Dharma
▶ Duḥkha Silun
▶ Karma
▶ Karuṇā ▶ Sārnāth
▶ Mahāsāṅghika
▶ Nirvāṇa
▶ Pañca-Śī la
▶ Pāṭimokkha Sin (Buddhism)
▶ Pāramitās
▶ Prajñā Madhumita Chattopadhyay
▶ Saṃsāra Department of Philosophy, Jadavpur University,
▶ Samadhi-Marana Kolkata, West Bengal, India
▶ Upāsaka
▶ Uposatha
Synonyms
References Pāpa, evil action
1. (1995) Majjhima-Nikāya, Tipiṭaka, Chaṭṭha Saṇgāyana
edn (CD-ROM Version-3). Vipassana Research Insti-
tute, Igatpuri Definition
2. Deo AN (1901) Bauddha-Dharma-Darsana (in Hindi),
2nd edn. Bihar Rashtrabhasa Parisad, Patna
3. (1995) Khuddakapāṭha, Aṅguttara-Nikāya, Tipiṭaka,
Sin stands for the evil elements that defile the
Chaṭṭha Saṇgāyana edn (CD-ROM Version-3). mind and have a bad effect on the psyche making
Vipassana Research Institute, Igatpuri it difficult to attain the stage of enlightenment.
Sin (Buddhism) 1115

Nature of Sin great sins (mahāpāpa). The Buddhist texts also

consider some acts as root sins. For example, in
The term “sin” does not have any special conno- the Akāsa- garbha sūtra, five root sins have been
tation in Buddhism, as it has in major theistic elaborately discussed. The first one is stealing the
religions like Christianity, Judaism, or Islam. In goods from a stūpa, the second one is showing
all these religions, the general belief is that sins are disrespect or hatred to the dharma or creating any
individual actions which are contrary to the will of hindrance to the moral order, the third one is
God or to the will of the Supreme Being. As disobeying a monk in the form of taking away
Buddhism does not believe in any personal God his saffron robes or sending him to prison or to kill
or any Supreme Being, the word “pāpa, apuñña” him, the fourth one is taking the life of a relative or
or sin stands for the evil elements that defile the a monk or an Arhat, and the fifth one is either
mind and have a deadening effect on the psyche himself following the paths of unrighteousness or
making it difficult for its upliftment. In the to indulge others to do so.
Theravāda tradition, the mind (manas or citta) is Apart from these root sins, other types of sins
considered to be the most important factor in the are also mentioned in the same sūtra, like creating
determination of the moral quality of an action. If divisions in villages, districts, town, or kingdom.
an individual performs or acts with an evil or The text Śikṣāsamuccaya [3] speaks of eight root
wicked mind, suffering follows as the conse- sins which cause the young men and women, the
quence [1]. Accordingly in the different Buddhist Bodhisattvas, to stumble and which destroy the
texts, advice has been given to get rid of all kinds merits they have earned in their past lives. These
of evils or sins. It has been said that greed (lobha), are disrespect shown to Buddhas, laws, ascetics,
attraction (rāga), hatred (dosa), and delusion Pratyekabuddhas, Bodhisattvas, and to those who
(moha) are the sources of all kinds of evil acts uttered the Good Law. It also includes disrespect
[2]. There are ten kinds of evil acts (pāpa): three shown to one’s parents and also to other virtuous
related to the body, namely, killing, stealing, and persons. The Śikṣāsamuccaya refers to the
sexual misconduct; four related to speech (vāk), Suvarṇaprabhāsottama Sūtra where it has been
namely, lying, slandering, and use of harsh words shown that sins may occur in other ways also. For
and frivolous words; and three related to mind example, sins done in one birth might be accumu-
(manas), namely, covetousness, ill will, and false lated in the series of subsequent births with vari-
views. These ten types of acts done with the ous embodiments. Sins may occur also by
body or the speech or thought are evil or pāpa in association with a bad friend or out of fear and
the sense that they bring about undesired result. passion, by fault or delusion. However, sin occur-
The Buddhists believe that a single act of evil has ring in connection with hatred has been regarded
the ability to remove all the merits acquired as the great root sin. This is because sin connected
through the performance of good acts. So it is with hatred makes for the abandonment of people. S
absolutely essential to free one’s mind from all The Upāli–paripṛcchā-sūtra considers sin
sorts of evils ( pāpā cittam nivāraye). To show the connected with delusion (moha) to be similar to
importance of avoidance of evils, the analogy of sin connected with hatred since both of them are
a merchant carrying lots of wealth but small very heinous in nature. In the Sutta-Nipāta [4], it
escorts is given. Just as a merchant with great has been pointed out that the ignorant persons
wealth but small escorts avoids the perilous out of delusion get involved in sins or evil
route or just as a man willing to live avoids poi- actions and also induce others to such sinful
son, similarly, it is the duty of all to shun evil acts. Thus, the main cause of sin can be found
things [1]. in ignorance. Hence, to avoid sins, ignorance is
The Upanisadic seers speak of the acts of steal- to be removed. The Dhammasangāni [5] regard
ing (especially gold), drinking liquor, dishonoring five acts – matricide, parricide, slaying an Arhat,
one’s teacher, and murdering a Brāhmana as the slaying a Buddha, and causing division among
most heinous acts. These are considered to be the priesthood to be five unpardonable sins.
1116 Sineru

However, the Buddhists admit cases where com- Cross-References

mitting an act which is generally considered to
be sinful has not been looked upon as sins. For ▶ Dhammapada
example, the Śikṣāsamuccaya refers to the text ▶ Evil (Buddhism)
Ratnamegha where it has been specifically said ▶ Good (Buddhism)
that the slaying of a man who was intending to ▶ Kilesa (Kleśa)
commit a deadly sin is permissible. The same
idea has been upheld in the Śrāvaka-vinaya
where it has been said that there is no sin in References
the releasing of animals for the sake of pity. In
short, the Buddhists think that such slaying 1. Narada Thera (1978) The Dhammapada: a translation.
though apparently seems to be sinful is not really B.M.S Publication, Colombo
2. Santideva (1995) Santideva: the Bodhicaryavatara
sinful for it actually puts an end to further deadly
(trans: Crosby K, Skilton A). Oxford University Press,
sins. It would be wrong to think that to avoid sin, Oxford
the general recommendation of the Buddhists 3. Santideva (1999) Śikṣāsamuccaya: a compendium
would be to get involved in some other similar of Buddhist doctrine compiled by Santideva
(trans: Bendall C, Rouse WHD). Motilal Banarsidass,
action. Rather, their attitude in this regard would
Delhi
be frank confession of the sin committed. 4. Max Muller F, Fausboll (tr) (1881) Sacred books of the
Depending on the nature of the sin, prescription east: the Dhammapada & Sutta Nipata, vol 10. The
has been made as regards the audience or per- Clarendon Press, Oxford
5. Rhys Davids CAF (2003) Buddhist manual of psycho-
sons before whom the confession has to be
logical ethics. Kessinger, Montana
made. For example, in the Upāli–paripṛcchā-
sūtra, it has been pointed out that confession
for the sin of evil thought is to be made before
one or two persons while committing the five
unpardonable sins require confession in the pres- Sineru
ence of the 35 blessed Buddhas or by calling
upon their names day and night and by engaging ▶ Meru (Buddhism)
in the recitation of the dharma and entering into
meditation. It may, however, not be possible for
all beings, even the multitude of the ascetics and
the Pratyekabuddhas, to recite the names of so- Six Perfections
many blessed Buddhas day and night or get
involved in meditation to purify themselves ▶ Pāramitā
from all the sins committed. Here also, the rec-
ommendation of the Buddhists is to get
acquainted with the sacred books. Moreover, if
through practice, one is able to have an idea of
what is sin and what is not and also of what is Skanda
discipline and what is not and of what is impu-
rity and what is purification, then through that ▶ Khandha
knowledge, one will be able to get rid of the
effects of past evil actions. In short, the Bud-
dhists do not simply stop by pointing to the sins
committed by a person, but at the same time, Skandha
they have suggested ways for the removal of
such sins. ▶ Khandha
Skepticism 1117

skeptics, since they challenge the other sources of

Skepticism knowledge, after accepting the validity of sense-
perception. On the other hand, extreme form
Madhumita Chattopadhyay of skepticism is found in the philosophy of the
Department of Philosophy, Jadavpur University, Mādhyamika thinker Nāgārjuna, who has chal-
Kolkata, West Bengal, India lenged the validity of every mode of knowing.
To illustrate how the skeptics work in refuting
the views of others, the arguments offered
Synonyms by Nāgārjuna to refute the possibility of knowl-
edge may be considered in brief. In his
Doubtfulness; Dubiety; Hesitancy; Incredibility Vigrahavyāvartanī , the view of absolute skepti-
cism or extreme skepticism is established with the
help of arguments. From verses 30–51, he tries to
Definition show with different arguments that anything
called pramāṇa does not exist, and hence one
The view that is unconvinced of the truth of cannot speak of the existence of objects
a particular fact or denies the possibility of knowl- apprehended through such pramāṇas. In almost
edge; doctrine of persons who take cynical views all the schools of Indian philosophy, the authority
regarding knowledge. of the pramāṇas is accepted unquestioningly
(though there might be controversy regarding the
nature and number of such pramāṇas) and it is on
Buddhist View on Skepticism the basis of the pramāṇa that objects in the reality
are admitted. The Mādhyamika philosophers
Skepticism is a critical philosophical attitude throw a challenge to this basic assumption, by
questioning the reliability of the knowledge claims questioning the authenticity of the pramāṇas
made by philosophers and others. Skepticism themselves: How are the pramāṇas themselves
unlike dogmatism questions the possibility of established? There can be two answers to this
knowledge either in its general form or in any one question – first, the pramāṇas are established
or other of its accepted varieties. To the skeptic, the without the help of any other pramāṇa or they
ordinarily accepted methods of knowing like per- are established with the help of other pramāṇas.
ception, inferences, etc., appear to be highly ques- In either of the case, one is faced with grave
tionable. They hold that it is a mistake for the consequences. First, if it is said that the pramāṇas
dogmatist to claim to have true knowledge about are established without the help of pramāṇas, then
any entity without examining ways through which the proposition that all objects are established
an object is claimed to be known. through pramāṇas cannot be maintained, since S
In the West, skepticism, starting from the days the pramāṇas or the means of cognition them-
of the Greek period to the modern ages, has been selves are objects (artha). To avoid this conse-
prescribed in different forms. There are some skep- quence, if the second alternative is accepted, that
tics who do not raise doubt on all the ways of is, if it is said that the pramāṇas themselves are
knowing, but only on one or more of them. This established with the help of other pramāṇas, one
type of skepticism is regarded as moderate skepti- gets involved in infinite regress. In that case, there
cism. As contrasted with them, there are others who would not be any beginning of the process. Since
do not admit authenticity of any cognitive method the pramāṇas are established through other
and even challenge the validity of sense-percep- pramāṇas, and those others again through others,
tion. Accordingly, their view is known as “absolute there cannot be any beginning. And when there is
skepticism.” Thus, among the philosophers known no beginning, there cannot be any middle, nor can
to us, the Cārvākas can be regarded as moderate there be an end. Consequently, the statement that
1118 Śı̄la-samādhi-prajñā

the pramāṇas are established through other speak of the pramāṇas as pramāṇas. Nor can the
pramāṇas does not stand. To avoid the fallacy of pramāṇas be established in terms of the prameyas.
infinite regress, if it is said that the pramāṇas are So all these arguments show that the pramāṇas are
themselves established without any pramāṇa, not established by themselves, nor by anything
then that cannot be accepted also. For in the first else, nor by other pramāṇas, nor even by the
place, the position that everything is established prameyas. In short, one cannot speak of pramāṇas
through pramāṇa will not hold. Secondly, there at all. And this holds for all the pramāṇas or
will be discordance, since it is to be said that some sources of knowledge, irrespective of whether the
objects are established through pramāṇas while pramāṇa is perception, inference, comparison, tes-
some objects are not, and the special reason has to timony, or anything else. So, the position holds that
be provided as to why some objects can be knowledge is not possible at all.
established through pramāṇa and some cannot.
But no philosopher has presented such special
Cross-References
reasons. So this alternative is not acceptable.
To save the situation, one may give the analogy
▶ Ajita Keśakambali
of fire and say that just as fire does not require any
▶ Knowledge (Buddhism)
other object to illuminate itself while illuminating
▶ Logic (Buddhism)
others, pramāṇas do not need the help of any other
▶ Mādhyamika
pramāṇa to establish themselves. Nāgārjuna’s
▶ Nāgārjuna
observation here is that such an argument also
cannot be accepted, since it rests on a false propo-
sition. Fire is not illuminated by itself in the way an References
object pot is illuminated. Before being illuminated
by fire, the object pot is first not perceived in 1. Bhattacharyya (Chakrabarti) B (1987) Absolute skepti-
cism: eastern and western. Prajñā, Calcutta
darkness. Then being illuminated by fire, it is per-
2. Bhattacharyya K (1978) The dialectical method of
ceived. Hence, it is said that the pot is illuminated Nāgārjuna. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
by fire. In the same manner, if it is to be said that 3. Vaidya PL (1960) Mulamadhyamakasastra of
fire is illuminated by fire, then it has to be the case Nagarjuna, The Mithila Institute of Post-graduate
Studies and Research in Sanskrit Learning, Darbhanga
that before being illuminated by fire, fire existed in
darkness and was not perceived, and then it were
illuminated. But such a thing never happens.
Therefore, this assumption that fire illuminates
itself does not stand. There is another problem Śı̄la-samādhi-prajñā
also in this assumption. If it is said that fire illumi-
nates itself just as it illuminates others, it has to be ▶ Ethics (Buddhism)
said that fire can burn itself just as it can burn other
objects, which is also impossible. Accordingly, the
statement that fire illuminates itself as it illuminates
others cannot be admitted. Since the basic state- Slaves (Buddhism)
ment is false, comparison of pramāṇa with fire
does not stand. Those who are in favor of the Madhumita Chattopadhyay
pramāṇa theories may argue that without taking Department of Philosophy, Jadavpur University,
the help of any analogy, it can simply be said that Kolkata, West Bengal, India
the pramāṇas are self-established. That is, the
means of valid cognition are established indepen-
dently of the objects of true cognition. But this Synonyms
view also is not justified. For, in that case there
will be nothing with reference to which one can Dāsa; Servants
Slaves (Buddhism) 1119

Definition kingdoms. At the end of such a war or battle, the

citizens of the defeated kingdom were captured
Slaves are persons born of a low class and and reduced to slavery by the conquerors [3].
purchased through wealth (dhana) for the Another possible reason for slavery was judicial
purpose of getting service in household activities punishment – that is, someone might have been
and other activities where physical labor is deprived of freedom as a kind of judicial punish-
required. ment [4]; another reason was hereditary, that is,
the children of the slaves were considered as
slaves. Apart from all these reasons, there was
Slaves another possibility – someone could opt for slav-
ery out of his own choices.
In the early days of Buddhism, society was The most explicit treatment on slavery is found
divided among four classes of people – the in the Vinaya text [5] in connection with the
khattiya (kṣatriya) or the warrior class, the discussion on the restrictions of ordination.
brāhmaṇa or the priests, the vessa (vaiśya) or There it has been stated categorically that a slave
the ordinary citizens, and the suddas (śūdra) or cannot be ordained as a bhikkhu (dāso na
the people who were engaged in lower profession pabbājetabbo). However, in the Vinaya text, no
or to some acts which were considered to be low explicit reason has been offered for such restric-
vocation (hī nasippāni) [1]. All these people were tion. The probable reason that can be suggested is
free citizens, that is, they could do their works that the bhikkhus were not allowed to be the owner
according to their own will. They could exert of anything. Slaves were considered to be objects
their own wish or choices for choosing owned. Naturally the bhikkhus who were
a particular profession or doing a particular act. prohibited from having anything of their own
In addition to these people, there were some who could not have slaves. And since the slaves did
were not allowed any freedom; this group of peo- not have any freedom of their own, they were
ple was known as the dāsa or the slaves. debarred from ordination, because only persons
Buddhaghosa in his commentary Sumangala- with free choice could opt for becoming
vilāsini defines a slave as antojāta, one who is a bhikkhu. In short, in the Buddhist literature,
born to a low class. In another context of the same slave ownership was not considered to be any-
commentary, a more detailed account of a slave or thing different from ownership of other proper-
a dāsa can be found from which it is clear that ties. In fact, in the Buddhist society, stock
dāsa or slaves are persons purchased by money or description of wealth included ownership of
wealth. The definition is antojāta-dhanakkīta- slaves as also of other properties. And there were
karamarānī ta-samaṃ dāsabyaṇ upagatānaṇ also instances where the gifts offered to Lord
aññataro [2] – that is, slaves are those born of Buddha included slaves, both male and female, S
a low class and are purchased through wealth along with other gift items.
(dhana) for the purpose of getting service and in In spite of the presence of slave systems in
this respect are different from other classes of Buddhist society, it would be wrong to say that
people. From this definition of Buddhaghosa, it slaves were ill-treated as is heard of in other West-
can be said that slaves were persons purchased for ern countries, for example, in the Christian soci-
some money. This account of slaves is also found ety, the life of slave was one of misery and
in the Jātaka stories where it is mentioned that oppression. But in the Buddhist society, slaves
a dāsa was purchased for 700 kahāpaṇas (cur- were household servants and not badly treated.
rency of those days). But this is not the only way The only case of slave oppression recorded in
of obtaining a dāsa or the only reason for some- Buddhist literature is found in the Jātaka stories
one’s being regarded as a dāsa; there were other where a slave girl was let out to work for wages
reasons as well. One possible way was through but had to return home without receiving any
war or battle between two countries or two money [6]. In most cases, the slaves were looked
1120 Smrtyupasthāna
˙

upon as members appointed for doing household

works or as laborers who can offer physical labor Smrtyupasthāna
for daily works. As such in different texts like the ˙
Dīgha Nikāya or the Vinaya texts, the slaves have ▶ Satipaṭṭhāna
been referred to as kammakaro (dāso kammakaro
or dāsa ca kammakarā). It has been repeatedly
advised to the common people to behave well
with the servants. The Sigālovāda Sutta of the Socially Engaged Buddhism
Dīgha Nikāya recommended that a person must
look after his servants in a humanitarian way “by ▶ Engaged Buddhism
arranging their work according to their strength,
by supplying them with food and wages, by
looking after them when they are ill, by sharing
delicacies with them, and by letting them off work Sociology (Buddhism)
at right time.” The dāsas were also advised to be
diligent and honest in return and try to uphold the Renuka Singh
employer’s reputation [7]. Similar advice is found Department of Sociology, Centre for the Study of
in the rock edifices of King Aśoka. In short, the Social Systems, School of Social Sciences,
position of the slaves was not considered to be Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
derogatory in the Buddhist society. This gets con-
firmed by the fact that people of the higher classes
or castes did not feel themselves dishonored or Definition
degraded to call themselves dāsa or servant of
Lord Buddha. Sociology of religion is primarily the study of the
practices, social structures, historical backgrounds,
development, universal themes, and roles of reli-
gion in society; in this context, Buddhism is held as
Cross-References a religion that deals with salvation.
Sociology can be traced back to enlightenment
▶ Engaged Buddhism thought, shortly after the French Revolution, as
▶ Justice a positivist science of society. Its genesis is owed
to various key movements in the philosophies of
science and knowledge [7]. Social analysis in
References a broader sense, however, has origins within the
generic gamut of philosophy and necessarily pre-
1. Kalupahana D (2008) Ethics in early Buddhism. Motilal dates the field. The emergence of modern aca-
Banarsidass, Delhi demic sociology has been catalyzed by factors
2. Rhys Davids TW, Stede W (1975) Pāli-English dictio-
nary. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, Delhi
such as modernity, capitalism, urbanization,
3. Rhys Davids TW (1911) Buddhist India. T. Fischer rationalization, and secularization, and bears
Unwin, London a particularly strong interest in the emergence of
4. Rhys Davids TW (2001) Dialogues of the Buddha. Low the modern nation state – its constituent institu-
Price Publications, Delhi
5. Rhys Davids TW, Oldenberg H (tr) (1996) Vinaya Texts
tions, its units of socialization, and its means of
(in 3 vols) published in the series Sacred books of the surveillance. A manifest preference of modernity
east, vols 13, 17, 20 (ed. MaxMuller). Motilal over enlightenment then is one of the chief
Banarsidass, Delhi distinguishing features of sociology.
6. Mookerji RK (1958) Local Government in ancient
India. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
Sociology acquired a keen diversified and
7. Harvey P (2000) An introduction to Buddhist ethics. expansionist tendency, in terms of topic as well
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge as of methodology. Such a tendency is attributed
Sociology (Buddhism) 1121

to a protracted opposition to empiricism [7]. His- nineteenth-century nomothetic ambition. Sociol-

tory is wrought with thriving debates marking the ogists of religion have in general been committed
distinction between structure and agency and the to a would-be scientific analysis of the role played
relative supremacy of one over the other. Contem- by religion in the emergence, persistence, and
porary social theorists have tended toward the evolution of social and cultural systems [13].
attempt to reconcile such quagmires. While post- The sociology of religion is primarily the study
modernist trends in recent years have seen a rise in of the practices, social structures, historical back-
highly abstracted theory, new quantitative data grounds, development, universal themes, and
collection methods have also emerged, mostly roles of religion in society [9]. Sociologists of
for dealing with various ethnocentric issues. religion attempt to explain the effects of society
Despite being a derivative of sociology, the on religion and the effects of religion on society,
method of social research has quickly cut itself in other words, their dialectical relationship [2].
a niche in the very heart of social sciences as it has The historical background and, therefore, the
gained the repute of becoming a uniform analyti- respective philosophy and theology of the era,
cal tool across myriad fields of social sciences. and consecutively, the intellectual, scientific, and
This, in turn, has bestowed on social science the eventually the rationalist arguments help to under-
status of an umbrella discipline, with a broad stand the contemporary religious fields [4]. The
gamut, including diverse sciences dealing with trajectory through the functional and positivist
every human phenomenon. approach of thinkers like Durkheim in classical
Scholars have argued that religion, as an aspect sociology, to the more anthropological outlooks
of human society, has been supported by both of Frazer and Tylor, to the rationalist arguments of
historians and anthropologists as being universal. Weber, finally arrives at the postmodern phenom-
Both primitive and civilized humans have sought ena of secularism and globalization [9]. Peter
to come to terms with unexplainable situations Berger argued that the world was becoming
and experiences in everyday life [26]. Thus, reli- increasingly secular, but has since recanted. He
gion has been associated with the human attempt wrote that pluralism and globalization have
to find purpose and meaning in life – both of self changed the experience of faith for individuals
and the universe. In the past, religion had occu- around the world as dogmatic religion is now
pied a central place in human society and human less important than is a personal quest for spiritu-
thought. In the age of enlightenment and scientific ality. Thomas Luckmann provides another fruitful
rationalism, it was relegated to a secondary posi- analysis of the discipline, although he maintains
tion, so much so that the secularization theorists that there is today an absence of developing theory
had even predicted the demise of religion. How- in the sociology of religion. This absence of the-
ever, in recent times, we see religion returning to ory is both a conceptual and methodological prob-
the forefront of human concern. Religion, as lem [13]. S
a component of human behavior, is of utmost Modern academic sociology began with the
importance to the understanding of the evolution analysis of religion in Émile Durkheim’s 1897
of society, and the various approaches involved to study of suicide rates among Catholic and Prot-
comprehend the entirety of the intellectual scope estant populations, a foundational work of social
that study of religion prerequisites have made it research which served to distinguish sociology
difficult to describe or define sociology of religion from other disciplines, such as psychology [26].
in any unilateral sense of the term. Religion, he argued, was an expression of social
cohesion, and not imaginary, although he
does deprive it of what many believers find
Sociology of Religion essential [6]. Religion is very real; it is an
expression of society itself, and indeed, there is
The study of religion in its social aspects no society that does not have religion. Individ-
and consequences emerged as part of the uals perceive a force greater than themselves,
1122 Sociology (Buddhism)

which is their social life, and give that percep- A religion of salvation may very well have its
tion a supernatural face. They then express origin within socially privileged groups [3]. The
themselves religiously in groups, which for charisma of the prophet is normally associated
Durkheim makes the symbolic power greater. with a certain minimum of intellectual cultivation.
Religion is an expression of their collective con- But as a rule, salvation religion changes its char-
sciousness, which is the fusion of all of their acter as soon as it has reached lay circles who are
individual consciousnesses, creating a reality not particularly or professionally concerned with
of its own [6]. intellectualism, and more changes its character
In the works of Karl Marx, religion is held as after it has reached into the lowest social strata
a significant hindrance to reason, inherently to whom intellectualism is both economically and
masking the truth and misguiding followers. He socially inaccessible. One characteristic element
views social alienation as the heart of social of this transformation, a product of the inevitable
inequality. The antithesis to this alienation is free- accommodation to the needs of the masses, may
dom. Thus, to propagate freedom means to pre- be formulated generally as the emergence of
sent individuals with the truth and give them a personal, divine, or human-divine savior as the
a choice to accept or deny it. Central to Marx’s bearer of salvation, with the additional conse-
theories is the oppressive economic situation in quence that the religious relationship to this per-
which he dwelt. Not only are workers exploited, sonality becomes the precondition of salvation
but in the process they are being further detached [5]. One instance of this is the substitution for
from the products they helped create. By simply the Buddha ideal, namely, the exemplary intellec-
selling their work for wages, “workers simulta- tualist salvation into enlightenment (nirvana), by
neously lose connection with the object of labor the ideal of a Bodhisattva, namely, a savior who
and become objects themselves. Workers are has descended upon earth and has sacrificed his
devalued to the level of a commodity – own entrance into Nirvana for the sake of saving
a thing. . .” [14]. From this objectification comes his fellow humans [1]. In the Buddhist doctrine,
alienation. The common worker is told he or she is any proletarian denunciation of wealth would
a replaceable tool, alienated to the point of have been equally alien to the Buddha, for
extreme discontent. Here, in Marx’s eyes, religion whom the unconditional withdrawal from the
enters. Capitalism utilizes our tendency toward world was absolute presupposition for salvation.
religion as a tool or ideological state apparatus to Buddhism constitutes the most radical antithesis
justify this alienation. to every type of resentment religiosity [23].
Max Weber emphasizes the relationship
between religion and the economic or social struc-
ture of society. For Weber, religion is best under- Buddhism
stood as it responds to the human need for
theodicy and soteriology [3]. Human beings are The origin of Buddhism can be archeologically
troubled, he says, with the question of theodicy – traced back to approximately 2,500 years, in the ś
the question of how the extraordinary power of rāmānic traditions of the Sākyā tribe in the foot-
a divine god may be reconciled with the imper- hills of Himalayas in present-day Nepal [8]. The
fection of the world that he has created and rules values and teachings of Buddhism then were
over [5]. People need to know, for example, why those that stood in opposition to the Hindu variety
there is undeserved good fortune and suffering in of differentiation and intolerance. Buddhism
the world. Religion offers people soteriological sought to assimilate all humans from diverse strata
answers, or answers that provide opportunities of the Indian culture of the Vedic-Brahmanic order
for salvation, for example, relief from suffering, [8]. The Buddhist ideologies were teachings of the
and reassuring meaning [28]. The pursuit of sal- “awakened one” or the Buddha, who imparted his
vation, like the pursuit of wealth, becomes a part knowledge and experience or Dharma into the
of human motivation. community or Samgha of his followers [10].
Sociology (Buddhism) 1123

