Ibinoof Geology 2017 PDF

The geology of the western Nuba Mountains region, South Kordofan
State, Sudan, with special emphasis on the low-grade Neoproterozoic
meta-volcano-sedimentary sequence.
By
Montasir Ahmed Ibinoof Mohammed
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
In the Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Sciences
University of Pretoria
PRETORIA
April 2017

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© University of Pretoria

THIS THESIS REPRESENTS THE ORIGINAL WORK
OF THE AUTHOR, EXCEPT WHERE SPECIFIC
ACKNOWLEDGMENT IS MADE
TO THE WORK OF OTHERS
April 2017

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ABSTRACT.
Dismembered and low-grade metamorphosed occurrences of mafic extrusive and
intrusive and minor ultramafic rocks, grouped as the Arid unit, similar to those of the
Arabian Nubian Shield (ANS), are reported here for the first time in the westernmost
part of the Nuba Mountains, southeastern Sudan. These occurrences are interpreted to
represent part of an ophiolite sequence with a lower cumulate layer composed of
layered gabbro and minor cumulate hornblendite and a top layer of thick massive
gabbro, pillowed basalt and basaltic andesite. The Arid unit is structurally underlain by
basaltic-andesite and andesite and a metasedimentary sequence identified as turbidite
and both grouped as the Abutulu unit. All of the rocks are slightly sheared, deformed
and metamorphosed under low-grade greenschist facies. New geochemical and Sr-Nd
isotope data reveal that the low-grade metavolcanic rocks of the westernmost Nuba
Mountains represent a Neoproterozoic oceanic arc/back-arc assemblage. The massive
gabbro and pillowed basalt of the Arid unit show the geochemical characteristics of
HFSE-depleted tholeiitic basalt while the co-genetic and more evolved meta-andesite of
Abutulu unit show a calc-alkaline signature. Both units display a REE pattern
characterized by LILE enrichment indicating formation in an arc/back-arc environment.
This arc was active at around 778±90 Ma (Sm-Nd 12 WR isochron) that is similar in age
to arc magmatism in the ANS. The close interval between the TDM Nd model age
(average of 10 metavolcanic samples is 814 Ma) and the crystallization age (778±90
Ma) is indicative of little or no involvement of older crustal material. The western Nuba
Mountains metavolcanic rocks have εNd values of +5.9 at 778 Ma (average of 12

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samples) indicating a depleted mantle source similar to that of the ANS (published
range from +6.5 to +8.4).
The metavolcanic rocks are structurally bounded from the eastern side by medium-
grade orthogneisses and supracrustal metasediments intruded by syn to late-orogenic
granite. Based on their geochemistry and isotopic characteristics these gneisses are
interpreted to be evolved from an arc magma source of early Neoproterozoic age
976±58 Ma corresponds to εNd value of +6.3±0.9 (six point Nd isochron). The tight
clustering of εNd values and the TDM Nd model ages preclude significant involvement of
older crustal material and hence these gneisses are assigned to intra-oceanic arc
environments.
New ion microprobe (SHRIMP) U–Pb dating of zircon from late-orogenic granite reveal
early Ediacaran ages of emplacement for the main magmatic phases. This event started
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at 624±7 Ma (earliest concordance Pb/238U age of magmatic zircon core 2.2) and
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possibly lasted up to 605±10 Ma (youngest concordance Pb/238U age of magmatic
zircon rim). The magmatic event was contemporaneous with high temperature
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metamorphism reflected by metamorphic rims (discordant Pb/238U age 614±8 Ma to
583±6 Ma) which are undistinguishable from magmatic rims (206Pb/238U age 613±6 Ma
to 605±10 Ma). The early magmatic phase is thought to be around 743±8 Ma (the
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earliest discordance Pb/238U age of magmatic zircon core 5.2). The subduction-
related geochemical signature of the granite allow for the use of the 743±8 Ma as a
lower control on the west dipping subduction event. Significantly no ages older than
Neoproterozoic were recorded in any of the 19 zircon crystals analyzed.

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It is proposed that the metavolcanic and associated plutonic mafic rocks represent a
unique Neoproterozoic entity named the Abutulu terrane that developed in a marginal
back-arc basin west of the intra-oceanic arc. The Abutulu terrane is a western
continuation of the ANS, through the medium-grade gneisses of the intra-oceanic arc,
then the eastern boundary of the SMC must occur further west of its current location
and possibly assigned to the Abutulu suture zone.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1-1 Location of the study area 1
1-2 Physiography and drainage system 3
1-3 Climates and vegetation cover 3
1-4 Socio-economic features 5
1-5 Previous works in the Nuba Mountains 5
1-5-1 Summary of the work of Vail (1973) 5

1-5-1-1 Lithostratigraphic succession suggested by Vail (1973) 5
1-5-1-2 Field relation and structural setting observed by Vail (1973) 6
1-5-1-3 Conclusion and sequence of events by Vail (1973) 7
1.5.2 Summary of the work of Sadig and Vail (1986) 8
1-5-2-1 Lithological succession of Sadig and Vail (1986) 9
1-5-2-2 Field relations observed by Sadig and Vail (1986) 10
1-5-3 Summary of the work of El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981) 11
1-5-3-1 Lithological succession of El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981) 11
1-5-3-2 Structural framework suggested by El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981) 12
1-5-4 The work of Brinkmann (1986) 13
1-5-4-1 Summary of the work of Brinkmann (1986) 13
1-5-4-2 Field relations and stratigraphic successions 13
1-5-5 The work of Abdelsalam and Dawoud (1991) 14
1-5-6 Other studies relevant to the Nuba Mountains 17
1-6 Works on the Saharan Metacraton 17

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1-7 The Eastern boundary of the Saharan Metacraton 23
1-8 Present study 24
1-8-1 Statement of the problem 24
1-8-2 Objectives 25
CHAPTER 2: REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND PETROGRAPHY 26

2-1 Regional geological framework of the Nuba Mountains 26
2-2 Geology of the western Nuba Mountains 28
2-2-1 Medium-grade gneiss and migmatite 30
2-2-1-1 Ortho-granitic and monzoniitic gneiss 30
2-2-1-2 Low to medium-grade supracrustal meta-sedimentary rocks 33
2-2-2 Syn-orogenic granitoids 36
2-2-3 The Mafic Arid Unit 37
2-2-3-1 Layered gabbros 38
2-2-3-2 Massive gabbros 41
2-2-3-3 Basaltic lavas 42
2-2-4 Low-grade meta-volcanic and meta-sedimentary rocks (Abutulu Unit) 42
2-2-5 Late-orogenic granitoids 45
CHAPTER 3: LITHOCHEMISTRY: 49
3-1 Samples and analytical techniques 49
3-2 Alteration and testing of element mobility 49
3-3 Major and trace element geochemistry 52
3-3-1 Ortho-granitic gneiss and syn-orogenic granite 52
3-3-2 Pillow basalts 60
3-3-3 Massive gabbros 68
3-3-4 Basaltic andesites and andesite meta-volcanics 72

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3-3-5 Late-orogenic granitoids 76
CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION OF THE WESTERN
NUBA MOUNTAINS 82
4-1 Introduction 82
4-2 Geology of the Abutulu Suture zone 84
4-3 Deformation history of the gneisses of the Nuba Mountains 84
4-3-1 D1 Deformation 84
4-4 The Abutulu Deformation 87
4-4-1 D3 Sinistral Translation dominant phase 87
4-4-2 D4 East-west directed compression dominant phase 96
4-5 Younger deformation 100
4-6 Kinematics and shear sense indicators 102
4-6-1 Shear sense in low-grade meta-volcanic rocks 102
4-6-2 Shear sense in the medium-grade granitic gneiss 103
4-7 Summary of the structural evolution of the western Nuba Mountains 105
CHAPTER 5: Rb/Sr, Sm/Nd AND SHRIMP-ZIRCON ISOTOPES

CHEMISTRY AND GEOCHRONOLOGY 106
5-1 Introduction 106
5-2 Analytical Techniques 107
5-3 Field and Sample Description 109
5-3-1 Arid Unit 109
5-3-2 Abutulu Unit 110

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5-3-3 Medium-grade gneiss and syn-orogenic granite 110
5-3-4 Late-orogenic intrusions 112
5-4 Results 112
5-4-1 Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr whole rock dating and initial ratios 112
5-4-1-1 Arid Unit 112
5-4-1-2 Abutulu Unit 113
5-4-1-3 Medium-grade gneiss and syn-orogenic granite 113
5-4-1-4 Late-orogenic intrusions 116
5-4-2 Epsilon Nd and TDM model ages 118
5-4-3 U-Pb SHRIMP dating of zircon 120
CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION, PROPOSED TECTONIC MODEL AND

CONCLUSIONS 126
6-1 Lithology, chemistry, structure and isotopic data of the low-grade and
medium-grade domains 126
6-2 The geodynamic context 134
6-3 Proposed tectonic model 139
6-4 Conclusions 143
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 145
REFERENCES 147
Appendix 3-1a Major and trace element analysis for the gneiss, syn-
orogenic and late-orogenic granite
Appendix 3-1b REE analysis for the gneiss, syn-orogenic and late-orogenic
granite

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Appendix 3-2a Major and trace element analysis for the Arid unit
Appendix 3-2b REE analysis for the Arid unit
Appendix 3-3a Major and trace element analysis for the Abutulu unit
Appendix 3-3b REE analysis for the Abutulu unit
Appendix 5-1 Sr and Nd isotopic data for all of the Arid, Abutulu, Gneiss
and Late-orogenic granite units
Appendix 5-2a SHRIMP data for sample ZR1
Appendix 5-2b SHRIMP data for sample ZR2

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LIST OF FIGURES:
1-1: Location map of the study area 2
1-2: Topographic map of the study area 4
1-3: Location map of the Saharan Metacraton 21
2-1: Geological map of the entire Nuba Mountains region 27
2-2: Detailed geological map of the western Nuba Mountains 29
3-1: Bivariate plots of various trace elements from the Arid and the
Abutulu units versus Nb 51
3-2: Bivariate plot of K2O vs SiO2 54
3-3: AFM diagram of Irvine and Baragar (1971) 54
3-4: (K2O+Na2O)-CaO vs SiO2 discrimination diagram of Frost et al., (2001) 54
3-5: Bivariate plotting of major, trace and alumina saturation index versus
silica 56
3-6: NMORB multi-element spider-gram of (a) the gneiss and
(b) the syn-orogenic granitic samples 58
3-7: Chondrite-normalized diagram for (a) the gneiss and (b) the syn-orogenic
samples 59
3-8: Bivariate plot of various elements versus MgO for the pillow basalt 61
3-9: The Zr/TiO2 vs Nb/Y classification diagram (Winchester and Floyd, 1977)
which classify the pillow basalt as basalt and basaltic andesite 63
3-10: Th vs Co classification diagram which classifies the pillow basalt

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as island arc basalts (after Hastie et al., 2007) 63
3-11: AFM diagram showing a tholeiitic trend for Arid samples
(Irvine and Baragar, 1971) 63
3-12: N-MORB multi-element spider diagram of major and trace element
for pillow basalt 64
3-13: Chondrite normalized rare earth element diagram for pillow basalts 64
3-14: Discrimination plots for the Arid basalts (a) Ti-Zr-Y ternary diagram,
(b) V vs Ti diagram, (c) Zr/Y vs Zr diagram, (d) Th/La vs Sm/La diagram
and (e) Nb/Yb vs Th/Yb diagram 67
3-15: (A) to (J) bivariate plots of some major and trace elements versus
MgO of gabbroic rocks 70
3-16: MORB multi-element spider diagram of major and trace elements for
the massive gabbro 71
3-17: Chondrite-normalized rare earth element diagram for the massive
gabbro 71
3-18: The Zr/TiO2 vs Nb/Y classification diagram which classify the
Abutulu rocks as basalt and basaltic andesite 74
3-19: MORB multi-element spider diagram of major and trace element for
the meta-andesite 75
3-20: Chondrite normalized rare earth element diagram for the meta-andesite 75
3-21: Ab-An-Or Norm classification diagram for the late-orogenic granitoids 78

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3-22: The Q-F vs ANOR classification diagram for plutonic rocks 78
3-23: K2O vs SiO2 classification diagram that classify the granite samples
as shoshonite 78
3-24: Bivariate plotting of various elements versus silica for the
late-orogenic granite 79
3-25: The Ta versus Yb discrimination diagram for the late-orogenic granite 80
3-26: The Rb versus (Y+Nb) discrimination diagram, for the late-orogenic
granite 80
3-27: NMORB-normalized multi-element spider gram for the late-orogenic granite 81
3-28: Chondrite-normalized REE plot for the late-orogenic-granite 81
4-1: Structural map of the western Nuba Mountains 83
4-2: Plot of L2 stretching lineation 86
4-3: A photograph showing the steep plunging nature of F3 folds and
the development of the S3 axial planar cleavage 88
4-4: Steeply easterly to NE-plunging L3 stretching lineation at Al Beida outcrop 90
4-5a and 4-5b: The S-pole diagram with β axis for different orientations of F3 91
4-6: (a) Structural map of Al Beida outcrop (b) π-diagram of S0 bedding
plane (c) π-diagram of S3 foliation plane (d) plot of axis of F3 folds 93
4-7: (a) Structural map of Tugula outcrop (b) π-diagram of S0 bedding
plane (c) π-diagram of S3 foliation plane (d) plot of axis of F3 folds 94
4-8: Plot of the poles L3-4 intersectional lineation 97

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4-9: (a) A photograph showing the nature of the westerly verging
F4 and the development of an S4 axial planar cleavage (b) π-diagram
of S4 axial planar cleavage (c) plot of F4 fold hinges 97
4-10: Stereographic plot of poles to S3 planes from the Al Thwani outcrop
showing a major reversal in the dip 98
5-1: Distribution of the geochronological samples for the different lithological
units within the study area 111
5-2: Sm-Nd isochrons for (a) the Arid basalt and gabbro (b) Abutulu
meta-andesite and (c) the combind samples of the Arid and the Abutulu units 114
5-3: Rb-Sr isochron for the meta-andesite from the Arid unit 115
5-4: Sm-Nd isochron for (a) the gneiss and syn-orogenic granitoids
(b) syn-orogenic granite samples 115
5-5: Rb-Sr isochron for the syn-orogenic granite 117
5-6: Sm-Nd isochron for the late-orogenic granite 117
5-7: Rb-Sr isochron for the late-orogenic granite 117
5-8: CL images of zircon crystals from the late-orogenic granite (sample ZR1) 124
5-9: Concordia diagrams showing the SHRIMP data of sample ZR1 124
5-10: CL images of zircon crystals from the late-orogenic granite (sample ZR2) 125
5-11: Concordia diagrams showing the SHRIMP data of sample ZR2 125
6-1: Proposed tectonic model 142

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LIST OF PLATES:
2-1: Granitic augen gneiss from the western part of the study area 32
2-2: Older gneiss xenolith within the syn-orogenic granite 32
2-3: Garnet crystals in para-gneiss north of Jebel Arid 35
2-4: Calc-silicate of the supra-crustal subunit 35
2-5: Inclusions of zircon within the biotite crystals in the syn-orogenic granite
of Jebel Umm Shair 40
2-6: Layered gabbro exposure to the east of Jebel Abutulu 40
2-7: Deformed plagioclase of the layered gabbro showing formation of
epidote and sericite 40
2-8: Basaltic lava with pillow structure 43
2-9: Showing the mineral composition of the pillowed basaltic lava 43
2-10: Primary bedding (quartz-rich and graphite-rich layers) in the sheared meta-
sediments of Jebel Tugula 46
2-11: The mineral composition of the mica quartz schist of Jebel Al Beida 46
2-12: Microphotograph of the meta-andesite of Jebel Abutulu 46
2-13: S-C fabric developed in the western outcrop of the late-orogenic granite 48
2-14: Manmade pot holes in the late-orogenic granite utilized in the grinding
of sesame seeds 48
4-1: A photograph showing the recumbent isoclinal similar folds F2 86
4-2: A photograph showing the dominant S3 foliation planes in Al Beida outcrop 88
Plate 4-3: (a) The dominant Planar fabric in the Abtulu unit S3 constraining an early
much localized S2 fabric in the northern part of Al Beida outcrop. (b) The
moderately northeast plunging L2-3 inter-sectional lineation 90
4-4 (a, b and c): A photographs showing the various geometry of F3 fold. Photos
are from Al Beida and Tugula outcrops 92

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4-5: A photograph showing a cross cutting fabric in the Al Beida outcrop
developed by the S5 shear planes of D5 cutting the main S3 foliation planes 101
4-6: A photograph showing the developed of slickenside lineations on the
extensionally re-activated S2 shallow-dipping thrust planes 101
4-7: (a) Sigma-type porphyroclast (b) S-shape asymmetric intrafolial fold
suggesting sinistral shear (c) S-C fabric 104
LIST OF TABLES:
1-1: Summary of the different lithostratigraphic succession proposed for the
Nuba Mountains 16
5-1: Sumary of the geochrnological results for the different rock units 123

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1-Introduction:
1.1: location of the study area:
The area covered during this research is situated in the southern part of the Republic of
Sudan, specificaly in the western Nuba Mountains in the southeastern and central parts
of West Kordofan State (Fig. 1-1). The study area is bounded by latitudes 11.21° N and
12.0° and longitudes 28.48° E and 29.77° E covering an area of 14,900 km2 (Fig. 1-1).
The Nuba Mountains are covered by a network of asphalt roads between Khartoum and
El Obied, from El Obied to El Fula and El Dalang, and from El Dalang to Kadugli.
District administrative centers are linked by motor tracks varying in quality, most of
which are closed in the rainy season (Fig. 1-1 and Fig. 1-2).
The railway line, which extends from Khartoum to El Obied passes through the NW
parts of the region. Regular flights run between Khartoum-El Obied, Khartoum-Kadugli
and El Obied- Kadugli.
The study area is accessible from Khartoum either by asphalt road from Khartoum to
Kadugli, using the exits towards Lagawa, and then via minor roads to the different parts
of the area, or by asphalt road from Khartoum to El Fula. The study area is quite
inaccessible in the rainy season with the exception of few roads that are passable with
great difficulty.

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Figure 1-1: A map showing the location of the study area within
Sudan and northeastern Africa.

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1-2 Physiography and Drainage System:
The study area lies on the southeastern edge of a gentle topographic swell in the south
central plain of the Sudan and rises to a height of 700m above sea level in the centre.
The elevation decreases to 450m above sea level at the periphery of the study area.
Outstanding massifs, group of hills and inselbergs are generally very steep and reach a
maximum height of 998m (above sea level) at Jebel Tuleshi (Fig. 1-2). Other major hills
are Tabaq (930m), Damiek (904m), Lagawa (845m), and Keiga El Khail (709m) (Fig. 1-
2).
A network of intermittent seasonal streams (Wadies) traverses the Nuba Mountains.
Most of the wadies are structurally controlled along fractures and joints giving rise to a
rectangular and subdendritic drainage pattern (Fig. 1-2). The watercourses are dry for
most of the year but carry considerable run-off during the rainy season when up to
700mm is precipitated. In spite of this, some natural depressions hold considerable
amounts of water for the whole year and being used as permanent sources of drinking
water (e.g. Lake Miri).
1-3 Climate and the Vegetation Cover:
The Nuba Mountains are characterized by a Savannah climate ranging from poor
Savannah in the northern part with a long dry season, to rich Savannah in the southern
part of the region with a long rainy season (June - October) and considerable rainfall (up
to 700mm).

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Figure 1-2: Topographic map of the study area.

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The summer is generally hot with an average temperature of ca 30ºC. The vegetation
includes moderate to tall grass cover interspersed by variable thorny acacia trees that
mainly cluster on the topographic surfaces of the outcrops, and concentrate along the
drainage channels and around the natural pools. The vegetation cover gets denser and
taller southwards where forests of rich Savannah climate are encountered.
1-4 Socio-Economic Features:
The region is mainly inhabited by the Nuba tribes in the central and Eastern parts of the
study area and the Misseriya tribes in the western part. The Nubas are mainly engaged
with seasonal rain-fed cultivation and rearing of the domestic animals such as cattle,
sheep and goats. The Misseriya are mainly nomadic, breeding cattle, with a few
pursuing seasonal agricultural activities in the wadies.
1-5 Previous work on the geology of the Nuba Mountains:
1-5-1: Summary of the work of Vail (1973):
Vail (1973) was motivated by the lack of either systematic geological research or
published geological maps of the Nuba Mountains Region (NMR) despite the enormous
size of the region (approximately 143000 km2) and more than 100 years of geological
research in the region.
1-5-1-1: Lithostratigraphic succession suggested by Vail (1973):
Vail (1973) divided the geology of the Nuba Mountains Region (NMR) into two major
units (Table 1): The Basement Complex and Post-Basement Complex Formations. He
further subdivided the Basement Complex into four subunits; 1- Metamorphosed schist

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and gneiss; 2- Slightly foliated gabbro; 3- Non-foliated granitic and syenitic intrusive
masses and 4- Dykes.
Vail (1973) found that the metamorphosed schists and gneisses were made up of (a)
dominant banded granitic and granodioritic gneisses, (b) a metasedimentary rock
succession represented by crystalline limestone and graphitic schist and (c) rare
metavolcanic rocks represented by hornblende gneiss and localized meta-andesite.
Within the Post-Basement Complex Formations Vail (1973) identified four subunits: (a)
purple schistose mudstone and minor limestone known as the Nawa Formation that is
only found in boreholes (ie no outcrop), (b) the Cretaceous-aged Nubian Sandstone
Formation which represents continental deposits of cross-bedded pebbly grits,
sandstones and mudstones located along basins or troughs that crop out at the western
and northern margins of the NMR, (c) unconsolidated sands, gravels, silts and clays of
the Umm Ruwaba Formation that cover most of the older lithologies in the NMR and
suggested by Vail (1973) to have a Quaternary age, and (d) recent aeolian sediments
known locally as Qoz Sands.
1-5-1-2: Field relations and structural setting observed by Vail (1973):
The scattered and isolated nature of the outcrops and the thick soil cover that obscures
most of the surface geology prevented Vail (1973) from seeing any useful field
relationships within the units of the Basement Complex. He mentioned that no
geological contacts against any of the units were observed. However, he noticed that
schist and gneiss share evidence for a dominant tectonic event, the metasedimentary

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rocks are conformable with the surrounding gneiss and schist, and most of them are
affected by later brittle deformation.
Vail (1973) identified two types of structures, (a) ductile, tectonic-related structures that
affect the oldest rocks and (b) brittle, post-orogenic fractures observed in most of the
lithologies. Structures in the metamorphosed schists and gneisses are mainly folds with
general N to NNE plunging fold axes, with steeply-dipping limbs. The brittle structures
are characterized by two fracture patterns, (a) an E-W dominant set that cuts the entire
northern part of the study area and (b) a NE-SW set that is observed in the NMR as well
as in the neighbouring Darfur region.
1-5-1-3 Conclusion and sequence of events Vail (1973):
Vail (1973) proposed that the earliest event in the NMR is the “deposition of psammitic,
pelitic and volcanic rocks on an unknown basement”. These lithologies are now
represented by migmatized and granitized gneisses and schists in which the original
primary features no longer exist. Gabbroic bodies were then emplaced into the gneiss
and schist.
A sequence of low-grade graphitic schist, siltstone and limestone overlay the gneiss
unit. The last event in the basement is the intrusion of granitic and granodioritic igneous
rocks and associated dyke swarms.
The next episode is the deposition of the Nawa Formation (red shales, silts and minor
limestones), which are now slightly metamorphosed.

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The third phase of deposition took place after a long period, during which erosion of the
earliest units led to uneven topography, on which the continental sedimentary strata of
the Cretaceous-aged Nubian sandstone accumulated. Rapid deposition of the
unconsolidated and variable sediments of the Umm Ruwaba Formation took place in
the Quaternary, following a second episode of erosion. The events in the region were
concluded by the deposition of widely spread clay soils and wind blown sands in recent
times.
Due to the lack of any geochronological data Vail (1973) correlated the units of the NMR
with those of the neighbouring regions and suggested the following ages:
 Precambrian age for all of the tectonic events in the basement complex with a
Pan African age (600- 500 Ma) for the youngest event.
 Cambro-Ordovician age for the post-orogenic granites and syenites similar to the
Younger Granite-type igneous province of north Sudan (Vail, 1990).
 Early Paleozoic age for Nawa Formation.
 Late Cretaceous age for the Nubian Sandstone as identified from fossil evidence
in Darfur.
1-5-2: Summary of the work of Sadig and Vail (1986):
Sadig and Vail (1986) summarized the geological work done after that of Vail (1973),
mainly those of El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981) and Brinkman (1982). They introduced a
new lithological succession for the NMR as well as further elaboration on the field
relationships between the various units. They also conducted and interpreted the results

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of two gravity profiles across the western part of the NMR and showed the usefulness of
gravity methods in identifying various basement components in central Sudan.
1-5-2-1: Lithological succession of Sadig and Vail (1986):
In their new succession Sadig and Vail (1986) divided the metamorphosed schists and
gneiss unit of Vail (1973) into two units, (i) Quartzo-feldspathic gneiss, that is basically
made up metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, and sheared and altered granitoids with
reported occurrences of hornblende augen gneiss, granodioritic gneiss and muscovite,
biotite and sillimanite gneisses, and (ii) a metasedimentary rock unit that comprises
paragneisses, mica and graphitic schists. They also introduced a new volcano-
sedimentary unit which is made up of meta-volcanic rocks (mainly meta-andesite)
intercalated with pyroclastic and sedimentary layers. This unit is restricted to two
localities, one in the west and one in the east of the NMR. The eastern outcrop contains
important lenses of chromitiferous serpentinite. Sadig and Vail, (1986) correlated this
with similar occurrences in the Kurmuk – Ingessana region and also in the Red Sea
region, and hence they interpreted these eastern occurrences as a disturbed ophiolite.
This interpretation motivated the authors to reconsider the regional geology of the
region and consider the area from a new perspective. Of importance was the
reclassification of the gabbroic unit of Vail (1973) into the new volcano-sedimentary unit.
However Sadig and Vail, (1986) never gave any description whether these occurrences
were of ophiolitic origin or not.

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According to Sadig and Vail (1986) All of the previously mentioned units have been
intruded by syn to late-orogenic batholitic granitoids of granitic and granodioritic
composition. They are foliated and underlie areas of highest topography.
Other forms of intrusion reported by Sadig and Vail (1986) are anorogenic alkali
intrusions of mainly granitic and syenitic composition and their volcanic equivalent, and
minor foid syenites.
1-5-2-2: Field relations observed by Sadig and Vail (1986):
Sadig and Vail (1986) highlighted an important relationship regarding the basement
complex, which has also been recorded by several others since the work of Vail (1973)
(e.g. the work of El Ageed and El Rabaa [1981] which will be discussed separately in
section 1-5-3).
This relationship observed by Sadig and Vail (1986) concerns the intercalation of
gneisses comprising weakly metamorphosed sedimentary rocks with sheared and
altered granitoids. This observation led Vail to suggest that at least part of the gneisses
may represent a higher grade equavilent of low grade units.
The metasedimentary rocks unit shows no clear relationship with the gneiss. In places
they may grade into one another, and in other places show a sharp contact identified
earlier in the eastern NMR by El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981) as a westerly dipping
thrust contact. Sadig and Vail (1986) also suggested strongly deformed and tectonized
contacts between the metasedimentary rocks and gneiss, as indicated by mylonitization
and shearing. Sadig and Vail (1986) drew attention to the possibility that the meta-

10


sedimentary rocks might be intercalated with meta-volcanic rocks to form one
metavolcano-sedimentary unit as proposed by Vail (1983) elsewhere in Sudan.
1-5-3: Summary of the work of El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981):
An important contribution to the geological research in the Nuba Mountains with special
focus on the northeastern Nuba Mountains was provided by El Ageed and El Rabaa
(1981). They mapped the area in detail at a scale of 1:48000 to 1:40000 and also
provided significant remarks and observations regarding the basement complex in
which they introduced a new classification of the metasedimentary rocks and the
metavolcanic rocks units of the basement complex.
1.5.3.1 Lithological succession of El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981):
El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981) recognized four major units in the northeastern Nuba
Mountains; (a) gneiss, (b) metasedimentary rocks, (c) metavolcanic rocks and (d)
younger intrusives. The gneiss described by El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981) were only
the hornblende gneiss that outcrop in the core of a dome structure. Overlying the gneiss
is a metasedimentary rock unit comprising eight individual inter-banded rock subunits
that were arranged by El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981) stratigraphically from oldest in the
bottom and youngest in the top as follows:
9- Graphitic-quartzofeldspathic schists.
8- Quartzofeldspathic schists.
7- Tremolite marbles.
6- Amphibolite schists.

11


5- Calc-semipelites.
4- Grey marble.
3- Quartzites.
2- Quartz-muscovite schists.
1- Graphitic schists.
On top of the metasedimentary rocks is a metavolcanic rock unit that consists of meta-
basic volcanics at the bottom and meta-acidic volcanics at the top. Lenses of
chromiferous serpentinite composition were identified within the basic-metavolcanic
strata, associated with calc-carbonates, which has recently been interpreted as part of
an ophiolite association (Abdelsalam and Dawoud, 1991 and references therein).
Younger intrusive rocks have intruded the earlier mentioned lithologies and caused local
thermal metamorphism.
1.5.3.2 Structural framework suggested by El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981):
El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981) identified at least three phases of deformation (D1, D2
and D3) responsible for three episodes of metamorphism (M1, M2 and M3). In their model
D1 is characterized by tight, inclined folds and is responsible for the development of a S1
foliation. M1 metamorphism reached amphibolite facies conditions in post-D1 times. D2
deformation is characterized by easterly-verging thrusts and closed to tight folds that
have resulted in the formation of a S2 foliation. M2 metamorphism, associated with D2
deformation, occured under greenschist facies conditions. The latest phase of
deformation, characterized by the formation of major wrench faults, resulted in M3
regional cataclasis. Variations in the expression of different deformational phases

12


among the different lithologies led El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981) to divide the area into
three regions and examine each region separately.
1-5-4: The work of Brinkmann (1986):
1-5-4-1 Summary of the work of Brinkmann:
As part of Sudanese-German Technical cooperation, the Federal Institute for
Geosciences and Natural resources, Hannover, Germany (BGR) carried out work for a
mineral inventory program in the northeastern Nuba Mountains between the years 1980
and 1984. The outcomes of this project were published in several reports; including that
of Brinkmann, (1986).
In his work, Brinkmann provided a review on the geology and geochronology of the
northeastern Nuba Mountains and discussed the presence of a number of ophiolite-
related and non-related mineralized areas. He also suggested a new stratigraphic
succession for the Nuba Mountains.
1-5-4-2 Field relations and lithostratigraphic succession:
The main difference between the proposed succession of Brinkmann and all of those
previously discussed, is the consideration of the medium-grade gneisses as part of the
low-grade metavolcanics and metasediments. Hence, Brinkmann considered the
volcano-sedimentary sequence as the older unit in the geology of the Nuba Mountains.
His identification of the volcano-sedimentary sequence as the older unit is based on the
observation by Brinkmann (1986) and Vail (1973) that the gneisses are intercalated in
several locations by weakly metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. This phenomenon led

13


Vail (1983) to suggest that the gneiss domes “probably only represent local areas of
greater heat flow and doming within the greenschist facies rock” (Brinkmann, 1986).
Brinkmann (1986) also mentioned that during their work in the Nuba Mountains, he
observed no rocks of amphibolite facies, except those preserved in the retrograded
ophiolite rocks. He considered the gneiss of the northeastern Nuba Mountains as a
lateral, higher grade equivalent of the lower-grade metamorphic volcano-sedimentary
series.
Brinkmann (1986) proposed a nine-fold sequence of events in the Nuba Mountains. The
earliest two episodes were associated with an island arc environment, where the
extrusion of mainly basic volcanic rocks preceded the deposition of various sediments
that were intercalated with volcaniclastic rocks. The subsequent collision of the island
arcs of the ANS led to the emplacement of ophiolitic slivers and the intrusion of syn-
orogenic granite. Three cycles of magmatic intrusion took place at 700 Ma, 550 Ma and
250 Ma.The geological history proposed by Brinkmann (1986) is provided in table 1-1.
1-5-5: The work of Abdelsalam and Dawoud (1991):
Abdelsalam and Dawoud (1991) redefined the boundary between the Pan-African
Arabian Nubian Shield and the pre-Pan-African continental crust as the Kabus ophiolitic
mélange in the northeastern (NMR), west of the previously suggested location at the
Ingessana hills. They based their description of the basement units in the area mainly
on the works of Vail (1973), Shadad et al. (1979) and Sadig and Vail (1986).
Abdelsalam and Dawoud (1991) regrouped the basement units identified by the
previous authors into two main lithogeographical units; the high-grade gneisses that

14


occupy the western part of the northeastern NMR and the low-grade volcano-
sedimentary sequence identified in the eastern part of the northeastern NMR. These
two units are separated by the Kabus ophiolitic mélange. The western high-grade
gneises are pre-Pan-African in age, possibly Archaean to early Proterozoic, and the
eastern low-grade volcano-sedimentary sequence have a Pan-African age). In their
consideration of the age of the gneissic unit, Abdelsalam and Dawoud (1991) discussed
the geochronological data obtained by Harris et al. (1984) and Curtis and Lenz (1985)
and came to the conclusion that although the majority of the data suggest a Pan-African
87
age, the high initial Sr/86Sr ratio observed in one outcrop (Jebel Doleibaya) suggests
the presence of pre-Pan-African crustal material within the rocks of the NMR.
Abdelsalam and Dawoud (1991) have confirmed the three phases of deformation (D1,
D2 and D3) previously described by El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981).
Using geological, geochronological, structural and geophysical data Abdelsalam and
Dawoud (1991) have produced a three stage tectonic model in which (1) a westerly
dipping subduction zone led to the formation of an intra-oceanic island arc and opening
of a marginal basin between the arc and the continent, (2) beginning of closure of the
marginal basin, formation of an Andean-type arc and migration of the subduction zone
westward and (3) complete closure of the marginal basin, formation of the Kabus
ophiolitic mélange and erosion of the Andean-type arc.
Abdelsalam and Dawoud (1991) concluded their work by discussing the nature of the
Ingessana ophiolite and the high-grade gneisses situated between it and the northeast
Nuba Mountains and concluded that the western boundary between the ANS and the
continental crust to the west is defined by the Kabus ophiolitic mélange.

15


Vail (1973) Sadig and Vail El Ageed and El Brinkmann (1986)

(1986) Rabaa (1981)
Intrusion of ring F3 – Faulting and

complexes and dykes cataclasis and final
Folding, N-S to NE, and Cover rocks: volcanism (20 Ma)
metamorphism 3-Quaryernary Umm Ruwaba
formation
(greenschist facies) and Younger Intrusive
2-Cretaceous Nubian
cataclasis (?) Sandstone formation
Extrusion of meta- 1- Nawa-Abu Habil deposits Intrusion of anorogenic
volcanic unit alkali complexes (250 –
220 Ma) and dykes
Intrusion of late-orogenic Intrusion of alkali
granitoids complexes
Deposition of graphitic
siltstones, mudstones End of F2
and possibly limestones
and andesite
Folding (NNE-SSW), Anorogenic alkali ring- Intrusion of Late-
metamorphism complexes orogenic granites (about
(amphibolites facies) 700 Ma)
and granitization
Intrusion of gabbro (?) Syn-to late-orogenic Intrusion of gabbro
batholithic granitoids
Deposition of Volcano-sedimentary Metavolcanic: Collision of island arc;
psammites, shales, unit: 2- Meta-acidic volcanic Emplacement of oceanic
Intercalated metavolcanic 1- Meta-basic volcanic which
limestones and possibly include a chromiferous
crust slivers (ophiolite)
(meta-andesite and chlorite
rare volcanic rocks serpentinite (F1), start of folding (F2),
schist) and metasedimentary
(pyroclastic strata) and intrusion of syn-
orogenic batholiths
(about 1000 Ma)
Meta-sedimentary unit: Meta-sediments:
Paragneisses, psammites 9- Graphitic- Deposition of sediments
and mica and graphitic quartzofeldspathic schists
schists 8- Quartzofeldspathic schists
(black shales with
Erosion 7- Tremolite marbles, ferruginous cherts,
6- Amphibolite schists, carbonates, scarce
5- Calc-semipelites conglomerates and
4- Grey marble,
arkose) with minor
2- Quartz-muscovite schists,
1- Graphitic schists. intercalated intermediate
to acidic volcaniclastic
(island arc setting)
Quartzo-feldspathic Extrusion of
gneiss: Hornblende gneiss predominantly basic
Formation of granitic Hornblende augen gneiss, volcanic rocks with
granodioritic gneiss,
gneiss intercalated intermediate
and muscovite biotite gneiss
to acidic volcaniclastics
and ferruginous cherts,
deposition of carbonate
(island arc setting)
Tabel 1-1: Summary of the different lithostratigraphic succession proposed for the Nuba Mountains.

16


1-5-6 other studies relevant to the Nuba Mountains:
Harris et al., (1984), in their studies of the relationships between the various lithological
units in northeastern and east of Africa, have presented the results of Nd isotope data of
the major Pan-African lithologies including data from the Nuba Mountains (El Obeid
muscovite granite, Rashad and El Abbassiya syn-tectonic granites) which show a
Paleoproterozoic crustal age for the former and a Pan-African age for both of the latter.
Harris et al., (1984) interpreted the age obtained from El Obied as indicating either a
Paleoproterozoic age or a mixture between Archean and Pan-African material.
Curtiz and Brinkmann (1985) have studied the post-tectonic units of the
lithostratigraphic succession (Younger intrusive) of the Nuba Mountains. They focused
on the main occurrences of the younger intrusive alkali complexes in the Nuba
Mountains that are exposed in the southwestern part of the Nuba Mountains where
more than 25 individual igneous complexes crop out covering a total area of 12000 km2
along a 200 km long northwesterly trend between Jebel Talodi and Jebel Lagowa.
Curtiz and Brinkmann (1985) provided detailed maps accompanied by their geological
and geochemical descriptions.
1-6: Work on the Saharan Metacraton:
The Precambrian basement of northeast Africa is divided mainly into two tectonic
regimes; an older sialic continental plate (Nile Craton, Rocci, 1965; Saharan-Congo
Craton, Kröner, 1977; Eastern Saharan Craton, Bertrand and Caby, 1978; Central
Sahara Ghost Craton, Black and Liégeois, 1993; Saharan Metacraton, Abdelsalam et

17


al., 2002) and the Neoproterozoic Pan-African Arabian Nubian Shield (Gass, 1981;
Shackleton, 1979; Vail, 1983).
The latter region is well-studied and has relatively well-known geographic extents,
consistent lithology, isotopic and geochronologic signatures and a widely accepted
tectonic model of development. However, the older sialic continental crust is still lacking
detailed geological work, no agreement on its boundaries has yet been reached, and
little is known about its geochronology and isotopic characteristics.
After examining the available geological, structural and geochronological data of the
sialic continental crust, Abdelsalam et al., (2002) revised and rejected the use of the
term ‘craton’ on the basis that the prolonged history of deformation of this crust since
the Neoproterozoic is no longer characteristic of cratonic behaviour. Therefore, the use
of the term craton is misleading since the available geochronological and radiogenic
data suggest that the region is no longer stable continental crust but was mostly
remobilized during the Neoproterozoic orogeny (Abdelsalam et al., 2002, and
references therein). Terms used to describe this crust, such as the Nile Craton (Rocci,
1965); Saharan-Congo Craton (Kröner, 1977); Eastern Saharan Craton (Bertrand and
Caby, 1978) may therefore be inappropriate and/or these terms do not satisfy the
geographic location of the region (Nile Craton and Eastern Saharan Craton suggest the
area is too far to the east). Alternative terminology is not well-defined and not widely
accepted (e.g. Central Sahara Ghost Craton). Instead, the term Saharan Metacraton
(SMC) was proposed to describe the area by Abdelsalam et al., (2002).

18


The SMC is bounded to the east by the ANS and to the west by the Tuareg shield, the
southern boundary is considered as the southern boundary of the Oubanguides
orogenic belt and the northern boundary is hidden under the thick Phanerozoic cover of
northern Africa (Fig. 1-3).
High to intermediate-grade gneisses, meta-sediments, migmatites and localized
patches of granulites make up most of the SMC. Occurrences of low-grade volcano-
sedimentary sequence (similar to those of the ANS) are occasionally reported.
Pre-Neoproterozoic ages for the SMC lithologies were first suggested, based upon their
high-grade of metamorphism and further evidence derived from some Rb/Sr isochrons,
Nd model ages, and U/Pb ages and from Sr and Nd initial ratios (Harris et al., 1984;
Kröner et al., 1987; Sultan et al., 1994; Stern et al., 1994; Liégeois et al., 1994) which
indicate the participation of Paleoproterozoic or possibly Archean crustal material within
the protolith of these rocks. On the other hand, Rb/Sr, Sm/Nd and U/Pb zircon age data
have also shown that parts of the SMC were formed and/or remobilized during the
Neoproterozoic (Meinhold, 1979; Barth et al., 1983; Ries et al., 1985; Curtis and Lenz,
1985; Kröner et al., 1987; Key et al., 1989; Harms et al., 1990, 1994; Stern and
Dawoud, 1991; Black and Liégeois, 1991; Stern et al., 1994; Liégeois et al., 1994).
Due to the enormous size of the SMC (about 5,000,000 km2), it is understandable that
several tectonic events and processes might have destabilized the region (Liégeois et
al., 2013). Collision events t took place at the end of the Neoproterozoic in the SMC
around the entire perimeter; at the eastern edge against the ANS, against the Taureg
shield at the west, against the Congo craton at the south and against an unknown

19


craton in the north. These multiple collisions did not allow for tectonic escape and hence
led to the decratonization of the interior and added much to the complexity of structures
in the Saharan Metacraton. Abdelsalam et al., (2002) listed two major structural trends
that have been reported in several areas within the Saharan Metacraton; an older ENE-
trend, widely known as the Zalingai fold belt (Vail, 1976; Schandelmeier et al., 1987)
which is interpreted to represent a Pre-Neoproterozoic structure in Central Africa
(Abdelsalam et al., 2002 and references therein) and a younger N-S trend of the
Neoproterozoic Keraf suture. In the Bayuda Desert Küster and Liégeois (2001)
interpreted this structural trend to be inherited from terrain collision in the early
Neoproterozoic.
N-S-trending structures were identified in various areas within the Saharan Metacraton
and they are present in various manifestations: In the vicinity of the Keraf suture (the
boundary between the ANS and the SMC), N-trending upright folds were later deformed
by N- to NW-trending strike-slip faults; In the Bayuda Desert of northern Sudan, N-
trending shear zones deformed the high-grade gneisses (Abdelsalam et al., 2000). N-S
trending structures on the SMC are also present as N-trending fold and thrust belts in
northern Chad and southern Libya (Tibesti massif), and in northern Sudan (Jebel Rahib)
(Schandelmeier et al., 1990; Abdel-Rahman et al., 1990). Structures with similar trends
were reported as far away as northern Cameroon where they were suggested to be
younger than 620 Ma from U/Pb zircon data (Toteu et al., 1987).
The presence of fold and thrust belts were interpreted as relating to the opening and
closing of restricted oceanic basins with or without the development of a subduction
zone and volcanic arcs (Schandelmeier et al., 1990; Abdel-Rahman et al., 1990).

20


Figure 1-3: Location map of the Saharan Metacraton showing, Jebel Rahib, Atmur
Delgo, Kabus and Abutulu areas (modified after Abdelsalam et al., 2002).

21


The opening and closure of these oceanic basins is one of the mechanisms that could
account for the existence of the low-grade metavolcano-sedimentary sequence
described later in this work.
In the western part of the Saharan Metacraton Fezaa et al., (2010) recognized the
Murzuq Craton. The surface geology of the Muzruq Craton is coincident with the circular
Muzruq Phanerozoic basin. Liégeois et al., (2013) suggested that the Murzug, the Al
Kufrah and the Chad cratons are all remnants of the SMC and adjacent metacratonic
areas, based upon their similarities (Fig. 1-3). This juxtaposition between the cratons
and metacratonized area is a criterion of a metacraton that formed through the
metacratonization of the inner part of a former craton (Liégeois et al., 2013).
The remobilization of the SMC was in the form of deformation (Vail, 1971, 1972, 1976;
Schandelmeier et al.,1987; Denkler et al., 1994; Harms et al., 1994; Abdelsalam et al.,
1995, 1998, 2000; Küster and Liégeois (2001), metamorphism (Kröner et al., 1987;
Stern and Dawoud, 1991; Denkler et al., 1994), emplacement of igneous bodies and
extension (Harms et al., 1990, 1994; Stern et al., 1994; Sultan et al., 1990, 1992, 1994),
and formation of limited oceanic basins and further closing of the basins and collision of
the drifted blocks (Schandelmeier et al., 1990, 1994; Abdel-Rahman et al., 1990; Stern
et al., 1994). Four models were suggested to explain the remobilization of the Saharan
Metacraton during Neoproterozoic time; 1- collision processes; 2- sub continental
mantle lithosphere delamination; 3- extension tectonics; 4- assembly of the metacraton
from exotic terranes.

22


1-7 The Eastern Boundary of the Saharan Metacraton:
A tectonic contact is believed to separate the Sahara Metacraton from the Arabian
Nubian Shield. Vail (1985; 1988) suggested that the contact is defined by a belt of
deformed supra-crustal meta-sediments that overlie the high-grade gneiss of the craton
(now the SMC) and traced it from the Sekerr – Karamoja – Kapoeta region of northern
Kenya and South Sudan through the Ingessana – Kurmuk region of southeastern
Sudan to eastern Bayuda desert of northern Sudan. Abdelsalam and Dawoud, (1991)
have shifted the boundary in central Sudan westward and redefined it as the Kabus
ophiolitc mélange rather than the Ingessana – Kurmuk region. In the northern part of
Sudan, the eastern boundary of the SMC is marked by the Keraf suture zone (Almond
and Ahmed, 1987; Abdel Rahman et al., 1993; Abdelsalam et al., 1995 and 1998).
After recognizing that most of the Bayuda desert is underlain by juvenile Neoproterozoic
crust Küster and Liégeois (2001) argued that the eastern boundary of the SMC should
lie somewhere to the west of the Zalingei fold belt, unless the Bayuda desert area was
thrust westwards over the eastern margin of the SMC. At the intersection between the
Nakasib (a late-Proterozoic suture between the Haya and Gebeit terranes of the ANS)
and the Keraf (Neoproterozoic suture that separates the ANS from the SMC) sutures Ali
and Abdel Rahman (2010) identified new ophiolitic occurrences to the east and west of
the Keraf suture. These occurrences generally line up along a NE- trending lineament,
although part of it is affected by the sinistral movement of the Keraf shear and rotated to
parallelism with the N-trending Keraf structures. Ali and Abdel Rahman, (2010)
suggested that these ophiolitic occurrences may represent the continuation of the
Nakasib ophiolite to the west of the Keraf suture. This suggestion should be treated with

23


care, since the relative sinistral movement along the Kerarf, which is estimated to be
1000 km (Küster and Liégeois (2001) rendered impossible correlation between the
terranes east and west of it (although it supports the notion of Küster and Liégeois
(2001) regarding the location of the contact between the SMC and the ANS).
1-8 Present Study:
1-8-1 Statement of the Problem:
The presence of Neoproterozoic Pan-African low-grade rocks within general high-grade
(upper amphibolite facies) gneisses and schists of the Saharan Metacraton, have
always been considered problematic in the sense that the low-grade metavolcano-
sedimentary rocks are similar to the assemblages of the Arabian Nubian Shield. Vail
(1983, 1986) suggested that they might be detached from the Arabian Nubian Shield.
Studies in the northern and central parts of Sudan on similar outcrops have suggested
variable tectonic models. These models involve rifting, formation of oceanic basins
(usually restricted) and then closure of these basins with or without the formation of
subduction zones and arc materials. The final stage is the collision between the different
terranes on both sides of the former basin. Former studies also helped in understanding
the significance of the different models in the destabilization of the SMC during the
Neoproterozoic time.
The low-grade volcano-sedimentary sequence of the western Nuba Mountains has long
been reported in the literature and still remains one of the few unstudied occurrences
within the Sudanese section of the SMC.

24


In some instances early Neoproterozoic high-grade assemblages are found at the
margin of the Metacraton as in the case of the Bayuda desert and are considered as
different oceanic entities to that which exists between the SMC and the ANS (Küster
and Liégeois (2001).
1-8-2 Objectives:
The overall objective is directed toward a better understanding of the low-grade
volcano-sedimentary sequence of the western Nuba Mountains and their regional
extents and geotectonic environment.
The detailed objectives are:
1- To conduct detailed geological mapping of the area around Jebel Abu Tulu in
order to determine the extent and the structural relations of the low-grade
metavolcano-sedimentary assemblage as well as the field relationships between
this low-grade assemblage and adjacent rock units.
2- Lithological characterization of various rock units within the study area.
3- Documentation of the structures of the low-grade metavolcano-sedimentary
assemblage and testing of existing models proposed for similar occurrences
within the SMC.
4- Geochemical (rock and mineral chemistry), geochronological and isotopic
characterization of the major lithologies in the study area.
Detailed description of the methodologies followed in the current study is provided in
Appendix (1-1).

25


2- Regional Geology and Petrography:

2-1 Regional Geological framework of the Nuba Mountains:
The Nuba Mountains region (NMR) is located in the southern part of Sudan (Fig. 2-1)
and comprises an inlier of uplifted crystalline basement, which is surrounded by
Mesozoic to Cenozoic sedimentary rocks filling several grabens (Sadig and Vail, 1986;
Browne and Fairhead, 1983).
Early studies in the region by Vail, (1973), Shaddad et al. (1979), El Ageed and El
Rabaa (1981) and Sadig and Vail, (1986) have divided the crystalline basement rocks
into high-grade gneisses and schists, low-grade metavolcano-sedimentary sequences
and syn- to late-orogenic granitoids. The latter have intruded both of the former units
(Fig.2-1). The presence of ultramafic rocks in the northeast of the Nuba Mountains was
first described by El Ageed (1974) and these were identified as ophiolites by Hirdes and
Brinkmann (1985), Brinkmann (1986) and Steiner (1987).
Abdelsalam and Dawoud (1991) have described these ophiolite fragments as a NNE-
trending ophiolite-decorated suture zone. They introduced the name “Kabus ophiolitic
mélange” and considered them to represent the eastern boundary of the SMC which
separates the high-grade gneisses in the west from the low-grade volcano-sedimentary
sequence in the east (Fig. 2-1).

26


Figure 2-1: Geological map of the entire Nuba Mountains region (Modified after Sadig
and Vail, 1986).