These elements were characteristic of an inner into paradise, nor to teach the person who does not
awakening or liberation taught as lessons, which desire salvation (nirvana). Precisely, this example
transcended material bondage to stratification, of Buddhism demonstrates that the need for sal-
and thus provided a linear spiritual direction for vation and ethical religion has yet another source
those who subscribed to the teachings, removed besides the social condition of the disprivileged
from the dogmatized and heavily segregated his- and the rationalism of the citizens, who were
tory of Hindu traditions [1]. conditioned by their practical situation of life
Buddhism passed through the political associ- [20]. This additional factor is intellectualism as
ations of its time with dynasties such as the Sākyā, such, more particularly the philosophical needs of
Māuryā, and Śūnga, and reached its pinnacle the human mind as it is driven to reflect on ethical
through their support [8]. In this period between and religious questions, driven not by material
its genesis and the impending foreign invasions, need but by an inner need to understand the
of about 300 years, Buddhism became world as a meaningful cosmos and to take up
a systematized doctrinal practice. The decline a position toward it [1].
and fall of the Māuryā dynasty brought an end to At the opposite extreme from economic ethics
the assured association for Buddhist monastic of this worldly religion stands the ultimate ethic of
institutions [3]. It was then that the scriptural world-rejection, the mystical illuminative concen-
traditions within the Buddhist framework started tration of original ancient Buddhism [18]. Even
to acquire internal shapes, and the canons indoc- this most world-rejecting ethic is rational, in the
trinated scholastic variations divided on linguistic sense that it produces a constant self-control of all
lines. “Apart from the Theravāda recension natural instinctive drives, though for purposes
of the Pāli canon and some fragments of the entirely different from those of inner-worldly
Sarvāstivādin Sanskrit canon nothing survives of asceticism. Salvation is sought, not from sin and
what must have been a diverse body of literature. suffering alone, but also from transitoriness as
For most of the collections we only have the such; escape from the wheel of karma-causality
memory preserved in inscriptions referring to into eternal rest is the goal pursued. This search is,
pitakas and nikāyas and an occasional reference and can only be, the highly individualized
in the extant literature” [8]. These facts led to the achievement of a particular person [17]. There is
disintegration of Buddhism based on scriptural no predestination, no divine grace, no prayer, and
lineage, and the Mahāyāna and Hināyāna sects no religious service. The karma-causality of the
arose from it, and spread in every direction cul- cosmic mechanism of compensation automati-
minating in the fact that eventually certain areas cally rewards or punishes all single good or evil
became dominantly Mahāyāna or Hināyāna, of deeds. This retribution is always proportional, and
which the Mahāyāna tradition bore more ground- hence always limited in time. So long as the
level acceptance. The Buddhist tradition has individual is driven to action by the thirst for S
always encompassed a spiritual deconstruction life, one must experience in full measure the fruits
of the self-conception to incorporate the idea of of one’s behavior in ever-new human existences.
the bodhisattva path as the first aspiration to Whether their momentary situation is animal,
awakening, and the bodhisattva ideal also implied heavenly, or hellish, one necessarily creates new
new ethical notions as themes in its own ethical chances in the future [20].
speculation [8]. The achievement of salvation is possible for
Buddhism clearly arose as the salvation teach- only a few, even for those who have resolved to
ing of an intellectual stratum, originally recruited live in propertyless, celibacy, and unemployment
almost entirely from the privileged castes, espe- (for labor is end-oriented action), and hence in
cially the warrior caste, which proudly and aristo- begging. These chosen few are required to wander
cratically rejected the illusions of life, both here ceaselessly – except at the time of heavy rains –
and hereafter [3]. The Buddhist monk (bhikshu) freed from all personal ties to family and world,
does not desire the world at all, not even a rebirth pursuing the goal of mystical illumination by
1124 Sociology (Buddhism)

fulfilling the commandments of the correct path revivalism of Buddhism, through their critical and
(dharma). When such salvation is gained, the modernist stands [23].
deep joy and tender, undifferentiated love charac- In the West, however, postmodern paradigms
terizing such illumination provide the highest of Buddhism have undergone some important
blessing possible in this existence, short of changes in the last few decades; in other words,
absorption into the eternal dreamless sleep Buddhism has cross-pollinated with modernity
(nirvana), the only state in which there is no with inspiration from the processes of detraditio-
suffering [18]. nalization, demythologization, and psycholo-
The decline of Buddhist traditions in India was gization [19]. It also provides insight into the
marked by the Turkish conqueror Muhammad three overlapping constitutive discourses of
Ghūrī and the consequent destruction of the uni- modernity: western theism, scientific rationalism,
versities of Nālandā in 1197 and Vikramaśī la in and romanticism including its successors [15].
1203. After this, Buddhism became a walled-in However, despite being theologically discon-
philosophy that only survived in isolated pockets nected with Buddhism, these discourses offer to
[20]. As the Turkish occupation spread in India, illustrate the historicity and hybridity of the doc-
the Buddhist scholars escaped from Kashmir and trine, as well as provide paradigmatic explana-
Bihar into Nepal and Tibet [27]. Himalayan Bud- tions for the spread of its spiritual message all
dhism of direct Indian ancestry remains only in over the world through the past few decades.
Nepal, partly fused with the local Hindu tradi-
tions. Buddhism of Tibetan origin survives in the
subcontinent mostly in Ladakh, Bhutan, and Buddhism and Modernity
Sikkim [20].
The Buddhist revivalism only started as recent The hybridity of Buddhist modernism, its protean
as the late nineteenth century through the nature, its discarding of much that is traditional,
Mahābodhi Society and Theosophical Society and its often radical reworking of doctrine and
popularized in Sri Lanka by Henri S. Olcott. The practice naturally invite questions of authenticity,
most significant revivalist attempt at Buddhism in legitimacy, and definition [15]. What seems to be
the new age was through the emancipatory ideals the order here is that Buddhism being a relatively
of equality and justice of Buddhism; B. R. liberal and egalitarian conception instills a sense
Ambedkar took up the cause of the marginally of inner peace through its spiritual teachings,
excluded and exploited castes within Hinduism whereas modernity encourages isolated individu-
and provided them with a chance to liberate their ality and increased competition between the iso-
social position through the indiscriminate spiritu- lated individuals, thus creating a spiritual vacuum
ality of Buddhism [10]. The most detailed and within the system. Buddhism, if considered for the
persistent effort at rediscovering Buddhism has sake of the argument, as a sermon provides an
come primarily from the Western scholars, who escape from the never-ending rat race of the post-
have repeatedly attempted at reviving the Bud- modern world, where no one ever rests, sleeps, or
dhist scriptures, including a modern critical edi- stops, and offers a peaceful meditative alternative
tion of the complete Pāli canon and the recovery realization that transcends the material matters of
of original texts of the Sarvāstivāda canon. Japa- this world [22]. This particular alternative of Bud-
nese scholarship has also revived the Chinese dhist teaching is what gave the Western world –
canons between 1880 and 1929, and their produc- where inner-spirituality was already on the
tive critical research has placed Japan ahead of decline and individuality based compensation on
many more such attempts at the head of modern its pinnacle – the creation of the Zen or, in other
research into Indian Buddhism. The neo- words, the Western implementation of Buddhist
Buddhists, as sects or groups who adopt the teachings, wherein some elements of Buddhism
Buddhist teachings and philosophies, in Europe were adapted with the modern realities to merge
and America have also contributed to the global and create a suitable alternative that fitted
Sociology (Buddhism) 1125

the psyche of those who subscribed to it [15]. reflected in the lives of ordinary Indians and that
Thus, globalization and decentering of legitimacy Buddhism is coming alive again in India, as men-
contextual to the time-space recurrence of Bud- tioned earlier [12]. Even though worldwide there
dhism as a philosophy will pertain to the debate has been a rapid growth of interest in Buddhism
that Buddhism as a spiritual guide shall face reviv- in the last quarter of the twentieth century,
alism whenever there would arise a need for His Holiness the Dalai Lama does not see any
global folk religion that surpasses the politiciza- special significance in this phenomenon, espe-
tion that the other major religious systems of the cially the tendency toward sectarianism among
world face [25]. new practitioners in the West. His Holiness
Buddhism is the most consistent doctrine of sees this as a disturbing development. Religion,
salvation produced by the intellectualism of he asserts, should never become a source of
noble lay educated Indian strata [11]. Its cool conflict [24].
and proud emancipation of the individual from Today, Buddhism has spread in a rather thin
life as such, which in effect stood the individual manner and for it to have any future, one requires
on one’s own feet, could never become a mass a solid foundation of the Buddhist realizations. As
religion of salvation. Buddhism’s influence Ven. Lama Zopa Rinpoche says:
beyond the circle of the educated was due to the When one talks about the propagation of Buddhism,
tremendous prestige traditionally enjoyed by the one has to remember that there are two types of
śrāmānic members, who possessed magical teaching – the words and the realizations. Of these,
and idolatrous charisma. As soon as Buddhism it is the latter that makes the difference. It is easy for
the words to continue for centuries – all one needs is
became a missionizing folk religion, it accord- a few good libraries. But without the living experi-
ingly transformed into a savior religion based on ence of the meanings of the words that comes
karma compensation, with hopes for the world through purification, creation of merit and effective
beyond guaranteed by devotional techniques, cul- meditation, the words are dry and tasteless and
cannot be a vehicle for Buddhism to continue into
tic and sacramental grace, and deeds of mercy the distant future. For this to happen, one needs
[15]. Naturally, Buddhism also tended to accept serious meditators spending years, if not their
purely magical notions. lives, in retreat under the supervision of experi-
In India, Buddhism took its place among the enced masters. Is this happening today? [24].
upper strata, by a renewed philosophy of salvation
based on the Vedas [12], and it met competition
from Hinduistic salvation religions, especially the Cross-References
various forms of Vishnuism, from Tantristic
magic, and from orgiastic mystery religions, nota- ▶ Bodhisattva
bly the bhakti piety (love of god). In Tibet, Bud- ▶ Dharma
dhism became the purely monastic religion of ▶ Karma
S
a theocracy which controlled the laity by churchly ▶ Nālandā
powers of a thoroughly magical character. In East ▶ Nirvana
Asia, original Buddhism underwent striking trans-
formation as it competed and entered into diverse
combinations with Chinese Taoism, thus, which References
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The term sotāpanna refers to one who has reached
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18. Omvedt G (2003) Buddhism in India: challenging nized in early Buddhism. A sotāpanna has
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19. Paine J (2004) Re-enchantment: Tibetan Buddhism
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28. Weber M (1993) Sociology of religion (reprint). Bea- The time required for this stream to lead to
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Manoharilal tinguished into three main types ([4], Vol. IV,
Sotāpanna 1127

p. 381): those who need up to seven more lives With the arising of this “eye of the Dharma,”
in human or heavenly realms to reach liberation, which would correspond to the first direct experi-
sattakkhattuparama, those who are reborn twice ence of Nirvāṇa, the noble disciple has seen,
or thrice among humans before reaching full reached, understood, and penetrated the Dharma.
liberation, kolankola, and those who are reborn In this way having gone beyond doubt, the
only once more as a human being before stream-enterer has attained such a degree of per-
attaining the final goal, ekabījī . Such differ- sonal independence in regard to the teaching that
ences reflect the circumstance that a stream- he or she no longer needs to depend on anyone
enterer might neglect to retire regularly into else. The attainment of stream-entry is in fact
seclusion for the purpose of meditative practice clearly recognizable as an event that occurs at
and, due to neglecting the practice, gains a particular moment of time, comparable to one’s
neither concentration nor deeper insight ([3], going forth ([4], Vol. I, p. 107).
Vol. V, p. 398). The discourses report several rather striking
Some discourses report staggering numbers of cases of the arising of the “eye of the Dharma,”
disciples of the Buddha who had been able to gain such as the case of a leper who had apparently
stream-entry ([2], Vol. II, p. 218). The attainment mistaken a crowd listening to the Buddha for
of stream-entry is not restricted to a particular a group assembled at a charitable food distribution
caste or gender, as women are as capable as men and approached them only in the hope of receiving
to progress toward this or any of the other three a meal ([6], p. 49). Instead of getting food, he was
levels of awakening ([4], Vol. IV, p. 276). Not able to hear a gradual instruction by the Buddha,
only humans can attain stream-entry, but also resulting in his attainment of stream-entry.
gods ([4], Vol. III, p. 333). A case in point is Another discourse reports a layman who was
Sakka, the king of gods, who visited the Buddha slightly inebriated, but then sobered up through
in order to pose a set of questions and on hearing the impact of meeting the Buddha for the first time
the Buddha’s replies attained stream-entry ([2], and realized stream-entry during a gradual dis-
Vol. II, p. 284). course given at that same first meeting ([4], Vol.
In the numerous instances of stream-entry IV, p. 213). Another layman is on record for
reported in the discourses, the actual attainment having passed away as a stream-enterer even
similarly takes place during a visit paid to the though earlier he had been unable to abstain
Buddha. This begins with the Buddha delivering completely from intoxicating drinks ([3], Vol. V,
a gradual discourse on the importance of morality p. 375).
and generosity and on the need to renounce sen- Possibly even more surprising is the case of
suality. When in the course of listening to this several hired killers, one of whom even had the
gradual instruction the listener’s mind reaches mission of killing the Buddha. Instead of complet-
a state free from the hindrances, the Buddha ing their mission, they all are reported to have S
expounds the four noble truths, a teaching that become stream-enterers, after having received
begins by identifying the scope of dukkha (first a gradual discourse by the Buddha ([5], Vol. II,
truth), a term whose meaning ranges from barely p. 192).
noticeable dissatisfaction to outright suffering as On considering the frequent occurrence of
inherent features of human existence. The same stream-entry during a discourse by the Buddha,
teaching then proceeds by delineating the arising it needs to be taken into account that if someone
of dukkha (second truth), its cessation (third had realized stream-entry while meditating alone
truth), and the path that leads to its cessation and in seclusion, this did not occasion a discourse
(fourth truth). Upon receiving this teaching of and therefore was not recorded later. But when
the four noble truths, the “eye of the Dharma,” someone realized stream-entry while listening to
dhammacakkhu, arises in the listener’s mind, with the Buddha’s instruction, this became part of the
the insight that whatever is of a nature to arise is later reported discourse. Thus, it is to be expected
also of a nature to cease. that mainly the latter type of stream-entry
1128 Sotāpanna

realizations are recorded in the discourses. These by impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, and the
instances thus reflect the Buddha’s outstanding absence of a self.
capability as a teacher, who apparently was able One who has become a stream-enterer is
to deliver a talk in such a way that it would lead to endowed with the four limbs of stream-entry:
stream-entry of even those who otherwise would unwavering confidence or faith in the Buddha,
probably not so easily have reached such a lofty the Dharma, and the community of noble ones,
attainment. together with a firm commitment to moral conduct
Listening to the Dharma and associating with ([3], Vol. V, p. 357). Though minor breaches of
worthy men, together with rightly directed atten- morality may still occur, a stream-enterer will be
tion and practice in accordance with the Dharma, unable to commit a serious crime ([1], 231). Even
are in fact the factors that are required for the in the case of a smaller breach of moral conduct,
attainment of stream-entry ([3], Vol. V, p. 411). a stream-enterer will immediately confess the
At the moment of attaining stream-entry, three breach ([1], 232).
of the fetters that according to early Buddhism Other qualities of a stream-enterer are no lon-
bind the unawakened worldling to continued exis- ger being obsessed by mental defilements,
tence in the cycle of saṃsāra are eradicated ([1], possessing a certain degree of inner tranquility,
231). These three are the fetter of personality being firmly convinced of the uniqueness of the
view, sakkāyadiṭṭhi, in the sense of the notion of insight gained, being willing to admit any com-
a permanent self, the fetter of doubt, vicikicchā, in mitted offence, being fully dedicated to the
particular doubt regarding the nature of what is development of morality, meditation, and
wholesome and what is unwholesome, and the wisdom, and having a keen interest in the
fetter of dogmatic clinging to rules and vows, Dharma ([7], Vol. I, p. 324). Even on the worldly
sī labbataparāmāsa, as in themselves sufficient level, the attainment of stream-entry apparently
for reaching liberation. has its repercussions, since according to one dis-
The meditative development of insight culmi- course a stream-enterer is endowed with long life
nating in the attainment of stream-entry could be and beauty, happiness, and a good reputation
based on contemplating the impermanent, unsat- ([3], Vol. V, p. 390). In sum, from an early Bud-
isfactory, and therefore selfless nature of the dhist perspective, neither lordship over the whole
five aggregates affected by clinging ([3], Vol. III, earth, nor rebirth in an exalted heavenly realm,
p. 160). These five aggregates are according to the nor dominion over the entire universe can com-
early Buddhist analysis the chief constituents of pare to the attainment of stream-entry ([8], 178).
an individual, covering the aggregates of bodily
form, feeling, perception, volitions, and con-
sciousness. Alternatively, subjective experience
Cross-References
can be analyzed from the perspective of the six
senses and their objects ([3], Vol. III, p. 225), ▶ Anāgāmin
a mode of analysis that reckons the mind as
▶ Arahant
a sixth sense alongside the five physical senses
▶ Insight
of the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body. ▶ Liberation (Buddhism)
In any case, insight into the conditioned nature
▶ Sakadāgāmin
of all phenomena needs to be part of the develop-
ment of insight that leads to stream-entry, since an
understanding of conditionality forms one of the
qualities of a stream-enterer ([4], Vol. III, p. 441). References
In sum, what needs to be realized by direct per-
1. Andersen D, Smith H (eds) (1913) The Sutta-nipāta.
sonal experience in order to attain stream-entry is Pali Text Society, London (references are by stanza)
what early Buddhism reckons the true nature of 2. Carpenter JE, Rhys Davids TW (eds) (1890–1911) The
reality, namely, its being conditioned and marked Dīgha Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London
Śramana 1129
˙

3. Feer L (ed) (1888–1898) The Saṃyutta Nikāya, 5 vols. ‘Śramaṇa’ in Sanskrit is “samaṇa” in Pali.
Pali Text Society, Oxford The word “śramaṇa” in Sanskrit is derived
4. Morris R, Hardy E (eds) (1885–1900) The Aṅguttara
Nikāya, 5 vols. Pali Text Society, London from the root “śram,” which means ‘to strive’ or
5. Oldenberg H (ed) (1879–1882) Vinayapiṭakaṃ, 5 vols. ‘to labor hard’. A śramaṇa has to work hard to
Pali Text Society, Oxford drive out different defilements like craving and
6. Steinthal P (ed) (1885) The Udāna. Pali Text Society, aversion from his mind. If he works to achieve
London
7. Trenckner V, Chalmers R (eds) (1888–1896) The this end, he is called a śramaṇa.
Majjhima Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London The word “samaṇa” in Pali is derived from the
8. von Hinüber O, Norman KR (eds) (1994) The root “sama” which means ‘to become quiet’, to
Dhammapada. Pali Text Society, London (references attain peace and tranquillity. It also means to be
are by stanza)
free from burning. Its other meaning is equanim-
ity, which means to remain unmoved in all cir-
cumstances of life [1].
Because a samaṇa works hard to get rid of
Soul defilements, to attain peace, and to develop equa-
nimity, the derivation of the word samaṇa from
▶ Jīva (Jainism)
both the roots is justified.
One who has ceased to do evil actions and one
who commits no evil actions (pāpakā akusalā
dhammā) is called a samaṇa [2].
Southern Tradition of Buddhism What are evil or unwholesome actions? They
are unwholesome physical and vocal actions like
▶ Theravāda killing, stealing, committing sexual misconduct,
telling lies, slandering people, making harsh
speech, talking uselessly, and taking intoxicants.
One who has destroyed all his cankers or taints
Spiritualism is also called a samaṇa [3].
From all these definitions it is clear that one
▶ Mysticism (Buddhism) who is on the path of refraining from unwhole-
some actions is a samaṇa and one who is
completely free from them is also a samaṇa.