27


Although most of the region to the west of the Kabus ophiolitic mélange is underlain by
amphibolite facies gneisses, the existence of low-grade greenschist facies meta-
volcanic and meta-sedimentary rocks has long been reported at several localities in the
western Nuba Mountains (Sadig and Vail, 1986). Small bands of meta-andesite
surrounded by gneisses near Kega Al Khail (Fig. 2-1) have been reported by El Nadi
(1984), while further to the north in the vicinity of Abu Zabad and around Abutulu (Fig. 2-
1) similar meta-volcanic rocks and low-grade phyllites are present {Mansour and
Iskander, (1960) and Almond (1983) in Sadig and Vail, (1986)}.
These low-grade meta-volcanic and meta-sedimentary rocks are geographically
associated with several mafic masses first reported by Lyns and Campbell Smith
(1921), Vail (1973) and Sadig and Vail (1986). These mafic occurrences have been
considered by Vail (1973), as mafic intrusions that followed the metamorphism of the
crystalline gneisses. However, this interpretation has not been adopted by this same
author in a more recent publication (Sadig and Vail, 1986).
2-2 Geology of the western Nuba Mountains:
The area under consideration is situated in the westernmost Nuba Mountains and
bounded by latitudes 11˚ 9΄ 0˝ and 12 ˚ 0΄ 0˝ N and longitudes 28˚ 32΄ 0˝ and 29˚ 40΄ 0˝
E covering an area of 11,910 km2 (Fig. 2-2). Detailed geological mapping was carried
out at the scale of 1:50000 utilizing ETM 7+ and Landsat8 Landsat images.

28


Figure 2-2: Detailed geological map of the western Nuba Mountains.

29


Several mapping tours revealed six lithostratigraphic units: gneisses and migmatites, a
metavolcano-sedimentary sequence, an extrusive and intrusive mafic belt, syn to late-
orogenic granitoids, anorogenic granitoids, and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. All of the
lithological units (except the Mesozoic sedimentary rocks) are aligned along N- and
NNE-trending belts.
2-2-1 Medium-grade gneiss and migmatite:
2-2-1-1 Ortho-granitic and monzonitic gneiss:
Gneissose foliated banded rocks of granitic and granodioritic compositions occupy most
of the eastern part and a portion of the centre of the study area. Sadig and Vail (1986),
Mansour and Samuel (1957), Vail (1973), Brinkmann (1982) and Shaddad et al. (1979)
have reported similar lithologies from areas in the eastern Nuba Mountains and in parts
of the western Nuba Mountains. The gneisses crop out typically as low-lying features
and in a few cases as hilly outcrops. They do not form any sort of lineament on the
Landsat images and aerial photographs.
The gneissic granite is coarse-grained, foliated and contains strained quartz (30%),
microcline (25%), orthoclase (5%), plagioclase (albite – oligoclase) (15%) and biotite
(20%). Secondary minerals include sericite, carbonate, epidote, zoisite and chlorite.
Accessory minerals include zircon, apatite, titanite and opaque minerals. In the gneissic
granodiorite, hornblende increases at the expense of biotite and constitutes up to 10%
of the rock. In some samples, plagioclase is the only feldspar with minor microcline
perthite. K-feldspar augen gneiss occurs only in the western part of the mapped area
(Plate 2-1). The mineral assemblage of oligoclase + microcline + biotite + hornblende

30


indicates amphibolite facies of regional metamorphism (Best, 2003). Later retrograde
metamorphism is indicated by the formation of chlorite after primary hornblende and
biotite, and the formation of epidote after primary plagioclase. The homogeneity of the
granite and granodiorite suggests their magmatic origin.
The eastern contact of the high-grade ortho-gneisses is reported to be against the
Kabus ophiolitic mélange about 300 km to the east (Abdelsalam and Dawoud, 1991).
Diffuse and gradational contacts separate the gneisses from syn-orogenic granite of
similar composition. Due to the nature of the contact between the two units, Sadig and
Vail (1986) have described the difficulty in estimating the ratio between the gneisses
and the syn-orogenic granite and suggest that portions of the latter might be
misinterpreted as gneisses. This difficulty is confirmed in this study and most of the
investigated previously-mapped gneiss occurrences have been found to be late to syn-
orogenic granites containing numerous xenoliths of the older gneiss units. Basic
xenoliths oriented parallel to the foliation planes are seen in syn-orogenic granite just a
few kilometers to the WSW of Lagawa (Plate 2-2). The contact against the low-grade
volcano-sedimentary unit to the west is demarcated by a steeply dipping sinistral shear
zone. A sharp tonal contrast seen on the Landsat image denotes the contact. A sharp
contact against the younger anorogenic granitoid intrusions is present and dykes of the
younger intrusions are widely encountered near the intrusions. Detailed mapping of the
younger intrusions and description of the nature of the contacts against the basement
were given by Curtis and Brinkmann (1985).

31


Plate 2-1: Augen gneissic granite from the western part of the study area, with
orthoclase and microcline perthite porphyroblast crystals.
Plate 2-2: Basic xenolith within the syn-orogenic granite.

32


2-2-1-2 Low to medium-grade Supracrustal meta-sedimentary rocks:
N- to NNE-trending, moderately to steeply dipping narrow strips of intercalated meta-
sediments (chert, graphite schist, graphitic-mica schist, quartz-feldspathic schist and
gneisses) together with massive acidic and basic meta-volcanic rocks are reported in
this study less than seven kilometers to the east of Jebel Arid and to the northwest and
to the south of Jebel Keiga Al Kail. The meta-sedimentary units generally show primary
layering and shallow (≈30°) south-southwesterly plunging stretching lineations,
restricted to the quartzofeldspathic lithologies at the interface between the meta-
sediments and the gneisses. In many locations the stretching lineations are the only
structural fabric identified leading to strong L-tectonite quartzofeldspathic lithologies.
The coarse varieties of the quartzofeldspathic lithologies show a planar fabric that grade
into a gneissic fabric at the margin with the orthogneisses. Despite the changes in the
direction of strike of the meta-sediments the direction of the stretching lineation remains
consistent which possibly suggests it was developed at a later stage. The meta-
sediments are affected by brittle deformation along NE-trending faults.
The paragneisses are made up of quartz, microcline, plagioclase (albite and/or
oligoclase), muscovite and minor biotite. Garnet and allanite exist in some samples
(Plate 2-3). The quartz has strong undulose extinction and the plagioclase shows
twisted lamellae and is commonly altered to sericite. Accessory minerals are zircon and
apatite. In the calc-silicates the main minerals are calcite, diopside, wollastonite, brucite
and talc (Plate 2-4). Low-grade varieties only contain calcite and minor serpentine. The
migmatitic mesosome is made up of hornblende, biotite and clinopyroxene and the
leucosome is made up of plagioclase (oligoclase) and quartz. Epidote, apatite and

33


opaques are seen in both of the previous varieties. The unit is intruded by both syn-
orogenic and anorogenic granitoids. A contact aureole has been recorded adjacent to
impure marble.
Despite the petrographic difficulties in differentiating the protolith of quartzofeldspathic
gneiss from magmatic rhyolitic tuffs or sedimentary lithic sandstone (Best, 2003), the
inhomogeneity of the rocks is indicative of a sedimentary origin.
The mineral assemblage of the paragneisses (plagioclase+ K-feldspar+ muscovite +
biotite) indicates amphibolite facies of regional metamorphism. The thermally
metamorphosed impure limestone show mineral assemblages of slightly higher grade
indicated by the presence of wollastonite in their mineral paragenesis (the presence of
wollastonite indicating a H2O dominated fluid phase environment – very low CO2). The
unit rock assemblage of quartzofeldspathic gneisses, quartzite and marble are all
indicative of a shallow water shelf depositional environment.
The meta-sediments can easily be recognized on Landsat images by their well
developed NNE-trending lineament and a rectangular drainage pattern that is most
likely structurally controlled (Fig. 2-2). Thrust faults are thought to define the contact
against the gneiss unit. This assumption is based on field observations where thrust
faults were noticed in the last observed eastern- and western-most outcrops of the
meta-sedimentary rocks.

34


Pate 2-3: Garnet crystals in paragneiss north of Jebel Arid.
Plate 2-4: Calc-silicate of the supra-crustal subunit that shows mineralogy of diopside,
brucite, talc and calcite.

35


The meta-sedimentary rocks are affected by major south-plunging, easterly-verging
asymmetrical antiform folded along a N-S to NNE-SSW trending axis. Several
northeast-trending strike slip faults have been observed.
2-2-2 Syn-orogenic granitoids:
Previous mapping shows that syn-orogenic granitoids form a very limited proportion of
the surface geology of the NE Nuba Mountains, although they make up a considerable
amount in the Arabian Nubian Shield, where they form substantial exposures of the Red
Sea Hills and the southeastern area of the Bayuda desert.
The syn-orogenic granitoids were intruded into the medium-grade gneiss as well as the
low-grade metavolcano-sedimentary rocks. In the northeastern Nuba Mountains Vail
(1983) reported that the syn-orogenic granitoids also intruded the ophiolite sequence.
Based on the TDM Nd model ages obtained by Harris et al., (1984) from foliated granite
and granodiorite intrusions of Rashad (1000 Ma) and Abbasiya (950 Ma), the
emplacement age of the syn-orogenic batholiths was suggested to be around 1000 Ma
(Brinkmann, 1986).
Within the area under consideration, no clear intrusive contact relationships are
noticeable between the syn-orogenic granitoids and the arc/back-arc ophiolite of the
Arid unit, despite the close proximity between the two units.
The rocks are generally homogenous in composition and only two main varieties can be
recognized; a hornblende biotite granite and a muscovite biotite granite. The first type is
only identified in the western part of the area in a locality named Umm Shair
(approximately 12 km to the south of Jebel Abutulu). The outcrop is coarse-grained and

36


K-feldspar, quartz and biotite are easily recognized in hand specimen. The outcrop is
highly charged with xenoliths of basic and felsic compositions. A well developed NW
foliation (300/60NE) is identified all over the outcrop.
The biotite muscovite granite occurs in both the eastern and western part of the study
area. In the eastern part it occurs as high relief outcrops surrounded by the Quaternary
sand. The rocks are foliated (080/50SE) and laden with concentrations of mafic material
(schlieren texture). The schlieren clustures are mostly aligned parallel to the dominant
foliation plane.
The microscopic investigations reveal that the rocks are mainly composed of K-feldspar
(microcline and orthoclase), plagioclase (mainly albite) and biotite. Muscovite exists in
minor amounts as primary and/or secondary constituents. Hornblende substitutes some
of the biotite in the hornblende biotite variety. Zircon, iron oxide, epidote and sphene
occur are common accessories (Plate 2-5). Primary muscovite and hornblende are
likely to be incompatible.
2-2-3 Pillow basalt, massive gabbros and layered gabbros (Arid units):
Dismembered low-lying fragments of pillow basalts, massive gabbros and minor layered
gabbros are found to occupy a NNE-trending belt from Kadugli (Vail, 1973), north and
northeast of Jebel Arid (this study) and 10 km SE of Ed Dubeibat (Lyns and Campbell
Smith, 1921) (Fig. 2-2). Brinkmann (1986) have suggested that some of these gabbroic
bodies are not related to the ophiolite unit and he attempted to draw a distinction
between the two units based on their geochemistry. In the study area no contrasting

37


field relation is observable and further information can only be gained from
geochemistry.
2-2-3-1 Layered gabbros:
The layered gabbros are greenish in colour with brown weathering surfaces, coarse-
grained texture and show crude compositional layering (Plate 2-6). They were found in
three exposures along the boundary between the metavolcano-sedimentary unit and the
high-grade gneisses (Fig. 2-2). Although there is no obvious contact against the other
units they are considered to be the lowest unit within the mafic sequence, based on
their structure (layering) and spatial position (furthest to the NW in the SE-dipping
sequence). Its exposure along Wadi Al Beida is in close geographic location to
hornblendite occurrences less than few hundred meters to the NW along the same wadi
(Fig. 2-2). The rocks are affected by 040°-oriented shear and show intrafolial folds that
plunge steeply to the SE. In the Al Beida exposures they are found to be intruded by
granite and cut by numerous veinlets of quartz.
Microscopically, the layered gabbro is coarse-grained, composed of plagioclase and
clinopyroxene in approximately equal amounts. Deformed plagioclase displays twisted
lamellae and poikilitic textures and is saussuritized to sodic plagioclase, epidote and
sericite (Plate 2-7). The clinopyroxene is mostly retrograded to green hornblende and
both are replaced by fibrous actinolite and chlorite. These relationships possibly suggest
two metamorphic episodes; medium grade followed by low grade, though this may just
be generalized retrogression – depending on textural relationships.

38


Apatite, sphene and iron oxides are the main accessory minerals. Epidote, zoisite,
actinolite and chlorite are the main secondary minerals.

39


Plate 2-5: Inclusions of zircon within the biotite crystals in the syn-orogenic granite of Jebel Umm Shair.
Plate 2-6: Layered gabbro exposure to the east of Jebel Abutulu.
Plate 2-7: Deformed plagioclase of the layered gabbro showing formation of epidote and sericite.

40


2-2-3-2 Massive gabbros:
The massive gabbros outcrop as boulders of medium to coarse-grained rock which
vary texturally from gabbroic to doleritic. They are predominantly massive, showing
slight to no indication of foliation, but are slightly sheared locally. They have dark
colours and some of them are melano-gabbroic. The massive gabbros are the dominant
lithology among the mafic-ultramafic sequence; their main outcrop is in the core of a
southerly-plunging asymmetrical antiformal structure about a kilometre to the NE of
Jebel Arid (Fig. 2-2). The massive gabbro is made up mostly of saussuritized calcic
plagioclase and approximately equal amounts of hornblende. Hornblende is retrograded
after early clinopyroxene (augite). Uralitized clinopyroxene remains as relicts and is
partially replaced along its margins and cleavage planes by green fibrous actinolite and
chlorite. Orthopyroxene is evident in a few samples and is always associated with
olivine. One sample (SK-207) shows fine- to medium-grained crystals of green primary
hornblende which may represent near solidus crystallization in an ophiolite magma
chamber (Coogan et al, 2001). The main secondary minerals are epidote, zoisite,
actinolite and chlorite while apatite and iron oxides are accessory minerals. The
massive gabbro in two localities (Al Greera outcrop and east of Abutulu) is associated
with pods and dykes of plagiogranite (Fig. 2-2). The plagiogranite is light in colour and
has a coarse-grained texture composed mainly of quartz and sodic plagioclase and
minor amounts of biotite and iron oxide. Beside this outcrop, Sadig and Vail (1986) have
reported numerous exposures of massive gabbros in the mapped area.

41


2-2-3-3 Basaltic lavas:
Basaltic lavas, rarely showing pillow structures, are underlain by massive gabbro
northeast and east of Jebel Arid. The rocks are grayish green to dark green in color and
fine-grained in texture. The pillows are of oval shape and reach ~30 cm in size (Plate 2-
8).
Petrographically, the rocks are fine-grained in texture showing weak to well-developed
foliations and are composed of plagioclase + amphibole (Hornblende/Actinolite) ±
clinopyroxene + epidote ± zoisite ± sphene ± chlorite ± apatite ± iron oxide, with
plagioclase and hornblende forming up to 90% of the rock (Plate 2-9). Hornblende
appears green to dark green in color, usually forming hypidiomorphic long prisms but
idiomorphic perfect cross-sections are frequently seen. Plagioclase is generally
xenomorphic and occasionally shows twisted lamellae. Subsequent alteration and
possible retrogression is evident by the presence of calcic plagioclase saussuritized to
sodic plagioclase, epidote and quartz, with minor replacement of hornblende by chlorite.
The general mineral assemblage of the metabasite indicates low-grade metamorphism
in the epidote-amphibolite sub-facies.
2-2-4 Low-grade meta-volcanic and meta-sedimentary rocks (Abutulu unit):
This group of rocks underlies the westernmost area of the Nuba Mountains and is
mostly composed of poly-deformed and metamorphosed meta-volcanic (dominantly
meta-andesite and sub-alkaline-basalt) and meta-sedimentary rocks (slate, phyllite,
graphitic and mica quartzitic schist). The western boundary of the unit is hidden under
thick sedimentary rocks.

42


Plate 2-8: Basaltic lava with pillow structure.
Plate 2-9: Photomicrograph showing the mineral composition of the pillowed basaltic
lava.

43


A tonal contrast on Landsat images coincides with a sinistral shear and represents the
eastern boundary separating them from the high-grade gneisses.
Establishment of a stratigraphic column within the unit is difficult since the nature of the
outcrop is as isolated inselbergs surrounded by thick clay cover. However, in the
Abutulu outcrop, the meta-volcanics overlie the meta-sedimentary rocks. The presence
of a meta-volcanic exposure immediately west of Jebel Abutulu may indicate
intercalation between the meta-sedimentary and the meta-volcanic units, like the
general pattern observed in the Nuba Mountains. Both the units are sheared and folded
along a general N30-50E strike but with more structural complexity in the meta-
sedimentary rock. The structural pattern suggests sinistral transpression with a
dominant strike-slip component and subordinate compression.
The mica quartz schist is fine-grained, well-foliated and banded with some lamellae rich
in mica and the others rich in quartz. A flakey sericite band has been reported in parts of
the southern part of the Al Beida outcrop. Graphite schist is the dominant lithology
among the meta-sedimentary rocks and is reported in several localities from Kadugli in
the south and northward thereof. The main locality in the study area is Tugula in the
north of the mapped area and although highly folded and sheared, the primary
sedimentary structures (bedding) can still be observed both at mesoscopic (Plate 2-10)
and microscopic scales. Lenses of phyllite have been recorded within the Tugula
lithology.
The meta-andesite main outcrop is at Abutulu (Fig. 2-2) where it flanks the meta-
sedimentary rocks and appears as large and hard blocks of greenish grey color with no

44


joints. Other meta-andesite occurrences have only been seen as exposures along the
dense network of drainage.
Petrographically, the meta-sedimentary rocks are fine-grained rocks and have a mineral
assemblage of quartz, white mica, and graphite (Plate 2-11). Chlorite is the main
accessory mineral, accompanied by biotite, epidote, apatite and iron oxides as
accessory phases. Mansour and Iskander (1960) have reported a rare occurrence of
glaucophane among the accessory minerals.
The meta-volcanic rocks have porphyritic to phanitic textures with plagioclase (mainly
andesine) as porphyroblasts in a finer groundmass of plagioclase, actinolite, chlorite,
relict clinopyroxene and biotite. In many samples chlorite replaces all the mafic minerals
(Plate 2-12). Epidote, zoisite, muscovite and quartz are the main secondary minerals.
Apatite and opaques are the accessory minerals. Veinlets of carbonate and
hydrothermal quartz (with poorly developed wavy extinction) are frequently observed
Igneous textures are widely seen (ophitic intergrowth). The general mineral assemblage
indicates greenschist facies metamorphism.
2-2-5 Late-orogenic granitoids:
A distinction in the field between the syn-orogenic granitoids and the late-orogenic is not
easily made. However the latter partly showing no foliation (especially in the margins of
the outcrops) and they generally have a more outstanding relief.
Four occurrences of late-orogenic granite were observed in the study area. All four
outcrops are restricted to the central part of the mapped area and they cut the medium-
grade ortho- and paragneiss (Fig. 2-3) where they carry xenoliths of the gneiss.

45


Plate 2-10: Primary bedding (quartz rich and graphite rich layers) in the sheared meta-sediments of Jebel
Tugula.
Plate 2-11: The mineral composition of the mica quartz schist of Jebel Al Beida. Notice the two foliation
emphasized by the mica.
Plate 2-12: Microphotograph of the meta-andesite of Jebel Abutulu.

46


The occurrence in the southern part of the central area is represented by medium to
coarse-grained equigranular to feldspar porphyritic granite with cross cutting veins of
pegmatite that are composed of quartz, feldspar and hornblende. A northeast trending
foliation with moderate northwest dips (020/36W) was recorded in the central part of the
outcrop.
The west central occurrence exists as isolated hilly outcrops of up to 20 meter above
surrounding plains and the individual outcrops are separated from each other by up to
hundreds of meters distance. Planar fabrics grades from weak to well-developed
foliations with an S-C fabric (plate 2-13). The shear plane (C-plane) is moderately north
dipping (290/20N) while the mylonitic foliation (S-plane) is approximately horizontal and
is defined by quartz and feldspar ribbons (plate 2-13). Strong slickenside lineations
plunge gently (20° to 40°) to the north, and are usually associated with the foliation
planes. Well-defined stepping is noticed on the C-plane, suggesting low-angle normal
faulting. At the centre, the late-orogenic granitoids show absolutely no planar or linear
fabric. The granitic rocks of these outcrops were used extensively as grinding surfaces
for sesame seeds in the past (Plate 2-14).

47


Plate 2-13: S-C fabric developed in the western outcrop of the late-orogenic granite with
approximately horizontal mylonitic foliation (C-plane) and a gently north dipping shear plane (S-
plane).
Plate 2-14: Manmade pot holes in the late-orogenic granite utilized in the grinding of sesame
seeds.

48


3- LITHOCHEMISTRY:
3-1 Samples and analytical techniques:
For the petrochemical studies 73 samples comprising 24 from the Arid unit (gabbro and
pillow basalt), 15 from the Abutulu unit (meta-andesite and acidic meta-volcanic), 22
from the gneisses and syn-orogenic granitoids and 12 from late-orogenic granite were
selected for major, trace and rare earth element (REE) analysis. Major and trace
element concentrations were determined by X-ray fluorescence using an ARL9400XP+
spectrometer in the XRD – XRF analytical facility of the Department of Geology,
University of Pretoria, using fused glass beads for major elements and pressed powder
pellets for the trace elements. The limits of detection for the major elements were better
than 1%. A group of 44 samples of the different units (except the post-orogenic granite)
were selected for high-precision determination of trace and REE element concentrations
by induced coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) in the analytical facilities of
the Department of Geological Sciences, University of Cape Town, South Africa.
3-2 Alteration and testing of element mobility:
Petrographical examinations, as well as later determination of loss on ignition, (LOI)
indicate that most of the samples have suffered from post-magmatic processes,
including magma - sea-water interaction, regional metamorphism and later alteration.
Elements are known to behave differently under such processes (Hart, 1970; Polat et
al., 1999; Humphris and Thompson, 1978; Mottl, 1983; Wilson, 1989). This variation in
element behavior during weathering and hydrothermal alteration is commonly attributed

49


to charge/radius ratio (ionic potential) (e.g. Pearce, 1996). Thus elements that form ions
of low (<0.03 pm-1) and high (>0.10 pm-1) ionic potential tend to be preferentially
removed in solution while elements that form ions of intermediate ionic potential (0.03-
0.10 pm-1) tend to remain in the solid product of weathering and so are relatively
immobile; this is typically true even at greenschist-grade of metamorphism (Hastie et al.,
2007). Thus the elements Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, Y, Ti, Cr, REE except Eu and possibly La, Th,
Ga and Sc are considered among the most relatively immobile elements (Hastie et al.,
2007; Pearce and Cann, 1971, 1973; Pearce, 2008; Ahkol’ nik et al., 2009).
However it is important for the mobility of each element to be tested since even the
immobile elements may be mobilized under certain conditions, such as a change in the
fluid composition, and/or an increase in temperature and/or extremely high fluid
throughput (e.g. Hastie et al., 2007; Hynes, 1980; McCulloch and Gamble, 1991;
Pearce, 1996; Hill et al., 2000).
In this study, the method described by Cann (1970) is implemented, in which an
immobile element (Nb in this study) is plotted on the horizontal axis and the element to
be tested on the vertical axis. If the elements are immobile and the samples are
cogenetic, the data should give a trend with a slope close to unity.
Plotting of Hf, Ta, Y and Yb for samples of Arid and Abutulu units (Fig. 3-1) gave slopes
that are close to unity indicating the immobility of these elements and the cogenetic
nature of the two units.

50


Figure 3-1: Plotting of various trace elements from the Arid unit (blue squares) and the Abutulu unit (red
cycles) against Nb.

51


3-3 Major and trace element geochemistry:
Although the lithological, structural and spatial differences between Arid and Abutulu
units have been described in the previous sections, the bivariate plotting of various
elements from the Arid and Abutulu units against their Nb contents (Fig. 3-1) clearly
indicate the cogenetic nature of the two units and thus suggests that the variation
between these units could be explained by intra-formation differentiation.
Thus, in this section we will deal with the geochemistry of two units together. However,
each lithological group will be assigned a unique symbol and will be discussed in a
separate sub-section for the purposes of comparison.
The ortho-gneiss subunit and the syn-orogenic granite will also be discussed together.
However, the late-orogenic intrusions will be presented and discussed separately.
3-3-1 Ortho-granitic gneiss and syn-orogenic granite:
Field observations, petrographical and geochemical data allow the identification of
medium-grade gneisses of igneous derivation and those of sedimentary derivation.
Monotonous, isolated intrusions of dominantly biotite gneiss with rare occurrences of
hornblende – biotite gneiss varieties and rare secondary muscovite are interpreted as
meta-igneous (ortho-gneisses). Muscovite – biotite, garnet – biotite and quartzo –
feldspathic gneisses are part of interbedded sequence and considered as meta-
sediments (paragneiss).
The ortho-gneisses have a wide silica range 64 - 75 wt %. The rest of the major
elements have a compositional range as follows: 12.7 – 15.8 wt % Al2O3; 1.15 – 5.4 wt

52


% Fe2O3T; 0.01 - 1.31 wt % MgO; 0.3- 2.6 wt % CaO; 2.9 – 4.2 wt %; Na2O and 4.4 –
6.0 wt % K2O; (Appendix 3-1). The quartz monazite gneisses (two samples) have SiO2
and Al2O3 contents (65 – 71 wt % and 15.9 – 21.2 wt % respectively) and only limited
variation in the rest of the other elements. They have low averages of TiO2 (0.06 wt %),
Fe2O3 (0.07 wt %) and K2O (0.12 wt %), similar content of MnO (0.03 wt %) and higher
contents of CaO (5.4 wt %) and Na2O (5.1 wt %). They are akin to a high K-calc-alkaline
chemistry (Fig. 3-2). The calc-alkaline affinity of the samples is also indicated in the plot
of the samples on an AFM diagram (Fig. 3-3). Utilization of the Frost et al., (2001)
Na2O+K2O-CaO diagram (Fig. 3-4) shows the granitic and tonalitic samples plot in the
in the fields of calcic alkali and alkali calcic fields.
The A/CNK ratios {molecular Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O+K2O)} of the granitic and tonalitic
gneisses (Appendix 3-1) vary between 0.9 and 1.22, with an average of 1.07 suggesting
that the samples are metaluminous to slightly peraluminous. The tonalitic gneisses hold
the lowest A/CNK range (0.98 – 1.03). Plotting of P2O5 against SiO2 for the granitic and
tonalitic gneisses (Fig. 3-5) shows a negative correlation, a characteristic feature of I-
type granite, and due to the low of solubility of apatite in metaluminous to slightly
peraluminous melt (I-type) which decreases with increasing SiO2 (Wolf and London,
1994; Chappell, 1999).
The Na2O content of all of the samples is >3.0 wt %, a characteristic of I-type granite
(Hine et al., 1978). High K2O concentrations recorded in all of the samples leads to high
K2O/Na2O ratios, (generally between 1.0 and 1.9). K2O/Na2O ratios close to 1 are
typical of calc-alkaline rocks and higher ratios are indicative of contamination with
evolved crustal material (Andonaegui et al., 2012)

53


Figure 3-2: Bivariate plot of K2O vs SiO2. The diagram shows the subdivisions of Le Maitre et al., (1989).
Orthogneiss (blue circle), paragneiss (red squares) and syn-orogenic granite (green squares).
Figure 3-3: AFM diagram (Irvine and Baragar (1971)) showing calc-alkaline trend for the orthogneiss
(blue circle), paragneiss (red squares) and syn-orogenic granite (green squares).
Figure 3-4: (K2O+Na2O)-CaO vs SiO2 bivariate discrimination diagram of Frost et al., (2001). Orthogneiss
(blue circle), paragneiss (red squares) and syn-orogenic granite (green squares).