Śramana
˙ Categories of Samana
Angraj Chaudhary ˙
S
Vipassana Research Institute, Dhammagiri, There are, therefore, several categories of
Igatpuri, Nashik, Maharashtra, India samaṇa. The first category is sotāpanna, who
has entered into the stream that will ultimately
take him to nibbāna
Synonyms As soon as he becomes a sotāpanna, three of
the fetters such as doubt, belief in a soul, and
Ascetic; Parivrājaka; Sadhu; Sannyāsī; Yati clinging to rites and rituals are abandoned.
A sotāpanna is not subject to birth in lower
worlds; he is firmly established in dhamma, and
Definition he is sure to attain nibbāna. He has to be born for
not more than seven times to be free from all taints
One who is completely free from all evil actions is and become an arhat. Besides he develops other
a śramaṇa. qualities such as he cannot conceal any of his
1130 Śramana
˙

wrong actions and he cannot commit any of the any Dhamma and Discipline, there is no samaṇa
six heinous crimes such as killing his mother, there [8].
killing his father, killing an arahant, causing The Buddha also says in the Cūḷasī hanāda
schism in the saṅgha, wounding a Buddha, and Sutta that as there is the Noble Eightfold Path
upholding wrong views [4]. here, four kinds of samaṇas are found in his
The second category is sakadāgāmī , i.e., once order, in his teaching. They cannot be found any-
returner. It means that he will be born only once in where else. Why? Because others’ orders and
this world and attain nibbāna. He dilutes and teachings do not make a good field where seeds
makes feeble the two other fetters, viz., sensuality can grow. Just as mustard seeds cannot stay on the
(kāma rāga) and ill will (vyāpāda). tip of an awl, nor can fire burn by the side of water,
The third category is anāgāmī , i.e., he will not nor can seeds grow on a flat stone, in the same way
be born in this world and attain nibbāna in some all the four kinds of samaṇas can be found in the
other deva world. The most important character- order of the Buddha, in the teachings of the Bud-
istic of an anāgāmī is that he is completely free dha, not in the teachings of other sectarian
from the 5 lower fetters. teachers because the Noble Eightfold Path is not
The fourth category is arahant, who has there [9].
destroyed all his taints and attained nibbāna. He It has also been said here that just as a lion does
will never be born in any loka, and he is free from not live in a cemetery, nor on the rubbish heap, but
the cycle of birth and death. He becomes free from in the jeweled cave of the Himalayas, a six-tusked
the 5 higher fetters such as craving for fine material elephant is born in his own family and not in the
existence (rūpa rāga), craving for immaterial exis- nine ordinary elephant families, just as the dark
tence (arūpa rāga), conceit (māna), restlessness horse king is not born in the family of ass or in the
(uddhacca), and ignorance (avijjā). He attains family of ordinary horse, but in a Saindhava fam-
both the kinds of deliverance, deliverance of mind ily on the bank of the river Sindhu, just as an all
(ceto vimutti) and deliverance through wisdom pleasure fulfilling jewel is not found on the
(paññā vimutti). Deliverance of mind means to be heap of rubbish or on the heap of dust but in the
free from rāga (craving) and dosa (aversion) and inside of mountain Vaipulla. . .so not even a single
deliverance through paññā (wisdom) means deliv- samaṇa is found in other sects but found only in
erance from avijjā (ignorance) [5]. the order of the Buddha where monks walk on the
Eightfold Path [10].
A true samaṇa is endowed with eight kinds of
pleasure. He has no desire for collecting riches; he
Buddha: A Mahāsamana earns his livelihood by pure means; what he eats,
˙
he eats without craving; he does not have to give
The Buddha is called a mahāsamaṇa as is clear trouble to anybody for his alms like a king; he has
from what Assaji says to Sāriputta. no attachment to the objects of the world; he does
Ye dhammā hetuppabhavā, tesaṃ hetu Tathāgato not fear thieves; he does not have the desire to
āha/ meet the king and his ministers; and he is free to
Tesaṃ ca yo nirodho, evaṃvādī mahāsamaṇoti// go in any direction [11].
[6]

The Great Samaṇa, the Tathāgata, explains the

causes of those dhammas, which have causes to References
arise. He also explains how those causes can cease
to be. 1. Dh, verse 388 (Unless otherwise mentioned all books
Many brāhmanas and others call the Buddha referred to here are published by Vipassana Research
Institute, Dhammagiri in 1998)
a samaṇa [7]. 2. M 1.351; Sīlakkhadhavagga ṬῙkā 1.238
One can be a samaṇa if he walks on the Eight- Sīlakkhadhavagga Abhinava Ṭīkā 1.28, Dh. verse 265
fold Path. If there is no Noble Eightfold Path in 3. Sīlakkhadhavagga ṬῙkā,1.28.
Śrāvaka 1131

4. Sn p. 118, Ratana Sutta the phrase ‘thus I have heard or this is what I have
5. A.1.273 been given to understand’ (Sk. ‘etaṁ mayāś
6. Mv p. 46; A3 160
7. M1.268, D.197,125 rutam’), indicating that Buddhist tradition was in
8. A 1.273 the original form oral and later on came down in
9. MA 1.317 the written form.
10. MA 1.313 At that time, ‘listening’ (Sk. Śravaṇa), ‘think-
11. JA 1.10
ing/contemplating’ (Sk. Manana), and rethinking/
memorizing daily (Sk. Nididhyāsana) was the
Vedic method of comprehension and understand-
ing (Sk. Abhyāsa) used to preserve tradition by the
Śrāvaka Brāhmaṇas. Śrāmaṇic traditions, both Jainism
and Buddhism, at the initial stages adopted similar
Mangala Ramchandra Chinchore
modes/practices. That is why one often comes
Department of Philosophy, Centre for Studies in
across the term Śramaṇa-Brāhmaṇa in the Pāli
Classical Indian Buddhist Philosophy and
Tripiṭaka literature to indicate similarity of fol-
Culture, University of Pune, Pune, Maharashtra,
lowing and preserving the tradition faithfully. It
India
helped both Jainism and Buddhism to preserve the
tradition authentically by the Śrāvakas, who were
strict adherents.
Synonyms Sāvaka/Śrāvaka is a term used by both the
Śrāmaṇic traditions – Buddhism and Jainism.
Sāvaka (Pāli) ‘Sāvaka/Śrāvaka’ primarily means lay-male dis-
ciple; however, for women, lay-disciple correlate
separate term is available that is Sāvikā/Śrāvikā.
Similarly, it connotes two different meanings in
Definition
the Śrāmaṇic traditions. In Jainism, a Śrāvaka is
any ‘lay-follower.’ Contrastively in Buddhism,
Sāvaka (Pāli)/Śrāvaka (Sanskrit) etymologically
the term is restrictively used for ‘distinguished or
means ‘hearer’ or ‘listener,’ which is generally
ordained disciples only’ of the Buddha [Sk.
translated as ‘disciple’ or ‘follower’ of the tradi-
Sādhujana – monks (Pāli-Bhikkhu/ṣ) and/or nuns
tional Buddhist way of life. Since at the time of the
(Pāli-Bhikkhuṇīs)]. Śrāvaka is one who has
Buddha, it was oral tradition, Śrāvaka connotes
believed and entered the stream of adopting prac-
those who listen (direct voice) to teachings of the
tice of teachings of the Buddha, preserved and
Buddha [or indirectly through the elders (Sk.
prescribed by the tradition. For lay-disciple,
Sthavira)] [1]. It also connotes one who is ready
separately they prefer to use another term S
to follow the teachings/advices/instructions (Pāli-
‘Puthujana,’ which connotes laymen/laywomen
Sikkhā/Sk.-Śī kṣā) given by the Buddha, (strictly
(Sk. Upāsakas and/or Upāsikās). However, such
by letters) with conviction and commitment [2].
subtle discrimination and distinction was later
Śrāvaka is a term used by both Jainism and Bud-
on noted and removed appropriately in the
dhism to denote followers of the Śrāmaṇic
Mahāyāna Buddhism, and the term Bodhisattvas
tradition.
was used commonly to connote Arhat, in contrast
to Śrāvaka. Roughly speaking, Śrāvaka seems to
connote a lower sense (Pāli-Hī na), referring to the
Disciple’ or ‘Follower’ of the Traditional earlier/orthodox followers of the Buddha, but in
Buddhist Way of Life the Mahāyāna Buddhism, there was a possibility
to become Bodhisattva (ideal human being)
In this context, it is worth to note that all sayings open to all without discrimination of gender or
of the Buddha in the Nikāya literature begin with marital status.
1132 Śrāvaka

Any lay-disciple men/women (Sk. Śrāvaka/ adhering to the instructions laid down by the Bud-
Śrāvikā) should follow moral codes of discipline dha by letters to become Arhat. Here, it is important
prescribed in the Eightfold Path (Sk. Aṣṭāṅgika- to note that the word generally used is Śrāvaka-yāna
mārga) in general and the five precepts (Sk. and not Śrāvikā-yāna, though the instructions given
Pañca-Śī la) in particular. He/she should respect are meant for both Śrāvaka and Śrāvikā, without
but should not have attachment toward the six bringing in any kind of discrimination, because the
kinds of relationships, namely, parents, teachers, emphasis is not on the gender or marital status of the
wife and children, friends, and servants. He/she person concerned but on emancipation (Sk.
should regard the six directions, namely, Nirvāṇa) and one’s eligibility or entitlement (Sk.
East–West, South-North, up-down, showing Arhatatā). In the Śrāvaka-yāna, the ideal for
gratefulness toward earth and one’s placement a Śrāvaka is to become eligible/entitled to (Arhat)
on it [3]. He/she should abide by the three emancipation (Pāli-Nibbāna/Sk. Nirvāṇa). It is
refuges (Sk. Tri-Śaraṇas) – Buddha, his teachings a path preserving the authenticity and reliability of
(Pāli-Dhamma) and the group of people following the tradition without changes and hence is orthodox
it (Pāli-Saṁgha). He/she should give up the four mode of life. They are also called as Samyak-
kinds of defilements/impurities (Sk. Kleśas/ sambuddhas (Pāli-Sammā-sambuddhas) in contrast
Doṣas) in action, which bring in infringement in to another form of emancipation, namely, Pratyeka-
the moral/social principles, namely, taking away Buddha (Pāli-Pacceka-buddha).
life or doing violence to (Sk. Hiṁsā), craving and Pratyeka-Buddhayāna implies that one who
clinging to what is not given/stealing (Sk. has attained enlightenment (Bodhi) by self-effort,
Parigraha), misconduct in joy of sensual plea- following his/her own conscience, as per the
sure/indulgence in sex (Sk. A-brahmacarya), and advices of the Buddha, is becoming guide of
speaking lies (Sk. A-satya) since they are enemies oneself (Pāli-Attāno padī po bhava). One follows
of humanity, namely, greed (Sk. Rāga/Lobha), middle way (Sk. Madhyamā-pratipad) but has the
envy, jealousy and hatred (Sk. Dveṣa), delusion capacity to interpret the appropriate meaning and
(Sk. Moha), etc. He/she should not practice bad makes changes according to contexts and situa-
actions related to the four circumstances (Sk. tions in which one lives. One takes the full moral
Sthānas), namely, will, wish, inclinations, desire, responsibility of any action performed by oneself.
etc. (Sk. Chandas), hatred/anger (Sk. Dveṣa), Each one has a potentiality to become Buddha,
lures/temptations/delusions (Sk. Moha), and fear provided one strives very hard to actualize it.
(Sk. Bhaya). He/she should not indulge in the six In contrast to these two, in the Mahāyāna tra-
kinds of openings to loss of property due to habit/ dition, there is only one mode, namely, Bodhi-
practice (Sk. Anuyoga) or negligence due to intox- sattva-yāna (one who is living selflessly for the
ication (Sk. Pramāda), etc. Thus, he/she should sake of emancipation of all sentient beings
avoid the 14 kinds of evils and behave appropri- and sacrificing one’s own personal goals of life).
ately in an ethical and religious way [4]. Bodhisattva primarily practices wisdom (Pāli-
Within the fold of Buddhism, roughly speaking, Paññā/Sk. Prajñā) and compassion (Sk. Karūṇā)
there are two sects – Hī nayāna and Mahāyāna, and and has transcended the limitations of self-inter-
there are three paths/vehicles/modes of emancipa- ests. It is claimed by the Mahāyānists that their
tion (Yānas) [5], corresponding to the three goals consideration of goals of life is more profound and
of life, namely, wisdom/insight (Pāli-Paññā/Sk. altruistic, as compared to the earlier Hī nayāna
Prajñā), character/morality (Sk. Śī la), and conception of Śrāvaka-yāna and/or Pratyeka-
meditation/concentration (Sk. Samādhi). Hī nayāna Buddha-yāna. However, unless one becomes
tradition advocates the two modes of emancipation a Śrāvaka and becomes eligible or entitles oneself
– Śrāvaka-yāna, one who has heard the teachings of as Arhat/Pratyeka-Buddha, one cannot help
the Buddha and has strictly abided oneself by the others and become Bodhisattva. Thus, in the
practices prescribed by the traditional ways and by Bodhisattva-yāna, the person concerned has not
Śrāvaka 1133

completely disregarded the importance of the Sakṛdāgāmin) – one who has started purification
teachings of the Buddha or the methods and of mind and body by following the seven steps of
modes of practicing Buddhist way of life but is meditation (Sati-paṭṭhāna) and achieved control
expanding the vistas of making sense of the teach- over craving and desires (Sk. Kāma/Rāga) and ill
ings of the Buddha in an altruistic sense truly (Sk. will toward others (Sk. Pratigha). (c) Non-
Nairātmya-Darśana). In other words, becoming returnee (Sk. Anāgāmin) – one who has destroyed
Śrāvaka appears to be a precondition for becom- all kinds of bindings and become free from the
ing Bodhisattva too. cycle of birth and death. There is no possibility of
In the Tripiṭakas, one comes across three more relapsing to get entangled in the world of attach-
terms indicative of the hierarchical order of ment again (Sk. Saṁsāra). It is his/her last birth in
monks, namely, chief disciple (Pāli-Agga- human world. After following all the three stages,
Sāvaka/Sk.-Agra-Śrāvaka) like Śāriputra, one becomes entitled (Arhat) to get freedom from
Mahāmaudgalāyana, Kṣemā, Utpalavarṇā, all kinds of sufferings (Sk. Duḥkha-nirodha) – the
etc. Another term is great disciples (Pāli-Mahā- final goal of human life to realize emancipation
Sāvaka/Sk.-Mahā-Śrāvaka) like Mahākāśyapa, (Pāli-Nibbāna/Sk. Nirvāṇa).
Ānanda, and Mahākātyāna. The third one is ordi-
nary disciples (Sk. Prakṛti-Śrāvaka/Ārya-
Śrāvaka), who have not yet irreversibly entered Cross-References
the path of emancipation (Anāgāmin) and is still
subject to infinite rebirths. Buddhist Saṁgha was ▶ Anāgāmin
basically consisting of all such Śrāvakas/Śrāvikās. ▶ Arhat (Sanskrit)
For Śrāvaka/Śrāvikā, the final stage of life and ▶ Aṣṭāṅgamārga
ideal is to become eligible/entitled (Sk. Arhat), ▶ Bodhisattva
who gets emancipation (Pāli-Nibbāna/Sk. ▶ Karuṇā
Nirvāṇa) in this life and the world. The path for ▶ Madhyamā Pratipad
getting emancipation (Pāli-Nibbāna/Nirvāṇa) ▶ Nirvāṇa
followed by any Śrāvaka/Śrāvikā is known as ▶ Pañca-Śī la
Śrāvaka-yāna. There are three stages/precondi- ▶ Prajñā
tions in a sequential forward order (Sk. Auloma) ▶ Pratyeka-Buddha
to obtain the fourth stage, namely, entitlement ▶ Sakadāgāmin
(Arhat). They are as follows: (a) stream enterer ▶ Samyaka Sambodhi
(Pāli-Sotāpanna/Sk. Srotāpanna) – one starts ▶ Satipaṭṭhāna
realizing the importance of living Buddhist way ▶ Sthaviravāda
of life and following teachings of the Buddha, and ▶ Upāsaka
because of practicing the Eightfold Path (Sk. S
Aṣṭāṅgika-mārga), one gets freedom from igno- References
rance (Sk. Avidyā) and realizes futility of craving
(Pāli-Taṇhā/Sk. Tṛṣṇā). It is an attempt to eradi- 1. Warder AK (2000) Indian Buddhism, 3rd edn. Motilal
cate basically three things, which are impediments Banarsidass, Delhi, pp 175–194
in the spiritual growth, namely, illusion of the 2. Obermiller E (1999) Bu-Ston: the history of Buddhism
in India and Tibet. Sri Sadguru Publications, Delhi
eternality of self (Pāli-Sakkāya-diṭṭhi/Sk. 3. Kasyapa BJ (ed) (1961) Dīgha-Nikāya. Pali Text Pub-
Satkāya-dṛṣṭi), vacuousness of doubt, and hair- lication Board, Bihar Govt, Nalanda
splitting analysis (Pāli-Vicī kiccā/Sk. Vicī kitsa) 4. (1995) Dīgha-Nikāya, Tipiṭaka, Chaṭṭha Saṇgāyana edn
and undertakes critical examination of indulgence (CD-ROM Version-3). Vipassana Research Institute,
Igatpuri
into wrong/illicit rites and ceremonies (Pāli- 5. Sangharakshita (1987) A survey of Buddhism: its doc-
Silabbata-parāmassa/Sk. Śīlavrata-parāmarśa). trines and methods through ages. Tharpa Publications,
(b) Prima-facie enterer (Pāli-Sakadāgāmi/Sk. London, pp 106, 239, 395
1134 Śrāvastī

Definition
Śrāvastī
Those who proclaim the principles of the Elders
▶ Sāvatthī (Sthaviras), as opposed to the majority,
_
Mahāsānghikas. This fundamental split in the
Buddhist order occurred in Pāṭaliputra, shortly
before Aśoka (ca. 264–227 B.C.).
Sri Gaudapada Acarya

▶ Gaudapada Origin

There is more than one tradition concerning the

origin of Sthaviravāda. The southern Theravāda
Sri Mahābodhi tradition mentions a council in Vaiśālī. It
concerned the allegation that some bhikṣus,
▶ Bodhi Tree monks, permitted ten unlawful practices, infringe-
ments on the vinaya. For example, eating after
midday and handling money. The elder
Sarvagāmin condemned these ten points. There
was, however, no schism. A second meeting, not
Srigcodrdorje
mentioned in the Theravāda tradition, took place
some years later in Pāṭaliputra. The king of Maga-
▶ Tāranātha
dha, Mahāpadma Nanda (ca. 362–334 B.C.),
decided in favor of the majority, Mahāsangha, _
Great Community. The other party was referred
to as the Sthaviras, Elders. These claimed
Śrīparvata that the majority was distorting the original teach-
ing and was too lax. But the Mahāsānghika _
▶ Nāgārjunakoṇḍa Śāriputraparipṛcchā, Questions of Śāriputra,
which exists only in a Chinese translation of the
Eastern Jin (317–420 A.D.), Taishō ed.1465,
makes it clear that the oldest vinaya is the one of
Srotāpanna _
the Mahāsānghikas. The majority refused to
accept the addition of minor rules to the vinaya,
▶ Sotāpanna as the Sthaviras wanted. This text does not
mention Mahādeva’s five theses concerning the
arhat, which are doctrinal matters. Mahādeva
_
appears in a later split within the Mahāsānghikas
Sthaviravāda in Southern India. So, Sthaviravāda begins in
Patna, ca. 340 B.C., as the result of disagreement
Charles Willemen about the vinaya [7].
International Buddhist College, Songkhla,
Thailand
Sectarian Development

Synonyms _
Both Sthaviravādins and Mahāsānghikas spread
out from Patna [2, 3]. The first to split from the
In Pāli called Theravāda main Sthaviravāda trunk, ca. 280 B.C., were the
Sthaviravāda 1135

Vātsīputrīyas. They held that a pudgala, person- to Śrī Laṅkā by Mahendra, Mahinda, and that
ality, really exists. They are known as Pāli is the language of Magadha. It has been
Pudgalavādins. It is quite possible that the large suggested that the Vibhajyavādins who went
number of converted brahmins, who used to South to Andhra are the Mahīśāsakas, and that
believe in an ātman, ego, is at the basis of this those who continued on to Śrī Laṅkā are the
split. But this school, nikāya, was still Theravādins [1]. But there is the very distinct
Sthaviravāda. It had its abhidharma in nine parts possibility that the Vibhajyavādins on the one
from Rāhula, who had received it from Śāriputra. hand went South to Andhra and on to Śrī
Śāriputra is the ultimate authority of all Laṅkā, and on the other hand also went to the
Sthaviravāda abhidharma [9]. The Pudgalavāda Gandharan cultural area. They then became
abhidharma consisted of three factors, dharmas known as Mahīśāsakas, “converting the earth,”
(guṇa, quality; doṣa, fault;āśraya basis), which the earth being India. In Śrī Laṅkā a conservative
were each subdivided in three sections, khaṇḍa movement, returning to the Vibhajyavāda of
(ka). The text exists in Chinese translation, called Aśoka’s council, developed, establishing an
Sanfa du lun, Tridharmakhaṇḍa(ka)śāstra (?), Abhidhammapiṭaka in Śrī Laṅkā, said to be
Taishō ed.1506. It is the work of (the Bactrian?) expounded by the Buddha himself. The final
_
Sanghadeva in 391 A.D., and it inspired Huiyuan inclusion in this Piṭaka is the Kathāvatthu,
(334–416 A.D.) on Mount Lu to write his San bao Points of Controversy, maybe finalized at the
lun, Treatise about the Three Kinds of Retribution, end of the second century B.C., and attributed
Taishō ed.2102, 34 bc. The Vātsīputrīyas subse- to Moggalliputta himself [5]. The seven texts of
quently split in four groups: Dharmottarīya, this Piṭaka constitute the Abhidhammapiṭaka of
Bhadrayānīya, Ṣaṇnagarika, and Sāṃmitīya. The the Theravādins. Mahīśāsaka Vibhajyavādins
Sāṃmitīyas were most numerous. They became were all over India, including Śrī Laṅkā, where
very influential in Bactria and in Central Asia, but during the years 410–412 A.D. Faxian received
also in the area of the Gulf of Bengal and in the their vinaya in five parts. This vinaya was trans-
area of Mumbai. lated in 422–423 A.D., after Faxian had passed
At the so-called third council in Pāṭaliputra away. It is the work of Buddhajīva, a Mahīśāsaka
during Aśoka’s reign (ca. 264–227 B.C.), ca. monk from the Gandharan cultural area, Jibin.
244 B.C., a Sthaviravāda meeting was held. It is This is the Wu fen lü, Vinaya in Five Parts,
known in the Theravāda tradition. It was presided Taishō ed.1421.
over by Maudgalyāyana, Moggalliputtatissa, and In the Gandharan cultural area the
resulted in a split between the Sarvāstivādins and Dharmaguptakas split from the Mahīśāsakas.
the Vibhajyavādins, “Analysts,” who were There was disagreement about the question who
declared “orthodox.” Sarvāstivādins had new _
to give dāna, gifts, to: to the Buddha, the sangha,
views, their name meaning “Claiming (
vāda) or to the stūpa. This split may have occurred S
that everything (sarvam) exists (asti).” They sub- shortly before 200 B.C. Dharmaguptakas seem
sequently spread to the Gulf of Bengal, but mainly to have had five Piṭakas. Their abhidharma is
to Mathurā and to the Gandharan cultural area [4]. the Śāriputrābhidharma, Shelifu epitan lun,
The “orthodox” Sthaviras called themselves Taishō ed.1548, the work of Dharmayaśas in
Vibhajyavādins in Patna. Vibhajyavādins, that 414–415 A.D. Their vinaya is the vinaya in four
is, non-Vātsīputrīya Sthaviras who opposed parts, Si fen lü, Taishō ed.1428, the work of
Sarvāstivāda ideas, are known to consist of four Buddhayaśas and Zhu Fonian in Chang’an,
groups: Mahīśāsaka, Dharmaguptaka, Kāśyapīya, 410–412 A.D. They also may have had a now
and Tāṃraparṇīya or Tāṃraśātīya, that is, lost Bodhisattvapiṭaka and a Dhāraṇī piṭaka,
Vibhajyavādins in Śrī Laṅkā. After the “third” according to Paramārtha. A bodhisattva is an
council Vibhajyavādins spread out from Patna. excellent preacher, dharmabhāṇaka, who used
The Theravāda tradition claims that they them- the mnemotechnic means of dhāraṇī to preach.
selves are the original Vibhajyavādins, brought The Dharmaguptakas seem to have disappeared in
1136 Sthiti

India in the sixth century, but their vinaya became ▶ Kaniṣka

the main vinaya in East Asia. ▶ Kathāvatthu
In the Gandharan cultural area the ▶ Mahāsāṅghika
Mahīśāsakas lost to the Sautrāntika ▶ Pāli
Sarvāstivādins. In Kuṣāṇa times, first centuries ▶ Paramārtha
A.D., they are known as “later” Mahīśāsakas [8], ▶ Prākrit
seemingly a subgroup of Gandharan ▶ Pudgalavādins
Sarvāstivādins. Spread thinly throughout India, ▶ Śāriputra
they always lost to the local majority. ▶ Sarvāstivāda
Kāśyapīyas seem to have split from the main ▶ Sautrāntika
Vibhajyavādins ca. 240–230 B.C., in the ▶ Theravāda
Gandharan cultural area. They disappeared before ▶ Vaibhāṣika
600 A.D. They hold an intermediate doctrinal posi-
tion between Sarvāstivādins and “orthodox”
Vibhajyavādins. It has been thought that References
Kāśyapīyas, whose abhidharma was very similar
to the Dharmaguptaka abhidharma, are the same as 1. Bareau A (1955) Les sectes bouddhiques du petit
véhicule. École Française d’Extrême-Orient, Saigon
Haimavatas [1]. So, Vibhajyavāda Sthaviravāda
2. Cox C (2004) Mainstream Buddhist schools. In:
developments occurred both in the Gandharan cul- Buswell R (ed) Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol II. Mac-
tural area and in Śrī Laṅkā. In the Gandharan millan Reference USA, New York, pp 501–507
cultural area, especially in the Bactrian part, 3. Dutt N (2007, reprint of 2nd ed of 1978) Buddhist sects
in India. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
Sarvāstivāda Sthaviras eventually became prepon-
4. Gómez L (2005) Sarvāstivāda. In: Jones L (ed) Ency-
derant. There they determined Sthaviravāda his- clopedia of religion, 2nd edn. Macmillan Reference
tory. In Śrī Laṅkā the conservative Sthaviras USA, Gale Virtual Reference Library, Detroit
became preponderant, known as Theravādins. 5. Hirakawa A (1st ed 1990 Hawaii; Indian ed 1993)
A history of Indian Buddhism (trans: Groner P). Motilal
Pāli, a mixed Prākrit, basically a language of
Banarsidass, Delhi
the Avanti area, dating from the early post-Aśokan 6. Lamotte É (1988) History of Indian Buddhism: from the
period, is a term for the sacred texts and for the origins to the Śaka Era (trans: Sara Webb-Boin).
language of these texts in Śrī Laṅkā [6]. The Université Catholique de Louvain, Institut Orientaliste,
Louvain-La-Neuve
Vibhajyavādins in the Gandharan cultural area
7. Skilton A (2001, reprint of 2nd edn of 1997) A concise
used Gāndhārī(s). The Mahīśāsakas in Andhra history of Buddhism. Windhorse, Birmingham
seem to have used a Prākrit which is very similar 8. Tsukamoto K (2004) The cycle of the formation of the
to Pāli. schismatic doctrines. BDK English Tripiṭaka. Numata
Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, Berkeley
Theravāda in Śrī Laṅkā continued to develop.
9. Willemen C (2008) Kumārajīva’s explanatory discourse
Abhayagiri monks split there from the old and about abhidharmic literature. J Int Coll Postgrad Buddh
mainstream Mahāvihāra monks in the first century Stud 12:27–83
B.C., a period when the Tripiṭaka was first written
down in the South. In the fourth century A.D.
Jetavanīya split off. In the twelfth century
Mahāvihāra Theravādins finally won. Sthiti

▶ Time (Buddhism)
Cross-References

▶ Abhidharma (Theravāda)
▶ Buddhist Councils Storehouse Consciousness
▶ Faxian (337–422 C.E.)
▶ Gandhara ▶ Ālaya-vijñāna
Stūpa 1137

term for the sacred tree (e.g., bodhi tree)

Stories of Celestial Mentions under which Śākyamuṇi attained the Awakenings
(= bodhi), where Buddhists naturally feel as if
▶ Vimānavatthu they were listening to his sermon. Caitya caves
at Ajantā and Bājā were always built near vihāra
caves (= monastery of Buddhist monks). A caitya
(= stūpa-shaped rock hollowed out of a cave) did
Stream-Enterer not generally contain the Buddha śarī ra. In the
same way, all of the stūpas were not always the
▶ Sotāpanna container of the physical remains of the Buddha,
but would rather contain the scrolls of sūtras and
precious jewels as the symbol of Buddhist spirits
to concentrate on what the Buddha himself taught
Study of Mind or Consciousness in his lifetime. Even today, it does not matter to
Buddhists whether the Buddha śarī ra may be
▶ Psychology (Buddhism) authentic or not. Probably because the stūpa has
been built and worshipped not as a tomb of the
deceased One in the narrowest sense, but as
a complex of ancient Indian symbolism in the
Stūpa broadest sense, which will be discussed later in
this entry.
Kanoko Tanaka For the purpose of defining the significance of
Komazawa University, Tokyo, Japan stūpa, it is helpful to see Fig. 1 (the Great Stūpa at
Sāñcī, India, whose original component was built
by King Aśoka in the third century, B.C.). This
Synonyms Stūpa No. 1 dedicated to the Buddha Śākyamuṇi
is known as an ideal archeological evidence to tell
Caitya about early Buddhist architecture and decorative
art (approximately from the first century, B.C. up
to the second century, A.D.).
Definition First of all, you can see the tripled umbrellas
(cattra) supported by one pole (yūpa yaṣṭi)
“Stūpa” in Sanskrit, and “thūpa” in Pāli, literally surrounded by a railing (harmikā) on the top of
meaning “knot of hair,” “top of a house,” “sum- the stūpa. From ancient times, a cattra was usu-
mit,” “heap of clay and soil or firewoods for ally raised for a noble or a sacred man to protect S
cremation” from Vedic periods up to the time of him against the sultry sunlight. The triple ones
the Buddha Śākyamuṇi. suggest that the Buddha was regarded as much
The mound-like structure of a stūpa in Bud- more precious and sacred than any other saints of
dhist context was originally containing the relics the ancient times. The term yūpa yaṣṭi in Vedic
(śarīra) of Śākyamuṇi (= Buddha śarīra), built by context means “the pole to which a sacrifice ani-
Buddhists under the patronage of the ruler who mal should be chained,” but in Buddhist theory,
paid homage to tri-ratna (= the three jewels): the it is nothing but a pole of supporting the
Buddha, his teachings (= Buddha-dharma), and place where the Śākyamuṇi attained the Awaken-
the community of his disciples (= Saṃgha). ings (= bodhi) and preached the importance of
“Caitya” (in Sanskrit. “ceitya” in Pāli) also liter- non-killing (= ahiṃsā) as well as Mahāvīra, one
ally means “heap” which may suggest the place of of the Jinas in the history of Jainism stressed that
the Buddha’s cremation where the firewoods ahiṃsā had to become the supreme dharma to
should be piled up, and it was also the general reach the final goal of a life. The harmikā,
1138 Stūpa

Stūpa, Fig. 1 Great Stūpa (Stūpa No. 1) on the hill of Sāñcī, India. A view from the east. This stūpa was gradually built
and expanded during the Mauryan, Śuṅgan, and Āndhran dynasties (Photographed by Kanoko Tanaka)

therefore, seems to describe “the palace of the chosen as a motif of bas-relief carved on toraṇa
Buddha as the King of Dharma” (= Dharma- (= gateway) and vedikā (= railing; originally
rāja). Buddhist laymen came together looking pointed to vedi: an alter for fire rituals or animal
up at the cattra and the harmikā, offer flowers, sacrifice) surrounding a stūpa. Regarding the
water, foods, incense, songs, and dances (= the image on “water,” a stūpa-motif was also
acts of pūjā, in contrast to yajña, animal sacrifice) connected with nāga worship. “Nāga” is
as if they were invited by Dharma-rāja at his own a sacred serpent with five heads that rains and
palace. Moreover, it is worthy to mention that the guards a saint like the Buddha under the sunlight.
shape of cattra and yūpa yaṣṭi looks like the Tree The bas-reliefs depicting “a stūpa protected by
of Life to fulfill one’s wish without fail. a king of nāga” were found at Amarāvatī in
Secondly, the semicircular mound of a stūpa is south India. As far as the yearning for life energy
called “aṇḍa”(= egg) which reminded ancient is concerned, the shape of a stūpa came to be
Indian people of “a golden egg” in the beginning identified with that of a liṇga (= phallus) with
of the world. Moreover, the Buddha śarī ra was the rise of Tantric Buddhism, a metamorphosis
also taken as “bī jā” (= seed). This obviously from Śākyamuṇi’s teachings.
suggests that a stūpa was regarded as “garbha” The basement on which the aṇḍa should be
(= womb or treasury) from which life energy placed is called “medhī ” (originally used for ani-
should be arisen again and again. In fact, the jar mal sacrifice to gods, for example, on the occasion
full of water (= pūrṇa-ghata) as a symbol of of aśva medha held by a powerful king; also
auspiciousness and eternal life became a model meaning “wisdom” and “the power of understand-
for a stūpa under construction and was often ing”). The term medhī for Buddhists is also
Stūpa 1139

a symbol of their protest against the animal sacri-

fice. On the other hand, the medhī meaning
“wisdom” is able to emphasize “prajñā”(=
wisdom of seeing this phenomenal world as it is,
without distorting it from selfish and biased view-
points) as the basic philosophy of Buddhism.
Thirdly, you will see a twofold vedikā around
a stūpa, which is found on the inner and outer side
of the pradakṣinapatha (= the path for pilgrims
who should go around a stūpa right-handedly).
Pilgrims usually go around a stūpa three times
right-handedly, just as the Buddha’s disciples
used to do the same whenever visiting their great
Master to ask for his guidance. A stūpa, in this
sense, takes a role of the Buddha who should give
his sermon to all the visitors. Such visitors came to Stūpa, Fig. 2 Bas-relief on Bhārhut Vedikā, Bhārhut,
the stūpa from all directions of India. Four gate- India, second century, B.C. So many floral garlands deco-
ways (= toraṇa) at the south, the north, the east, rating over the stūpa may signify how devotees were
attached to the object of worship (A. K. Coomaraswamy,
and the west may signify that everybody, no mat-
La Sculputre de Bhārhut, Paris, 1956)
ter whether the visitor is a Buddhist or not, is most
welcome to make a pilgrimage to a stūpa, purify
his mind, and continue to live a good life. Such regarded as a delusion. It is an interesting logic of
pilgrims as this can be seen even in the modern religious faith.
times at the precinct of Sāñcī Stūpas, including Since Sāñcī, as well as Bhārhut, was domi-
the Stūpa No. 2 (enshrining the relics of Sāriputta nated by Theravāda Buddhism, a stūpa did not
and Mahā-Moggallāna, the greatest disciples remind visitors of sukhāvatī in Mahāyāna context.
of Śākyamuṇi Buddha) and the Stūpa No. 3 Bhārhut was also in the same situation, but the
(enshrining the relics of Moggaliputta Tissa who bas-reliefs of Bhārhut Stūpa show us so many
is said to have been King Aśoka’s teacher). The happy elements to urge everybody to yearn for
stūpa was painted white, and the toraṇas were the ideal world to fulfill any wish. Please see
colored in red. Fig. 2 (a bas-relief on the Bhārhut vedikā, the
Then, how could the visitors to Sāñcī listen to second century, B.C.). This is one of the best
the sermon from a stūpa? Probably some monks examples of depicting the reality of stūpa-
and laymen took the role of interpreter who worship. Two noble men or gods in human
guided them to look around the bas-reliefs on form with decorative turbans are doing S
the four gateways describing the scenes of jātaka pradakṣina (= right-handed circumambulation)
(= stories of the Buddha’s previous lives), the last around the stūpa. One is coming back closer and
and greatest life of the Buddha, and any other the other is turning to the rear of the stūpa, show-
subjects to enhance faith in Buddhism. ing his back. Here everybody on the ground is
It is noteworthy that the sukhāvatī (= the land joining their hands in prayer (= anjali). For what
of happiness where Buddhists can fulfill their are they praying? For example, a lady sitting on
dream of seeing and listening to the Buddha’s her heels seems to wish if she could be blessed
sermon in order to attain the Buddhahood) was with a male child who will have the responsibility
the idealized image of a huge stūpa with of holding a memorial service for ancestors. Nine
a sevenfold vedikā, according to the Smaller hand-prints seen at the base of a stūpa are auspi-
Sukhāvatī vyūha. Indeed, it must be a long- cious marks to protect people against evil
cherished desire for those who had never seen powers, which can be seen also in the prehistorical
the Buddha in person. Such a desire as this is not painting on the cave. From the heavens, two
1140 Stūpa

and ashes (= Buddha śarī ra) left after the crema-

tion. At the “stūpa” of Fig. 3, two devotees are
looking up at the standing Buddha. Is he just
a Buddha image enshrined in the “stūpa” or a real
Buddha who raised from the historical parinirvāṇa?
When thinking of the advanced idea of visual art,
this Buddha might be regarded as the One with flesh
and blood. However, it is proved that the samgha at
Nāgārjunakoṇḍa belonged to the Aparaśaila, one of
the Nikāya Buddhist sects. There was no relation-
ship with Mahāyāna Buddhism at all, but monks of
this sect could not ignore the importance of stūpa-
worship as well as their own daily practice of med-
itation and study of the sutras. Or rather, they posi-
tively came to yearn for the Buddha through the
medium of a stūpa in hope of attaining the Buddha-
hood sometime in the future.
It was believed that karmic merits coming from
stūpa-worship should be equally given to all the
Buddhists, no matter whether the person may
observe the full set of precepts required of
a monk or can only perform pūjā around a stūpa
in prayer. When visiting the vihāra caves of
Ajantā (around the first century, B.C.), we can
Stūpa, Fig. 3 The slab of Stūpa, Nāgārjuṇakoṇḍa, India, see how monks thought much of living near the
third century, A.D. “Use unknown” regarding the five caitya caves where they could fully meditate
angular-pillars (called Āyaka Kambha), although it is said
that they put offerings on the top. Is “he” a Buddha image on the Buddha and his teachings by doing
or the Buddha himself? That is a question (British pradakṣina.
Museum, photographed by Kanoko Tanaka) It is probable that Mahāyānistic movement in
later periods arise from such a universal popular-
ity of Stūpas built over India, especially after the
angels are flying to offer garlands. Even today, Buddha image was created for the first time at
Indian people like very much to make garlands for Mathurā and Gandhāra approximately from the
offering them to an image of god in the shrine and late first up to second century, A.D. Stūpa-
the temple, made of Marigold and other colorful worship does not directly connect with the rise
flowers. of Mahāyāna Buddhism, but it is very interesting
Now, please see Fig. 3 showing a bas-relief of to research more.
“stūpa,” carved at Nāgārjunakoṇḍa in the third According to the Mahāparinibbāna-suttanta
century, A.D. If you do not have any background of the Dī ghanikāya, the Buddha in his last days
information about this work of art, but if you are advised Ānanda and other monks not to be
versed in the topic of Mahāyāna Buddhism and its concerned with the worship of the Tathāgata’s
relationship to the stūpa-worship, this “stūpa” śarīra, and laymen should hold the ritual for
may remind you of the climax scene of the stūpa-worship. This must be a paradoxical evi-
Stūpadarśana-parivarta (in the Saddharma- dence to confess how monks, as well as laymen,
puṇḍarika-sūtra), where the whole body of the were concerned with the construction and worship
Buddha Prabhūtaratna, the symbol of timeless of a stūpa after the moment of parinirvāṇa. Actu-
truth of the Dharma, appears from the inside of ally the Mahaparinibbāna-suttanta itself is telling
the stūpa, as if he has just resurrected from bones that the Buddha’s corporal remains would not
Sudatta 1141

burn at all until Mahākaśyapa, who became the 2. Government of India, Ministry of Information and
successor to his Master, arrived at Kuśinagara Broadcasting (1956) The Way of Buddha. (published
on the occasion of the 2500th anniversary of the
after a long journey from faraway places and Mahāparinirvāṇa of Buddha), Delhi
finally ignited firewoods for the cremation. This 3. Hirakawa A (1963) The rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism
fact may suggest that monks, from the beginning, and its relationship to the worship of Stūpa. Memoirs of
took charge of supervision over various issues the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (The Ori-
ental Library) No.22. The Toyo Bunko, Tokyo
related to a stūpa. Inscriptions of donors who 4. Lüders H (1963) Bharhut inscriptions (corpus
contributed to build Sāñcī and Bhārhut Stupas inscriptionum indicarum). Government of Epigraphist
prove that not a few nuns and monks positively for India, Ootacamund
took part in the construction work. 5. Marshall SJ (1955) A guide to Sāñchī. The Government
of India, Calcutta
Looking back on how the matters on “stūpa” 6. Marshall SJ, Foucher A (1982) The monuments of
have been important to the history of Indian Bud- Sāñchī. Swati Publications, Delhi
dhism, they found one question: Why did only the 7. Sugimoto T (1984) Studies in Buddhist Stūpa-Cult in
Buddha’s relics came to be enshrined by Indian India. Heirakuji Shoten, Kyoto (Japanese edition)
8. Sugimoto T (2007) The story of Stūpa. Daihourinkaku,
people, in spite of the traditional fact that a dead Tokyo (Japanese edition)
body even of a king is always cremated at the 9. Tanaka K (1998) Absence of the Buddha image in early
riverbank even today? A possible answer is: Buddhist art – toward its significance in comparative
“Because parinirvāṇa of the Buddha was too religion. D.K. Printworld, New Delhi
rare to forget, and at the same time, the Buddha,
who was originally the Crown Prince from Śākya
clan, was blessed with powerful patrons of
kśatriya caste who would like to enshrine the Subjective Idealism
Buddha’s bones and ashes in a stūpa”? Or, is
there any more better answers? This is a good ▶ Idealism (Buddhism)
subject to tackle with, and it may be better to
keep this in suspense for the present.
Just as the parinirvāṇa was not a mere death of
the Buddha, the stūpa was not a mere tomb Subjects of Discourse
containing his relics. From the beginning of
constructing the Buddha Stūpa for the first time, ▶ Kathāvatthu
they intentionally regarded it as the complex of
rich symbolism, because the shape of semicircle is
universally able to give a sense of psychological
stability to those who need to relieve from suffer- Substance
ings of this world. It is just according with an aim S
in a Buddhist life (= nirvāṇa). ▶ Dravya (Jainism)

Cross-References Substratum Consciousness

▶ Caitya, Parinirvāṇa ▶ Ālaya-vijñāna

References
Sudatta
1. Coomaraswamy AK (1956) La Sculputre de Bhārhut,
Vanoes. Editions d’Art et d’Histoire, Paris ▶ Anāthapiṇḍika
1142 Sugatagarbha

Buddhist values. For instance, Buddhism believes

Sugatagarbha that birth as a human being is very rare in the
saṃsāra and cutting it short amounts to losing an
▶ Tathāgatagarbha invaluable chance for spiritual growth. Suicide by
virtuous human beings is seen with particular disfa-
vor as suicide by such people deprives others of the
benefits they might bring to them ([8], Vol. ii, p.
Suicide (Buddhism) 330f; [11], pp. 44, 195f). Moreover, suicide brings
life to a premature end which goes against the Bud-
K. T. S. Sarao dhist view of life being allowed to follow its natural
Department of Buddhist Studies, University of course. Suicide is also contrary to the third pārājika
Delhi, Delhi, India ([11], p. 195). Apart from this, self-destruction was
associated by the Buddha with ascetical practices
which were rejected since “Buddhism had better
Synonyms methods of crushing lust and destroying sin” (see
[13], p. 26). Buddhism teaches that by understand-
Ātmaghāta; Ātmavadha; Attaghañña; Attaghāta; ing that life is impermanent and subject to suffering
Attavadha of various kinds, one can develop an attitude of
enlightened detachment enabling one to remain
untroubled by any kind of suffering. Buddhism
Definition attempts to instill this kind of realistic understanding
of life and mindfulness in a follower so that such
The act of purposely causing one’s own death. a person is not driven to a state of desperation to the
extent that he/she may commit suicide.
Making death one’s aim, wishing death, or Interestingly, there are at least three well-
setting out on any course that leads to death, is documented cases in the Pāli Tipiṭaka which
considered immoral in Buddhism ([9], Vol. ii, seem to indicate that suicide may be condoned
p. 464). By virtue of its belief in rebirth and retrib- under certain circumstances. These are the cases
utive kamma (Sk: karma), Buddhism teaches that of Channa ([2], Vol. iv, p. 55; [12], Vol. iii, p. 263),
suicide does not offer a permanent solution to Vakkali ([2], Vol. iii, p. 119), and Godhika ([2],
problems encountered by a human being. As Bud- Vol. i, p. 120f). Scholars such as Lamotte, Wood-
dhism views the whole saṃsāric existence itself as ward, Harran, and Wiltshire ([1], p. 137; [3],
suffering, suicide merely leads to the postponement p. 129; [5], pp. 106–110; [14], pp. 126–140;
of the problems to be faced in the next birth and [15], p. 8) have attempted to explain away these
with the added retribution of the evil kamma pro- cases by pointing out that though suicide
duced by such an act. Irrespective of the motive, is prohibited for an unenlightened person
suicide being an act of violence, is contrary to the (puthujjana), it is permitted under two conditions
principle of ahiṃsā which says that the taking of for a person who is not unenlightened. One, this
any life (including one’s own) goes against the first person is an arahant (Sk: arhat), i.e., a fully
precept. Thus, from Buddhist perspective, any enlightened person at the time of the act of suicide
attempt to put a complete end to suffering through taking place and thus is free of anger, hate, or fear.
suicide is a completely futile exercise as ultimately It has been indicated that such a person’s act of
it would not achieve the intended purpose. suicide does not produce further fruit, and hence
Buddhism values life as against death, thus, suicide the person escapes from the world of rebirths.
is seen as morally wrong. Two, this person is suffering from a terminal dis-
There are many other reasons offered in the ease and does not want to become an unnecessary
Buddhist texts on the basis of which suicide is source of burden to those who are taking care of
viewed as an irrational act and contrary to basic him. Thus, it has been pointed out that it is
Sukhāvatī 1143

necessary to appreciate that such an “act is not 2. Feer ML (ed) (1884–1898) The Saṃyutta Nikāya, 5
gratuitously performed, but constrained by force vols. Pali Text Society, London
3. Harran MJ (1993) Suicide (Buddhism and Confucian-
of circumstances” ([14], p. 132). “An Arahant ism). In: The encyclopedia of religion, vol 14. Mac-
neither wishes for death nor wishes not to die: it millan, New York, p 129
will come when it comes” ([6], pp. 1002–1003). 4. Keown D (1996) Buddhism and suicide: the case of
According to Buddhaghosa, it is legitimate in the Channa. J Buddh Ethics 3:8–31
5. Lamotte E (1987) Religious suicide in early Bud-
case of one, suffering from a painful and terminal dhism. Buddh Stud Rev 4:105–126
illness, to withdraw from food in the knowledge 6. Oldenberg H, Pischel R (eds) (1990) Theragāthā, 2nd
that he is on the brink of a spiritual breakthrough edn (with appendices by K.R. Norman & L. Alsdorf).
and exerts himself in his meditation subject or if Pali Text Society, Oxford
7. Rāhula W (1978) Self-cremation in Mahāyāna Bud-
he sees that the caretakers are worn out and his life dhism. In: Rāhula W (ed) Zen and the taming of the
cannot be prolonged even with intensive care (see Bull. Gordon Fraser, London, pp 55–67
[9], Vol. ii, p. 467). It is indicated through this 8. Rhys Davids TW, Carpenter JE (eds) (1890–1911)
example that Buddhism does not consider it mor- The Dīgha Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London
9. Takakusu J, Nagai M (eds) (1947–1975)
ally obligatory to preserve life at all costs. Samantapāsādikā: Buddhaghosa’s commentary on
Damien Keown has suggested that this popular the Vinaya Piṭaka (including index by H. Kopp),
but doctrinally dubious notion has gained currency 8 vols. Pali Text Society, London
by being linked to the idea that the arahants go 10. Thakur U (1963) The history of suicide in India.
Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi
beyond conventional moral norms, a view that no 11. Trenckner V (ed) (1880) Milindapañha. Williams and
longer commands wide respect (see [4]). To quote Norgate, London
him, “To say that suicide is wrong because moti- 12. Trenckner V, Chalmers R (eds) (1888–1896) The
vated by desire, moreover, is really only to say that Majjhima Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London
13. Vallée Poussin L de la (1922) Suicide (Buddhist). In
desire is wrong. It would follow from this that The encyclopaedia of religion and ethics, vol XII,
someone who murders without desire does nothing pp 24–26
wrong. The absurdity of this conclusion illustrates 14. Wiltshire MG (1983) The ‘Suicide’ problem in the Pāli
why a subjectivist approach to the morality of Canon. J Int Assoc Buddh Stud 6:124–140
15. Woodward FL (1922) The ethics of suicide in Greek,
suicide is inadequate. Subjectivism leads to the Latin and Buddhist literature. Buddh Ann Ceylon 4–9
conclusion that suicide (or murder) can be right
for one person but wrong for another, or even
right and wrong for the same person at different
times, as his state of mind changes, and desire
comes and goes” ([4], p. 9). Sukha