54


Trace element concentrations are listed in Appendix 3-1a and 3-1b. Barium and Sr have
a linear negative correlation with increasing SiO2, suggesting fractional crystallization.
The tonalitic gneisses host the highest concentrations of both elements > 2300 ppm and
550 ppm respectively and the granitic gneisses the lowest concentrations 286 and 39.6
ppm respectively. Nb shows a broadly positive correlation where Th, Zr and Y show no
significant correlation (Fig. 3-5), possibly suggesting magma mixing.
On an N-MORB-normalized incompatible element diagram (Fig. 3-6a) all of the samples
show a Nb – Ta negative anomaly and Sm, P, Ti, Y, and Yb depletion. These are
characteristics of subduction related magmas (Pearce et al., 1995). The granitic
gneisses (two micas) compare well with the muscovite-biotite gneisses of the Bayuda
desert (Küster and Liégeois, 2001) while the tonalitic gneiss compares with the epidote-
biotite gneiss of Bayuda desert. Both the granitic and quartz monzonitic gneisses show
a higher depletion in P and Ti, slightly less depletion in Nb and Ta and higher
concentration of Th when compared to Bayuda lithologies (Fig. 3-6a).
On chondrite-normalized rare earth element diagrams (Fig. 3-7a) the biotite gneiss has
a high total rare earth element (∑REE) ranging between 731.6 – 193 ppm and has a
negative correlation with increasing SiO2. The samples show LREE enrichment patterns
with La/YbN values ranging between 46.66 – 2.79, with a moderate to strong negative
Eu anomaly Eu/Eu* 0.47 – 0.05.

55


Figure 3-5: Bivariate plotting of major, trace and alumina saturation index versus silica. Green squares
are the syn-orogenic samples, blue circles are orthogneiss samples and the red square is paragneiss
sample.

56


The 2 mica granitic gneiss has a lower ∑REE value (188 ppm), a less fractionated
pattern of La/YbN (27.7 – 10.5) and a negative Eu anomaly similar to the biotite gneiss
(Eu/Eu*N = 0.33) and LREE enrichment pattern (La/YbN = 12.24). The metasedimentary
garnet bearing sample (SK237) shows a different REE pattern (typical of fractionarion of
HREE in garnet Rollinson (1993)) with HREE more than the LREE (Tb/YbN = 0.31) and
holds the lowest ∑REE = 55.7. The SK237 share has a similar negative Eu anomaly
(Eu/Eu* = 0.27).
The western Nuba Mountains orthogneisses are enriched in the large iron lithophile
elements (LILE) and light rare earth elements (LREE) relative to the high field strength
elements (HFSE) characteristic features of subduction related magmas (Fig. 3-6b)
(Davidson, 1996; Tatsumi and Eggins, 1995). The enrichment in LILE is either due to
fluid mobilization from the subducting slab or from melting sediments or crustal
contamination. To test which of these possibilities apply in the investigated lithologies a
Ba/Th vs Th bi-variant plot (Andonaegui et al., 2012) was implemented, since the Ba/Th
ratio is enriched in the supra-subduction zone magmas affected by fluid from subducting
plate and the Th contents increase in magma contaminated by crustal material in
shallow levels (Andonaegui et al., 2012; and references therein). The samples show an
increase in the Th contents suggesting crustal contamination. The low U/Th ratio and
the high Th/Ce ratio add further support to the notion of crustal contamination.
The syn-orogenic granitic samples have a similar REE pattern to the gneiss (Fig. 3-7b)
that is characterized by LREE enrichment (La/YbN range from 1.22 to 2.39) and a
negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* from 0.61 to 0.13).

57


Figure 3-6: NMORB multi-element spidergram of (a) the gneiss samples and (b) the syn-orogenic granitic
samples.

58


Figure 3-7: Chondrite-normalized diagram for (a) the gneiss samples and (b) the syn-orogenic
samples.

59


3-3-2 Pillow Basalts:
The pillowed basalts show limited variation in SiO2 from 44.74% to 49.15%, (with one
sample showing higher content of 57.86%), TiO2 from 0.72% to 1.58%, MgO from
4.43% to 7.6%, Fe2O3t from 8.39% to 14.38% and K2O from 0.14% to 1.08% (Appendix
3-2). The Mg# (= {100*Mg (Mg + 0.8FeOt)}) (Luhr, 1997) has low values that range from
36.3 to 41.2. These values are lower than those of primary lavas > 62 (Luhr, 1997;
Kampunzu et al., 1998). The bivariate plotting of different elements versus MgO shows
a mostly scattered pattern (Fig. 3-8) which is possibly a reflection of open system
behavior suffered by most of the major elements during alteration and/or low-grade
metamorphism. This interpretation is supported by the breakdown of plagioclases and
clinopyroxenes to form secondary epidote, sericite, quartz, actinolite and chlorite, as
identified in thin sections.
The lavas have high La/Nb (2.98 – 4.07), La/Sm (1.38 – 2.51), Sm/Nd (0.26 – 0.33) and
low Nb/U (1.64 – 7.97), Ce/Pb (1.37 – 8.05) element ratios compared to those of
extensional tectonic settings, (e.g., in MORB and WPB including OIB and continental rift
basalt emplaced far from any convergent margin {Sun & McDonough, 1989}). These
values are similar to those of arc lavas.
The Zr/TiO2 vs Nb/Y diagram (Fig. 3-9) classifies the samples as sub-alkaline basalt
and basaltic andesite. They also plot as island arc tholeiite basalt in the Th vs Co
classification diagram (Fig. 3-10).

60


Figure 3-8: Bivariate plots of major and trace elements of the pillow basalt plotted against MgO.

61


The pillow lavas show a tholeiitic trend on the AFM diagram (Fig. 3-11). This is also
supported by their plotting on the island arc tholeiite (IAT) field on the Th/Yb vs Ta/Yb
classification diagram using the ratios of relatively immobile trace elements.
The MORB normalised multi-element spiderdiagram of major and trace elements shows
features that are typical of subduction–related trace element features (Fig. 3-12) and
similar to those of the Vanuatu arc (Peate et al., 1997). These include enrichment of
large-iron lithophile elements (LILE) relative to light rare earth elements (LREE) (e.g.,
Ba/La* ≈ 5.5). Both LILE and LREE are enriched relative to high-field strength elements
(HFSE) (e.g., Ba/Nb* ≈ 16.2; La/Nb* ≈ 2.95). The HFSEs, Hf and Zr are depleted
relative to the LREEs, Nd and Sm on MORB normalized plots of pillowed basalts. These
features are common in arc lava and are attributed to the involvement of a sediment
component of the subducting slab (Pearce et al., 1995; Tollstrup and Gill, 2005; Peate
et al., 1997) and also to slab dehydration.
The chondrite normalized rare earth element diagram shows a fractionated pattern with
high REE abundances (Fig. 3-13). Europium anomalies are absent. The enrichment of
the LREE relative to the HREE that is shown by all samples is a characteristic feature of
arc lavas as well as back-arc lavas, (Peace & Stern, 2006) and correlates well with the
Vanuatu arc (Peate et al., 1997) as shown in Fig. 3-13.

62


Figure 3-9: The Zr/TiO2 vs Nb/Y classification diagram (Winchester and Floyd, 1977) which classify the
pillow basalt as basalt and basaltic andesite.
Figure 3-10: Th vs Co classification diagram which classifies the pillow basalt samples as island arc
basalts (after Hastie et al., 2007).
Figure 3-11: AFM diagram showing a tholeiitic trend for Arid samples (Irvine and Baragar, 1971).

63


Figure 3-12: N-MORB multi-element spider diagram of major and trace element showing features similar
to those of suprasubduction zone ophiolites for the pillow basalts of Arid unit. (REE values are of Sun and
McDonough 1989).
Figure 3-13: Chondrite normalized rare earth element diagram for pillow basalts. The grey shaded area
represents samples from Vanuatu arc. (REE values are of Sun and McDonough 1989).

64


A set of discrimination diagrams using HFSEs and REEs, generally considered to be
immobile during alteration and low-grade metamorphism (Campbell et al. 1984; Lesher
et al. 1986), have been used in the identification of the metavolcanic samples’ tectonic
setting and magmatic affinity.
In the Ti-Zr-Y diagram of Pearce and Cann (1973) (Fig. 3-14a), which is effective in
discriminating between within-plate basalt (OIB & continental flood basalt (CFB)) and
other types of basalt (IAT, MORB & CAB) (Rollinson, 1993), all of the data fall in or at
the boundary of non-continental basalt, straddling the fields of IAT (A), the CAB (C) and
the field (B) that contains both IAT and CAB together with MORB. This scattering may
represent geochemical characteristics that are transitional between those of MORB and
IAT, similar to mafic rocks from back-arc basins, where magma generation could involve
subduction-related materials (Wilson, 1989; Saunders and Tarney, 1991).
The plotting of the meta-mafic samples on a V vs Ti diagram (Shervais, 1982), which
distinguishes between volcanic-arc tholeiite, MORB and alkali basalt (Fig. 3-14b) based
on the variation of V partition coefficient as a function of oxygen fugacity, shows a wide
dispersion of data (Ti/V <10 and >50). This wide dispersion is a characteristic feature of
supra-subduction back-arc ophiolites (Dilek and Furnes, 2011) and is attributed to the
wide range of magmas (boninite, Island arc tholeiite and MORB) that occur in
subduction influenced igneous regimes. This conclusion is also supported by the
plotting of the meta-mafic data on the Zr/Y vs Zr discrimination diagram of Pearce and
Norry (1979) where most of the plotted samples fall in the field of back-arc basalt (Fig.
3-14c) described by Floyd et al. (1991) on the same diagram of Pearce and Norry
(1979).

65


The transitional nature (MORB – Arc) for the Arid unit can also be seen from their
variable Th/La ratios (0.04 – 0.08 for lava) that are typical of MORB values, generally
<0.1 (Plank, 2005) to higher arc values (> 0.2 for massive gabbro). The linear trend of
Th/La vs Sm/La (Fig. 3-14d) supports the incorporation of subducted sediments, and
sentence not clear where the Arid unit represents the MORB mantle and the Abutulu
unit (arc values) indicates the subducted sediments (Plank, 2005).
The multi-element spiderdiagram for the Arid and Abutulu units have a supra-
subduction ophiolite geochemical signature indicated by the enrichment of LILE
(especially the most incompatible conservative elements Cs, Rb, Th) relative to LREE.
Both of them are enriched relative to HFSE. The subduction-related signature is also
supported by the slight enrichment in LREE compared to HREE, and by the negative
Ta, Nb and positive Pb and Sr anomalies (Dilek and Furnes, 2011). The negative Zr and
Hf anomalies suggest the involvement of subducted material from the subducting slab
(Pearce et al., 1995; Peate, et al., 1997).
The plotting of Abutulu data on the Ba/Yb vs Nb/Yb diagram (Pearce and Stern, 2006)
constrains the shift from the mantle array towards a Mariana arc array (Fig. 3-14e), a
feature that distinguishes supra-subduction ophiolites from subduction-unrelated
ophiolites, since the latter will usually follow the MORB array (Dilek and Furnes, 2011).

66


Figure 3-14: Discrimination plots for the Arid basalts (a) Ti-Zr-Y ternary diagram,(b) V vs Ti
diagram, (c) Zr/Y vs Zr diagram, (d) Th/La vs Sm/La diagram and (e) Nb/Yb vs Ba/Yb diagram.

67


3-3-3 Massive gabbros:
The massive gabbro sequence (Appendix 3-2) shows a wide range of SiO2 from
44.81% to 58.45%, and also a wide range of TiO2% from 0.25% (lower values usually
found in basalts from a convergent tectonic setting) to 2.73% (values characteristic of
basalts from extensional tectonic setting), but are mostly < 1%, higher MgO from 4.91%
to 10.64% (with one sample showing lower value of 2.14%), and lower Fe2O3t from
5.44% to 13.22%. They also have a wide range of Al2O3 from 13.94% - 19.58% with
only three samples showing higher Al2O3 values (Appendix 3-2). The average Al2O3
content (17.62%) is close to the average of those reported for IAT and MORB but the
anomalous samples fall within the average of high alumina basalt HAB (Brophy and
March, 1985).
The Mg# shows higher values (32.7 to 68.56) than those of pillow basalt and a
gradational pattern that decreases from massive gabbros to the more basaltic andesite
pillowed lava. This pattern suggests increasing differentiation from a primary mantle
derived magma with Mg# > 62 to more differentiated magma (cf., Luhr, 1997;
Kampunzu et al., 1998).
The massive gabbros show higher concentrations of Cr and Ni (251.4 ppm – 934.76
ppm and 25.7 ppm – 186.22 ppm, respectively, with few samples out of this range) than
those of the pillow basalts and have element ratios comparable to those of the pillow
basalts and hence of arc lavas (Table 2-3).
The plot of major and trace elements versus MgO (Fig. 3-15) shows rough negative
correlation patterns for TiO2, Al2O3, Na2O and Cr while scattered patterns characterized

68


Fe2O3, CaO and Nb plots. An important feature highlighted by the bivariate plot diagram
is the presence of two clusters, one of which includes gabbro samples from the layered
sequence of Jebel Arid together with a few samples of scattered gabbroic bodies.
However, a different liquid line of descent characterizes the samples of Jebel Arid.
The massive gabbro MORB multi-element spiderdiagram of major and trace elements
pattern shows a slight LREE enrichment and HFSE depletion, characteristic of mafic arc
magmas (Fig. 3-16), similar to that of Vanuatu arc (Peate et al., 1997).
The moderate to slight LILE enrichments suggest a moderately evolved arc or back-arc
environment (Kröner and Liégeois, 2001). The only differences between the Vanuatu
arc and the gabbros are the weaker negative Ta and Nb trough in the gabbro and the
presence of a negative Zr and Hf anomaly that is shown by sample SK206B. These
indicate the involvement of sediment components of the subducted slab, mantle-liquid
interaction reaction or slab dehydration (Pearce et al., 1995; Tollstrup and Gill, 2005;
Peate et al., 1997), a feature commonly seen in arc lavas. Three of the massive
gabbros samples (SK201, SK207 and SK240B) show relatively flat LREE and strongly
fractionated HREE, (Gd/Yb)N between 3.45 to 3.6 possibly suggesting their generation
through 3-5% melting of an Fe-rich mantle corresponding to the stability fields of spinel
and garnet peridotite at depths of 60-100 km (Manikyamba et al., 2015).
The chondrite-normalized rare earth elements pattern for the massive gabbro (Fig. 3-
17) show LREE enrichment, (La/Yb)N (average = 2.41) and HFSE depletion
characteristic of mafic arc magmas. The slight to moderate LILE enrichment indicates a
primitive arc or back-arc environment (Pearce and Stern, 2006).

69


Figure 3-15: (A) to (J) bivariate plotting of some major and trace elements versus MgO of
gabbroic composition.

70


Figure 3-16: MORB multi-element spider diagram of major and trace elements for the massive
gabbro of Arid unit.
Figure 3-17: Chondrite-normalized rare earth element diagram for the massive gabbro of the
Arid unit. The grey shaded areas represent the plots of samples from Vanuatu arc.

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A significant positive Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* ≈ 1.2) dominates the massive gabbro (with
exception of samples SK216, SK 240A and SK240B) (Fig. 3-17) and indicates the role
of accumulation of plagioclase in the genesis of the lower section of Abutulu unit
(Rollinson, 1993; Preccerillo and Taylor, 1976). The three above mentioned samples
that show no Eu anomaly also have higher REE abundances (∑REE = 49.2 ppm).
To conclude with, these gabbros can be interpreted to represent a lower section of
subduction related arc or back-arc magmas.
3-3-4 Basaltic andesites and andesite meta-volcanics:
The Zr/TiO2 versus Nb/Y classification diagram (Fig. 3-18) demonstrates the
classification of the meta-volcanic rocks as basaltic andesite and andesite with most of
the samples falling in the latter category.
The meta-volcanics are characterized by moderate silica (42.8% – 64.87%) and
relatively high TiO2 (up to 2.40%), Al2O3 (11.96% - 17.59%), Fe2O3t (5.12% - 15.71%)
and MgO (2.13% - 9.75%). Transitional metals (Cr & Ni) reach an average of 135.49
ppm and 22.36 ppm, respectively (Appendix 3-3).
On a MORB-normalized multi-element incompatible element plot (Fig. 3-19), the meta-
andesite show LILE-enriched, HFSE depleted patterns, characteristic of arc derived
magma, a well developed negative Nb-Ta trough (with variable degree of depletion) and
a negative Zr-Hf trough shown by sample SK51.
All of these geochemical signatures are features of subduction-related magmas. The
meta-andesite shows a better correlation with the Vanuatu arc than the massive gabbro

72


and the pillowed basalt. The main difference between the meta-andesite is the
enrichment of Th relative to MORB which may indicate an increasing sedimentary
component from the subducting slab (Plank, 2005) or an increase in the thickness of the
arc crust which allows Th enrichment (Küster and Liẻgeois, 2001 and references
therein).
A chondrite-normalised REE diagram of the Abutulu meta-volcanic (meta-andesite)
rocks (Fig. 3-20) shows a fractionated pattern similar to those of the Arid unit (lava and
gabbro), however the REE abundances are higher than those of the basalts and the
gabbros ∑REE ≈ 150 ppm. A negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* ≈ 0.67) is a pronounced
feature in the REE pattern of all Abutulu meta-volcanic data. The meta-volcanic rocks
are enriched in LREE and show good correlation in the REE pattern with Vanuatu arc
(Peate et al., 1997).

73


Figure 3-18: The Zr/TiO2 vs Nb/Y classification diagram (Winchester and Floyd, 1977) which
classify the Abutulu rocks as basalt and basaltic andesite.

74


Figure 3-19: MORB multi-element spider diagram of major and trace element for the meta-
andesite of Abutulu unit. The grey shaded areas represent samples from Vanuatu arc.
Figure 3-20: Chondrite normalized rare earth element diagram for the meta-andesite of the
Abutulu unit. The grey shaded areas represent samples from Vanuatu arc.

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3-3-5 Late-orogenic granitoids:
The plotting of the late-orogenic samples in the Ab-An-Or (Fig. 3-21) (O’Connor, 1965)
and the Q’ (F’)-ANOR (Fig. 3-22) (Streckeisen and LeMaitre, 1979), classification
diagrams, reveal that all of the four samples plotted in the field of granite in the first and
they split in the latter between the fields of granite and syeno-granite.
These granitic and the syeno-granitic samples have a shoshonite composition (Fig. 3-
23). The term shoshonite is used in this context to describe rocks with a very high-K
content, although the term was originally defined for volcanic rocks. They are slightly to
moderately peraluminious, with aluminum saturation index (ASI), (also known as A/CNK
ratio = molar Al2O3/CaO+Na2O+K2O), ranges from 1.01 to 1.14. The SiO2 content in
these rocks is restricted only from 70.24% to 74.11% (Appendix 3-1). Tight ranges also
characterize the contents of Al2O3 (14.30% - 15.62%), Na2O (3.12% - 4.10%) and K2O
(5.24% - 5.97%). Negative correlation against SiO2 is noticed in the following major
oxide and trace elements; TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, P2O5, Ba and Zr. This feature is
less obvious in K2O, Rb and Nb (Fig. 3-24). The range of trace element (Zr, Nb, Ce, Y,
and Zn) is well within the limit of I, S and M-types of Whalen et al., (1987).
Utilizing the Nb versus Y discrimination diagram of Pearce et al., (1984) all samples plot
within the VAG (volcanic arc granite) with one sample on the boundary with the syn-
COLG (syn-collisional granite) field. All of the late-orogenic granites occupied the VAG
and the syn-COLG field (Fig. 3-25). When the samples are plotted in the Yb versus Ta
classifications diagram (Pearce et al., 1984), (which separate the VAG and the syn-

76


COLG field of the previous diagram into individual fields), all of the samples fall in the
VAG field (Fig. 3-26).
On the chondrite normalized rare earth element diagram (Fig. 3-27) all of the granite
and syeno-granite samples have moderate ƩREE values between 106 ppm to 238 ppm,
a fractionated REE pattern ((La/Yb)N between 17.1 and 77.1) and a slightly negative Eu
anomaly (0.71 to 0.89).
On the normal mid-oceanic ridge basalt (N-MORB) normalized multi-element
spidergram (Fig. 3-28), all of the late-orogenic granites show a pronounced Ta and Nb
negative anomaly, depletion in Sr, P2O5 (shown by SK 224), Y and Ta. All of the
samples show enrichment in K2O and Rb. The late-orogenic granite REE pattern and
MORB normalized spidergram show a close resemblance to the Nabati pluton of the
Bayuda desert of northern Sudan, which is akin to the subduction-related continental
margin rhyolites and rhyodacites (Kȕster et al., 2008).

77


Figure 3-21: Ab-An-Or Norm classification diagram (Barker, 1975) which classify the late-orogenic
granitoids as granite.
Figure 3-22: The Q-F vs ANOR classification diagram for the late-orogenic granite rocks (Streckeisen and
Le Maitre, 1979). Q = Q/(Q+Or+Ab+An); F = (Ne+Lc+Kp)/(Ne+Lc+Kp+Or+Ab+An); ANOR = 100 x
An/(Or+An).
Figure 3-23: K2O vs SiO2 classification diagram that classify the late-orogenic granite as shoshonitic.

78


Figure 3-24: Bivariate plotting of various elements versus silica for the late-orogenic granite.

79


Figure 3-25: The Ta versus Yb discrimination diagram of Pearce et al., (1984), which classify
the granitic rocks as volcanic arc granite (VAG), syn-COLG = syn-collisional granite; ORG =
oceanic ridge granite.
Figure 3-26: The Rb versus (Y+Nb) discrimination diagram of Pearce et al., (1984), which also
identify the late-orogenic granite as volcanic arc granite (VAG), syn-COLG = syn-collisional
granite; ORG = oceanic ridge granite.

80


Figure 3-27: NMORB-normalized multi-element spider gram (normalization values are of Sun
and McDonough, 1985) for late-orogenic granite. The orange cross represent sample from
Nabati outcrop of the Bayuda desert of northern Sudan.
Figure 3-28: Chondrite-normalized REE plot (normalization values are of Boynton, (1984) for the
late-orogenic granite.

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4- Structural Evolution of the Western

Nuba Mountains:
4-1 Introduction:
This chapter deals with the structural evolution of the Abutulu shear zone. The work is
based on structural observations and evidence acquired from four main localities (Fig.
4-1) and from supplementary geotraverses within the study area.
This chapter will also provide data to better understand the structural evolution of belts
of the low-grade metavolcano-sedimentary sequence commonly associated with the
ophiolites that are evident within the SMC.
These low-grade associations are generally explained by two tectonic models, both
resulting from the opening and closing of restricted oceanic basin or an oceanic re-
entrant.
1- Some associations are developed as fold and thrust belts without the
development of subduction zones and an arc edifice eg. the Rahib fold and
thrust belt (Abdel Rahman et al., 1990).
2- Others are associated with early S-verging ophiolite nappes and thrusts due
to closure and terrane collision along an E-trending suture, followed by E-W
shortening as a result of the collision between east and west Gondwana eg.
the Atmur – Delgo Suture (Schandelmeier et al., 1994; Abdelsalam et al.,
1995).

82


83


4-2 Geology of the Abutulu Shear zone:
The general geology of the Abutulu shear zone is discussed in chapter two. The Abutulu
shear cuts three lithological units that are from west to east; the Al Thawani-Tugula
metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks, the Abutulu-Arid metavolcanic rocks and the
western peripheries of medium-grade gneisses. The Al Thawani-Tugula
metasedimentary rocks are composed of a fining upwards repetitive cycle of pebbly
congolomerate, coarse-grained sandstone and medium-grained sandstone (turbidites)
and basic to intermediate volcanics (now chlorite schist) that are interpreted to
represent passive margin sediments and volcanic rocks. The Abutulu metavolcano-
sedimentary unit is mainly meta-andesite, meta-acidic volcanic rocks of arc affinity and
mica and mica quartz schists. The medium-grade gneisses are mainly I-type
orthogneisses with minor S-type varieties that show a high-K calc-alkaline and arc
affinity.
4-3 Deformation history of the gneisses of the Nuba Mountains:
Three phases of deformation were recognized in the basement rocks of the Nuba
Mountains (El Ageed and El Rabaa, 1981; Abdelsalam and Dawoud, 1991). These
authors identified two early phases of folding and a third phase of brittle faulting with the
second phase of deformation being the major phase, characterized by a doubly
plunging antiform, and east-verging thrusts (El Ageed and El Rabaa, 1981) with tight,
slightly overturned east- verging folds (Abdelsalam and Dawoud, 1991).
4-3-1 D1 Deformation:

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Within the basement of the western most Nuba Mountains, the earliest recognizable
phase of deformation (D1) is characterized by the development of a mappable scale
doubly plunging antiform (F1) (Fig. 4-1) and the development of a strong S1 foliation
plane which is considered to be related to F1 folds. The axial plane of the major F1 folds
northeast of Jebel Arid has an almost N-S trend. S1 is parallel to the bedding plane (S0)
along the limbs of F1 and cuts S0 at higher angle at the hinges (i.e. S1 is axial planar
cleavage to F1 folds). In the gneisses, elongated quartz and feldspar crystals together
with oriented biotite and minor muscovite define the foliation.
This deformation event is characterized by the development of isoclinal to tight
recumbent folds (F2) (Plate. 4-1) and is associated with shallow-dipping northwest-
verging thrust planes. The planar fabric associated with D2 deformation is mainly a
shallow dipping migmatitic foliation (S2) that is defined by compositional layering and
preferred orientation of platy minerals (mainly biotite) in the metasedimentary rocks. In
most of the gneisses and the migmatite foliation S2 is the only fabric present. The
lineation associated with D2 deformation is a shallow southeast plunging L2 stretching
lineation (Fig. 4-2). The D2 folding is characterized by folding of granitic leucosome
portion of migmatites and compositional metamorphic layering rather than folding of
foliation of different generations seen in later deformational events. This kind of
parallelism and folding of granitic melt and leucosome portion of migmatites might
suggest a high-temperature metamorphic environment during D2.

85


Plate 4-1: A photograph showing the recumbent isoclinal folds F2.
Figure 4-2: Plot of L2 stretching lineation.

86


Folds in D2 are generally small scale isoclinal folds, with wavelength that range from 30
centimeters to a few meters and the two limbs are usually parallel to sub-parallel. The
thickness of the folded layer reflects similar fold geometry.
4-4 The Abutulu Deformation:
4-4-1 D3 Deformation Sinistral translation dominant phase:
This deformation is characterized by the development of a steeply-dipping north to
northeast-trending sinistral strike-slip shear zone together with steeply-plunging tight to
open folds (F3) (Fig. 4-3) associated with a moderately spaced S3 foliation plane (Plate
4-2). D3 is considered to represent the earliest phase of deformation in the relatively
young metavolcano-sedimentary sequence since it folds the S0 bedding plane along the
axis of F3 folds. D3 is also responsible for development of a tectonic mélange along the
boundary between the medium-grade gneiss and the low-grade metavolcano-
sedimentary unit, where a narrow zone of lenses of hornblendite, gabbro and basalts of
variable size, (up to 20 meter in width) are imbedded into a highly sheared, matrix
of psammopelitic schist (Fig. 4-1).
The S3 Planar fabric associated with D3 is a magmatic foliation, which is marked by the
parallel alignment of euhedral crystals of feldspar that show minor internal deformation.
Both right-hand and left-hand rotation of crystals has been observed within the outcrop
scale suggesting a component of pure shear. The magmatic-stage foliation, when
moving towards the centre of the shear zone, gradually grades into a shear-related
mylonitic fabric, the tabular feldspar crystals tend to be flattened into lensoidal shapes
(augen) surrounded by a well-developed foliation of generally mica-rich matrix.

87


Figure 4-3: A photograph showing the steep plunging nature of F3 folds and the development of
a S3 axial planar cleavage. At the corner of the figure is the S-pole diagram with the β axis.
Plate 4-2: A photograph showing the dominant S3 foliation planes in Al Beida outcrop.

88


Ultramylonite occasionally associated with pseudotachylite veins is developed in parts
of the meta-sediments of the central part of the shear zone.
The S3 foliation dips steeply east (60˚ – 80˚) and locally shows a well-developed
stretching lineation L3 that either plunges steeply east (down dip) or is oblique and
plunges moderately steeply to the northeast (Fig. 4-4). The rare existence of L2-3
intersection lineations between an early (much localized) S2 cleavage with dominant S3
mylonitic foliation can be found (Plate 4-3a & 4-3b). The L2-3 intersectional lineation
plunges moderately to the northeast. The D2 planar fabric is a generally an even-spaced
cleavage, bounded by S3 foliation planes. The regularity of S2 makes it difficult for it to
be considered as bedding planes but rather suggests it belongs to an earlier D2
deformation event.
Locally, S3 planes are developed into steeply, south plunging isoclinal F3 folds (Fig. 4-5a
and 4-5b) suggesting that the sinistral displacement accompanied S3 foliation
development. This is also indicated by localized development of foliation fish, rotated
porphyroblasts and a possible S-C foliation.
Mesoscopic folds related to D3 are reported at two localities; the Al Beida outcrop and
the Tugula outcrop (Figs. 4-6 and 4-7). They have variable geometry including similar,
concentric and chevron folds with variable inter-limb angles including, isoclinal, tight and
gentle folds. Wider hinge zones (concentric folds) and less steep plunging fold axes are
characteristics of the Al Beida outcrop (Plate 4-4a), while narrow hinge points (chevron
folds) and steeper plunging axes (vertical in some folds) are characteristic of the Tugula
outcrop (Plate 4-4b & 4-4c).

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Figure 4-4: Steeply easterly to NE plunging L3 stretching lineation at Al Beida outcrop.
Plate 4-3: (a) The dominant Planar fabric in the Abtulu unit S3 constraining an early much localized S2
fabric in the northern part of Al Beida outcrop. (b) The moderately northeast plunging L2-3 inter-sectional
lineation.

90


Figure 4-5a and 4-5b: Both of the figures show the S-pole diagram with β axis for different
orientations (068/79 and 165/75) of F3 Tugula outcrop.

91


Plate 4-4 (a, b and c): A photographs showing the varying geometry of F3 folds. Photos are from
Al Beida and Tugula outcrops.

92


Figure 4-6: (a) Structural map of Al Beida outcrop (b) π-diagram of S0 bedding planes (c) π-
diagram of S3 foliation planes (d) plot of axes of F3 folds.

93


Figure 4-7: (a) Structural map of Tugula outcrop (b) π-diagram of S0 bedding planes (c) π-
diagram of S3 foliation planes (d) plot of axes of F3 folds.

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The orientation of the axial plane and axes of these folds are dependant on their
position in respect to the subsequent D4 folds. Anticlockwise rotation and refolding of
the F3 axial plane is commonly evident at a variety of locations, suggesting the
progressive deformational nature of the D3 sinistral translation. This is also evident from
the anticlockwise rotation of F3 hinge lines (Fig. 4-6).
The main D3 fold is preserved in the southern part of the Al Beida outcrop (Fig. 4-6).
This fold plunges steeply (60˚-70˚) southeast and verges towards the west (Fig. 4-5a
and 5b). An axial planar cleavage associated with D3 folding is moderately-spaced
(Plate 4-2) and is mostly steeply dipping to the southeast. The lineation associated with
D3 folding is an intersectional lineation L3-4 between the S3 foliation plane and S4 axial
planar cleavage foliation, and is generally parallel to F3 fold axes (Fig. 4-8).
The D3 deformation is also responsible for the generation of the ophiolitic mélange. The
best example is situated east of the metavolcano-sedimentary sequence of Abutulu,
where fragments of gabbro and basalts are enclosed in a highly sheared matrix of mica
schist.
Well preserved S0 bedding planes are located within the graphitic slate of the Tugula
outcrop. The S0 orientation is generally dependant on its position on the F3 folds which
are steeply to vertically plunging tight to gentle folds. This led to development of a
steeply dipping S3 axial planar cleavage and intersection lineation L0-3, which steeply
plunges to the southeast.

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4-4-2 D4 Deformation: East-west directed compression dominant phase:
D4 is characterized by the development of tight to open asymmetrical west-verging folds
(F4) in which both bedding planes (S0) and foliations (S3) are folded around northeast-
trending axes in the northern Abutulu shear, and north-northwest axes in the southern
Abutulu shear. F4 fold axes are generally sub horizontal that gently plunge either
towards north (common) or south (rare). These F4 folds locally developed an S4
cleavage which dips moderately steeply to the east (Fig. 4-9b) (Usually less steeply
than the S3 planes) and is axial planar to F4 folds (Fig 4-9a). The orientation of F4 axial
planes remain very consistent (Fig. 4-9c), however local rotation of F4 axial planes by D5
conjugate shearing is not uncommon.
F4 folding is developed on a variety of scales from mesoscopic to large scale. The major
F4 structures were mapped on the southern part of Abutulu shear zone in the Al Beida
outcrop, where the southern part of the outcrop is an F4 fold. The Al Beida structure is
verging west and gently plunges to south. The eastern limb is characterized by vertical
to steeply east dipping quartzite schist while the western limb is characterized by
horizontal to shallow east dipping quartz mica schist (Fig. 4-6a). Occasionally the hinge
zone of F4 is occupied by very tight crenulation folding (parasitic folds).
A major change in the S3 dip direction is recorded to the northwest of the Tugula
outcrop in a series of outcrops known as Al Thawani, where steeply (60˚ – 80˚)
northwest dipping turbidites extend over a kilometer length (Fig. 4-10). This reversal in
S3 dip direction suggests that the Al Thawani outcrop represents the western limb of a
major northeast-trending antiform named as the Al Thawani antiform.

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Figure 4-8: Plot of the L3-4 intersectional lineation.
Figure 4-9: (a) A photograph showing the nature of the westerly verging F4-fold and the development of
an S4 axial planar cleavage (b) π-diagram of S4 axial planar cleavages (c) plot of F4 fold hinges.

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Figure 4-10: Stereographic plot of poles to S3 planes from the Al Thwani outcrop showing a
major reversal in the dip.

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The graphitic slate of Tugula outcrop (Fig. 4-1) marks the eastern limb of this antiform.
The hinge area of this major antiform (which is eroded and hidden under the thick
Quaternary sand of the Nuba Mountains) is co-axial but not co-planar with F4.
The planar fabric associated with D4 is mostly in the form of an axial planar cleavage
foliation. In places the S3 foliation plane is dominant and only a weak S4 foliation can be
seen. Whereas in other places especially in the north of the Al Beida the S4 foliation is
the dominant fabric. The orientation of S4 foliation trends north-northwest to north and
dips moderately east and it remains consistent in contrast to S3 foliation. In quartz-mica
schist of Al Beida, both S3 and S4 axial planar cleavages can be seen together as a
crenulation cleavage, which plunges gently toward the southwest. In mica-rich schist the
F4 folding is represented by kink bands.The lineation in D4 is mainly an intersectional
lineation (S3/S4) which plunges moderately either toward the NNE or SE.
D5 is characterized by the development of minor conjugate sets of synthetic and
antithetic shear zones. These zones are generally of 5-10 meter wide and can be traced
for over 100 meters in the Al Beida and Tugula outcrops (Fig. 4-6a). The planes of
these shear zones dip moderately to steeply either to the north-northeast (sinistral) or
east to southeast (dextral). These shear zones either locally rotated the generally north
– south S3 shear planes and F4 hinges clockwise, along northeast striking-dextral shear
zones or anticlockwise along east to southeast striking sinistral shear zones (Plate 4-5)
to produce the cross-cutting planar fabric S5. The development of the S5 planar fabric is
due to a ductile bending of previous fabrics (S3 & S4) to parallelism along the trends of
the conjugate sets of shear suggesting a ductile environment for D5. A rigid body

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translation of the S3 & S4 fabrics is occasionally reported indicating a possible later
brittle stage for D5. Rare development of a drag fold-like structures also indicate the
initiation of D5 shear zones in a ductile environment. The stretching lineation L5
associated with D5 is generally either moderately NE-plunging (sinistral) or SE-plunging
(dextral). Rare steeply-plunging lineations are also documented. The stretching lineation
is possibly related to a later brittle stage of the synchronous conjugate shear sets. The
kinematic indicators suggest the net slip is mainly strike-slip but with a minor dip-slip
component. These D5 structures suggested an east – west directed shortening and a
north – south extension.
4-5 Younger deformation:
Faulting in the Nuba Mountains is the most prominent and noticeable deformation event
that affected all the lithological units from the gneisses to the post-alkaline intrusions.
Three sets of faulting and lineaments were recognized both in the field and from the
interpretation of Landsat image data.
NE- trending faults: The northeast-trending faults are the oldest set of faults that
displace the gneisses and the low-grade metavolcano-sedimentary sequence and they
usually represent thrust and minor shear contacts that separate the two units as seen in
the low-grade metavolcano-sedimentary belt west of the Damik Complex (Fig. 4-1).
These sets of faults have no impact on the younger alkaline intrusions. Reactivation of
these faults can be seen where younger slickenside lineations are superimposed on
earlier planes with stretching lineations (Plate 4-6. These slickenside lineations show a
down-dip displacement suggesting a later extensional event.

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Plate 4-5: A photograph showing a cross cutting fabric in the Al Beida outcrop developed by the
S5 shear planes of D5 cutting the main S3 foliation planes.
Plate 4-6: A photograph showing the development of slickenside lineations on the extensionally
re-activated S2 shallow-dipping thrust planes.

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E-trending Lineaments: These approximately east-trending lineaments are
characterized by an absence of movement and record the emplacement of granitic
dykes (such as those south of Ed Deling) and veins of quartz (Kurmadi) (Fig. 4-1).
NW-trending faults: The northwest trending faults are the most recognizable set of
faults that affect the younger alkaline intrusions together with the older lithologies.
Characteristic wrench faults have both sinistral and dextral displacements. The amount
of displacement may reach few hundred of meters as shown by the left lateral fault NE
of Arid complex, and right lateral movement seen in Damik and Keig Elkhail complexes.
4-6 Kinematics and shear sense indicators:
The study of mylonites and other sheared rocks to examine geological features that are
usually used to deduce the sense of shear (shear sense indicators), are an important
part of understanding the deformation in shear zones. Information about shear sense
indicators should always be obtained from a plane that is perpendicular to the rotational
axis (vorticity vector), that is perpendicular to the mylonitic foliation and parallel to the
lineation (Passchier and Simpson, 1986; Hanmer and Passchier, 1991). Movement on
the Abutulu shear zone is dominantly oblique, with stretching lineation moderately
pitched along sub-vertical to steeply dipping foliation planes. In such cases the
horizontal plane does not truthfully represent the observation plane and one should be
cautious in determination of shear sense indicators.
4-6-1 Shear sense in low-grade meta-volcanic rocks:
The graphitic slate and the mica quartz schist show excellent shear sense indicators at
both microscopic and outcrop scales. Winged porphyroclasts show a ‘σ’ type (Plate 4-

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7a) morphology where the tail geometry clearly indicates sinistral senses of shear.
Folds, boudinaged folds and boudinaged deformed competent veins (Hanmer and
Passchier, 1991) have been widely observed, their geometry showing the progressive
nature of the deformation where the vein moved from the shortening quadrant to the
extensional quadrant during anticlockwise rotation, indicating a sinistral sense of shear.
This is also suggested from the vergence of S-shape asymmetric intrafolial folds that
fold the boudinaged folds (Plate 4-7b). S-C fabrics (Plate 4-7c), where the acute angle
between S and C plains suggests a sinistral sense of shear, are widely preserved in the
sandy part of a turbidite sequence in the far northern part of the mapped area. The
oblique quartz ribbons that show oblique foliation defined by the sigmoidal quartz
lenses, similarly suggest a sinistral sense of shear. Conflicting dextral shear sense
indicators are locally found in both the high-grade and the low-grade units, which may
be explained as a result of either a phase of dextral shear prior to the dominant sinistral
shear zone or due to a component of pure shear. The second option is favoured here,
as components of pure shear are commonly seen in transpressional regimes due to
strain partitioning.
4-6-2 Shear sense in the medium-grade granitic gneiss:
A well-developed S-C fabric is shown by the foliated sheared granite at the eastern
boundary of Abutulu shear zone, suggesting a sinistral sense of shear. Asymmetric
‘stair stepping’ of the σ-type porphyroclasts indicate a sinistral sense of shear. Well
preserved asymmetrical granitic boudins with an inferred sinistral sense of shear within
the migmatites rocks are seen.

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Plate 4-7: (a) Sigma-type porphyroclast (b) S-shape asymmetric fold suggesting sinistral shear
(c) S-C fabric

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4-7 Summary of the structural evolution of the western Nuba Mountains:
The Abutulu shear zone is a major structural feature in the western Nuba Mountains.
The shear zone resulted from the oblique closure of the back-arc basin that developed
on the eastern edge of the intra-oceanic arc developed over the westerly dipping Kabus
subduction zone.
Structures in the study area can be viewed at as pre-Abutulu, Abutulu and post Abutulu
shear zone structures. The early D1 and D2 are interpreted as pre-Abutulu structures
that resulted from the subduction of the Kabus subduction zone. The subsequent
Abutulu structures (D3, D4 & D5) results from the closure and obduction of the Kabus
ophiolite. D1 and D2 are characterized by doubly plunging folds, isoclinal to tight
recumbent folds and a shallow-dipping northwest-verging thrust planes.
The Abutulu structures started with a sinistral translation dominant phase D3 that is
characterized by steeply-dipping north to northeast-trending sinistral strike-slip shear
together with steeply-plunging tight to open folds. D3 is the earliest deformation phase
recognized in the volcano-sedimentary sequence which is also responsible for the
formation of a tectonic mélange along the contact with medium-grade gneiss. The
following D4 deformation is mainly an east-west direct compressional phase that result
in tightening of the earliest structures and led to the formation of tight to open
asymmetrical west-verging folds in the Abutulu metasediments. In the Al Thwani
metasediments D4 is manifested as upright northeast trending folds. The early
structures were rotated by conjugate sets of synthetic and antithetic D5 shear zones.
The post Abutulu structures resulted from post collisional, intra-plate deformation.

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5- Rb/Sr, Sm/Nd and SHRIMP-Zircon

Isotopes Chemistry and Geochronology
5-1 Introduction:
The importance of acquiring geochronological data to determine the age of geological
events and units of the Sudan and to correlate them with those of both of the region and
the neighbouring units was long be highlighted by Vail (1990) in his compilation of the
Sudan geochronological data. The need for such geochronological data in the study
area (western Nuba Mountains) is indeed of vital importance due to the almost lack of
existing ages (Fig. 5-1), in addition to the poor exposures which hindered the obtaining
of any significant field relationships.
Abdelsalam and Dawoud (1991) suggested that the crust of the Nuba Mountains is
divided along the Kabus suture into two tectonic domains, an easterly younger juvenile
Neoproterozoic crust of the ANS and a westerly older mostly reworked pre-
Neoproterozoic continental crust of the SMC. This suggestion is based mostly on the
interpretation of the medium to high-grade gneisses of the Nuba Mountains as
belonging to the cratonic crust of the now SMC, in contrast to the low-grade volcano-
sedimentary domain of the ANS. Very little geochronological evidence was available to
support this interpretation. Beside this, most of the data available was derived either
from single sample (K-Ar) determinations or from methods known to be sensitive to late-
Precambrian tectonothermal events (K/Ar and Rb/Sr).

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The usefulness of the Sm/Nd method in investigating metamorphosed gneisses has
been shown by Harris et al., (1984), Reischmann et al., (1985) and Schandelmeier et
al., (1987). The only two Nd-model ages (Harris et al., 1984) available suggest an early
Neoproterozoic crust formation age for the Nuba Mountains crust.
Geochronological results presented in this work were aimed first towards the
determination of the ages of the main geological units within the basement complex and
then to test the validity of the previous suggestions regarding the age and geodynamic
provenance of the Nuba Mountains crust.
5-2 Analytical Techniques:
Samples SK 202A, SK 202B, SK 203, SK 204, SK 240 and SK 240A (six samples) from
the Arid Unit, samples SK 14 and SK 254 to SK 258 (six samples) from the Abutulu unit
and samples SK 25, SK 25A, SK 27, SK 93, SK 231, SK 234 and SK 272 (seven
samples) from the medium-grade unit were selected for Rb/Sr and Sm/Nd isotope
analysis. Four samples of the late-orogenic granite unit were selected for Rb/Sr and
Sm/Nd isotope analysis and the first two samples in this group were selected for
SHRIMP zircon dating.
Neodymium and Sr-isotope analyses were conducted at the Department of Geological
Science, University of Cape Town, South Africa. Sample powders were dissolved using
Hf-HNO3 acid mixture in closed Teflon beakers on hotplates at 140°C for 2 days. Any
minor undissolved material was removed by centrifuging the samples prior to sequential
Sr and Nd separation chemistry (Pin et al., 1994; Míková & Denková, 2007; Pin &
Zalduegui, 1997). Final Sr and Nd fractions were analysed for isotopic compositions

107


using a Nu Instruments DSN-100 desolvating nebuliser and NuPlasma HR-MC-ICP-MS
instruments.
The external 2 sigma errors for the measured Sr and Nd isotope ratios are better than ±
0.000015. The BHVO-2 basaltic standard reference material yields values of

86
0.703530±0.000009 for Sr/88Sr and 0.513005±0.000009 for 134
Nd/144Nd, comparing
well with published data (Weis et al., 2006).
Concentrations of Rb, Sr, Sm and Nd were measured using ICP-MS. The error on
Rb/Sr and Sm/Nd is <4%. The Geodate software (Eglington and Harmer, 1999), which
uses algorithms similar to those of Ludwig (1999), was used for the calculation of
Sm/Nd and Rb/Sr ages. Geodate software only accepts errors given at 1σ level.
Two syn-orogenic granite samples were selected for sensitive high mass resolution ion
microprobe (SHRIMP) U-Pb zircon analysis at the isotope laboratory at Australian
National University.
Approximately 2 kg of samples were crushed using jaw crusher, milled and sieved to
about 60 mesh at the Council for Geoscience, Pretoria. The heavy minerals (e.g. zircon,
apatite and sphene) were separated from the light minerals (e.g. quartz and feldspar)
using a Wilfley table. Then the zircons were separated from other heavy minerals using
methylene iodide heavy liquid with a density of 3.31g/cc.
The zircon grains were mounted onto epoxy resin discs and subsequently polished to
expose the centers of the grains at the laboratory of the Australian National University,
Canberra, Australia. Standard zircon crystals Temora (417 Ma) as well as uranium
standards from zircon of known U content (SL 13 with U content of 238ppm) were

108


mounted with the investigation zircon. The zircon crystals on the epoxy discs were then
photographed and gold coated.
Cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging of the samples was conducted at the Electron
Microscopy Unit of the Australian National University, using a FEI Verios scanning
electron microscope equipped with a Gaton MonoCL4 Elite cathodoluminescence
system. CL imaging was used to select the proper spots for analysis, in doing so,
inclusions and mixing between different domains were avoided.
Zircon U-Th-Pb analyses were conducted using the SHRIMP II ion-microprobe at the
Research School of Earth Science, Australian National University. The analytical
procedures were described by Williams (1998). Spots of 25-30 μm and a depth of few
micrometers (typically 1 μm) were consumed by the O2+ primary beam operated at
~5nA. The data for each spot were collected in sets of seven scans through the mass
208
range. Lead correction was based on the Pb/206Pb ratio (Composton et al., 1984).
The Temora standard zircon was used for U-Pb calibration. Analysis of the sample and
the standard zircon were alternated every 3 to 4 analysis for the best control of Pb/U
ratios.
Processing of the data was accomplished through the use of the SQUID program
designed by Ludwig (2002) following the methods described by Williams (1998) and
Ireland and Williams. The results are presented in appendix 5-1.
5-3 Field and Sample Description:
5-3-1 Arid Unit:

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The Arid unit rocks are low-grade basalts (partly pillowed) and gabbro that are part of
the supra-subduction arc/back arc ophiolite. Six samples from the Arid unit were used to
produce Sm/Nd and Rb/Sr isochron ages, Nd model ages and different radiogenic
discrimination diagrams. The samples selected comprised four basalt (SK 202a, SK
202b, SK 203 and SK 204) and two gabbro (SK 240 and SK 240a) samples. The
location of the samples is shown in figure 5-1. Appendixes 3-1; 3-2; 3-3 provide
descriptions of the chemistry of the samples and they are discussed in chapter three.
5-3-2 Abutulu Unit:
The metavolcanic rocks of Abutulu are interpreted as evolved arc/back-arc-related lavas
(chapter 3). Five samples of meta-andesite and basaltic andesite (SK254, SK255,
SK256, SK257 and SK258) and one acidic metavolcanic (SK14) were used for Sm/Nd
and Rb/Sr isotope geochronology and geochemistry. Location of the samples is
presented in figure 5-1. The isotopic data for the samples are provided in appendixes 5-
1 and 2 and their chemistry and petrography discussed in chapters two and three.
5-3-3 Medium-grade gneiss and syn-orogenic granite:
The medium-grade gneiss unit represents the major unit within the mapped area and
consists of ortho- and paragneiss. Detailed description of the protololith characterization
is provided in chapter 2. Biotite gneiss and minor hornblende biotite-bearing varieties
with SiO2 content > 60% are considered as orthogneiss.

110


Figure 5-1: Location of geochronological sample sites for rocks representing the different
lithological units within the study area.