▶ Good (Buddhism)
Cross-References
S
▶ Ahimsa
▶ Arahant Sukhāvatī
▶ Buddhaghosa
▶ Kamma Charles Willemen
▶ Rebirth International Buddhist College, Songkhla,
▶ Saṃsāra Thailand

References Synonyms
1. Becker CB (1993) Breaking the circle: death and the
afterlife in Buddhism. Southern Illinois University Also known as Jingtu (Chinese); Jōdo (Japanese);
Press, Carbondale Pure Land
1144 Sukhāvatī

Definition that is, the Larger Sukhāvatī vyūha [6]. This last
text is often erroneously said to be the work of
Sukhāvatī is usually translated as Land of Bliss. Kang Sengkai (Saṅghavarman) in 252 A.D. Fei
Bliss renders sukha. The Western Paradise, ruled Zhangfang’s catalogue of 597 A.D., Lidai sanbao
over by Amitābha. ji, is responsible for the mistake. There further
are two ancient versions of the Larger
In Gandharan (Lokottaravāda Mahāsāṅghika) Sukhāvatī vyūha. P. Harrison has established that
circles developed a belief in countless Buddha- Taishō ed.361 is the work of Zhi Qian (third
fields in the ten, that is in all directions. Some century) and that Taishō ed.362 is a revision of
became well known. For example, The Paradise a text linked with Loujia Chen, commonly called
of the Buddha Akṣobhya in the East, known as Lokakṣema (end of second century A.D.).
Abhirati. But more than one nikāya, school, then Xuanzang brought out a new version of the
developed this belief. Most popular is Amitābha’s Smaller Sukhāvatī vyūha in 650 A.D., that is,
Paradise, Land of Bliss, in the West. This Paradise Taishō ed.367. There also is a Tang version by
may be seen as an ideal intermediate existence, Bodhiruci of the Larger text in Chang’an,
antarābhava, of Sautrāntika affiliation [8]. It is Taishō ed.310 [5], and also two Song versions,
described in the Sukhāvatī vyūhasūtras, Sutras Taishō ed.363 by Dharmabhadra in 991 A.D.
About the Display of the Land of Bliss. They and Taishō ed.364 by Wang Rixiu in 1162 A.D.
describe a Paradise inhabited by Buddhas and The Pure Land School in East Asia uses
bodhisattvas. There also is an impure realm, Kumārajīva’s text and Baoyun’s text as canonical
inhabited by transmigrating beings. The Buddha [1, 2, 7].
Amitābha, who rules over Sukhāvatī, has prom-
ised to save these beings, so that they may be
reborn in his Paradise after death [4, 3].
Amitābha’s eighteenth vow, as found in Chinese
Cross-References
literature, is a commitment to save all. It just asks
▶ Amitābha
that one sincerely calls Amitābha’s name to mind
▶ Avalokiteśvara
a minimum of ten moments, after which one may
▶ Kharoṣṭhī Script
be reborn in the Land of Bliss.
▶ Sautrāntika
Sukhāvatī is rendered in Chinese as Jingtu
Pure Land. Jing actually translates śubha pleas-
ant, in ancient Chinese translations based on
Gāndhārī(s) and on Kharoṣṭhī script. In the References
Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā one reads the 1. Blum M (2002) The origins and development of pure
expression buddhakṣetrapariśuddhi, purification land Buddhism: a study and translation of Gyonen’s
of the Buddha-field. Amitābha’s Buddha-field is Jodo Homon Genrusho. Oxford University Press,
purified (śuddha), made beautiful by the presence Oxford
2. Foard J, Solomon M, Payne R (eds) (1996) The pure
of a Buddha or bodhisattva(s). Chinese jing, Jap-
land tradition: history and development. Regents of the
anese jō, literally means “pure, purified,” but used University of California, Berkeley
in the translation of Sukhāvatī, Chinese Jingtu, 3. Fujita K (2005) Pure and impure lands. In: Jones L (ed)
Japanese Jōdo, it also means śubha, pleasant. Encyclopedia of religion, 2nd edn. Macmillan Refer-
ence USA, Gale Virtual Reference Library, Detroit
The sutras which describe the Pure Land of 4. Gómez L (1996, 3rd printing 2000) The land of bliss:
Amitābha number mainly two: (1) Kumārajīva’s the paradise of the Buddha of measureless light. Uni-
Amituo jing (Sutra About Amitābha), versity of Hawaii Press, Honolulu
Taishō ed.366, of 402 A.D. in Chang’an, that is, 5. Inagaki H (2003) The three pure land sutras. Numata
Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, Berkeley
the Smaller Sukhāvatī vyūha; (2) Baoyun’s
6. Kao Kuan-ju (1964) Amitābha-Vyūha. In: Malalasekera
Wuliangshou jing (Sutra About Amitāyus), G (ed) Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, vol I. Government
Taishō ed.360, of 421 A.D. in Jiankang (Nanjing), of Colombo, Colombo, pp 464–468
Śūnya 1145

7. Payne R, Tanaka K (eds) (2004) Approaching the land anything is dedicated to the dog, it is meant that
of bliss: religious praxis in the cult of Amitābha. Kuroda the object is completely worthless, it is no longer
Institute in East Asian Buddhism. University of Hawaii
Press, Honolulu of any use, it is as if nothing. In accordance with
8. Willemen C (2013) Early Yogācāra and visualization such grammatical analysis, the term śūnya comes
(Bhāvanā). In: Volume in memory of L. Kawamura. to mean “empty, vacant, nothing.”
Contemporary Issues in Buddhist Studies Series. Insti- In the Buddhist literature, for example, in the
tute of Buddhist Studies, University of Hawaii Press,
Berkeley Dhammapada, Saṃyutta Nikāya, or in the Jātaka
stories, there are such expressions as suññāgāra
(an empty room), suññavana (an empty forest),
śūnyaṃ vāsagṛham (a house which is bereft
of people), etc. In all such expressions, the term
Sumeru śūnya indicates the absence of entities like ani-
mals, persons, etc. This sense of the term is not
▶ Kailash anything special to Buddhism; rather it is very
▶ Meru (Buddhism) common. The Buddhist philosophers, however,
give this term a new dimension for which their
philosophy begets a new orientation. All the
objects in the world are said to be characterized
Śūnya by four features: anitya (impermanence), duḥkha
(suffering), śūnya, and anātman (selfless). Of
Madhumita Chattopadhyay these, the term śūnya was interpreted as selfless
Department of Philosophy, Jadavpur University, or devoid of self in the early literature. For exam-
Kolkata, West Bengal, India ple, Aśvaghoṣa explains that the elements are śū
nya or void because there is neither producer nor
enjoyer in them ([1], p. 17.20). This explanation
Synonyms indicates that for Aśvaghoṣa, śūnya is to be taken
as selfless or soulless or anātman. Buddhaghoṣa,
Empty; Nothing; Unreal; Void also, interprets śūnya as soulless. He elucidates
the point with the illustration of a wooden
machine. Just as a wooden machine is śūnya,
Definition being devoid of a soul and will, and yet can
walk or sit because of the fitting of wood and
The concept that things do not have any essence of rope and behaves as if it were willing and living,
their own and in that sense they are unreal. similarly the man, namely, the nāmarūpa, is
devoid of soul and will, yet it walks and sits S
because of the conglomeration of different
Buddhist Notion of Sunya dharmas and appears as if it were willing and
living. This understanding of śūnya as anattā
The term śūnya (Pāli suñña) in ordinary language has been presented by Buddhaghoṣa from differ-
is understood to stand for a place or a locus which ent perspectives. According to one perspective,
is vacant, which is not occupied by anybody. In things are śūnya means that they are devoid of
the grammatical tradition, the term is analyzed as ś (1) soul/substance, (2) anything pertaining to the
une kukkurāya hitam. The term hita generally soul, (3) permanence, (4) eternality, (5) imperma-
means “good” (mangala), but in this context it nence, and (6) everlastingness. According to
means “offered.” So the whole expression means another perspective, śūnya is (1) non-perception
“that which is offered to the dog.” In the Indian of soul in oneself, (2) non-perception of one’s self
tradition, the dog is considered to be something elsewhere, (3) non-perception of any other soul
not good or sacred but as something bad. So if anywhere, and (4) non-perception of anyone
1146 Śūnya

else’s soul in oneself. In short, for Buddhaghoṣa, different factors of Bodhi, four noble truths, etc.,
the notion of śūnya comes to mean anattā. are truly realized. But Vasubandhu holds that to be
The difficulty with such an interpretation of the mindful is to penetrate into the elements in their
early Buddhist thinkers is that according to it, four aspects, namely, anitya (impermanence),
a problem occurs. If śūnya means selfless, then duhkha (suffering), śūnya (void), and anātman
the fourth feature, namely, anātman, would (selfless). Modern scholars believe that this inter-
become redundant. To avoid this problem, pretation is not to be viewed as originally one of
Aśvaghoṣa points out the difference in signifi- Vasubandhu, but it is based on the teachings of the
cance between the two terms śūnya and anātman, thinkers of the early Sarvāstivāda school. The
thereby justifying his sense of the term. According Sarvāstivādins insist that the comprehension of
to him, śūnya means no-soul and no-soul merely the four noble truths (Āryasatya) is possible
and nothing more, while the term anātman sig- under each of these four aspects. For instance,
nifies that entities are devoid of desire/will the first noble truth, known as duhkha-satya, is
(nirīha), are not independent (asvatantra), and characterized as anitya, duhkha, śūnya, and
they are dependently originated. Yaśomitra points anātman. Since this first noble truth holds for the
out the difference in another way. He equates entire universe, the different Buddhist philoso-
anātman with the negation of ātmadṛṣṭi or the phers selected one of these topics and founded
view of the soul, while śūnya is the negation of their ontological outlook on it. Nāgārjuna and
ātmī yadṛṣṭi, view of things concerning the soul. his followers picked up the aspect of śūnya of
Some other philosophers hold that śūnya means the elements and constructed the superstructure
merely being empty. For example, when one says of their philosophy on it. The term śūnya
that the pot is empty or śūnya, what one means is according to this Buddhist logician stands for the
that there is no water in it. So when it is said lack of independent existence, inherent existence,
that everything is śūnya, what is meant is that or essence of things. A thing can be said to have an
there is no soul in the body. On the other hand, essence or svabhāva of its own if it does not
nairātmya or anātman means naiḥsvābhāvya or depend on anything else for its existence. On the
essencelessness or negation of everything contrary, if anything is dependent on anything else
whatsoever. for its existence, it cannot be regarded to have any
In the Buddhist literature, the term śūnya is own essence. The fact is that all the entities of the
also used in the sense of being non-substantial. world depend for their origination on certain
Nāgasena in his Milindapañhā equates śūnya with causes (hetu) and conditions (pratyaya), and
essencelessness (nihsvabhāvatā) when he speaks hence they cannot be said to have any essence.
of bringing to light the self-character of things as And that which is devoid of an intrinsic essence of
the supremely suñña, free from willing and living, its own is regarded as śūnya. So everything is
absolutely suñña ([5], p. 76). The Sarvāstivādin regarded as śūnya. While showing that everything
thinkers hold that all entities of the world is śūnya, Nāgārjuna is relying on the principle that
are characterized by the four characteristics of dependent origination, lack of intrinsic nature,
anitya, duhkha, śūnya, and anātman. The text and being śūnya mean the same thing. Nāgārjuna
Theragāthā adds to this list two other features, in the text Mūlamadhyamakaśāstra relentlessly
namely, agham (sinful) and vadham (destructive). analyzes the phenomena or processes that appear
The Thera or the elderly person or the monk to exist independently and shows that they cannot
addresses his mind to be watchful of things in so exist. Naively from the common sense stand-
their true characteristics in order that it may point, it is believed by all that all entities exist and
remain aloof from them. The watchfulness of the they all have their own inherent essence, indepen-
mind over the separate personality elements is dent of others. Nāgārjuna’s argument strikes at the
considered to be one of the four ways of being basis of this common sense belief and shows that
mindful (satipaṭṭhana). In the Nikāyas, it is such naïve belief is the root of all delusions that
explained as keeping watch over the fact that the lead to human suffering. So, for the extirpation of
Śūnya 1147

the very root of human suffering, it is to be admit- Lotus Sūtra also holds that seeing all phenomena
ted that these phenomena are not real in the true as empty cannot be the highest final attainment; the
sense of the term – they are only conventionally objective is to attain that ultimate wisdom of Bodhi
real. Whatever may be the empirical value of the which supersedes the knowledge of emptiness.
categories like substance, change, permanence, In short, for the Buddhists, the doctrine of
etc., for interpreting the phenomena, they are not śūnya is not an arbitrary prescription to view
assignable determinations of the Absolute. They things as unreal; it is the revelation of the intrinsic
belong to the region of the empirical truth or nature of objects, and this revelation helps to free
samvṛti satya. From the ultimate standpoint, they the human mind from all sorts of false views and
are all śūnya. The Mādhyamikas believe that there misconceptions and can lead one to the path of
is no term, category, or concept, however general realizing the highest truth.
it may be, that is applicable to both the Absolute
and the phenomena in the same sense. The Abso-
lute and the phenomena do not stand on the same
Cross-References
plane; they cannot be related, compared, and
contrasted. Words cannot describe or denote the
▶ Aśvaghoṣa
Absolute in any recognizable sense. The Absolute
▶ Idealism (Buddhism)
is incommensurable and inexpressible and is
▶ Mādhyamika
completely transcendent to thought. As such, the
▶ Middle Way (Buddhism)
Absolute is regarded as śūnya.
▶ Nāgārjuna
Some Absolutist thinkers, however, believe that
▶ Philosophy (Buddhism)
there is a double process – the transformation of the
▶ Reality (Buddhism)
Absolute into phenomena and the reconversion of
▶ Śūnyatā
the phenomena to its pristine state of the Absolute
▶ The Lotus Sūtra
through knowledge. The Vijñānavādins, for exam-
ple, speak of the consciousness as underlying
defilements and then overcoming them through
purification (vyāvadāna). Even in the early stages References
of Vedānta, there is the notion of retransformation
1. Aśvaghoṣa (2001) Saundarananda. Motilal
of the world into the Brahman, which implies that
Banarsidass, Delhi
these Vedāntins believed in the degradation of the 2. Harivarman (1975) Satyasiddhiśāstra: restored from
Brahman originally. However, such Absolutist the Chinese (Shastri NA ed). Gaekwad Oriental Series,
thinking is rejected by the Mādhyamikas. They Baroda
3. Murti TRV (2006) The central philosophy of Bud-
point out that there is no initial fall and, hence,
dhism: a study of Mādhyamika system. Munshiram
there is no need for retransformation. So the Manoharlal, Delhi S
Mādhyamikas hold that through wisdom the real 4. Nagao G (1990) The foundational standpoint of
things are not made unreal; things are themselves Mādhyamika philosophy, first Indian edn. Sri Satguru,
Delhi
unreal (śūnya) in nature. So the doctrine of śūnyatā
5. Rhys Davids TW (1997) The questions of king
does not bring about a change in the nature of Milinda. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, Indian Reprint
things but a change in the outlook of people. This 6. Vaidya PL (ed) (1960) Mulamadhyamakasastra of
view of the Mādhyamikas that everything is śūnya Nagarjuna. The Mithila Institute of Post-Graduate
Studies and Research in Sanskrit Learning, Darbhanga
is not shared by all the Buddhist thinkers. In the 7. Nanamoli B, Bodhi B (ed) (1995) The middle length
Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra, only impermanent, discourses of the Buddha. Buddhist Publication Soci-
changeful things and states which constitute the ety, Kandy, Sri Lanka
world of samsāra are regarded as empty or śūnya 8. Nanamoli B (1991) The path of purification:
Visuddhimagga. Buddhist Publication Society,
in a negative sense, but not the Buddha or the
Kandy, SriLanka
Nirvāṇa which are stated to be real, eternal, and 9. Maitreyanatha (1971) Madhyantavibhagasastrakarika
filled with inconceivable enduring virtues. The (Pandeya RC ed). Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
1148 Śūnyatā

10. Asanga (1964) Mahayanasutralankara (Bagchi S ed). making any distinction of the rivers, mountains,
The Mithila Institute of Post-Graduate Studies and oceans, etc., the earth remains, for him, devoid of
Research in Sanskrit Learning, Darbhanga
11. Suzuki DT (1999) Studies in the Lankavatarasutra. men, rivers, mountains, etc., but not of the earth-
Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, Indian edition oneness. When the aspirant attains a higher stage
in the process of his meditation, like the fifth stage
of meditation where his mind concentrates on
infinite space, other things become śūnya for
Śūnyatā him and only the infinite space remains as a real
object, aśūnya. As he proceeds to higher and
Madhumita Chattopadhyay higher states of meditation, like infinite con-
Department of Philosophy, Jadavpur University, sciousness, the state of nothingness, and the state
Kolkata, West Bengal, India of neither consciousness nor no-consciousness,
his meditation becomes free or bereft of all
other objects, but not of the objects meditated.
Synonyms These objects of meditation are considered as
real, aśūnya. At the last stage of meditation,
Emptiness; Nothingness; Voidness which is on the absence of any object, the medi-
tator finds that even this concept is not everlasting
or permanent, and thereby he gets himself free
Definition from the impurities related to thirst, rebirth, and
ignorance. But still he retains the sense of his body
Doctrine about the nonexistence of a perceiving as constituted of the sense-organs which remain
subject and the perceived objects.Abassara till his death. That is, in this last stage of medita-
Brahma Loka tion, all other things become śūnya for him, but
his body constituted of the different sense-organs
still is not śūnya. This indicates that in this early
Buddhist Account of Śūnyatā treatise, a distinction between external voidness
and internal voidness was made. The former is the
The term śūnyatā often translated as “emptiness” absence of some object in a particular place,
in English is generally associated with the whereas the latter is the deliverance of one’s
Mādhyamika school of Buddhism, and is the mind from all sorts of impurities. Such distinction
main reason for the appellation “śūnyavādin” of between these two types of śūnyata has been
this school. However, a thorough study of the referred to as śūnyata and patiśūnyattva, empti-
history of Buddhism reveals that the term śūnya ness and internal purification, in the text Saṃyutta
or the concept śūnyatā was not the innovation of Nikāya, Book II. Understanding śūnyatā in terms
this particular school; rather the concept has its of internal purification is a very common phe-
origin in the teachings of Lord Buddha himself. nomenon in early Buddhist literature. In the
This concept of śūnyatā has been discussed by Dhammapada, it is said that when one’s mind is
other Buddhist schools also. Early reference to completely free from the three impurities, it is
this term is found in the Majjhima Nikāya in the regarded as the stage of śūnyatā-vimokṣa. In the
context of elucidation of śūnyatāvihāra ([1], Kathāvatthu, it is said that the Buddha while
pp. 965–978). There, a monastery is described as speaking of the five dharmas compared them
śūnya in the sense that it is devoid of elephants, with different unreal objects. Thus, the five senses
cows, horses, etc., but not devoid of monks. were regarded to be like dots of foam, feeling
A person residing in a forest may be devoid of (vedanā) like bubbles, perception (saññā) like
villagers, but not devoid of the forest trees. In mirages, impression (saṃskāras) like the banana
a similar manner, it is said that when a person tree, and awareness like illusion (māyā). The
meditates on the earth as a single object, without objects with which the comparison is made are
Śūnyatā 1149

all accepted as unreal; hence, it implies that all the Milindapañha, Nāgasena tells us that the nature of
five elements are to be regarded as unreal also. all the manifest elements is supreme voidness or
The unreality of all objects is more specifically parama-śūnyatvam because of the absence of any
spelled out in the Dhātuvibhangasutta of the living being. Certain Mahāyāna texts point to the
Majjhima Nikāya, where it is said that depending fact that the concept of śūnyatā counteracts
upon the oil and wick does a lamp burn, but the the satkāyadṛṣṭi or belief in the soul. Another
lamp is neither in the one nor in the other, nor is it sense of the concept of śūnyatā is found in the
anything in itself. Phenomena are like such lamps Samādhirājasūtra, where it is said that śūnyata
– they have nothing in themselves. Therefore, all does not arise nor does it die, because all things
phenomenal objects are unreal; they are decep- are devoid of their own essences (svabhāva). In
tions. The only real thing is the Nirvāṇa ([2], short, in the early Buddhist thought, śūnyatā con-
pp. 74–75). In the Pāli canonical texts like the veyed three different senses: (1) the sense of inner
Cūla-Suññatā-Sutta of the Majjhima Nikāya, the purification, (2) the sense of no-soul, and (3) the
doctrine of sūññatā has been praised as veridical sense of being devoid of one’s own essence. In
(yathābhucca), changeless (avipallattha), pure some later Buddhist texts like Pañcaviṃś
(parisuddha), and supremely unsurpassable atisahasrikā, Abhisamayālaṃkārāloka, and
(paramānuttara). The Anguttara Nikāya and the Madhyantavibhāgaṭī kā, various modes of śū
Saṃyutta Nikāya declare that all of the discourses nyata have been discussed. Haribhadra, for exam-
of Lord Buddha are concerned with suññatā. ple, in his Abhisamayālaṃkāra treats these differ-
In the text Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghoṣa regards ent modes of śūnyatā either as identical with the
the insight into suññatā of all things as the insight ten planes of concentration (daśabhūmi) or as
into the soullessness of the elements and it is preparatory to or as posterior to these stages. The
regarded as one of the gateways to liberation number of modes of śūnyatā stated in these texts
([3], p. Book XXI.67). It is the non-perception of is not always the same. For instance, in the
soul in oneself, non-perception of one’s own soul Madhyantavibhāgaṭī kā, the number is stated to
elsewhere, non-perception of any other soul any- be 16, whereas in the Pancaviṁśatisahasrikā,
where, and non-perception of anyone else’s soul the number is 20. These 20 modes are enumerated
in oneself. Aśvaghoṣa in the text Mahāyānaś as follows: (1) the unreality of internal elements of
raddhotpādaśāstra interprets śūnyatā as being existence (adhyātmaśūnyatā), (2) the unreality of
devoid of phenomena and explains it with the external objects (bahirdhaśūnyatā), (3) the unre-
simile of space. Space is nothing; it has no exis- ality of both as in the sense-organs or the body
tence and is not a reality; but in ordinary life (adhyātmabahirdhasunyatā), (4) the unreality of
people speak of this place or that place and that unreality (sunyatā sunyatā), (5) the unreality of
is done in order to distinguish things. This means the infinite space (Mahāsunyatā), (6) the unreality
that what is found in ordinary usages does not of the ultimate reality (paramārthasunyatā), S
always reveal the reality. Similarly, though the (7) the unreality of the conditioned (samskrta
phenomenal world appears to be real, it does not sunyāt), (8) the unreality of the unconditioned
have any really outward form; all phenomena are (asamskrta sunyāt), (9) the unreality of the
only in the Mind. Hence, it is a mistake to think limitless (atyantasunyatā), (10) the unreality
that there is something outside. All phenomena of that which is beginningless and endless
arise from the false notion of the mind. So when (anavaragarasunyatā), (11) the unreality of the
the mind is made free from all false ideas and undeniable (anavakārasunyatā), (12) the unreal-
misconceptions, all phenomena will disappear. ity of the ultimate essences (prakrtisunyatā),
In the Abhidhamma literature, the term śū (13) the unreality of all elements of existence
nyata is often understood in the sense of no-soul. (sarvadharmasunyatā), (14) the unreality of
Vasubandhu in his Abhidharmakośabhāṣya points all determination (laksanasunyatā), (15) the
out that this is a collection of different saṃskāras, unreality of the past, present, and future
because there is no sattva or sentient being. In the (anupalambhasunyatā), (16) the unreality of
1150 Śūnyatā

relation conceived as absence this notion makes other notions unclear ([5],
(abhāvasvabhāvasunyatā), (17) the unreality of p. XXIV.14). So proper understanding of the
the positive constituents of empirical existence notion of śūnyatā is the primary requirement. In
(bhāvasunyatā), (18) the unreality of absence the context of explaining the notion of śūnyatā,
(abhāvasunyatā), (19) the unreality of self-being Nāgārjuna makes a critical three-way relation
(svabhāvasunyatā), and (20) the unreality of inde- between śūnyatā, dependent origination, and
pendent being (parabhāvasunyatā) ([4], verbal convention and asserts that this relation
pp. 350–356). itself is the middle way. His argument is that
In spite of all these explanations or elucidations dependent origination, technically known as
of the notion of śūnyatā by different Buddhist pratītyasamutpāda, means the origination of an
logicians, the notion has come to be closely asso- object as dependent on causes and conditions. Just
ciated with the name of the Mādhyamika philos- as in the physical plane the germination of a seed
opher Nāgārjuna. In his Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, takes place by depending on its cause and other
he makes different statements on different occa- conditions, in the psychical plane, consciousness
sions to remove the various misconceptions (vijñāna) occurs by depending on its respective
regarding śūnyatā and bring out its proper signif- cause and condition. That is, everything in the
icance. With the application of the prasaṇga form world can occur only by its dependence on other
of argument (a sort of method analogous to the causes and conditions. That which depends for its
reductio ad absurdum argument of the West), occurrence on other causes and conditions cannot
Nāgārjuna discusses the different alternative be said to have an essence of its own. So, all the
views regarding the notions of motion, senses, objects in the world being dependent on causes
agent and action, fire and fuel, essence, suffering, and conditions for their occurrences are said to be
bondage, etc., and shows that none of these views devoid of any essence of their own. And that
stand the test of scrutiny or all of them lead to which is devoid of an intrinsic essence of its
some kind of absurd consequences. Hence, ulti- own is regarded as śūnyatā. Thus, according to
mately everything is to be considered as śūnya. Nāgārjuna, dependent origination, lack of intrin-
Thus, Nāgārjuna widened the application of śū sic nature, and śūnyatā mean the same thing.
nyatā to the entire field of philosophical specula- In verse 18 of Chapter 24 of the text
tions. Some Buddhist thinkers objected to such Mūlamadhyamakaśāstra [5], Nāgārjuna holds
a wide application of the term on the ground that that whatever is dependently co-arisen, that is
the Buddha used this concept as a means to gain explained to be emptiness. That being
insight into the no-soul notion (anattā); hence, a dependent origination is itself the middle way.
application of the notion of śūnyatā to other Here, Nāgārjuna is asserting the identity of
cases cannot be justified. Such an objection was (1) emptiness (śūnyatā), (2) the dependently orig-
countered by Nāgārjuna with the argument that inated entities, that is, all phenomena, and (3) ver-
the doctrine of śūnyatā was preached by Lord bal convention. Basic to this assertion of the
Buddha to remove all kinds of misconception. emptiness of all phenomena stand two fundamen-
So there is nothing wrong to apply this concept tal theses of Nāgārjuna’s philosophy: (a) doctrine
of śūnyatā to all cases. Nāgārjuna explicitly of dependent origination, namely, that everything
argues that śūnyatā means the lack of essence is dependent on their respective cause (hetu) and
(nihsvabhāvatā) and so śūnyatā cannot itself be condition (pratyaya), and (b) whatever is so
considered as an essence that things can have; dependent has to be regarded as devoid of any
rather it is the total lack of essence or inherent essence. In his elucidation of the notion of causal-
existence. The doctrine of śūnyatā is very subtle ity, Nāgārjuna makes a distinction between
and hence can be easily misinterpreted. Proper a cause (hetu) and a condition (pratyaya). What
understanding of the notion of śūnyatā makes he means by cause or hetu is an event or state or
one understand the true nature of everything, process that can be appealed to in explaining
whereas lack of clarity in the understanding of another event, state, or process without any
Śūnyatā 1151

metaphysical commitment to any occult connec- views. In the Aṣṭasahasrikāprajñāpāramitā and

tion between the explanandum and the explanans other Prajñā Pāramitā texts, it has been said that
[6]. Taking cause and condition in this way, rūpa is śūnya and śūnyatā is rūpa, and similar is
Nāgārjuna points out that if one views phenomena the case with other aggregates (skandhas)
as having and as emerging from causal powers, like vedanā, samjñā, samskāra, and vijñāna. If
one views them as having essences and as being śūnyatā were different from them, things will not
connected to the essences of other phenomena. be devoid of essential reality. Mādhyamika phi-
But, this is ultimately incoherent since it forces losophers have repeatedly warned people not to
one to admit the inherent existence of things in consider śūnyatā as nonexistence or abhāva. To
virtue of their essential identity and at the same deny the accessibility of thought to real is not to
time it asserts their dependent and productive deny the real but to point out the limitations of
character in virtue of their causal history. But thought. Thought always looks at the real through
such dependence and relational character are conceptual patterns, through differentia, and dis-
incompatible with their inherent existence. So tinction. It sunders and distorts the real. Buddhi or
that which has dependent origination is to be thought is characterized as the conventional or
regarded as devoid of inherent existence and, saṃvṛti, a cover that veils the real. The essence
hence, is empty (śūnya). Therefore, it is of thought consists in the different modes or attri-
established that to say of something that it is butes as for instance “is” or “is not” or a combi-
dependently originated is to say that it is empty nation of both “is and is not”. So to have proper
and to say of something that it is empty is another knowledge of the real, it is essential to get rid of all
way of saying that it arises dependently. the functions of thought, that is, to remove the
For Nāgārjuna, śūnyatā, therefore, stands for different modes of thought. The total negation of
a denial of all metaphysical constructions and it thought modes is prajñā or intuition. Prajñā is
itself cannot be regarded as a metaphysical doc- Absolute, the real. As such, the Mādhyamikas
trine of nihilism or absolutism or anything of that consider this prajñā as the śūnyatā of dṛṣṭi, the
sort. Unfortunately, the notion of śūnyatā has negation of concepts. This śūnyatā as the dissolu-
often been criticized to be so by the opponents. tion of the conceptual function of the mind is
Nāgārjuna refutes their views by referring to the freedom. Viewed from the standpoint of prajñā,
words of Lord Buddha. The Buddha in his instruc- samsāra and nirvāṇa are identical; there is no
tion to Kāśyapa holds that he considers the man to difference between them. Nirvāṇa is the reality
be incurable who considers śūnyatā itself to be of saṃsāra, while saṃsāra is the falsity of
a theory. If a drug administered to a patient is able Nirvāṇa. Nirvāṇa is actually the saṃsāra without
to remove all his discomforts, but at the same time the birth and the decay. The difference consists in
were to affect the stomach by remaining in it, the one’s way of looking at them. It is epistemological
patient cannot be said to be cured. In the same and not metaphysical. This śūnyatā is truly uni- S
manner, śūnyatā is an antidote to all dogmatic versal, it constitutes the whole reality. Accord-
views, but if anyone regards it to be a theory or ingly, the Mādhyamikas contend that the final
a view in itself, then he fails to realize the true release is possible only through the understanding
spirit of śūnyatā (Kāśyapa-parivarta-Sūtra of such śūnyatā. The paths shown by other philo-
quoted in [4] and [7]). The significance of this sophical systems can lead to partial release or to
way of presentation of śūnyatā is that it clearly a preliminary stage. All of them speak of the
points out that it is wrong to interpret śūnyatā as attainment of liberation through the knowledge
a doctrine of voidness or doctrine of nihilism. of the true nature of reality either as substance or
Śūnyatā of dṛṣṭi (views) is not one more dṛṣṭi, as Prakṛti or as Brahman, etc. Consideration of the
but is prajñā or their reflective awareness. This real in any such particular modes, for instance, as
śūnyatā or the reflective awareness of reason substance or as being, necessarily creates an other
belongs to a higher level of consciousness. From and distinguishes the real from that other. So
that level alone, it can be regarded as a review of while upholding that reality is such and such,
1152 Śūnyatā

these systems are being attached to one particular of purifying one’s own mind from all sorts of
view and rejecting other views. Such restriction or misconceptions. Since consciousness presents an
determination is the root of saṃsāra. Nāgārjuna illusive appearance before human beings, the
holds that when the self is posited, an other existence of such consciousness cannot be denied
confronts it; with the division of things into self altogether. So what is denied is the illusive char-
and nonself, attachment and aversion result. acter of such consciousness which occurs in the
Depending on these all vices spring up. Attach- form of the apprehender (grāhaka) and the
ment brings in the thirst for pleasure, and thirst apprehended (grāhya). But the self-substance of
hides all flaws of the objects. Blinded by attach- the consciousness itself is beyond the reach of the
ment and thirst, man imagines qualities in things ordinary mind; still it can hardly be denied. Thus,
and looks for upon the means to achieve pleasure. the Yogācāra notion of śūnyatā differs from
Saṃsāra is thus present as long as there is the the Mādhyamika notion. For the Mādhyamikas,
attachment to the “I” ([4], p. 270). śūnyatā conveys the idea of non-substantiality
The root cause of all our sufferings, according (niḥsvabhāva) and serves as an antidote to all
to the Mādhyamikas, lies in indulgence in the misconceptions and false ideas, but this śūnyatā
wrong views (dṛṣṭi) or kalpanā. Kalpanā is avidyā itself is not regarded to possess any essence of its
par excellence. The real is the indeterminate; asso- own, while for the Yogācāras, śūnyatā has an
ciating it with a character, determining it as “this” essence which cannot be denied, though that
or “not this” is to apprehend the real as one-sided, essence cannot be realized by ordinary human
partial, and unreal. This is unconsciously negation intellect. The Vijñānavādins sometimes also talk
of the real, for all determination is negation. So in the language of the Mādhyamikas. For exam-
what is required is the denial of all the standpoints ple, Sthiramati equates śūnyatā with the exclusion
which are the initial negation of the real that is of all views (sarva-dṛṣṭi-niḥśaraṇa). Asaṃga also
essentially indeterminate, and this is śūnyatā. So seems to follow the Mādhyamika dialect of the
śūnyatā properly understood will lead one to cor- four-cornered negation: negation of being, nega-
rect this initial unconscious falsification of the real tion of nonbeing, negation of being and nonbeing,
and, hence, can lead one to the stage of Nirvāṇa. and negation of neither.
The Yogācāra school of Buddhism has also Often a distinction is made between emptiness
spoken of the notion of śūnyatā, but their inter- of one thing by another (itaretaraśūnyatā) and
pretation is somewhat different from that of the emptiness concerning characters (lakṣaṇaśū
Mādhyamikas. Like the Mādhyamikas, the nyatā). The former type of emptiness is that of
Yogācāra philosophers believe that the objective one thing by another. This is exemplified in the
world which is experienced by human beings is case when one perceptually apprehends a certain
a false reflection of the human mind. It is one place as being free of another object. This empti-
phase of the store consciousness (ālayavijñāna) ness of one thing by another is not regarded as
which is an accumulation of the past impressions ultimate, but depends on the conventional truth.
(vāsanā) from time immemorial. This store con- That is, although all entities are not different from
sciousness has to be checked and substituted by each other on account of their being of the same
a pure supramundane cognition. To do away with nature in being ultimately destructible, momen-
it is considered as the summum bonum (mukti). tary, they appear to be mutually different to the
The Yogācāra philosopher Maitreyanātha regards ordinary person. Hence, for the ordinary beings,
this as śūnyatā because it is the cleansing of all the this emptiness of one thing by another is
defiling factors which generate the illusive a commonly accepted fact, since they grasp one
appearance of the external objects and human entity as being free of another, but it is not ulti-
attachment toward them. This śūnyatā is not an mately established. In actual fact, dreamt and illu-
absolute nonentity but something more [8]. His sory entities do not admit among themselves any
argument is that liberation is acquired as a result distinct nature. Therefore, Lord Buddha regarded
Śūnyatā 1153

this kind of emptiness as the worst of all, not being Bodhicaryāvatāra, śūnyatā is regarded as the
founded on ultimate reality, and asked people to path of Bodhi (Bodhimārga), as the cause of
abandon this view. As such, when the Nirvāṇa (nirvāṇakāraṇam). Through the rejection
Mādhyamikas speak of śūnyatā, they mean by it of all the empirical modes of the transcendent, the
lakṣaṇaśūnyatā, that is, emptiness concerning mind becomes free not only from all the alterna-
characters. All dharmas are regarded to be tives, but from all the kleśas, namely, passions,
ultimately devoid of intrinsic nature because their attachment, and aversion, since they all have their
particular and universal characters root in false construction. This is the state of
(svasāmānyalakṣaṇa), as they are established, are Nirvāṇa. Thus, śūnyatā leading to prajñā leads
void. This voidness is apprehended through the one to the ultimate state of Nirvāṇa. In the text
occurrence of the wisdom in which no dharma Laṇkāvatārasūtra, the concept of śūnyatā is
appears. If the character, both particular and uni- frequently used with the concepts of no-birth
versal, truly existed, it would have been (anutpāda), no self-substance (asvabhāva), and
apprehended by the seers through their yogic non-duality (advaya) to mean the same entity or
apprehension. But the yogins never apprehend express different aspects of the same fact. When it
any such ultimate aspects of objects. Hence, all is said that everything is empty, what is meant is
the dharmas would have to be regarded as śūnya. that all the particular objects of the world do not
As such, it is stated in the Madhyamakāloka that have any ultimate reality. Nothing exists in the
the Mādhyamikas accept the absence of the real, world which can be said to be absolutely real in
intrinsic nature of all dharmas due to the emptiness the sense of possessing self-substance. Because of
concerning characters and not due to the emptiness emptiness there is no birth, and as there is no birth
of one thing by another ([9], pp. 110–112). there is no world of particulars in which the notion
Because of this understanding of śūnyatā as the of self-substance (svabhāva) or the notion of
absence of the intrinsic nature of things, the duality can occur. So when one realizes the
Mādhyamika philosophers hold that everything notion of emptiness properly, one is said to
is consistent for him for whom essencelessness have compliance with reality not born
is proper, while everything becomes inconsistent (anutpattikādharmakṣānti) and is able to attain
for one for whom essencelessness is not proper. the realization of the highest knowledge
Therefore, in the text Vigrahavyāvartanī , (anuttara-samyak-sambodhi) [10].
Nāgārjuna points out in clear terms that all activ- The Laṇkāvatārasūtra speaks of seven types of
ities and all values and interests will remain in emptiness: (1) emptiness of appearance (lakṣaṇa),
a secure position for one who believes in the (2) emptiness of self-substance (svabhāva),
ultimate truth of śūnyatā. On the other hand, for (3) emptiness of nonaction (apracarita), (4) emp-
one who does not subscribe to śūnyatā, nothing tiness of action (pracarita), (5) emptiness by
becomes secure. To the enlightened person who which is meant the unnameability of existence S
understands śūnyatā properly, the triple jewel (sarva-dharma-nirabhilāpya), (6) emptiness of
(triratna), namely, the Buddha, the Dharma or the highest degree, that is, the ultimate reality
the Law, and the monastic order, will become (paramārtha), and (7) emptiness of reciprocity
a matter of conviction. So śūnyatā helps one not (itaretara). By the emptiness of appearance is
simply in the matter of spiritual practices, but the meant that appearance is not a final fact. Empti-
mundane laws of individual conduct, social ness of self-substance indicates that talk of indi-
behavior, etc., also derive their significance from vidual nature of objects is a construction of our
the concept of śūnyatā. As such, in the Mahāyāna own mind. It is an illusion to think that individual
tradition it is believed that understanding of śū objects exist in reality. Since the individual
nyatā leads one to the path of liberation. Libera- objects do not have any self-substance or essence
tion is achieved through the realization of the of their own, they are regarded as empty. By the
doctrine of emptiness. In the text emptiness of the nonaction is meant that what is
1154 Śūnyatā

described as the activities of the different elements not consider emptiness as an additional entity. As
or skandhas is not real, the skandhas in their such, when he rejects all other concepts, he rejects
nature are nonacting, and in that sense they are the notion of emptiness also. His point is that if
described as emptiness. The question obviously there were something nonempty, there could be
arises that if there is in reality no activity of the something empty (śūnya), but since there is noth-
elements, how is it that their activities are per- ing nonempty, there cannot be anything called
ceived. In reply, it is explained that these emptiness. What is left after negating everything
elements or skandhas are not by themselves inde- conceivable can be characterized neither as
pendent creating agencies; there is nothing in nonbeing, nor as śūnya for the simple reason that
them that can be regarded to be their self. The there is nothing in opposition to which these con-
activities or karmas which are perceived are due cepts could be logically framed. Candrakīrti, the
to different causes and conditions. In that sense, chief commentator of Nāgārjuna, explains this
the emptiness of action is stated. As existence of point clearly. According to him, if there were
everything is dependent on the imaginative power something like śūnyatā over and above the
of human mind, their existence is a constructed objects, the essence of objects would depend
one or parikalpita. They do not have any self- upon it. But this is not the case. Here, śūnyatā is
substance of their own by which they can be propounded as the generic characteristic feature of
named and described by the terminology of rela- all reals. There is no non-śūnya real, and hence
tive knowledge; and this incapability of being non-śūnyatā itself does not exist. That is to say, all
named by designation is regarded as the empti- reals being śūnya, there is no non-śūnya real, and
ness of the unnameability. But the great empti- hence śūnyatā, in default of its opposite, simply
ness or emptiness of the highest degree is the does not exist. So the point that Nāgārjuna and
supreme wisdom (Āryajñāna). When this other Buddhist thinkers want to emphasize is that
supreme wisdom is realized by inner conscious- the main objective of the doctrine of śūnyatā was
ness, all the theories, wrong ideas, and traces of to point out the defective character of all ontolog-
beginningless memory altogether disappear. ical thesis. But it would be wrong to regard the
This is another form of emptiness. As compared śūnyatā itself as a thesis in its turn. If it were itself
to others, the emptiness of reciprocity is consid- regarded as a view and a negative view, it would
ered to be of the lowest kind and is to be be as absurd as other theories. Hence, śūnyatā
avoided by all. This emptiness occurs when the itself cannot be regarded as a real entity while
quality possessed by one entity is lacking in rejecting the reality of other entities. This is what
another. For example, a monastery where there is meant by the emptiness of emptiness itself. The
are no horses and elephants is regarded as empty, abandonment of even the notion of śūnyatā is
but that does not mean that there are no referred to as Mahāśūnyatā or great emptiness in
monks there. A monastery is a monastery and the Mahāyāna tradition.
a monk is a monk, each retaining its own
characteristic. Elephants and horses may be
found in places where they belong; only they Cross-References
are absent in places which is occupied
by another. Such sort of absence is regarded as ▶ Anattā (Buddhism)
the emptiness of reciprocity ([10], pp. 287–291). ▶ Bodhidharma
Regarding the notion of emptiness or śūnyatā, ▶ Idealism (Buddhism)
one faces a problem: If everything in the world is ▶ Mādhyamika
considered as empty, what will be the status of ▶ Majjhimā Paṭipadā
emptiness itself? Is it to be regarded as empty ▶ Middle Way (Buddhism)
also? In reply, it can be said that Nāgārjuna does ▶ Nāgārjuna
Sūtra Pitaka 1155
˙

▶ Paṭiccasamuppāda
▶ Philosophy (Buddhism) Supremacy
▶ Prajñāpāramitā
▶ Yogācāra ▶ Pāramitā

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▶ Vārāṇasī (Buddhism)
S
Śūnyatā
Suryapura
▶ Middle Way (Buddhism)
▶ Relativity (Buddhism) ▶ Mathurā

Supernatural Power Sūtra Pitaka

˙
▶ Iddhi ▶ Sutta Piṭaka
1156 Sutta Pitaka
˙

(discourses) in it as compared to 34 suttantas (dis-

Sutta Pitaka courses) of the Theravādin Dīgha Nikāya. Frag-
˙ ments of the Sarvāstivādin School’s Dīrgha Āgama
K. T. S. Sarao are also extant in their Sanskrit as well as Tibetan
Department of Buddhist Studies, University of translations [9].
Delhi, Delhi, India The Theravādin Dīgha Nikāya appears to be
composed of earlier and later portions and is not
the earliest work of the Pāli Tipiṭaka ([30], p. 44).
Synonyms In it, though there are some long suttas, majority
of the suttas are short. The second vagga consists
Sūtra Piṭaka; Suttanta Piṭaka of the longest suttas, some of which have grown
into their present bulky size as a result of interpo-
lations ([30], p. 35). Each of the suttas of the
Definition Dīgha Nikāya treats intensively some particular
point or points of doctrine and may be as well
The second of the three divisions of the Tipiṭaka. considered an independent work ([30], p. 35). Its
34 suttas have been put together into three vaggas
(groups), and this threefold division is a purely
Introduction formal division with no direct link to the subject
matter or content (see [7], p. 26).
The Sutta Piṭaka which is one of the three piṭakas More than half of the suttas of the Dīgha
(collections) of the Tipiṭaka contains more than Nikāya are debates with either Brāhmaṇas or
10,000 suttas (Sk: sūtras, discourses) attributed to members of other sects that were contemporaries
the Buddha or his close associates. It consists of of early Buddhism and hence contain much infor-
five nikāyas (divisions): Dīgha, Majjhima, mation on sects, some of which is the only avail-
Saṃyutta, Aṅguttara, and Khuddaka. Whereas able information on these sects ([12], p. 75; [7],
the first four nikāyas are homogeneous and cog- p. 28). It has been suggested that these debates in
nate in nature, the fifth one is quite heterogeneous. the Dīgha Nikāya were probably used to win
Some suttas appear in two or more of the nikāyas. followers, and in all probability, once Buddhism
Though tradition claims that the Sutta Piṭaka was established itself, the content of the Dīgha Nikāya
composed in the First Buddhist Council that took may have become outdated ([12], pp. 71, 78).
place shortly after the demise of the Buddha, it is
generally agreed that it would have been impossi- Majjhima Nikāya
ble that such a huge collection was finally com- The Majjhima Nikāya is known as the “Collection
posed and settled within a short period of of Middle Length Discourse/Sayings” or “Middle
3 months. Most probably, only short speeches, Collection” in English. It consists of 152 suttas
sayings, and verses conveying important doctrines grouped into three books (paṇṇāsas) called
of Buddhism were collected in the First Buddhist Mahāpaṇṇāsa (first 50 suttas), Majjhimapaṇṇāsa
Council, and these were was expanded into full- (sutta nos. 51–100), and Uparipaṇṇāsa (sutta
length suttas over the next 100 years or so. nos. 101–152). Each of these three books is
subdivided into groups of ten suttas. Occasion-
The Dīgha Nikāya ally, these suttas are also clustered into pairs
The Dīgha Nikāya is known as the “Collection of called Cūḷa (Small) and Mahā (Great) suttas. At
Long Discourses” in English. A complete version the First Buddhist Council that took place at
of the Dīrgha Āgama of the Dharmaguptaka Rājagaha three months after the death of the Bud-
School survives in Chinese translation under the dha, the job of memorizing the Majjhima Nikāya
title of Cháng Ahánjī ng. There are 30 sūtras and of transmitting it further intact was assigned
Sutta Pitaka 1157
˙