111


Foliated biotite syn-orogenic granite with similar mineralogical composition and
chemistry are also grouped within the gneiss unit. Six samples of the orthogneiss and
the syn-orogenic granite were used for Sm/Nd and Rb/Sr isotopes studies.
Three samples (SK25, SK25A and SK27) out of the six were selected from the vicinity
of Jebel Tareen immediately east of Jebel Lagawa from one of the major post-orogenic
intrusions in the map area. Locations of the samples are shown in figure 5-1 and their
isotopic data presented in appendix 5-2. The petrography and chemistry of the samples
were described in chapter 2 and 3.
5-3-4 Late-orogenic Intrusions:
Four samples (SK4, SK5, SK224 and SK275) from the late-orogenic granite were
selected for Rb/Sr and Sm/Nd isotope studies. From the four samples samples SK4 and
SK5 were selected for zircon separation and further SHRIMP analysis, the two zircon
fraction were labeled ZR1 and ZR2.
5-4 Results:
5-4-1 Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr whole rock dating and initial ratios:
5-4-1-1 Arid unit:
The six Arid unit samples produced an isochron age of 832±241 Ma and initial
143
Nd/144Nd ratio of 0.51187±0.000253. The MSWD = 2.3. The εNd832±241 = +6.2±4.9
(Fig. 5-2a). The Arid unit samples have low Rb/Sr ratios which prohibited the calculation
of a meaningful age.

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5-4-1-2 Abutulu unit:
The six Abutulu samples define an errochron of 768±123 Ma, Nd initial ratio (NdIR) at
768Ma = 0.51194±0.000117 and εNd768±123 = +5.8±2.3 and a MSWD = 3.1 for the 6
whole rock errochron (Fig. 5-2b). When both of the Arid and Abutulu unit samples are
plotted together, they define a 12 WR Nd isochron of 778±90 Ma, NdIR778 =
0.51193±0.000090 equivalent to εNd778±90 = +5.9±1.8 (Fig. 5-2c). The meta-andesite
and basaltic andesite of the Abutulu unit provide a 6 point Rb/Sr isochron (MSWD = 1.3)
of 582±10 Ma (Fig. 5-3) equivalent to a Sr initial ratio (SrIR) = 0.70421±0.000358.
The 778±90 Ma age is interpreted as the emplacement age of the arc magma and the
εNd value of +5.9±1.8 as that of the mantle magma source. The 778±90 Ma
emplacement age is used in the calculation of the initial Nd and Sr ratios and the εNd
value for the Arid and Abutulu units (Appendix 5-1).
Both the samples of the Arid and the Abutulu units have εNd778 average value of eleven
samples of +6.0±0.5 and an average initial Nd ratio of 0.511899 and average initial Sr
ratio of 0.703593.
5-4-1-3 Medium-grade gneiss and syn-orogenic granite:
Six samples of the medium-grade biotite gneiss and the syn-orogenic granite define an
Nd isochron of 976±58 Ma and an initial Nd ratio of 0.511699±0.000043 equivalent to
εNd value of +6.3±0.9. The MSWD value = 2.0 (Fig. 5-4a). When we only plot the three
syn-orogenic granite samples of Jebel Tareen they define Nd isochron of 982±63 Ma,
NdIR = 0.511700±0.000050 (εNd = 6.5±0.9), MSWD = 2 (Fig. 5-4b).

113


Figure 5-2: Sm=Nd isochrons for (A) the six Arid basalt and gabbro (B) six Abutulu meta-
andesite and (C) the 12 sample from both Arid and Abutulu unit.

114


Figure 5-3: Rb-Sr isochron for the six meta-andesite samples from the Abutulu unit.
Figure 5-4: Sm-Nd isochron for (A) the six gneiss and syn-orogenic granitoids. (B) Three syn-
orogenic granite samples.

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An imprecise Sr isochron of 690±280 Ma resulted from the plotting of six point gneiss
and syn-orogenic granite (not provided). The initial Sr ratio value = 0.703±0.026 and the
MSWD value = 79. The great uncertainty in the Sr age and the MSWD value far beyond
the analytical uncertainty suggest that the Rb/Sr isotopic system may have suffered
post-magmatic open system behavior.
However, when we plot only the samples of Jebel Tareen, they produced a three point
isochron of 854±34 Ma, SrIR = 0.6965±0.0033 and a MSWD value = 2.4 (Fig. 5-5).
5-4-1-4 Late-orogenic intrusions:
Four late-orogenic granite samples produced an Nd isochron age of 636±75 Ma with

143
MSWD = 1.4. The corresponding initial Nd/144Nd ratio = 0.512029±0.000043
(equivalent to εNd = +4.2) (Fig. 5-6).
The Sr isochron for the same for sample define an age of 595±16 Ma with NSWD = 1.7
(Fig. 5-7). The corresponding initial ratio SrIR = 0.70325±0.00045

116


Figure 5-5: Rb-Sr isochron for the three syn-orogenic granite samples.
Figure 5-6: Sm-Nd isochron for the four samples of the late-orogenic granite.
Figure 5-7: Rb-Sr isochron for the four samples of the late-orogenic granite.

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5-4-2 Epsilon Nd and TDM model ages:
The values of εNd and TDM Nd model ages for 22 samples, six from the Arid unit, six from
the Abutulu unit, six from the gneiss unit and 4 from the late-orogenic intrusions unit are
presented in appendixes 5-1 and 5-2.
The εNd values for the four units were calculated at the best available crystallization age
(778 Ma for both Arid and Abutulu unit, 976 Ma for the gneiss unit and 600 Ma for the
late-orogenic intrusions). The first three units have very similar εNd values that range
from +6.8 to +5.3, with an average εNd of +6.0±0.5 for both Arid and Abutulu units and
an average of +6.2±0.6 of the medium-grade gneiss unit. The overall average for the 18
samples representing the entire three units is +6.1±0.6.
The late-orogenic intrusion unit has lower εNd values that range from +3.5±1 to +3.8±1
with average of +3.6±1.
The idea behind the method of TDM Nd model ages is to calculate at what age the
143
sample has a Nd/144Nd ratio similar to that of depleted mantle. Calculation of Nd
model age requires a realistic assumption about the composition of the depleted mantle
that produced the rocks under investigation. The two models of DePaolo (1981); Nelson
and DePaolo (1985) and Goldstein et al., (1984) are widely used. The latter model of
Goldstein et al., (1984) is a linear between εNd equal +10 today and εNd equal 0 at 4.6
Ga, while the DePaolo (1981) is a quadratic expression that utilizes the value of modern
oceanic island arc of +8.5 (calculated by the formula εTDM(T) = 0.25T2 - 3T + 8.5). In this
study, we followed the method of Nelson and DePaolo (1985) in the calculation of the
TDM Nd model age for the metavolcanic samples. Since the metavolcanic rocks have

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generally high Sm/Nd values that are very close to those of mantle which give rise to
unrealistic Nd Model ages. We applied the filter that used by Stern (2002) in which only
147
samples with Sm/144Nd <0.165 were selected (excluding only one sample; SK240
which has 147Sm/144Nd=0.1744).
For the felsic igneous rocks, where possible second Sm/Nd fractionation may have
occurred (the first having occurred due to mantle melting) as a result of intracrustal
process such as crustal partial melting, magma mixing, etc., a two stage depleted
mantle may be calculated (Champion, 2013). For the gneiss unit and the late-orogenic
granitoids a two stage depleted mantle model age is calculated using the equation and
values for depleted mantle (143Nd/144N and 147

Sm/144Nd) and the value of the average
crustal reservoir (147Sm/144Nd) of Liew & Hofmann, (1988).
The single stage model ages for the 12 metavolcanic rocks of Arid and Abutulu units
strongly shows the same age with an average for the Arid unit of 836 Ma and ranges
from 778 Ma to 905 Ma, and an average for the Abutulu unit of 805 Ma and ranges from
732 Ma to 859 Ma (appendix 5-1). Ages similar to the Abutulu metavolcanic rocks are
shown by the late-orogenic intrusions, with an average of 792 Ma and ranges from 776
Ma to 807 Ma.
The gneiss unit samples show single stage depleted mantle model ages that are older,
with an average of six samples of 948 Ma and ranges from 925 Ma to 975 Ma.
The two stage depleted mantle model ages for both the gneiss unit and the late-
orogenic intrusion unit show results that are slightly older than those obtained from the
single stage model ages. The average of the six ages of the gneiss unit is 1066 Ma and

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ranges from 1031 Ma to 1081 Ma. The two stage model age results for the syn-orogenic
intrusions unit are not much different from the gneiss unit, in that they show
approximately 0.1 Ga older ages (appendix 5-2).
5-4-3 U-Pb SHRIMP dating of zircon:
Most of the zircon grains obtained from sample ZR-1 tend to have rod-shaped, doubly
terminated crystals with a length to width ratio (elongation ratio) of ≈ 4 (in the upper part
of the 1 to 5 elongation rate range of Corfu et al., 2003). These narrow-width crystals
are common in rapidly crystallized high-level granites (Corfu et al., 2003).
All of the analysed crystals have core-rim structures evident in the
cathodoluminescence (CL) images (Fig. 5-8). Most of the cores have bright-
luminescence on CL, surrounded by dark luminescent rims of various widths.
Xenocrystic cores are not uncommon in many igneous intrusions. They may occur as
rounded cores mantled by the newly developed zircon rims or as unmantled
subrounded or rarely euhedral grains (Corfu et al., 2003).
Well developed oscillatory zoning occurred in both the cores and rims of all of the 5
analysed zircon crystals (Fig. 5-8). Growth zoning is a typical feature of magmatic
zircons (Corfu et al., 2003); the zoning reflects compositional variations in Zr, Si, U, Th,
trace and REE elements (Fowler et al., 2002; Corfu et al., 2003). Two measures from a
206
single grain from sample ZR-1 produced Pb/238U ages of 574±9 Ma (spot 3-1 core)
and 589±6 Ma (spot 3-2 rim). This younger age of the core possibly reflects lead loss.
These two measures correspond to Th/U ratios of 0.40 (core) and 0.16 (rim)
respectively. The oscillatory zoning and the relatively high Th/U ratio of the core (spot

120


3.1; Fig. 5-8) could possibly suggests a magmatic origin of the core (Rubatto and
206
Gebauer, 2000; L. Zhang et al., 2006). Six zircon analysis yield a mean Pb/238U ages
of 599.8±5.8 Ma (MSWD = 1.4) (Fig. 5-9).
The zircon grains from sample ZR-2 have lower elongation ratio ≈ 3 and larger sizes
with an average of 114 and 264 μm in major dimensions (Fig. 5-10). Similar to sample
ZR-1, all of the 13 analysed grains of sample ZR-2 have core-rim structures (Fig. 5-10).
With the exception of grains 2 and 9, all of the other zircon grains are also similar to
those of sample ZR-1 in having brighter luminescent cores and darker luminescent rims
(Fig. 5-10). This darker luminescent core corresponds to higher U content (568 ppm)
compared to the rim (536 ppm).
Variation in the U contents between the core and the rims measured in three zircon
crystals, numbered 2, 5 and 8 (Fig. 5-10) of sample ZR-2 show that the U content is
lower in the core in crystals 5 and 8 (280 and 457 ppm), while in the rim is 1225 and
1230 ppm and is higher in crystal 2 (568 ppm and 536 ppm in the rim). Analysis of one
206
core produced a Pb/238U age of of 743±8 Ma (Appendix 5-2). Since the analysis is
discordant the 743±8 Ma is a minimum age of the zircon core. The analysis of eight
207
zircon rims of sample ZR-2 produced a mean Pb/206Pb age of 607±10 Ma (MSWD =
0.59) (Fig. 5-11). The Th/U ratios are higher in the cores (0.26 – 0.43) compare to the
rims (0.04 – 0.08). Higher Th/U ratio (>0.1) suggests a magmatic origin (Rubatto and
Gebauer, 2000) and hence 743±8 is interpreted as the age of source of the granite.
Analyses of magmatic zircon produced concordant dates between 624±7 Ma (core 2.2)
and 605±10 Ma (rim 5.1). These are interpreted as a crystallization age. Metamorphic
rims discordant dates of 614±8 Ma to 583±6 Ma are nearly indistinguishable from the

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magmatic rims (206Pb/238U age 613±6 Ma to 605±10 Ma) and hence a
contemporaneous magmatic and high temperature metamorphism is suggested around
≈ 600.

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Sample
Rb-Sr Sm-Nd Sri at Ndi at εNd at TDM
isochron/errochron isochron/errochron 778Ma 778Ma 778±90Ma Ma
ages ages
1sk-
202a 0.703537 0.511919 +6.4±0.5 778
832.22±241.09 Ma
sk202b Ndi = 0.703572 0.511908 +6.2±0.4 802
0.51187±0.000253
sk-203b MSWD = 2.3 0.704058 0.5119 +6.1±0.4 825
sk-204 0.70393 0.511907 +6.2±0.5 807
sk-240 0.702349 0.511879 +5.7±0.3 905
sk-240a 0.702797 0.511867 +5.3±0.6 899

12 samples The 778±90 Ma obtained from both Arid and Abutulu Units is
isochron considered as age for arc emplacement (crystallization age)
778.22±90.52 Ma
sk-254 0.703275 0.511876 +5.7±0.3 859
sk255 0.698354 0.51188 +5.5±0.8 792

589.8±13.6 Ma 768.31±123.6 Ma
sk256 Sri = Ndi = 0.687676 0.511918 +6.2±0.8 789
0.70376±0.000288 0.51194±0.000117
sk257 MSWD = 1.3 MSWD = 3.1 0.704537 0.511919 +6.3±0.8 854
sk258 Age suggests 0.703732 0.511886 +5.7±0.6 778

later resetting for
sk-014 Abutulu Unit 0.704146 0.511937 +6.8±0.5 732
Sample Sri at Ndi at εNd at TDM

982Ma 982Ma 982±63Ma Ma
Three points
SK 25 854±34 Ma 982±63 Ma 0.683274 0.511911 +6.4±0.5 925
Ndi = Ndi =
SK 25A 0.684693 0.511906 +6.2±0.5 939
0.6965±0.0033 0.5117±0.000050
SK 27 MSWD = 2.4 MSWD = 2.0 0.693155 0.511911 +6.3±0.8 946
SK93 Possible resetting Age considered 0.66473 0.511773 +6.1±0.6 957

of the gneisses age crystallization
SK231 age for the igneous 0.700251 0.511767 +6.3±0.8 949
protolith of the
SK234 gneisses 0.656229 0.51177 +5.9±0.5 975
U-Pb Sri at Ndi at εNd at TDM

Concordia 778Ma 778Ma 778±90Ma Ma
206 238
Mean Pb/ U
SK4/ZR1 595±16 Ma 636±75 Ma 599.8±5.8 Ma 0.703088 0.512025 +3.7±0.1 807
Sri = Ndi = Mean
207 206
0.70325±0.00045 0.512029±0.000043 Pb/ Pb
SK5/ZR2 MSWD = 1.7 MSWD = 1.4 607±10 Ma 0.703316 0.512029 +3.8±0.1 776
Above ages
represents
metamorphic
SK224 ages 0.70252 0.512038 +3.6±0.1 806
SK275 0.703082 0.512026 +3.5±0.1 780
Table 5-1: Showing the results of the various isotopic systems (ages, initial ratios, model ages
and epsilon values) for the different investigated rock units and their geological interpretation.

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Figure 5-8: CL images of doubly-terminated zircon crystals for SHRIMP U–Pb analyses from the
late-granite of sample ZR1.
Figure 5-9: Concordia diagrams showing results of SHRIMP data from sample ZR1.

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Figure 5-10: CL images of zircon crystals for SHRIMP U–Pb analyses from the late-granite of
sample ZR2.
Figure 5-11: Concordia diagrams showing results of SHRIMP data from sample ZR2.

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6- Discussion and proposed tectonic

model:
6-1 Lithology, chemistry, structure and isotopic data of the low-grade and
medium-grade domains:
Geological mapping of the area between Lagawa in the east, El Fula in the west, Abu
Zabad in the north and Gingaro in the south reveals the southwestward continuation of
the NE-trending belt of low-grade metavolcano-metasedimentary rocks from Abu Zabad
through the known occurrences at Jebel Abutulu and further to the southwest. The
western contact of these low-grade rocks is hidden under the Quaternary sedimentary
cover of central Sudan. From the east it is structurally bounded by a sequence of
medium-grade gneiss and migmatite with associated supra-crustal metasediments. This
latter unit is the dominant unit within the mapped area and extends further east for
approximately 300 km up to the Kabus Ophiolitic mélange (the western boundary of the
ANS in central Sudan).
There is no consensus among the geoscientists who investigated the Nuba Mountains
regarding the metamorphic grade, age, position within the stratigraphic column and the
geodynamic context of the gneiss and migmatite units. Authors, including Vail (1973;
1978), El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981), Abdelsalam and Dawoud (1991) consider these
rocks to represent high-grade (amphibolite to granulite facies of regional
metamorphism) gneiss and migmatite of pre-Neoproterozoic age, mostly reworked
during the Pan-African Neoproterozoic orogeny and that they represent a basement to
the subsequent lithological units. However, in more recent publications, Vail, (1983)

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and Sadig and Vail (1986) developed a different opinion, where they suggested that the
gneisses are composed of (at least in part) sheared and metamorphosed batholitic
granitoids or sedimentary units and may only represent limited areas of higher heat flow
and doming within the greenschist facies unit. This opinion was adopted by Brinkmann,
(1986) who concluded that there are no signs of amphibolite facies regional
metamorphism in the Nuba Mountains. The gneisses only represent a mineral
paragenesis indicative of a quartz-albite-epidote-almandine subfacies, the highest grade
within the greenschist facies.
In the current study we classify the gneiss and migmatite rocks into two subunits; an
orthogneiss unit (granitic and quartz monzonitic gneisses) and supracrustal
metasediments (paragneiss, calc-silicate, chert, graphite, and quartz mica schist).
Isolated outcrops of syn-orogenic granite are present within this metamorphic
assemblage.
The mineralogy of the orthogneiss suggests amphibolite grade metamorphism rather
than the quartz-albite-epidote almandine subfacies of Brinkmann (1986), because of the
presence of oligoclase (together with albite) which marks the transition from greenschist
to amphibolite facies metamorphism. Also the paragneisses of the supracrustal rocks
show mineral paragenesis indicative of amphibolite facies of metamorphism, similar to
the orthogneiss. The presence of diopside in the calc-silicates also indicates
amphibolite facies metamorphism.
The geochemistry of both the medium-grade orthogneiss and the syn-orogenic granite
are typical of calc-alkaline I-type granitoids. Both of these units show close similarities in

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the N-MORB multi-element spidergram and the chondrite normalized REE diagrams
where they show features of subduction related magmatism (negative Nb-Ta anomaly
and LREE enrichment). These orthogneiss samples are interpreted to be derived from a
felsic arc volcanic protolith. Evidence of crustal contamination in the orthogneiss is
suggested by the high Th contents and low U/Th ratios.
Two early phases of deformations (D1 and D2) were recognized in the medium-grade
metamorphic assemblages that did not affect the subsequent units. D1 is characterized
by the development of a mappable-scale doubly-plunging synform (F1) and the
development of strong S1 foliation planes. D2 is characterized by the presence of tight
to isoclinal recumbent folds (F2) and is associated with shallow-dipping northwest-
verging thrust planes. The lineation associated with D2 deformation is a shallow,
southeast-plunging L2 stretching lineation. These two phases of deformation are best
interpreted to represent an early collisional phase associated with the closing of the
oceanic basin responsible for the development of the Kabus ophiolitic mélange.
Three syn-orogenic granite samples around Jebel Tareen define an Nd isochron of
982±63 Ma, NdIR = 0.511700±0.000050 (εNd = 6.5±0.9), MSWD = 2. Also the three
analysed gneiss samples from two locations fall within the same isochron giving a Nd
isochron of 976±58 Ma and an initial Nd ratio of 0.511699±0.000043 equivalent to εNd
value of +6.3±0.9. These ages are very similar and the Nd initial ratios are
homogenous. Such results are difficult to obtain by metamorphism considering the size
of the area covered by the samples (Fig. 5-1). The age of 976±58 Ma is interpreted to
represent the age of emplacement of the arc magma and the εNd value of +6.3±0.9 to
represent that of the mantle magma source. The εNd values of the six samples of gneiss

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and syn-orogenic granite calculated at 976±58 Ma gave a range between +6.4±0.5 and
+5.9±0.5 with an average of +6.2±0.6.These data first suggest that there is no
significant involvement of pre-Neoproterozoic crust, since such involvement should
result in the presence of significantly negative εNd values. It secondly indicates
derivation from a depleted mantle source with a time integrated Nd depletion relative to
Sm. To solve the conflict of crustal contamination indicated by the Th enrichment (range
between 18.2 ppm to 43.3 ppm) it could be suggested that the Nuba Mountains island
arc reached a considerable thickness to allow Th enrichment, as suggested for the
Birimian island arc (Ama Salah et al., 1996) and the Bayuda arc (Küster and Liégeois,
2001), or a pre-Neoproterozoic crust may occur beneath the Nuba Mountains in a
thickness that is insufficient to allow significant contribution to the chemistry of the arc
magma that is detectable isotopically. Nd TDM model ages are effective means of
estimation of the mean age of the protolith of a geological unit whether magmatic or
sedimentary (DePaolo, 1983; Liégeois and Stern, 2010). The values of the Nd TDM
model ages calculated following the method of Nelson and DePaolo (1985) clustered
around an early Neoproterozoic age of 948 Ma (an average of six samples that range
from 925 Ma to 975 Ma). Calculation of a two-stage model age for felsic rocks may be
needed under certain conditions discussed in the previous chapter. However, the
calculation of a two-stage model age will only result in an age that is approximately 100
Ma older, but most importantly there is no reason for such calculations. The Nd TDM
model ages of the six samples are clustered very close to the 976 Ma crystallization age
of the same rocks, indicating the juvenile nature of the crust. The Nd TDM model age

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values also support the notion of no to insignificant involvement of much older crustal
material hence the data then would show a larger spread of Nd model ages.
The outcrops within the metavolcano-sedimentary belt are generally scattered and
found as isolated hills with low-topography. Outcrops are of basic to intermediate
metavolcanic rocks, slate, phyllite, graphitic and mica quartzitic schists. Mafic
complexes are found only along the eastern flank of the metavolcanic rocks. The nature
of the latter complexes is similar to that of oceanic crust with a cumulate section
composed mainly of layered gabbro and an upper section mainly of massive gabbro
and basaltic pillowed lavas. The sheeted dolerite dykes and the basal section typical of
preserved ancient ocean crust have not been observed except for talc-carbonate rocks
found at the southern part of Al Beida which may be interpreted as altered serpentinite
ultramafic rock, and thus part of the typical basal sequence. Conventionally, the
existence of sheeted dolerite dykes from sea floor spreading in ophiolite is considered
as strong evidence for the origin of oceanic crust now exposed on land, (Gass, 1990;
Moores and Vine, 1971). This idea is now debated (Dilek and Furnes, 2011) since the
formation of a sheeted dyke complex requires a delicate balance between the spreading
rate and the magma injection rate, which is difficult to maintain in a supra-crustal
tectonic environment (Robinson et al., 2008). The absence of sheeted dykes may
indicate a spreading rate lower than the rate of magma production in the region
(Robinson et al., 2008; Dilek and Furnes, 2011). The rock association and structure of
the mafic and ultramafic rocks are similar to rock associations defined as ophiolitic by
the Penrose conference (Anon, 1972; Coleman, 1977). Also, the absence of any
thermal impact of these complexes on the surrounding gneisses and the absence of any

130


mafic off-shoots and apophasis along the surrounding bounding lithologies support their
ophiolitic origin.
Petrographical studies of both the metavolcano-sedimentary sequence as well as the
mafic and ultramafic complexes show mineral assemblages of epidote, chlorite,
actinolite and albite, indicative of greenschist facies metamorphism. A high-pressure
metamorphic event is suggested by the presence of glaucophane within the mineral
assemblage of the metasedimentary rocks (Mansour and Iskander, 1960). This
metamorphic rock association is in sharp contrast to the medium-grade (amphibolite
facies) granitic and granodioritic gneisses to the east. The steeply southeasterly dipping
shear zone is considered to mark the boundary between the two units.
Geochemical data facilitated the identification of two groups of volcanic rocks which
correlate with evidence from the field: Back-arc (suprasubduction ophiolite) meta-basite,
meta-gabbros and minor hornblendite (Arid unit) and arc metavolcanic rocks, mainly
andesite and subalkaline basalts (Abutulu unit). The mafic to ultramafic group shows a
transitional nature from tholeiitic to calc-alkaline and most of them are basaltic with
minor basaltic andesite, while the arc meta-andesites are mainly calc-alkaline.
With the exception of ultramafic cumulate samples that have high Mg# (≈69.14, MgO ≈
21.2%, Cr ≈ 2778.7 ppm and Ni ≈ 831 ppm) all of the mafic massive gabbros, pillowed
basalts and basaltic andesites have low concentrations of MgO (< 9.99%, Cr < 289 ppm
and Ni <95 ppm). These values are too low for the rocks to represent primary magma
(Baker et al., 1994). They are considered to represent an evolved magma that

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underwent various degrees of differentiation, either in a magma chamber or en route to
surface.
The utilization of a set of discrimination diagrams that used immobile HFSEs and REEs
has successfully managed to show the pillow basalts as non-continental basalt.
Moreover they show the transitional nature from MORB to IAT of the basalts, a feature
of back-arc magmas where magma generation could involve subduction-related
materials (Fig. 3-14a and 3-14d). The involvement of subduction-related materials is
also suggested from the wide dispersion of data (Fig. 3-14b and 3-14c). This dispersion
is indicative of back-arc basin magma and is attributed to the wide range of magmas
involved in a subduction influenced igneous regimes.
The low-grade metamorphic assemblage is intensively sheared and folded in a pattern
typical of sinistral transpression. The Abutulu shear zone separates two distinct
terranes, to the east medium-grade gneisses and migmatites, which are considered as
arc-related orthogneiss and supracrustal metasediments and to the west a low-grade
metavolcano-sedimentary sequence, interpreted to be a passive margin turbidite and
associated massive volcanics. Three phases of deformation- D3, D4 and D5 - are
responsible for the development of the Abutulu shear zone.
D3 is interpreted as a sinistral translation dominant phase that is characterized by the
development of a steeply-dipping north to northeast-trending sinistral strike-slip shear
zone together with steeply-plunging open to tight folds (F3). D3 is suggested to represent
the earliest phase of deformation in the relatively young metavolcano-sedimentary
sequence, as it folds the S0 bedding planes along the axis of F3 folds. D3 also resulted in

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the development of a narrow tectonic melange along the low-grade – medium-grade
contact. Planar and linear fabrics related to D3 were mostly rotated within the course of
D4 which is an east-west directed compression dominant phase. F4 folds show open to
tight asymmetrical geometry and they verge towards the west.
Continuation of the east-west directed shortening associated with a north-south
stretching has led to the development of the D5 conjugate sets of synthetic and
antithetic shear zones. D5 shear zones rotate the previous D3 and D4 structure and they
locally develop an S5 planar fabric.
The three phases of deformation D3, D4 and D5 are interpreted to represent oblique
collisional structures related to the closing of the newly developed marginal basin, west
of the Kabus ophiolitic melange, as will be discused below.
Four occurrences of foliated granitic rocks, identified in the field as late-orogenic granite
were found to intrude the medium-grade metamorphic unit. All of the four intrusions
were classified as granite and syeno-granite on the Streckeisen and le Maitre (1979)
classification diagram. The late-intrusions have the chemistry of high-K calc-alkaline
composition. N-MORB normalized incompatible element features are of subduction
related affinity.
The four samples define an Nd isochron of 636±75 with a corresponding initial ratio =
0.512029±0.000043 (equivalent to εNd = +4.2). The Sr isochron for the same samples
define an age of 595±16 Ma with a corresponding initial ratio SrIR = 0.70325±0.00045.
The εNd636 gave an average of +3.7±0.1. The TDM Nd model ages are not significantly
different from those of the Abutulu unit with an average of 792 Ma.

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206
Rims of samples Sk4 (ZR1) and Sk5 (ZR2) define a common mean Pb/238U ages of
approximately 600 Ma, with inherited cores of ~730 Ma, discordance through Pb-loss
etc. Because the analyses are discordant, the inherited core age of ~730 Ma is
interpreted to represent the age of the source material for the granite and the ~600 Ma
rim age is interpreted to represent an age of metamorphism, bearing in mind that some
rims and embayments have low Th/U ratios, which could indicate metamorphic growth.
6-2 The geodynamic context:
The Neoproterozoic arc/back-arc metavolcano-sedimentary sequence of the
westernmost Nuba Mountains (≈300 km west of Kabus suture) is bounded by medium
to high-grade gneiss in both the eastern and western sides. The high-grade gneiss of
western Sudan generally reflects Early to Middle Proterozoic crust formation ages with
evidence of significant remobilization of older crust (Vail, 1990 and references therein).
Sm–Nd TDM model age data from the Wadi Howar (1300 Ma, εNd = -6.7; Schandelmeier
et al., 1988), from the Nubian Desert (>2200 Ma, εNd = -15.8, 1137 Ma, εNd = -6.5;
Schandelmeier et al., 1988) and from as close to the study area as El Obeid in North
Kordofan (>2000 Ma, εNd = -10.3; Harris et al., 1984) support this suggestion. Younger
K–Ar and Rb–Sr ages were obtained from all of the previously mentioned areas and
interpreted to represent a Pan-African imprint (see Vail 1990) for a full compilation of the
geochronological data and for the context in which the term ‘‘Pan-African imprint” is
used). The younger Rb–Sr age (relative to Sm-Nd age) obtained in this study is also
interpreted to represent disturbance of the Rb/Sr system by late Pan-African
metamorphism. The metamorphism and/or alteration that affect all the lithologies
described in chapter 3 provide evidence supporting open system behavior for the Rb/Sr

134


system. This mobility in the Rb/Sr system is interpreted as due to younger HT
metamorphism at around 600 Ma as suggested for the basement rocks of the Sabaloka
area immediately west of the eastern boundary of the SMC in north central Sudan, at
around 622 Ma (Küster and Liégeois, 2001 and reference therein). The limited Nd
model age data available on the eastern Precambrian outcrops only suggest an early
Neoproterozoic age (Harris et al., 1984) for the crust with εNd750 between +2.2 and +3.5
for the Rashad and Abbasiya outcrops (immediately west of Kabus suture). This is
interpreted as suggesting the presence of oceanic material in the crust of central Sudan
(Harris et al., 1984).
The model of Abdelsalam and Dawoud (1991) assumes two successive stages of
easterly dipping subduction for the development of the northeastern Nuba Mountains
metavolcanic rocks and the associated ophiolite. The first resulted in the formation of an
intra-oceanic arc (now the metavolcanic sequence of the northeastern Nuba Mountains)
and a marginal basin to the west of the arc (now Kabus ophiolite and the
metasedimentary rocks of NE Nuba Mountains). The second subduction of the newly
formed oceanic crust has led to the formation of the Kabus ophiolitic mélange, as well
as an Andean-type arc further west. According to this model, pre-Pan-African crust
exists underneath the now eroded Andean-type arc and is separated from the ANS by
the Kabus suture.
Unfortunately, there are no isotopic data available on the Pan-African low-grade
metavolcanic rocks east of the Kabus suture to assist in correlating the mantle source in
the eastern and western Nuba Mountains. However, if we consider the mantle source of
the ANS as one entity (although there are some differences in the εNd values across the

135


shield), the isotopic composition of the mantle source of the western Nuba Mountains
(average limit εNd for 12 metavolcanic rocks ≈ +6 at 778 Ma) is similar to the mantle
source reported for the ANS (when considering the errors and uncertainty associated
with Sm–Nd data) that is from +6.5 to +8.4 (Stern and Abdelsalam, 1998). According to
the model of Abdelsalam and Dawoud (1991), assuming an Andean-type arc west of
the Kabus suture, one would expect the geochronological data obtained from the
medium-grade gneiss and the granitoid intrusions that intrude the gneiss unit to reflect
an isotopic signature that shows contamination with underlying older rocks. The data
obtained by Harris et al., (1984) on the syn-tectonic granite of the Rashad and the
Abbassyia (recalculated at 976 Ma) (TDM 1000 and 950 Ma and εNd 976 of +5.1 and +6.1)
are in good agreement with the Nd model ages obtained during the course of the
current study on six gneisses and syn-orogenic granite and granodiorite samples (see
Fig. 5-1 for locations). These indicate εNd 976 value of +6.2 and a TDM Nd model age of
around 948 Ma for crustal formation. The only Paleoproterozoic Nd TDM model age in
the area is from El Obeid in North Kordofan (Harris et al., 1984). This age is only
estimation, since Harris et al. (1984) found the ratio of Sm147/Nd144 to be too high
(0.202) to allow for accurate determination of the Nd TDM model age. With the exception
of the higher initial Sr ratio (0.7060) at 514 ± 17 Ma of the Jebel Doleibayia outcrop,
which is interpreted as the result of assimilation of older crust (Curtis and Lenz, 1985),
all the initial Sr ratios obtained by the same authors from the anorogenic granite of Ed
Dair and Liri as well as the initial Sr ratio obtained by Harris et al. (1984) on the Syenite
of Dumbier suggest either a less depleted mantle source or formation from juvenile
crust. Although the number of data are not large enough to systematically cover the

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large gneiss unit between the Kabus suture and the Abutulu shear zone, the wide area
covered by the samples, the various lithologies of the samples and the tight cluster of
the data in both the TDM Nd model ages and the εNd would exclude the possibility of a
significant contribution of older crust. Based on this assumption we consider the
possibility of having older crust between Kabus and Abutulu as highly unlikely, and
hence we suggest that the Andean-type arc suggested by Abdelsalam and Dawoud
(1991) should be considered instead as an intraoceanic arc, which formed around ̴ 970
Ma.
The six analyzed zoned cores of the late-orogenic granite, sample ZR2 (about 3.95 Km
to the southeast (110°) from Um Shara village) have Th/U ranges from slightly high to
moderately high values (0.17 – 0.43) indicating a magmatic origin for the cores. Where
analysis of both the cores and the rims are available (three grains), the rims (2.3, 5.1
and 8.1) corresponding to the cores (2.2, 5.2 and 8.2) have lower Th/U values (0.04 to
0.08) suggesting metamorphic growth for the rims. The ages of the cores are
significantly older than those of the rims where the cores show slight discordance (-3%)
206
and define Pb/238U ages as old as 743±8 Ma (core 5.2). Younger ages recorded by
the cores range from 692±14 Ma to 737±10 Ma. The plot of a U-Pb Concordia of a six
zircon cores define an upper intercept age of 723±84 Ma (not presented) with a lower
206
intercept of 591±160 Ma. The 743±8 Ma Pb/238U age together with the upper
intercept age are better interpreted as the age of the early magmatic event, which
formed the source of the later magmato-metamorphic event (see later). When the
subduction related nature of the granitic material is considered, the earlier identified age
is significant in that it defined a lower control on the west dipping subduction event. The

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interpretation of the 743±8 Ma 206Pb/238U age as age of the source material is supported
by the Nd TDM (everage of 4 is 792 Ma) which indicate the presence of slightly older
material. The Sm/Nd isochron age of 636±75 Ma is consistent with the concordant (0%
206
discordance) Pb/238U age of 626±14 of magmatic core 2.2, which is interpreted to
represent the age of the latter magmatic event.
With the exception of the syn-orogenic granite, the Rb/Sr whole rock isochron ages of
the meta-andesite of the Abutulu unit and the late-orogenic granite have produced six
and four point Rb/Sr isochrons of 595±16 Ma and 589.8±13.6 Ma corresponding to SrIR
of 0.70325±0.00045 and 0.70376±0.000288 respectively. These ages are only a few
million years younger than the ages obtained from U-Pb SHRIMP dating of zircon (a
206
mean Pb/238U ages of 599.8±5.8 Ma (MSWD = 1.4) for sample ZR1 and a mean
207
Pb/206Pb age of 607±10 Ma (MSWD = 0.59) for sample ZR2). The younger Rb/Sr age
is possibly due to the low closure temperature of the Rb - Sr system (Be’eri-Shlevin et
al., 2009). Some of the analyzed rims and embayments show features of metamorphic
origin (Th/U < 0.1 together with absence of zoning). This might suggest metamorphic
growth for the zircon rims and hence a metamorphic age. However the majority of
zircon rims of sample ZR1 and two rims of sample ZR2 (appendixes 5-2a and 5-2b) are
206
of magmatic origin and have similar Pb/238U and 207
Pb/206Pb ages to those of
metamorphic origin features. This could either indicate that the emplacement of the
dated outcrops was contemporaneous with high temperature metamorphism around ≈
600 Ma or it could only suggest a magmatic event. The latter possibility is supported by
a number of recent publications that reported the presence of low Th/U magmatic
zircons (Schärer 1984; Sláma et al. 2008). Reasons for such behaviour were provided

138


by Lopez-Sanchez et al., (2015) (as due to combination of U-rich magma and absence
of U-rich accessory minerals) and Kȕster et al., (2008) (as due to syn-magmatic
competition for Th by zircon and other Th-rich accessories such as monazite).
However the interpretation of the ≈ 600 Ma as an age of later magmatic activity does
explain the resetting of the Rb/Sr system around the same time that noticed in the meta-
andesite of the Abutulu unit (the Abutulu unit has Sm/Nd isochron age of 768±123 and a
206
Rb/Sr age 595±16). For this reason the interpretation of the Pb/238U ages of
207
599.8±5.8 age for ZR1 and the mean Pb/206Pb age of 607±10 age for ZR2 as
representing both the ages of intrusion and of metamorphism are favoured in this study.
This interpretation is suggested by Kȕster et al., (2008) for the Banjedid high-K granite
of the Sabaloka region of northern Sudan.
Although there is no geochronological data to constrain the age of the initiation of the
subduction that formed the proposed intra-oceanic arc, it must have started earlier than
the 976 Ma age of the arc magmatism and the syn-orogenic granite. This subduction
and then collisional activity is earlier than what is recognized in the northern part of the
Nubian Shield where Küster et al., (2008) identified the age of the early Pan-African
accretionary phase in the ANS to be between 850 and 650 Ma. The age of the oceanic
lithologies in the ANS was found to be between 890 and 690 Ma (Stern et al., 2004).
6-3 Proposed tectonic model:
The initiation of a west-dipping subduction zone to the west of the Kabus ophiolitic
mélange (Abdelsalam and Dawoud, 1991) led to the formation of an intra-oceanic arc
(Fig. 6-1a) around 976±58 Ma (the age of the felsic arc related magmatism the protolith

139


of the orthogeniss) as well as the emplacement of volcanic arc granite and gabbro (now
the syn-orogenic granitoids) at 982±63 Ma (three point Nd isochron for the syn-orogenic
granite).
The co-existence and occasional intercalation between Neoproterozoic arc/back-arc
metavolcanic rocks, arc related sedimentary rocks and turbiditie (the Arid assemblage)
necessitate the existence of an early Neoproterozoic marginal basin (i.e. before 778 Ma
the age of metavolcanic rocks) further west of the intra-oceanic arc. The arc/back-arc
signature of the metavolcanic rocks precludes the simple model assuming opening and
closing of a small marginal basin without developing subduction zones as has been
proposed for the Rahib fold and thrust belt in northwestern Sudan (Abdel-Rahman et al.,
1990).
Opening of the marginal basin led to the extrusion of the back-arc volcanism (andesite
and basaltic andesite of the Abutulu unit) (Fig. 6-1b) and at a later stage (after the 778
Ma age of back-arc magmatism), the basin started receiving sediments from the
western continental side and possibly from the eastern intra-oceanic arc (Fig. 6-1b).
Continuous opening of the marginal basin caused the formation of a limited oceanic
basin crust (the pillow basalt, massive and layered gabbro of the Arid unit) (Fig. 6-1b).
The uncertainty on the ages does not allow for accurate estimation of the timing of arc
activity.
The closure of the basin took place sometime after the accumulation of the continental
sediments and the continental block to the west collided against the arc/back-arc

140


assemblage which led to the development of the Abutulu sinistral shear zone (Fig. 6-
1c).
Future dating of the Hagar El Tair and Um Shair syntectonic granite intrusions and
granodiorite, affected by the sinistral shearing, may set good constraints on the lower
age of this collision. Post-collisional tectonism took place probably until around 550 Ma
(the age of the alkaline granitoids of Ed Dumbier and Ed Dair) (Harris et al., 1984).
We further suggest that the Neoproterozoic Pan-African crust indeed exists further west
of the Kabus suture (at least as far as the Abutulu metavolcanic unit). Also, the Abutulu
shear zone may represent a major geological suture separating not only rocks of
different lithology, grade of metamorphism and structural style but it also separates
terranes of different age and mantle sources.
The Neoproterozoic crust of the western Nuba Mountains can be correlated with that of
the Bayuda desert in north central Sudan in terms of age (806 Ma for the Bayuda and
778 Ma for the Nuba Mountains), geochemical affinity (both show an arc-related
signature) and structural trends (both show a NE-trend of foliation) and may then
support the proposed hypothesis of Küster and Liégeois (2001) that the boundary of the
SMC (referred to as the East Saharan ghost craton) must lie below or further west than
what was previously expected.

141


Figure 6-1: Proposed tectonic model for the Nuba Mountains, Sudan. (a) The development of
intra-oceanic arc west of the Kabus subduction zone, formation of marginal basin west of the
arc and beginning of the collision between the arc and the ANS (b) development of oceanic
crust along the marginal basin, formation of passive margin along the continent side and
passive margin begin of the receiving of sediments (c) closing of the marginal basin and
formation of the Abutulu suture.

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6-4 Conclusions:
- Geological mapping of the area between Abu Zabad and Abutulu, southern Sudan,
confirms that a low-grade metavolcano-sedimentary sequence (meta-andesite, meta-
basalt, slate, graphitic and quartzitic schist) is continuous throughout the area. This
sequence is associated with occurrences of mafic and minor ultramafic rocks that show
most of the features typical of Penrose conference-type ophiolites.
– The mafic complexes have all of the geochemical characteristics set by Dilek and
Furnes (2011) for back-arc supra-subduction ophiolites and hence they are considered
to represent remnants of a continental back-arc basin that developed to the west of the
Kabus ophiolitic melange.
– On the basis of the variation in lithology, geochemistry, inferred tectonic environment
and isotopic characteristics, the low-grade metavolcano-sedimentary sequence and
associated supra-crustal back-arc ophiolite are considered to represent a
Neoproterozoic arc terrane, the ‘Abutulu terrane’, that extends from Abu Zabad in the
north to a few kilometers southwest of Abutulu in the south. These rocks are separated
from the medium-grade gneisses in the east by the Abutulu sinistral shear zone. Its
western boundary against the pre-Neoproterozoic SMC is hidden under the Quaternary
sediments of the Nuba Mountains.
The gneissic unit bounded by the Kabus and the Abutulu sutures, represents
orthogneisses and supracrustal metasediments, both having mineral assemblages of
amphibolite facies of metamorphism. The unit is intruded by syn-orogenic granite. The
geochemistry of both the orthogneiss and synorogenic granite are that of arc-related

143


magmatism. The orthogneiss is considered to have originated from felsic arc volcanism
and synorogenic granite that have features of volcanic arc granite. The εNd values of
both of the orthogneiss and the synorogenic granite are that of depleted mantle similar
to that of the ANS.
The gneiss unit is interpreted as an intra-oceanic arc, developed beneath a westerly
dipping subduction zone to the west of the Kabus suture. The Nd isochron age of six
gneiss samples and the Nd TDM model ages calculated for each sample suggest an
early Neoproterozoic age for the intra-oceanic arc.
– It is possible that the Abutulu Shear Zone represents the eastern edge of the SMC,
approximately 300 km further west than was previously thought (Abdelsalam and
Dawoud, 1991).

144


Acknowledgments.
This work has been carried out at the Department of Geology, Faculty of Natural and
Agricultural Sciences of the University of Pretoria. The work was sponsored by the
Secretary of Academic Affairs, Al Neelain University and the Ministry of Higher
Education and Scientific Research of the Republic of Sudan; they are gratefully
acknowledged.
My special thanks and gratitude goes to my main supervisor professor Adam Bumby of
the University of Pretoria and to my co-supervisor professor Geoffery Grantham of the
University of Johannesburg. Their keen supervision and invaluable advice throughout
the study are highly regarded.
My appreciations are due to Dr, El Sheikh Abdelrahman, Dr Salih Ali, Dr Mohammed
Yahya, Mr Musab El Jah, Mr Waleed Abdel Gabar, Mr Modathar Balaha and Mr Wadah
all of Al Neelain University for their support in different aspects of the study.
Special thanks to Professor Pat Eriksson for providing funds for geochemical analysis.
Dr Richard Armstrong of the Australian National University helped with the SHRIMP
analysis and this is highly appreciated.
The Geological Research Authority of Sudan provided logistical support in two field trips
so they are specially thanks. Mr Musab EL Mahi of Greater Nile Petroleum Operating
Company is thanks for his support in the last field trip.
The National Research Foundation of the Republic of South Africa is thanked for
providing funds for geochronological analysis through professor Adam Bumby.

145


Finally I would like to thanks my extended and small family for their support and patient
during the period of study.

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Appendix 1-1 Methodology:
1-1-1 Photogeology and digital image processing:
The pre-fieldwork phase started with the preparation, enhancement and
interpretation of Landsat images for the purpose of rock type discrimination and
delineation of structures. The data used for digital image processing was Landsat 7
Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) images with 8 visible (reflected light)
bands with 30 m resolution (bands 1-5, 7), a thermal infrared channel with 60 m
spatial resolution (band 6) and a panchromatic band with 15 m spatial resolution
(band 8) and Landsat 8 images with eleven bands; bands 1 - 4 sense visible light,
band 5 are near infrared band (NIR), bands 6 and 7 are shortwave infrared (SWIR),
band 8 is the panchromatic, band 9 measures a very narrow slice of the
electromagnetic spectrum (only 1370 ± 10 nanometers) and bands 10 and 11 are
thermal infrared (TIR). All of the bands have spatial resolution of 30 m except band 8
which is 15 m and bands 10 and 11 which are 100m.
Several techniques were implemented in order to enhance the Landsat 8 sub scene
to a level that was useful for mapping purposes.
A color composite technique: To produce a color composite image any three
bands of the multi spectral bands can be combined together to produce an image.
There are various methods to assist in selecting the proper band combination (Drury,
1993 and Jensen, 1996). In this study a combination of bands (7, 6, and 4) set in the
RGB positions respectively were chosen to produce a false color composite image
(Fig. 1-4) on the basis of testing various bands combination and selecting the one
with the best ability to discriminate between the various rock units.
Contrast enhancement: this is one of the image processing techniques that aims to
improve obscured object data to a more visible status to the interpreter. Contrast
stretching enhancement expands the original bright values of an image to the full
range of the grey values (0 – 255) (Sabins, 1996).
Among the different types of contrast stretching enhancement, a linear stretching
type is used in this study resulting in a more informative image (Fig. 1-5).
HSV Sharpening: is one of the processes that enables the generation of a high-
resolution Landsat color images by merging a high-spatial resolution panchromatic
band and low-spatial resolution multispectral bands. Transformation of the RGB
(Red, Green and Blue) into HSV (Hue, Saturation and Value) color space will replace
the value band with the high-resolution band and will automatically resample the hue
and saturation bands to the high-resolution pixel size, via one of the convolution
techniques. Then the image will be transformed back into RGB color space. The
Landsat 8 image of the study area benefited from the 15m resolution of the
panchromatic (band 8) and the color composite image of bands 7, 5 and 1.
Saturation stretching: to produce a more color-saturated image, the original 3 band
color image was transformed from RGB space to HSV space. The application of a
Gaussian stretch allows the use of the entire saturation range. Finally the HSV data
is transformed back into RGB space. The greater range of color tones in the output
image (Fig. 1-6) helps more in lithological discrimination.
1-1-2 Field Methods: Four field visits were conducted between 2011 and 2015 with
40 days spent on the field. One regional traverse was carried out to link the eastern
and the western part of the Nuba Mountains (Fig. 1-2). The major lithological units of
the study area were examined through three major traverses of approximately 100
km length (Fig. 1-2) and more detail regarding each unit was obtained along shorter
traverses. Planning and execution of these traverses was aided by the use of
Touratech QV navigation software and various Landsat images. The Bahr-alarab
sheet of the Robertson Research International, 1988 maps with scale of 1:100000
were also used for navigation (after being geo-referenced).
1-1-3 Microscopic Analysis:
Over two hundred thin-sections of the different lithologies in the Nuba Mountains
were partly prepared at the laboratories of the Faculty of Petroleum and Minerals of
Al Neelain University and partly at the Geological Research Authority of Sudan
(GRAS). Microscopic examination were subsequently carried out at the Petrography
Lab of the Geology Department of the University of Pretoria to work out the mineral
composition, textural and microstructural characteristics, degree of alteration and
metamorphism and to select representative samples for further chemical analysis.
Figure 1-5: Comparison between (A) unstretched and (B) stretched color composite image of
bands 7, 6 and 4 in RGB using linear contrast enhancement.
Figure 1-6: (A) color composite image of Landsat 8 converted to high spatial resolution
image using hue, saturation and value technique (B) Landsat 8 bands 7, 6 and 4 saturation
stretched image
1-1-4 Geochemical Analysis:
Various chemical analytical techniques were conducted on the selected samples
during this work in order to determine their chemical composition. Depending on the
nature of each analytical technique a certain treatment must be applied to the
powdered sample.
1-1-4-1 Sample preparation: the rocks were prepared for the analysis as follows:
1- Fresh samples were selected and the weathering crust was removed.
2- The samples were split into two halves and then one half was crushed with a
mechanical jaw-crusher.
3- A portion of the crushed material was ground in a Tungsten Carbide milling
vessel to ca. 80% below 75 µm and then stored in plastic bags for further
analysis.
4- An amount of the rock powder was heated at 1000°C to determine the loss on
ignition (LOI) due to expulsion of the chemically bound volatiles by subtracting
the weight of the sample after heating from the weight before heating.
5- For ICP-MS analysis a 500 mg of the sample powder was dissolved in a
mixture of concentrated hydrofluoric acid (HF) and perochloric acid (HClO4) at
the laboratories of the Geological Science Department of the University of
Cape Town and heated to dryness. After cooling, HClO4 diluted with distilled
water was added to form a clear solution. In the case of samples rich in ores
and organic materials it was necessary to add conc. nitric acid (HNO3).
6- For XRF analysis the major elements were measured on a fused bead
following the method of Bennett and Olivers (1992) listed in Loubser and
Verryn (2008). In this method 1g of powder (after heated for LOI) and 6g of
lithium tetraborate (Li2B4O7) were mixed in a 5% Au/Pt crucible and fused at
1000C° in a muffle furnace automated fluxer.
7- Trace elements were measured by XRF on pressed pellets using the method
of Watson (1996). 20g of powder mixed with few drops of polyvinyl alcohol 40-
88 (binder) in a zip-lock plastic bag and then pressed under 20 ton/cm2 in a
collapsible aluminum holder for 2 minutes and then heated at 110 °C until dry.
1-1-4-2 Analytical techniques:
1-1-4-2-1 X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF): is the most widely used analytical method in
determination of major and trace elements of rock samples (Rollinson, 1995). The
technique is capable of analyzing large groups of elements of different
concentrations (up to 80 elements) in a short space of time and with reasonable
accuracy. The technique is based on the irradiation of a sample by X-ray beam
which will excite secondary X-rays (X-ray fluorescence) that have wavelength
characteristics of the elements occurring in the sample. The concentrations of the
various elements under investigations are a function of the intensities of the
secondary X-rays by reference to a calibrated standard.
For major and trace elements analysis, fused beads and pressed pellets of rock
samples were prepared as described in the previous section. The major limitation of
the XRF technique is the inability to analyze elements smaller than Na (atomic
number = 11) as well as inability to analyze certain trace elements eg. most of the
REE.
The instrumentation, the data reduction software and methods and the calibration
references used at the laboratories of the University of Pretoria are detailed in
Loubser and Verryn (2008).
1-1-4-2-2 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS): is an
analytical technique that is capable of analyzing most of the elements in the periodic
table with a low-detection limit with good precision.
The principal of the technique is to convert the atoms of the elements in the sample
into ions through a high temperature source (inductively coupled plasma) and then
these ions will be separated and detected by a mass spectrometer. The ICP source
is a flow of argon atoms heated by the inductive heat of a radio frequency coil. The
temperature of the plasma is about 6000 to 10000°K.
When the sample is introduced to the argon plasma as an aerosol, the high
temperature dissociates the chemical bonds of the sample and the elements in the
aerosol converted into gaseous atoms and then into ions. These ions are then
entered into the mass spectrometer which separates them according to their “mass-
to-charge” ratios through various types of filters (e.g. quadrupole mass filter). When
the ions are separated according to their “mass-to-charge” they are then detected
and counted by a suitable detector which translates the number of ions striking the
detector into an electrical signal that can be measured and related to the number of
atoms of that element in the sample via the use of calibration standards (Wolf, 2005).
Gneiss and Syn-orogenic granite Late-orogenic granite
Sample 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 273 272 24 25 25A 27 91 93 224 275 4 5
SiO2 74.1 64.87 64.24 72.18 75.24 76.78 75 75.06 74.88 71.86 74.14 76.34 74.83 70.91 73.12 74.19 74.11 71.78 72.61 70.24
TiO2 0.15 1.24 1.32 0.34 0.17 0.08 0.11 0.03 0.08 0.44 0.08 0.16 0.18 0.38 0.25 0.15 0.16 0.22 0.27 0.29
Al2O3 13.98 15.29 15.81 14.3 13.64 12.67 14.13 13.74 14.17 14.18 14.08 12.86 12.89 14.17 13.37 12.71 14.42 14.65 14.3 15.62
Fe2O3T 1.15 5.12 5.43 2.49 1.59 1.47 1.08 0.63 0.67 2.43 0.84 1.58 1.89 3.06 2.37 2.05 1.05 1.2 1.89 1.99
MnO 0.03 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.08 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.02
MgO 0.08 1.12 1.31 0.26 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.24 0.01 0.01 0.1 0.17 0.25 0.01 0.07 0.15 0.08 0.13
CaO 0.75 2.62 2.47 0.31 0 0 0.43 0.1 0.7 0.66 0.65 0.85 0.99 1.79 1.03 0.73 0.34 0.43 1.09 1.32
Na2O 3.84 3.58 3.73 3.33 3.13 4.06 3.88 4.22 4.08 2.86 4.16 3.29 3.38 3.01 2.86 4.2 3.51 3.91 3.12 4.1
K2O 4.69 4.83 4.53 5.49 5.6 4.57 4.68 4.3 4.47 6.36 5.59 4.39 5.18 5.56 5.5 5.47 5.8 5.24 5.97 5.78
P2O5 0.02 0.35 0.49 0.08 0.02 0.02 0.01 0 0.02 0.05 0 0 0.04 0.1 0 0.04 0.02 0.04 0 0.08
LOI 0.49 0.68 0.68 0.61 0.74 0.14 0.42 0.45 0.29 0.58 0.41 0.4 0.44 0.22 1.09 0.35 0.5 0.63 0.32 0.21
100.0 100.1
Total 99.28 99.75 6 99.43 7 99.81 99.77 98.62 99.38 99.72 99.96 99.89 99.94 99.43 99.85 99.93 100 98.28 99.7 99.76
1002. 2382. 2512. 1015. 1398. 1113. 1520.