to the “school” of Sāriputta ([19]: i.15). The 3. The Khandha Vagga consisting of 13
Majjhima Nikāya corresponds to the Madhyama saṃyuttas explains the 5 khandhas.
Āgama found in the Sūtra Piṭakas of various 4. The Saḷāyatana Vagga consisting of ten
Sanskrit-based early Buddhist schools, fragments saṃyuttas explains the six sense organs with
of which are extant in Sanskrit. Portions of the their objects.
Sarvāstivāda Madhyama Āgama also survive in 5. The Mahā Vagga consisting of 12 saṃyuttas.
Tibetan translation. A complete translation of the
Madhyama Āgama of the Sarvāstivāda School, The suttas in the different saṃyuttas recur
known as the Zhōng Ahánjī ng (Taishō 26) repetitively. It has been suggested that most prob-
containing 222 sūtras, was done by Saṃghadeva ably this repetitiveness arose due to the fact that
in the Eastern Jin Dynasty in 397–398 C.E. [9]. there existed a large number of suttas on the same
Almost all the important tenets of Buddhism subject, collected from different individuals and
have been dealt with in the Majjhima Nikāya, and monasteries, etc., all being of equal religious merit
light has been thrown not only on the life of the and hence deserving to be included in the collec-
Buddhist monks and nuns but also on subjects tion ([30], p. 57). Thus, the large number of the
such as Brāhmaṇical yajñas (sacrifices), different suttas is basically the outcome of a practice that
forms of asceticism, the relation of the Buddha to involved a thorough treatment of the same topic
the Nigaṇṭhas (Jainas), the four noble truths, the from all angles in accordance with a fixed pattern
doctrine of kamma, refutation of the self, different to the complete exhaustion of both the topic and
modes of meditation, and the social and political the reader. As suggested by K.R. Norman, this
conditions prevalent at that time that have all been type of arrangement, however, represents an obvi-
discussed in this nikāya ([11], p. 116). In some of ous editorial practice, and the existence of
the suttas of the Majjhima Nikāya, it has been a number of the suttas elsewhere in the canon
stated that the particular dialogue took place probably indicates a conscious selection of mate-
after the Mahāparinibbāna indicating that these rial to group together in this way ([15], p. 50).
suttas are younger than those in the Dīgha Nikāya Further, as the suttas were classified in two differ-
([7], p. 34). ent ways and as some of the saṃyuttas deal with
numerical subjects, there is inevitably an overlap
The Samyutta Nikāya between the Saṃyutta Nikāya and the Aṅguttara
˙
The Saṃyutta Nikāya is known as “Book of the Nikāya in the Pāli canon. Occasionally, different
Kindred Sayings” or “Collection of Connected versions of the same sutta in the Saṃyutta Nikāya
Discourses” in English. It is one of the basic and within the nikāyas elsewhere show substantial
works in which early Indian teachings on topics differences among themselves. These differences
such as suffering, impermanence, selflessness, indicate that changes were introduced into one
four noble truths, and the eightfold path have another, or both, of the narratives at some time, S
been given in detail. The Saṃyutta Nikāya is but the tradition has not changed since then for the
divided into five main vaggas consisting of obvious reason that the texts were preserved by
a total of 56 sections, called saṃyuttas. Each of the Dīgha-bhāṇakas and the Saṃyutta-bhāṇakas
these 56 saṃyuttas has been further subdivided independent of each other ([15], p. 50).
into minor vaggas (chapters). The five main The Saṃyutta Nikāya corresponds to the
vaggas are as follows: Saṃyukta Āgama found in the Sūtra Piṭakas of
various Sanskritic early Buddhists schools, frag-
1. The Sagātha Vagga consisting of 11 saṃyuttas ments of which survive in Sanskrit and in Tibetan
contains verses. translation. A complete Chinese translation from
2. The Nidāna Vagga consisting of ten saṃyuttas the Sarvāstivādin recension, known as the
explains the chain of causation ZáAhánjī ng, appears in the Chinese Buddhist
(paṭiccasamuppāda). canon, and it includes a number of sūtras which
1158 Sutta Pitaka
˙

appear in the Aṅguttara Nikāya of the Pāli though these nikāyas are never cited as such.
Tipiṭaka ([17], p. 181). This would seem to indi- However, as there is no substantial difference
cate that at the time when the āgamas were col- among the first four nikāyas in terms of either
lected, the distinction between the “connected” their style or language, there could not have
and the “numerical” classifications was not very been much chronological gap between the com-
clearly drawn ([15], p. 54). position of the Aṅguttara Nikāya and the other
three nikāyas. Thus, as regards the earliest acces-
The Aṅguttara Nikāya sible sources of the Buddhavacana (teachings of
The Aṅguttara Nikāya is known as “Book of the Buddha), there is no particular nikāya which
Gradual Sayings” or “Numerical Discourses” in could rightly lay any claim thereto, as all of them
English. It has suttas (Sk: sūtras, discourses) contain very ancient as well as comparatively late
grouped in “higher” (uttara) “parts” (aṅgas), components. According to Manorathapūraṇī , the
i.e., in groups of numerical ascendency with an commentary of the Aṅguttara Nikāya, when the
arithmetical progression from 1 to 11 on the basis Buddha’s dharma comes to an end, the first por-
of the number of dhamma (Sk: dharma) items tion of the Sutta Piṭaka to vanish will be the
referenced in them. Thus, the Eka-nipāta (the Aṅguttara Nikāya, starting with the Book of
Book of Ones) deals with a great variety of sub- Elevens and ending with the Book of Ones ([29],
jects but always from one single aspect at a time; p. 881).
the Book of Twos comprises of suttas concerning
pairs of things (e.g., a sutta on two kinds of fools, The Khuddaka Nikāya
another about two kinds of happiness); and the The Khuddaka Nikāya (Minor Collection) con-
Book of Threes contains suttas concerning three sists of 15 texts, viz., Khuddakapāṭha,
things (e.g., a sutta on three governing principles Dhammapada, Udāna, Itivuttaka, Sutta-Nipāta,
that keep one’s Dhamma practice on track, a sutta Vimānavatthu, Petavatthu, Theragāthā,
about the three levels on which becoming (bhava) Therīgāthā, Jātaka, Niddesa, Paṭisambhidāmagga,
operates in relation to consciousness). Each of the Apadāna, Buddhavaṃsa, and Cariyāpiṭaka. Four
eleven books (nipātas) of the Aṅguttara Nikāya is more texts, viz., Suttasaṃgaha, Nettippakaraṇa,
divided in turn into groups of suttas, called vagga Petakopadesa, and Milindapañha, were added to
or chapter, according to some similarity of subject this nikāya in Myanmar. The full list of these 18
or of treatment. Though the exact count of suttas books is included in the inscriptions as approved
in the Aṅguttara Nikāya depends on the particular by the Fifth Council of Myanmar and in the
edition (Sri Lankan, Thai, or Burmese) as well as printed edition of the text recited at the Sixth
the way in which these suttas are counted, the Council.
number of suttas distinctive in character is gener- According to the Paramatthajotikā, the
ally calculated between 1,000 and 2500 ([8], p. Khuddakapāṭha commentary, the Khuddaka
12; [7], p. xv; [28], p. 26). Majority of these suttas Nikāya is a collection of numerous units of the
are short, some being very short, though there are Dhamma which are small and variegated and
some suttas of sizeable length. The Sanskrit par- hence the name of the collection Khuddaka
allel of the Pāli Aṅguttara Nikāya is the Nikāya ([24], p. 12). This nikāya contains, besides
Ekottarāgama of which only fragments have complete suttas and verses, small portions of the
been found among the remains of manuscripts teachings of the Dhamma on different subjects
discovered in Xinjiang. However, a complete credited to the Buddha and his chief disciples.
version of the Ekottarāgama survives in Major portion of this nikāya is in verse and con-
Chinese by the name of Zēngyī Ahánjī ng tains nearly all the important works of Buddhist
(TaishōTripiṭaka 125). poetry. The texts of the Khuddaka Nikāya are very
The Aṅguttara Nikāya contains the greatest heterogeneous works of widely varying length.
number of quotations from the other three nikāyas The shortest of its texts is the Khuddakapāṭha
(the Dīgha, the Majjhima, and the Saṃyutta), which consists of less than ten printed pages,
Sutta Pitaka 1159
˙

whereas the Jātaka is over a 100 times as bigger. as constituting the Khuddaka Nikāya ([19]: i.23;
Only three of its texts contain suttas similar to [9]: i.27).
those in the first four nikāyas: nine are collections It has been suggested that the texts Suttanipāta,
of verses, one is a commentary, one is Itivuttaka, Dhammapada, Therīgāthā, Theragāthā,
a philosophical text, and one (the Khuddakapāṭha) Udāna, and Jātaka belong to the early stratum and
has been assembled from short pieces found else- the texts Khuddakapāṭha, Vimānavatthu,
where in the canon ([7], pp. 41–42). It has been Petavatthu, Niddesa, Paṭisambhidāmagga,
suggested that the Khuddaka Nikāya was the Apadāna, Buddhavaṃsa, and Cariyāpiṭaka can
repository for materials that were left out of the be categorized in the later stratum ([1], p. 113).
four nikāyas (the Dīgha Nikāya, Majjhima Although the Theravādin tradition accepts that the
Nikāya, Saṃyutta Nikāya, and Aṅguttara Nikāya) five nikāyas of the Sutta Piṭaka were rehearsed at
and thus included both early and late texts ([2], p. the First Council and that the Khuddaka Nikāya
128). Though Buddhist schools such as the includes all other sayings of the Buddha that are
Mahisāsaka, Dharmaguptaka, and Mahāsaṃghika not included in the first four Nikāyas, the
included a Khuddaka Piṭaka in their canons, the Khuddaka Nikāya is generally believed to have
Khuddaka Nikāya of the Theravāda school is the been developed and completed during a long
only extant example of such a Khuddaka Piṭaka period of time, beginning from the Buddha’s
([2], p. 128). time up to about the time of the Third Council.
There does not seem to be any recognizable On the basis of the use of the word pañcanekāyika
system in the arrangement of the texts in the (knower of the five nikāyas) in a third century B.
Khuddaka Nikāya, and this uncertainty prevails C.E. inscription, Rhys Davids has suggested the
in Theravāda, the only school to possess existence of Khuddaka Nikāya by the third cen-
a complete Khuddaka Nikāya. The long history tury B.C.E. ([20], p. 168).
of the uncertainty about the contents of the The Khuddaka Nikāya as a whole is considered
Khuddaka Nikāya has been described by Lamotte traditionally as less important compared with the
[10]. The earliest lists of the texts contained in this first four nikāyas as it is believed that the first four
nikāyas are found in the description of the canon nikāyas contain discourses preached by the Bud-
at the beginning of the commentaries on the var- dha, whereas the texts of the Khuddaka Nikāya are
ious texts of the Pāli Tipiṭaka. For instance, compositions of the disciples ([1], p. 16). It has also
Samantapāsādikā, the commentary of the Vinaya, been suggested that outside the first four nikāyas,
refers to the existence of 15 texts. However, there were a number of texts regarded as of inferior
Atthasālinī, the Abhidhamma commentary, refers importance, either because they were compositions
to only 14 of them, probably leaving out the of the followers of the Buddha or because their
Khuddakapāṭha ([7], p. 42). According to genuineness was uncertain ([27], pp. 202–203).
Sumaṅgalavilāsinī, the commentary on the However, the Theravādin tradition considers the S
Dīgha Nikāya, whereas the Dī ghabhāṇakas (the Khuddaka Nikāya as an integral part of its canon.
reciters of the Dīgha Nikāya) rehearsed 11 of the
15 texts (except Khuddakapāṭha, Apadāna,
Buddhavaṃsa, and Cariyāpiṭaka), called them Cross-References
collectively the Khuddakagantha, and included
them in the Abhidhamma Piṭaka, the ▶ Aṅguttara Nikāya
Majjhimabhāṇakas, on the other hand, mention ▶ Apadāna
14 of these texts (leaving out the Khuddakapāṭha) ▶ Buddhavaṃsa
and included these texts in the Sutta Piṭaka ([19]: ▶ Cariyāpiṭaka
i.15). According to another classification, the ▶ Dhammapada
whole of the Vinaya Piṭaka and the Abhidhamma ▶ Dīgha Nikāya
Piṭaka and the teachings of the Buddha not ▶ Itivuttaka
included in the other four nikāyas are considered ▶ Jātaka
1160 Sutta-Nipāta

▶ Khuddaka Nikāya 18. Rhys Davids CAF, Thera SS, Woodward FL (trans)
▶ Majjhima Nikāya (1917–1930) The book of the kindred sayings, 5 vols.
Pali Text Society, London
▶ Paṭisambhidāmagga 19. Rhys Davids TW, Carpentier JE, Stede W (eds)
▶ Petavatthu (1886–1932) The Sumaṅgala-Vilāsinī: Buddhaghosa’s
▶ Saṃyutta Nikāya commentary on the Dīgha Nikāya, 3 vols. PTS, London
▶ Sutta-Nipāta 20. Rhys Davids TW (1903) Buddhist India. G.P.
Putnam’s Sons, London
▶ Thera- and Therīgāthā 21. Rhys Davids TW, Carpentier JE (eds) (1890–1911)
▶ Tipiṭaka The Dīgha Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London
▶ Udāna 22. Rhys Davids CAF, Thera SS, Woodward FL (trans)
▶ Vimānavatthu (1917–1930) The book of the kindred sayings, 5 vols.
Pali Text Society, London
23. Rhys Davids TW, Rhys Davids CAF (trans)
(2000) Dialogues of the Buddha, reprint, 3 vols.
Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
References 24. Smith H (ed) (1915) The Khuddaka-Pāṭha together
with its commentary Paramatthajotikā I. Pali Text
1. Abeynayaka O (1984) A textual and historical Society, London
analysis of the Khuddaka Nikāya. Tisara Press, 25. Trenckner V, Chalmers R (eds) (1888–1896) The
Colombo Majjhima Nikāya, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, London
2. Akira H (1993) A history of Indian Buddhism (trans & 26. Walshe M (trans) (1995) The long discourses of the
ed: Groner P). Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi Buddha: a translation of the Dīgha Nikāya. Wisdom
3. Bodhi B (trans) (2000) The connected discourses of Publications, Boston
the Buddha: a new Translation of the Saṃyutta 27. Warder AK (1970) Indian Buddhism. Motilal
Nikāya. Wisdom Publications, Boston Banarsidass, Delhi
4. Bodhi B (trans) (2012) Numerical discourses of the 28. Webb R (1975) An analysis of the Pāli Canon. Bud-
Buddha: a complete translation of the Aṅguttara dhist Publication Society, Kandy
Nikāya. Wisdom Publications, Boston 29. Walleser H, Kopp H (eds) (1924–1956)
5. Feer ML (ed) (1884–1898) The Saṃyutta Nikāya, Manorathapūraṇī: Buddhaghosa’s commentary on the
5 vols. Pali Text Society, London Aṅguttara Nikāya, 5 vols. Pali Text Society, London
6. Horner IB (trans) (1954–1959) The collection of the 30. Winternitz M (1983) A history of Indian literature
middle length sayings, 3 vols. Pali Text Society, (trans: SrinivasaSarma V), rev edn, vol II. Motilal
London Banarsidass, Delhi
7. von Hinüber O (1996) A handbook of Pāli literature. 31. Woods JH, Kosambi D, Horner IB (eds) (1922–1938)
Walter de Gruyter, Berlin Papañcasūdanī: Majjhimanikāyaṭṭhakathā of
8. Jayawardhana S (1993) Handbook of Pāli literature. Buddhaghosācariya, 5 vols. Pali Text Society, London
Karunaratne, Colombo 32. Woodward FL, Hare EM (trans) (1932–1936) The
9. Keown D (2004) A dictionary of Buddhism. Oxford book of the gradual sayings, 5 vols. Pali Text Society,
University Press, London London
10. Lamotte É (1988) History of Indian Buddhism. Peters
Press, Louvain, Paris
11. Law BC (1983) A history of Pāli literature, reprint,
vol 1. Indological Book House, Delhi
12. Manné J (1990) Categories of Sutta in the Pāli Nikāyas Sutta-Nipāta
and their implications for our appreciation of the Bud-
dhist teaching and literature. J Pali Text Soc 15:29–87
K. T. S. Sarao
13. Morris R, Hardy E (eds) (1885–1900) The Aṅguttara
Nikāya (1885–1900), 5 vols. Pali Text Society, Department of Buddhist Studies, University of
London Delhi, Delhi, India
14. Ñāṇamoli B, Bhikkhu B (trans) (1995) The
middle length discourses of the Buddha: a new trans-
lation of the Majjhima Nikāya. Wisdom Publications,
Boston Definition
15. Norman KR (1983) A history of Indian literature: Pāli
literature. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden The fifth book of the Khuddaka Nikāya.
16. Nyanaponika T, Bodhi B (eds) (1999) Numerical dis-
courses of the Buddha. AltaMira Press, Lanham
17. Pande GC (1957) Studies in the origins of Buddhism. The Sutta-Nipāta (“The Sutta Collection”) is the
University of Allahabad, Allahabad fifth book of the Khuddaka Nikāya which in turn
Sutta-Nipāta 1161

is part of the Pāli Tipiṭaka of Theravāda Bud- practicing them one may be able to develop one-
dhism. This remarkable text is not only one of self into a saint. Instead of the realization of some
the oldest collections of Buddhist discourses in abstract metaphysical truth, the Sutta-Nipāta pri-
the Pāli Tipiṭaka but is also one of the most pop- marily focuses on the cultivation of different vir-
ular texts of Theravāda Buddhism. It consists of tues and comparatively less attention is paid to the
1,123 verses, interspersed with some prose pas- cognitive aspects of wisdom. Though terminol-
sages, put together into five vaggas (chapters), ogy relating to “wisdom” and “insight” does
namely, (a) Uragavagga (The Snake Chapter), exist in the Sutta-Nipāta, much reticence is
(b) Cūḷavagga (The Lesser Chapter), (c) shown in the presentation of metaphysical ideas.
Mahāvagga (The Great Chapter), (d) In fact, it advises restraint and caution in the
Aṭṭhakavagga (The Octet Chapter), and (e) adoption of any views at all, and makes it clear
Pārāyaṇavagga (The Chapter on the Way to the that the saint eventually exists beyond all views.
Far Shore). The first three vaggas consist of 12, The goal is defined mainly in terms of psychology
14, and 12 suttas, respectively, and the fourth and and ethics rather than intellect. Enlightenment is
fifth vaggas contain 16 suttas each. not normally described as an epistemological
The Sutta-Nipāta contains some of the most transformation as if one were earlier struggling
lyrical and evocative poetry in the Pāli texts under a cognitive mistake that has now been
which makes very liberal use of natural environ- fixed. On the contrary, the goal is seen in terms
mental imagery. For example, a teacher is com- of a thorough modification of one’s mental states
pared to “a skilled boatman who knows firsthand and behavior in sharp contrast to the ones admin-
how to cross to the opposite shore” or a monk is istered by unenlightened motivations.
exhorted to “wander alone like a rhinoceros” and to The language of renunciation and purification is
“give up the here and the beyond just as a serpent extensively employed throughout the Sutta-
sheds its worn-out skin.” The Sutta-Nipāta is an Nipāta. It provides a vision of Enlightenment as
important reference point for texts offering guid- a state of being rather than a state of knowing,
ance to lay Buddhists. The first three suttas, though ultimately these two cannot be separated.
namely, the Ratana Sutta, the Mahāmaṅgala The enlightened being is shown as the one who
Sutta, and the Mettā Sutta, are among the most has developed particular kind of qualities to an
popular suttas in Theravāda Buddhism. They are exceptional and irreversible degree and who lives
virtually the key to understanding, practice, and in a particular type of way. One may move closer
attitude in the cotemporary Theravādin Buddhist to enlightenment by attaining a deeper sense of its
society. Thus, these three suttas are often taught to sublime nature through the cultivation of the nec-
lay men and women so that they may absorb the essary virtues applied to a saint.
Buddhist values and ideals in their lives. They also On the basis of its language and contents, it has
serve as paritta suttas (protective discourses) been suggested that some parts of the Mahāvagga S
which are recited to offer blessings and protection and nearly the whole of the Aṭṭhakavagga of the
in situations of trouble and danger. The first sermon Sutta-Nipāta are perhaps the oldest in the whole of
on the Ratana also provides very useful introduc- Buddhist literature. Hence some of the discourses
tion to the Sutta-Nipāta in general as well as its of the Sutta-Nipāta are placed among the oldest
place and history in the Sutta Piṭaka. discourses in the Pāli Tipiṭaka. In this text can be
The Sutta-Nipāta offers valuable information found the fuller Vedic forms of nouns and verbs in
on the nature of the earliest form of Buddhism. In the plural, the shorter Vedic plurals and instru-
it, for instance, can be seen not only the saṃgha in mental singular nouns, and Vedic infinitives,
its youngest days but also the lives of monks and apart from many unusual forms and words.
nuns in their pristine phase. The Sutta-Nipāta There are also some difficult and irregular
mainly focuses on the nature and qualities of constructions, and very condensed expressions.
a saint. The Sutta-Nipāta shows through the V. Fausböll has suggested that the portions of the
description of the spiritual qualities as to how by Sutta-Nipāta where these are found are much
1162 Suttanta Pitaka
˙

older than the suttas in which the language is not 4. Law BC (1983) A history of Pāli literature, vol I,
only fluent but of which some verses are even reprint. Indological Book House, Delhi
5. Norman KR (trans) (1992) The group of discourses
singularly melodious. (Sutta-Nipāta), 2nd edn, translated with Introduction
Of the 38 poems in the first three vaggas of the and Notes. Pali Text Society, Oxford
Sutta-Nipāta, 6 can also be found in other texts of
the Pāli Tipiṭaka. On this basis, B.C. law has
suggested that these had perhaps existed sepa-
rately, as popular poems, before being amalgam- Suttanta Pitaka
ated into the Sutta-Nipāta. There are references in ˙
the Saṃyutta Nikāya, the Vinaya Piṭaka, and the ▶ Sutta Piṭaka
Udāna to the independent and separate existence
of the Aṭṭhakavagga. T.W. Rhys Davids has
suggested that initially the Aṭṭhakavagga was
quite probably closely associated with the
Sutthu – Aggatta Sagga
Pārāyaṇavagga philosophically as these two
vaggas are the subject of a curious old commen-
▶ Heaven (Buddhism)
tary, the only work of this type, incorporated in the
nikāyas. The fact that this commentary, the
Niddesa, does not refer to any of the remaining
vaggas, it seems to hint that when the Sutta-
Swaartha
Nipāta was composed, all its five vaggas had not
been put together in the form of a single text.
▶ Education (Jainism)
Though the Sutta-Nipāta as a collection exists
only in the Theravādin tradition, some of its indi-
vidual suttas can be found in other Buddhist tra-
ditions as well. For instance, the Aṭṭhakavagga Syādvāda
exists in the Chinese Tripiṭaka. The Sutta-Nipāta
was included by the Dī ghabhāṇakas in the ▶ Anekāntavāda (Jainism)
Abhidhamma Piṭaka. A commentary on the ▶ Relativity (Jainism)
Sutta-Nipāta, written by Buddhaghosa, is known
as the Paramatthajotikā.

Cross-References Syādvāda (Jainism)

Wm. Andrew Schwartz

▶ Abhidhamma Piṭaka
Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, CA,
▶ Buddhaghosa
USA
▶ Khuddaka Nikāya
▶ Saṃyutta Nikāya
▶ Udāna Synonyms

References Anekāntavāda; Saptabhangī

1. Andersen D, Smith H (eds) (1913) The Sutta-Nipāta.

Pali Text Society, London Definition
2. Geiger W (2004) Pāli literature and language (trans:
Ghosh BK, reprint). Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi
3. Hinüber O (1996) A handbook of Pāli literature. Walter Syādvāda is the Jain doctrine of conditional
de Gruyter, Berlin predication. According to this doctrine, all
Syādvāda (Jainism) 1163

philosophical statements should be predicated In Jainism, the particle syāt is used to turn cate-
with the particle syāt (from a certain perspective), gorical statements [A is B] into conditional state-
to capture the relative nature of the truth claim. In ments [if p (syāt), then A is B]. For example, the
this way, seemingly contradictory assertions can statement “the pot exists” becomes “from a certain
be reconciled as being from different perspectives perspective (syāt), the pot exists.” This qualification
and in different senses. is necessary to accurately express a statement which
is, according to Jainism, always asserted from and
conditioned by a particular perspective (naya) (see
Introduction entry on “▶ Nayavāda”). In this way, exclusive
claims become inclusive claims – absolute claims
Syādvāda is the Jain doctrine of conditional pred- become relative claims. For this reason, in contem-
ication (i.e., qualified assertion). The doctrine of porary Jain scholarship, the doctrine of syādvāda
syādvāda is so named for its notion of predicating (along with the doctrine of anekāntavāda and
statements with the particle syāt. In ordinary San- nayavāda) has been used as the philosophical foun-
skrit usage, syāt is translated as “maybe” or “per- dation of an inclusive or even pluralistic response to
haps.” It is one of the three words used to answer philosophical and religious diversity.
a direct question. When asked, “is such and such In an additional attempt to overcome the con-
the case,” one could answer “yes,” “no,” or “syāt fusion between ordinary usage and Jain usage of
(maybe)” [1]. Translated this way, syāt suggests the term syāt, Jains often use syāt in conjunction
a degree of uncertainty. For example, if asked, “is with the term eva (certainly) [2, 3]. This is done to
it raining outside?” to respond by “maybe” or avoid the skeptical and uncertain tone of syāt
“perhaps” is similar to responding with “I don’t statements in favor of a qualified “yes.” It is
know.” In this way, the ordinary usage of syāt important for Jain’s that syādvāda not be seen as
evokes a sense of skepticism. In Jain technical a doctrine of skepticism. Rather, the predicative
usage, however, syāt is not used this way. Rather purpose of syāt is to qualify a proposition (a truth
than evoking uncertainty, in Jainism, syāt acts as claim) as to take into account the plurality of
a conditional “yes.” nayas (perspectives) and the non-one-sided nature
To understand this doctrine of predication of reality. This has been the dominant interpreta-
more fully, one must first understand the Jain tion since the second century when it was put forth
vision of reality, to which syāt statements refer. by Jain philosopher Samantabhadra [4].
The Jain metaphysical doctrine of anekāntavāda
postulates that reality is multifaceted (anekānta or
non-one-sided) (see entry on “▶ Anekāntavāda Sevenfold Logic of Predication
(Jainism)”). And, since reality is many-sided, all (Saptabhangī)
statements should be qualified as being made with S
respect to only one of those many facets (from According to the Jain doctrine of syādvāda, there
a particular perspective). In Jainism, the particle are seven types of statements – or seven modes of
syāt does just that. predication (saptabhangī ). Often used to describe
Since syāt (in its ordinary Sanskrit usage) is these seven forms of assertion are examples of
typically translated as “maybe” or “perhaps,” the existence:
Jain doctrine of syādvāda has often been confus-
ingly described as the “maybe doctrine.” Pre- 1. From a certain perspective (syāt), p certainly
ferred translations, however, include “in some (eva) exists.
respect,” “from a certain perspective,” and 2. From a certain perspective (syāt), p certainly
“under a certain condition.” Nevertheless, as (eva) does not exist.
a one-to-one translation between Sanskrit and 3. From a certain perspective (syāt), p certainly
English does not exist, most Jain scholars prefer (eva) exists AND certainly (eva) does not exist
to use the original term syāt. successively.
1164 Syādvāda (Jainism)

4. From a certain perspective (syāt), p certainly apparent contradiction lies in one’s failure to keep
(eva) exists AND certainly (eva) does not exist claims of existence as relative claims. In philoso-
simultaneously. phy, examples of existence are often used because
5. From a certain perspective (syāt), p certainly they appear absolute – either the pen exists or the
(eva) exists, AND p certainly (eva) exists and pen does not exist. However, if one keeps in mind
does not exist simultaneously. the anekānta (non-one-sided) nature of reality,
6. From a certain perspective (syāt), p certainly even claims of existence must be taken as relative
(eva) does not exist, AND p certainly (eva) claims. So, syāt p exists and syāt p does not exist.
exists and does not exist simultaneously. What then of the third mode of predication –
7. From a certain perspective (syāt), p certainly both affirmation and negation successively? Ima-
(eva) exists and does not exist successively, gine that the object being discussed is water inside
AND p certainly (eva) exists and does not a particular bottle. It may be appropriate at one
exist simultaneously. moment to say (1) from a certain perspective the
water exists. At another moment (perhaps after
A more abstract formulation of these seven someone drinks all the water), it may be appropri-
alternatives include: ate to say (2) from a certain perspective the water
does not exist. And together, these give us predi-
1. Affirmation cation three (3) that from yet another perspective
2. Negation the water both exists and does not exist succes-
3. Both affirmation and negation successively sively (i.e., at one time it exists, at another time it
4. Inexpressible (both affirmation and negation does not exist). This mode of predication is essen-
simultaneously) tial for describing the Jain notion of reality which
5. Affirmation and inexpressible consists of “origination, destruction, and persis-
6. Negation and inexpressible tence” [6].
7. Affirmation and negation and inexpressible Predications 5, 6, and 7 are also not altogether
complicated, in that they are simply combinations
Let us begin with statements of the form of the first three with the fourth: 5 (1 and 4), 6 (2
(1) and (2). According to anekāntavāda, reality and 4), and 7 (3 and 4). As such, how one
is non-one-sided. Furthermore, the multifaceted understands modes 5–7 is directly dependent
nature of a thing includes the qualities of both upon one’s interpretation of mode 4
existence and nonexistence [5]. Therefore, one (inexpressible – both affirmation and negation
way to makes sense of this phenomenon is to simultaneously).
distinguish between “exists” and “exists as.”
Common examples of pots not having the quali-
ties of pens, or cows not having the qualities of Inexpressibility
dogs, are littered throughout Jain literature as
ways to explain this distinction. For example, Of the seven modes of predication, none has
a cow exists (qua cow) insofar as it has “cowness” received more attention (and criticism) than the
(qualities essential for being a cow). Therefore, fourth mode. As such, there is not clear consensus
(1) from the perspective of cow attributes, a cow on what is meant in the fourth mode by “inex-
exists (qua cow). But, from the perspective of dog pressibility” (avaktavya). Nevertheless, the above
attributes (qualities essential for being a dog), interpretation (simultaneous affirmation and
a cow does not exist (qua dog). Therefore, negation) has been the dominant view since the
(2) from another perspective, a cow does not time of Samantabhadra [7].
exist (qua dog). This is the meaning of statements That existence and nonexistence can be simul-
of the form (1) affirmation and (2) negation. When taneously ascribed to a single object in the same
it comes to distinguishing between “exists” and sense, or that a single assertion can be both true
“exists as,” such examples seem to imply that the and false at the same time in the same sense, will
Syādvāda (Jainism) 1165

certainly warrant looks of confusion from many Each of the seven syāt statements (not to be con-
philosophers (Eastern and Western) [8]. After all, fused or conflated with the seven nayas shown
what could it possible mean to say that something below) is an example of assertion from seven
is both true and false? different perspectives. In this way, there is
It is sometimes suggested by Jain scholars that a perspective where “the pot exists” and another
language is incapable of expressing simultaneous perspective where “the pot does not exist.” When
existence and nonexistence. Therefore, the fourth it comes to predication 4, there is a perspective
mode of predication is considered “inexpress- that is “inexpressible” where “the pot both
ible.” Not only so, but even if it was possible to exists and does not exist simultaneously.” This
express simultaneous existence and nonexistence means that statement 4 allows that contradictory
[e.g., by using logically notion such as (p and p) attributes can be affirmed from a single perspec-
or even using the term avaktavya (inexpressible)], tive. Although, for whatever reason (whether lin-
it is expected that the distinct notions of existence guistic, epistemic, etc.), this perspective is
and nonexistence would always be presented to inexpressible.
one’s cognition successively [9]. In this way, the To this end, Mahavira is quoted as saying,
fourth predication (4), “from a certain perspective “Where there is truth, from there language returns,
inexpressible,” paradoxically takes an assertion to neither intellect, nor thoughts nor even the mind
be both true and false simultaneously in the same goes there” (Ayaro Sutra 5/123–125) [14].
sense. What this means with respect to truth Mahavira acknowledges that truth transcends lin-
values is highly debated in Jain philosophy. For guistic and cognitive capacities – though such
some, this denotes an indeterminate truth-value transcendence does not preclude immanence.
[10]. For others, it denotes a neutralized truth- Therefore, “As an omniscient being, with infinite
value by which the components of affirmation knowledge at his disposal, Mahavira recognized
(+) and negation () are taken together to form that truth or reality can be experienced but cannot
a new determinate truth-value (0) [11]. And still be expressed in its entirety through the medium of
others hold that inexpressibility is a product of language” [15].
unknowability and mystery [12]. Despite these
disputes regarding inexpressibility, the majority
of Jain thinkers agree that a proper understanding Syādvāda and Nayavāda
of syādvāda should be grounded in the metaphys-
ical doctrine of anekāntavāda. With respect to nayavāda (the Jain epistemologi-
cal doctrine of standpoints), there are seven stand-
points from which something can be known.
Syādvāda and Anekāntavāda These seven nayas are:
S
To be sure, the Jain doctrine of conditional pred- 1. Naigama: the undifferentiated
ication (syādvāda) is intimately related and some- 2. Samgraha: the general
times conflated with the metaphysical and 3. Vyavahara: the practical
epistemological doctrines of anekāntavāda and 4. Rjusutra: the clearly manifest
nayavāda, respectively. As such, in coming to 5. Sabda: the verbal
a clear understanding of the doctrine of syādvāda, 6. Samabhirudha: the subtle
it is important to consider the doctrines of 7. Evambhuta: the “thus-happened”
anekāntavāda and nayavāda as well.
According to the Jain doctrine of “The first three. . .are standpoints from which to
anekāntavāda, the non-one-sided nature of real- investigate the thing itself, whereas the remaining
ity, objects are endowed with innumerably many four are standpoints from which to investigate the
attributes [13]. Ultimately, this means that objects modifications that things undergo” [16]. And,
are endowed with contradictory characteristics. from each of these standpoints, there are seven
1166 Syādvāda (Jainism)

ways (or modes) of assertion. What is important to to the Advaitin perspective, reality is ultimately
realize about the relation between nayavāda and characterized by permanence (Brahman). Con-
syādvāda is that according to the doctrine of stand- trarily, from the Buddhist perspective, reality is
points, there are many ways of knowing. There- ultimately characterized by impermanence
fore, given the multifaceted nature of reality (sunyata). Jainism, however, brings these two
(depicted by anekāntavāda) and the plurality of positions into a synthesis, whereby both are true
ways of knowing that many-sided reality (depicted (though only partially so). The problem, as Jain
by nayavāda), all statements should be qualified philosophers have described it, is that both
and conditioned by these factors, being asserted Advaitin and Buddhist thinkers perpetuate their
from “a certain perspective” (as depicted by doctrines to the exclusion of the other. In doing so,
syādvāda). they commit the error of ekānta (one-sidedness).
In other words, the failure of both the Advaitins
and the Buddhists is to neglect the many-sided
Syādvāda and Truth nature of reality – a failure which results in
treating one’s own limited perspective as the
It is often suggested in Jainism that by adding a syāt exclusively absolute perspective. Therefore,
particle to a statement, one has captured the truth according to Jainism, both the Buddhist and
[17]. However, the “truth” captured in this way is Advaitin are only partially correct. This does not
necessarily a relative truth, which is indicated by mean some sort of hopeless skepticism or vicious
qualifying one’s proposition with the particle syāt relativism. The Jain epistemological stance is
(see entry on “▶ Truth (Jainism)”). Therefore, the a positive one, albeit qualified. By using the doctrine
practice of qualifying an assertion with the syāt of syādvāda, these exclusive and absolutists state-
particle allows one to affirm the truth and validity ments are made relative and compatible. From
of one’s own perspective, without being obligated a certain perspective (syāt), reality is permanent.
to reject the different or even contradictory views of From a certain perspective (syāt), reality is imper-
others. For, seemingly contradictory statements are manent. And when these propositions are condition-
compatible, in so far as they are asserted from ally asserted, they are no longer found to be
different perspectives and in different senses. refutations of each other and can be seen as mutually
As Siddhasena Divākara (fifth century) writes, inclusive. Specifically, from the perspective of sub-
“all the standpoints (nayas) are right in their own stance, reality is permanent, while, from the per-
respective spheres. But, if they are taken to be spective of mode, reality is impermanent. But, as
refutations, each of the other, then they are wrong. Jainism asserts, reality consists of both substance
A man who knows the ‘non-one-sided’ nature of and modes, both continuity and change, and both
reality never says that a particular view is abso- permanence and impermanence. This is how the
lutely wrong” [18]. Jain doctrine of syādvāda is used to reconcile that
The implication of syādvāda for expressing which was previously irreconcilable. It qualifies
truth, then, is that “No judgment is true in itself claims so they are no longer exclusive, which allows
and by itself without reference to the conditions for seemingly contradictory notions to both be true.
under which it is made” [19]. As such, the Jain
practice of qualified assertion can be used as
a method of reconciliation – that is, it can take Cross-References
divisive and exclusive statements and bring them
into an inclusive synthesis. ▶ Anekāntavāda (Jainism)
Jainism points to the long-standing disagree- ▶ Nayavāda
ment between Advaitin permanence and Buddhist ▶ Relativity
impermanence as an example of this. According ▶ Truth (Jainism)
Sympathetic Joy 1167

References Further Reading

Bharucha F, Kamat RV (1984) Syadvada theory of Jainism
1. Matilal BK (1981) The central philosophy of Jainism in terms of deviant logic. Indian Philos Q 9:181–187
(Anekānta-vāda). L.D. Institute of Indology, Bhattacharya KC (1953) Anekantavada. Jaina Atmananda
Ahmedabad, p 52 Sabha
2. Jeffery D (2010) Long, Jainism: an introduction. I.B. Ganeri J (2002) Jaina logic and the philosophical basis of
Tauris, New York, p 147 pluralism. Hist Philos Logic 20(4):267–281, Taylor &
3. Mahaprajna A (1996) An introduction: the axioms of Francis
non-absolutism. In: Kumar RA, Dak TM, Mishra AD Gokhale PP (1991) The Logical Structure of Syadvada.
(eds) Facets of Jain philosophy, religion and culture: J Indian Council Philos Res 8(3):73–81
Anekantavada and Syadvada. Jain Vishva Bharati Jain P (2000) Saptabhangi: the Jaina theory of seven fold
Institute, Ladnun, Rajasthan predication: a logical analysis. Philos East West
4. Samantabhadra (2002) Apta-mimamsa. Bharatiya 50(3):385–399, University of Hawai’i Press
Jnanpith, Delhi Koller JM (2000) Syādvāda as the epistemological key to
5. Jain P (2000) Saptabhangi: the Jaina theory of seven the Jaina middle way metaphysics of Anekāntavāda.
fold predication: a logical analysis. Philos East West Philos East West 50(3):400–407, University of Hawai’i
50(3):395, University of Hawai'i Press Press
6. Tattvarthasutra v. 30 Kumar JA, Dak TM, Mishra AD (eds) (1996) Facets of Jain
7. Dixit KK (1971) Jaina ontology. L.D. Institute Indol- philosophy, religion and culture: Anekantavada and
ogy, Ahmedabad; or Long JD (2009) Jainism: an Syadvada. Jain Vishva Bharati Institute, Ladnun,
introduction. I.B. Tauris, New York Rajasthan
8. Priest G (2002) Beyond the limits of thought, 2nd edn. Long JD (2009) Jainism: an introduction. I.B. Tauris, New
Clarendon, Oxford, p 4 York
9. Shah NJ (trans) (1998) Jaina philosophy and religion. Matilal BK (1981) The central philosophy of Jainism:
Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p 351 Anekantavada. L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad
10. Bharucha F, Kamat RV (1984) Syādvāda theory of Matilal BK (2000) Anekanta: both yes and no. In: Shah NJ
Jainism in terms of deviant logic. Indian Philos (ed) Jaina theory of multiple facets of reality and truth
Q 9:183 (Anekantavada). Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
11. Matilal BK (1981) The central philosophy of Jainism Mookerjee S (1978) The Jaina philosophy of non-
(Anekānta-vāda). L.D. Institute of Indology, absolutism: a critical study of Anekantavada. Motilal
Ahmedabad, p 54 Banarsidass, Delhi
12. Matilal BK (2000) Anekānta: both yes and no. In: Padmarajiah YJ (1963) A comparative study of the Jaina
Shah NJ (ed) Jaina theory of multiple facets of reality theories of reality and knowledge. Jain Sahitya Vikas
and truth (Anekāntavāda). Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, Mandal, Bombay
p 15 Priest G (2008) Jaina logic: a contemporary perspective.
13. Kulkarni VM (2000) Relativity and absolutism. In: Hist Philos Logic 29(3):263–278, Taylor & Francis
Shah NJ (ed) Jaina theory of multiple facets of reality Sarkar T (1992) Some reflections on Jaina Anekantavada
and truth (Anekantavada). Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, and Syadvada. Jadavpur J Philos IV(2):13–35
p 66 Sethia T (ed) (2004) Ahimsa, Anekanta and Jainism.
14. Jain G (trans) (2009) Eternal quotes from Lord Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
Mahavira. Raj Rajendra Prakashan Trust, p 78 Shah N (2000) Jaina Theory of Multiple Facets of
15. Charitrapragya S (2004) Mahavira, Anekantavada Reality and Truth (Anekantavada). Motilal
and the world today. In: Sethia T (ed) Ahimsa, Banarsidass, Delhi
Anekanta and Jainism. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, Shah N (ed) (1998) Jaina philosophy and religion. Motilal S
p 77 Banarsidass, Delhi, 1998
16. Koller JM (2000) Syādvāda as the epistemological key Shah SM (1987) The dialectic of knowledge and reality in
to the Jaina middle way metaphysics of Anekāntavāda. Indian philosophy. Eastern Book Linkers, Delhi
Philos East West 50(3):402 (University of Hawai’i Tatia N (1951) Studies in Jaina philosophy. P.V. Research
Press) Institute, Varanasi
17. Matilal BK (1981) The central philosophy of Jainism:
Anekāntavāda. L.D. Institute of Indology,
Ahmedabad, p 61
18. Siddhasena (1981) Sanmati-tarka, Chapter 1, Verse 28
(adapted from Matilal), p 31
19. Shah N (2000) Jaina theory of multiple facets of
Sympathetic Joy
reality and truth (Anekantavada). Motilal Banarsidass,
Delhi ▶ Muditā
1168 Syncretism (Buddhism)

religion into another by a process of selection and

Syncretism (Buddhism) reconciliation. This definition emphasizes on rec-
onciliation and argues that tenets of distinct world
Shanker Thapa views combine syncretically. In the process of
Faculty of Buddhist Studies, Lumbini Buddhist syncretism, there is always reconciliation whether
University, Lumbini Rupandehi, Nepal in the formulation of doctrine or in the construc-
tion of rites, or in the subjective or other percep-
tions of the follower.
Definition Religious syncretism is the mixture of tenets
with one of the religions. Syncretism as such is
Syncretism is an attempted union or reconciliation also an important component in the course of
of diverse and opposite tenets or practices, espe- development of a religion. Broadly speaking, the
cially in philosophy and religion. It is also the terminology has been identified as “any mixture
process of amalgamation, something existential of two or more religions.” It includes “cases when
meeting of two religions. elements from one religion are accepted into
Syncretism is a conceptual model that denotes another without changing the fundamental char-
to alliance, amalgamation, or combination of acter of the other religion.” The natural dissension
features and tenets of different and opposing between different systems of religious ideas,
religious, philosophical, and cultural systems. thoughts, gestures, views, or practices disappears
The terminology was first used in 1625 to describe through syncretism.
misguided attempt to reunite Catholic and Protes- Christianity and Islam, which have cleaved
tant churches as syncretism. Syncretism is historically to the notion of religion as revelation,
a process by which the other gains acceptance in conceptually resisted reconciliation with other
the broader context. Syncretism is the result of traditions. This is true at the conceptual level.
a process by which elements of distinct religions However, religious plurality in Asian countries
are merged into a unitary world view. The plural possesses amazing features and the power of inte-
societies in Asia encouraged followers of various gration and amalgamation. Asian religious tradi-
religions borrow tenets from each other’s tions particularly Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism,
traditions. Confucianism, or other minor religions are syn-
An “attempted union or reconciliation of cretic by nature. They are categorically integrative
diverse and opposite tenets or practices, especially and responsive of tenets of other religions. Indian
in philosophy and religion” is also defined as and Chinese religions encourage their adherents
syncretism. J. H. Kamstra elaborates syncretism to borrow from each other’s traditions and to look
as amalgamation, something existential meeting benevolently on pluralism, combination, and
of two religions. He has explained syncretism as mutual influence. This world view has encour-
the result of alienation in an existing religion. The aged amalgamation of ideas and tenets of
criterion for syncretism is therefore alienation, a religion to the other. This borrowing positively
which either comes in as alien from without or developed into religious syncretism in India as
which is alienated from within. Similarly, Michael well. All major religions in India are syncretic
Pye defines syncretism as “the temporary ambig- by nature. Thus, in the Indian context of religious
uous coexistence of elements from diverse reli- behavior, even Hindu and Muslims have shared
gious and other contexts within a coherent common practices or ideas at least in certain prac-
religious pattern.” It indicates syncretism as tices. Applicability of the concept of syncretism is
a result not as a process, and also as something a prime concern in Indian religions since this has
man-made and not natural. Further, Judith Berling been a major feature of Hinduism, Buddhism,
has a narrow definition, according to which syn- Jainism, Sikhism, and other minor religious tradi-
cretism is the borrowing, affirmation, or integra- tions. When two religions or cultures meet, they
tion of concepts, symbols, and practices of one exchange religious tenets and ideas with the
Syncretism (Buddhism) 1169

dominant culture prevailing in the exchange. Syn- a synthetic product in India. Regarding syncretism
cretism has recently reemerged as a valuable tool in Indian religions, very spectacular process can
for understanding the complex dynamics of eth- be observed in Hindu-Buddhist relationship and
nicity, interconnectedness, and postmodernism in coexistence in Nepal. Both the religions in Nepal
the Indian context. borrowed tenets, concepts, ideas, practices, and
In the context of Indian religions, syncretism rituals from each other. They share the same
has been one of the important features both at the shrines with different identity. There are common
theoretical and the practical levels that has created rituals and celebrations among these religions.
harmony of nations and generation and develop- The borrowing and amalgamation of religious
ment of hybrid cultures with very interesting fea- tenets from each other’s religion, the Hindus and
tures. Syncretism is the synthesis of religions and the Buddhists presents most outstanding example
cultures. It has been a general feature of popular of religious syncretism.
religions in India. Regarding syncretism in the
context of Indian religions, it can be said that
there is firm balance between cultural diversity Cross-References
and syncretism pervading the foundation of
Indian civilization. It has reemerged as an effec- ▶ Religion
tive tool to understand complex sociocultural and ▶ Syncretism (Buddhism)
religious dynamics in the Indian context. The
confluence of the two religions gradually pro-
duced a cultural syncretism as early as twelfth References
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Chao-en. Columbia University Press, New York
where. Religious synthesis or syncretism always
2. Birnbaum M (1966) Aldous Huxley’s quest for values:
has positive implication as a foundation and form a study in religious syncretism. Comp Lit Studies
of resistance to cultural dominance. Conse- 3(2):169–182
quently, religious ideas, rituals, and cultural traits 3. Brook T (1993) Rethinking syncretism: the unity of
the three teachings and their joint worship in late-
mediate between diverse ethnic and religious
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communities, sects, and cultural domains to give 4. Clifford J (1988) The predicament of culture: twenti-
rise to a complex unity. The process of syncretism eth century ethnography, literature and art. Harvard
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5. Das NK (2003) Introduction: an outline of syncretism.
but to the predicament of cultures as well. The
In: Culture, religion and philosophy: critical studies in
Hindu-Muslims syncretism is one of the charac- syncretism and inter-faith harmony. Rawat Publica-
teristic features of religious behavior in India. In tions, Jaipur
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vived various sociocultural upheavals in history. growth of Japanese Buddhism. Leiden, 1967
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structure of history religion and culture of Indian 10. Roy A (1983) The Islamic syncretic tradition in Ben-
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