Ba 9 0 5 932.9 403.7 58.2 902.0 83.7 355.7 850.1 298.3 245.7 243.9 740.9 701.5 268.4 0 0 0 0
Rb 139.3 157.1 152.6 195.7 193.1 106.7 78.6 250.9 171.4 156.0 169.0 171.2 169.5 194.7 77.9 119.3 144.3 89.3 165.3 112.8
Sr 186.5 588.8 552.5 122.6 75.5 15.1 157.6 90.5 145.8 555.1 112.3 69.8 69.9 296.6 58.9 39.6 273.0 462.0 170.1 337.8
Y 3.0 30.0 29.6 23.4 22.0 60.4 5.3 45.4 5.7 44.6 10.9 23.3 20.3 12.6 25.8 52.8 3.7 3.7 9.8 6.5
Zr 89.7 688.1 893.0 267.6 179.7 167.8 99.3 35.6 59.3 534.3 69.7 143.2 181.0 173.2 207.6 302.7 129.5 165.5 219.7 264.1
Nb 6.7 16.2 18.4 13.3 13.8 18.6 4.1 14.5 4.4 24.9 8.5 10.4 10.3 8.1 5.1 12.3 3.8 1.7 7.5 3.6
Th 3.0 33.0 37.7 39.5 40.6 18.5 3.0 11.7 15.4 85.1 13.8 43.2 33.8 23.1 15.3 18.2 11.0 12.1 17.3 20.7
Pb 32.9 27.4 16.9 23.7 28.3 20.0 20.1 54.8 47.8 41.9 50.8 21.0 20.7 37.0 8.2 17.7 31.9 25.3 33.6 27.3
Zn 58.7 152.7 157.4 78.4 35.1 88.6 65.9 21.7 65.7 54.0 144.7 51.7 51.9 82.7 42.8 46.4 64.3 38.4 115.6 76.9
Cu 2.0 13.2 6.5 4.6 19.5 2.2 2.9 1.1 1.7 5.5 2.2 4.7 5.2 7.6 23.5 3.3 1.5 2.4 3.2 3.4
Ni 3.0 65.2 3.0 5.9 9.0 13.9 3.0 4.5 4.8 25.5 16.2 5.0 4.8 11.8 13.9 35.7 12.8 16.7 14.2 25.0
V 16.8 52.8 68.7 18.3 10.2 3.3 16.8 2.2 2.2 14.9 1.9 8.1 8.3 15.9 16.8 6.0 5.1 12.5 9.9 9.9
Cr 106.2 37.7 33.1 6.8 55.6 29.3 103.5 3.3 1.7 5.8 24.6 20.4 24.9 17.4 13.0 38.9 3.5 67.2 41.8 21.8
Hf 15.8 6.5 6.3 2.4 2.3 12.4 2.9 5.2 6.6 4.8 10.1 3.8 4.3 6.2 6.7
Ta 1.3 1.0 1.7 2.6 0.4 1.8 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.6 1.2 0.4 0.2 1.2 0.3
Co 2.4 5.4 7.8 2.4 1.4 0.2 2.4 42.4 25.7 0.9 0.1 21.1 21.8 2.4 3.5 1.0 26.6 0.4 37.1 0.5
U 3.0 5.3 5.3 3.0 14.8 9.5 3.0 4.9 9.8 15.2 5.5 10.1 9.9 6.0 3.0 6.0 2.8 1.8 2.9 3.1
Appendix 3-1a Major and Trace element analysis of the gneiss, syn and late-orogenic granite.
Gneiss and Syn-orogenic granite Late-orogenic granite
Sample 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 273 272 24 25 25A 27 91 93 224 275 4 5
La 32.5 171.3 171.0 97.3 38.6 31.3 33.9 7.7 8.5 183.8 15.0 41.4 29.3 49.3 23.8 79.1 26.8 46.8 35.0 61.2
Ce 31.9 344.2 510.8 275.7 80.2 66.4 38.6 10.6 15.2 304.4 26.9 87.8 61.0 94.9 35.7 160.7 49.2 76.5 66.2 113.5
Pr 37.2 9.6 9.3 1.4 1.6 29.5 3.0 9.8 6.8 9.8 17.3 5.2 8.1 7.0 11.6
Nd 129.7 34.8 36.0 5.3 6.2 92.3 11.2 34.9 24.5 32.8 61.7 17.5 25.8 24.5 38.7
Sm 19.3 7.1 9.3 1.6 1.3 13.5 2.8 7.4 5.3 5.2 11.3 2.8 3.1 4.0 5.3
Eu 2.5 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.3 1.8 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.9 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0
Gd 12.1 5.9 10.2 2.8 1.4 10.0 2.8 6.8 5.2 4.0 10.7 1.9 1.7 2.8 3.2
Tb 1.5 0.9 1.7 0.7 0.2 1.4 0.4 1.0 0.8 0.5 1.6 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4
Dy 7.0 4.7 11.3 5.9 1.1 8.4 2.3 5.2 4.4 2.5 10.4 1.0 0.8 1.9 1.7
Ho 1.1 0.8 2.2 1.6 0.2 1.6 0.4 0.9 0.8 0.4 2.0 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.3
Er 2.8 2.2 6.8 6.3 0.6 4.6 1.0 2.3 2.1 1.2 6.0 0.3 0.4 1.1 0.7
Tm 0.4 0.3 1.0 1.1 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1
Yb 2.2 1.9 6.8 9.0 0.4 4.3 0.9 1.8 1.6 1.1 5.7 0.3 0.4 1.2 0.7
Lu 0.3 0.3 1.0 1.5 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
ASI 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.1 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.0
K2O/Na
2O 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.7 1.8 1.1 1.2 1.0 1.1 2.2 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.9 1.9 1.3 1.7 1.3 1.9 1.4
Eu/Eu* - 0.5 - 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.1 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.7
(La/Sm)
N 146.9 4.9 0.7 3.0 1.9 2.6 3.6 7.4 3.0 3.1 3.0 5.2 3.9 5.3 8.2 4.8 6.4
43054
(La/Yb)N 2.3 46.7 0.5 12.2 2.8 0.5 11.9 26.1 10.5 14.3 10.9 27.7 8.4 50.7 77.1 17.1 56.3
ƩREE 69.0 731.6 - 188.0 193.6 55.7 37.2 656.7 67.3 200.3 142.6 203.0 368.8 106.0 164.5 145.7 238.4
Appendix 3-1b REEs analysis of the gneiss, syn and late-orogenic granite
Table 1 Basaltic Pillow Lava Massive Gabbro
Oxides %
Sample 202A 202B 203B 204 205 206A 215 201 206B 207 209 240A 240B 243 244 244A 244B 247 MG GA 216
SiO2 47.51 46.06 47.34 47.98 43.88 45.06 57.26 44.30 44.95 44.14 58.10 48.48 47.44 48.85 48.76 47.53 47.19 46.96 53.31 47.18 54.05
TiO2 1.46 1.34 1.40 1.47 1.50 1.56 0.71 1.33 1.44 1.27 2.72 0.77 0.68 0.78 0.87 0.57 0.74 0.98 0.56 0.25 0.64
Al2O3 17.37 17.18 17.74 17.47 16.88 18.95 15.02 18.70 20.19 20.87 14.36 13.87 16.37 17.46 20.37 17.89 18.19 18.86 14.98 13.97 17.44
Fe2O3 10.14 8.83 10.68 11.13 14.11 12.95 8.31 12.34 13.00 11.31 8.95 10.22 8.59 7.63 6.08 8.13 8.17 8.36 8.37 5.45 7.96
MnO 0.16 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.24 0.23 0.15 0.21 0.21 0.18 0.11 0.24 0.13 0.13 0.11 0.18 0.18 0.13 0.19 0.21 0.18
MgO 5.10 4.33 6.39 5.07 7.45 5.81 5.33 6.91 4.82 5.95 2.12 10.50 9.94 8.80 7.01 8.86 8.84 9.83 9.35 9.52 5.43
CaO 14.68 19.21 12.30 12.89 12.85 12.54 8.49 14.13 12.42 14.49 5.23 14.27 14.51 13.26 13.77 15.33 14.97 11.66 8.73 17.41 9.07
NaO2 2.37 1.45 2.68 2.50 0.67 1.55 3.20 0.66 1.84 0.83 3.22 0.28 0.70 1.35 1.69 0.13 0.14 1.78 3.03 1.75 3.60
K2O 0.31 0.14 0.50 0.45 1.06 0.43 0.31 0.43 0.37 0.31 3.46 0.29 0.15 0.41 0.29 0.11 0.16 0.33 0.21 0.15 0.32
P2O5 0.25 0.24 0.21 0.24 0.05 0.15 0.12 0.02 0.19 0.02 1.11 0.12 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.23 0.11 0.12 0.11 0.00 0.07
LOI 0.66 1.07 0.58 0.63 1.32 0.76 1.10 0.98 0.57 0.63 0.62 0.96 1.43 1.27 0.96 1.05 1.31 0.99 1.17 4.10 1.26
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Total
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sc 35.1 31.0 31.1 32.6 45.1 32.8 18.8 45.1 18.8 31.2 8.7 55.2 23.7 36.3 34.4 35.0 31.7 51.1 15.6 61.3 33.9
V 225 207 217 226 409 360 152 409 198 321 82 288 163 202 232 214 194 270 112 200 193
Cr 243 200 156 221 94.2 30.4 267 94 12 45 21 241 387 923 275 266 935 280 907 774 187
Co 36.6 35.4 30.4 34.8 43.6 34.4 22.1 43.6 38.0 30.6 12.5 48.8 38.4 34.2 21.8 23.2 25.1 40.9 31.8 30.8 20.2
Ni 98.6 133 67.8 83.5 10.9 0 89.8 10.9 0.0 2.6 5.3 70.2 25.7 9.4 38.0 40.5 10.5 44.1 186.2 46.4 23.3
Cu 65.8 109 22.2 28.5 20.2 23.6 26.1 20.2 58.6 71.4 23.7 5.8 21.3 7.3 6.7 12.5 8.9 25.7 80.0 7.2 17.4
Zn 108 73.7 126 156 110 106 63.5 110 103 90 249 192 63 63 73 78 60 66 83 62 68.5
Rb 1.76 2.68 3.02 2.99 34.4 8.81 4.99 34.4 6.4 5.2 126.5 2.0 10.5 15.9 5.0 5.2 14.9 6.6 7.8 4.1 3.95
Sr 624 711 748 901 422 601 371 422 612 599 613 286 316 289 232 241 355 418 325 235 320
Y 27.1 25.2 24.5 27.2 12.2 13.2 29.7 12.2 9.5 8.3 32.9 13.2 15.5 16.7 18.9 21.4 18.8 16.3 20.6 13.6 16.8
Zr 21.7 33.7 19.3 19.5 11.8 11.1 62.9 11.8 7.1 10.6 231 13.4 14.2 51.6 40.3 37.8 58.9 32.9 97.8 22.7 30.7
Nb 2.82 2.56 2.47 2.73 0.71 1.22 3.66 0.7 0.9 0.8 27.5 2.9 1.0 3.1 4.2 3.5 3.1 2.7 4.3 2.0 1.23
Ba 95.1 56.4 227 147 150 117 59.9 149.6 98.2 84.6 1503 78.4 46.3 69.9 33.8 35.2 62.9 45.3 58.0 63.0 131
Hf 1.08 1.28 1.16 1.07 0.59 0.58 1.77 0.6 0.4 0.5 5.4 0.6 0.6 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 1.19
Ta 0.09 0.08 0.15 0.12 0.01 0 0.22 0.0 0.1 0.0 1.1 0.1 0.0 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 0.06
Pb 16.6 6.33 5.76 3.11 5.37 4.09 5.10 5.4 3.3 3.4 28.1 2.8 3.2 3.0 3.0 7.1 3.0 3.0 7.7 6.4 5.94
Th 0.41 0.35 0.46 0.44 0.26 0.34 4.21 0.3 0.2 0.3 26.2 1.2 0.4 3.0 4.3 4.7 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 1.63
U 0.20 0.19 0.31 0.20 0.22 0.29 1.15 0.2 0.2 0.2 5.8 0.9 0.2 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.3 3.0 3.0 0.70
Appendix 3-2a Major and trace elements of the Arid Unit
Table 1 Basaltic Pillow Lava Massive Gabbro
Oxides %
Sample 202A 202B 203B 204 205 206A 215 201 206B 207 209 240A 240B 243 244 244A 244B 247 MG GA 216
La 9.34 7.86 8.10 9.29 2.90 4.72 10.9 2.9 4.1 2.7 167.7 8.3 4.0 17.5 17.1 20.5 15.9 18.1 16.2 18.9 7.21
Ce 25.0 20.9 22.1 25.0 7.39 11.9 24.5 7.4 9.9 6.8 350.9 18.9 10.7 4.9 4.9 4.9 4.9 4.9 4.9 4.9 20.1
Pr 3.62 3.10 3.35 3.68 1.18 1.85 3.36 1.2 1.4 1.0 39.2 2.6 1.6 - - - - - - - 2.20
Nd 17.3 15.1 16.1 17.9 6.44 9.71 15.3 6.4 7.2 5.2 151.4 11.9 8.3 - - - - - - - 9.35
Sm 4.48 4.05 4.31 4.69 2.10 2.77 4.34 2.1 1.9 1.5 23.1 2.9 2.4 - - - - - - - 2.58
Eu 1.69 1.60 1.54 1.57 0.91 1.24 0.98 0.9 1.0 0.7 4.1 0.9 1.0 - - - - - - - 0.83
Tb 0.84 0.78 0.79 0.82 0.39 0.45 0.77 0.4 0.3 0.3 1.8 0.5 0.5 - - - - - - - 0.47
Gd 5.39 4.99 4.90 5.36 2.46 3.13 4.74 2.5 2.1 1.7 15.5 3.1 3.0 - - - - - - - 2.88
Dy 5.16 4.78 4.64 5.06 2.41 2.67 5.13 2.4 1.9 1.7 8.0 2.7 3.0 - - - - - - - 3.06
Ho 1.01 0.95 0.97 1.01 0.47 0.53 1.06 0.5 0.4 0.3 1.3 0.5 0.6 - - - - - - - 0.64
Er 2.92 2.70 2.70 2.90 1.32 1.43 3.22 1.3 1.1 0.9 3.1 1.4 1.7 - - - - - - - 1.89
Tm 0.40 0.37 0.40 0.41 0.18 0.19 0.47 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.2 - - - - - - - 0.29
Yb 2.54 2.37 2.37 2.58 1.11 1.17 3.12 1.1 0.9 0.8 2.1 1.3 1.5 - - - - - - - 1.82
Lu 0.37 0.34 0.38 0.38 0.16 0.17 0.46 4.1 4.8 3.3 6.1 2.9 4.2 - - - - - - - -
La/Nb 3.32 3.08 3.28 3.40 4.07 3.86 2.98 1.4 3.0 2.0 12.5 6.9 3.3 - - - - - - - 5.86
Ce/Pb 1.51 3.30 3.83 8.05 1.37 2.91 4.80 3.3 4.3 3.3 4.8 3.1 6.0 - - - - - - - 3.38
Nb/U 13.81 13.45 8.04 13.58 3.28 4.18 3.18 1.4 2.1 1.8 7.3 2.8 1.7 - - - - - - - 1.76
La/Sm 2.09 1.94 1.88 1.98 1.38 1.71 2.51 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 - - - - - - - 2.80
Sm/Nd 0.26 0.27 0.27 0.26 0.33 0.28 0.28 4.1 4.8 3.3 6.1 2.9 4.2 - - - - - - - 0.28
A.I. 24.1 17.8 31.5 26.4 38.6 30.7 32.6 33.2 26.7 29.0 39.8 42.6 39.9 38.7 32.1 36.7 37.3 43.1 44.9 33.5 31.2
Appendix 3-2b REEs of the Arid Unit
Table 2 Metavolcanics
SAMBLE SK50 SK51 SK52 SK54 SK55 SK28 SK 218 SK 219 SK 254 SK SK 257 SK 258 SK 257A
256Br
SiO2 60.70 42.91 51.66 46.94 52.68 46.49 57.73 53.02 54.45 63.11 59.73 50.43 61.64
TiO2 1.49 0.87 2.16 1.40 1.36 1.66 1.65 1.87 2.37 1.90 1.53 1.26 1.56
Al2O3 14.01 12.42 15.75 16.83 12.10 16.30 12.27 14.66 15.77 17.21 13.75 15.80 14.41
Fe2O3 5.51 15.30 15.11 9.08 11.97 11.17 15.76 14.52 10.95 8.16 13.08 11.08 10.08
MnO 0.07 0.22 0.09 0.18 0.28 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.15 0.18 0.12
MgO 2.57 8.45 3.41 5.61 7.85 8.15 3.38 4.31 3.33 0.78 3.27 4.28 2.13
CaO 5.28 17.41 2.79 8.28 9.71 11.81 1.48 2.07 3.75 0.24 0.75 5.16 1.23
Na2O 6.68 0.00 5.92 2.72 1.88 1.75 4.58 5.41 7.14 0.06 4.29 4.43 5.81
K2O 2.79 0.23 0.16 0.83 0.42 0.71 0.11 0.11 0.28 5.02 0.05 0.77 0.06
P2O5 0.25 0.20 0.54 0.30 0.39 0.12 0.29 0.32 0.53 0.47 0.61 0.24 0.63
LOI 0.65 1.97 2.40 7.84 1.34 1.68 2.69 3.63 1.34 2.96 2.79 6.37 2.32
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Sc 18.5 25.3 20.1 22.6 33.7 24.7 25.3 28.1 28.5 25.8 16.3 27.8 26.03
V 71 115 219 194 223 210 293 285 250 154 69 202 73
Cr 5 462 36 85 165 293 42 34 34 56 10 98 7
Co 9 4 22 19 37 39 13 12 12 11 32 18 27
Ni 0 16 9 34 58 10 9 13 5 19 24 13 3
Cu 31 21 12 8 19 12 27 9 13 22 126 7 50
Zn 28 62 54 100 120 95 45 55 47 28 67 94 61
Rb 14 3 1 10 9 16 1 1 2 84 1 14 3
Sr 64 394 63 496 682 324 54 63 74 41 59 157 71
Y 42 24 65 26 32 36 23 26 76 30 32 16 80
Zr 291 92 343 34 32 131 203 236 483 335 407 173 446
Nb 8 3 8 6 7 5 6 6 10 6 8 3 11
Ba 385 91 35 252 142 123 31 41 63 699 72 217 69
Hf 8 2 9 - - - 5 6 10 8 10 4 -
Ta 1 0 0 - - - 0 0 1 0 0 0 -
Pb 2 3 2 10 13 3 2 2 5 2 2 2 3
Th 6 4 8 3 4 3 4 4 9 7 7 4 4
U 4 3 4 3 5 3 2 2 4 3 3 2 3
Appendix 3-3a Major and trace elements of the Abutulu Unit
Table 2 Continued
La 31.0 21.9 17.1 - - - 12.7 8.9 23.1 41.6 39.2 16.2 31.8
Ce 54.0 56.4 44.3 - - - 34.9 30.6 57.1 81.8 86.1 38.5 123.5
Pr 7.0 8.0 6.5 - - - 5.3 5.3 8.2 12.5 12.1 5.0 -
Nd 29.0 34.4 30.3 - - - 24.7 26.4 39.0 53.9 53.2 22.4 -
Sm 6.9 7.2 9.3 - - - 6.1 7.2 11.1 11.1 11.4 5.5 -
Eu 1.7 1.5 2.2 - - - 1.3 1.4 2.4 2.2 2.1 1.5 -
Tb 1.1 0.8 1.7 - - - 0.7 0.9 2.1 1.1 1.2 0.7 -
Gd 7.0 6.1 11.0 - - - 5.4 6.4 13.4 8.9 9.7 5.2 -
Dy 7.0 4.6 11.3 - - - 4.4 5.0 13.1 5.7 5.8 3.2 -
Ho 1.4 0.9 2.3 - - - 0.9 1.1 2.6 1.1 1.2 0.6 -
Er 4.4 2.4 6.6 - - - 2.7 3.0 7.7 3.6 3.8 1.9 -
Tm 0.6 0.3 0.9 - - - 0.4 0.5 1.1 0.6 0.6 0.3 -
Yb 4.5 2.1 6.1 - - - 2.9 3.3 7.0 4.1 4.6 2.3 -
Lu 0.7 0.3 0.9 - - - 0.5 0.6 1.0 0.7 0.8 0.4 -
La/Nb 3.72 8.09 2.07 - - - 2.31 1.47 2.30 6.93 5.04 4.89 -
Ce/Pb 35.28 17.97 20.92 - - - 20.99 16.16 12.65 45.74 35.26 16.99 -
Nb/U 2.30 0.91 2.12 - - - 3.20 2.71 2.67 2.08 2.62 2.11 -
La/Sm 4.50 3.03 1.84 - - - 2.07 1.24 2.09 3.75 3.45 2.96 -
Sm/Nd 0.24 0.21 0.31 - - - 0.25 0.27 0.28 0.21 0.21 0.24 -
A.I. 30.9 33.3 29.1 36.9 41.7 39.5 36.6 37.2 24.9 95.1 39.7 34.5 23.8
Appendix 3-3b REEs of the Abutulu Unit
Rb Sr 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr 2σ Sri at 778Ma Sm Nd 147Sm/144Nd 143Nd/144Nd 2σ Ndi at 778Ma Nd at 778±90Ma TDM Ma
sk-202a 1.76 624 0.0081 0.703628 0.000013 0.703537 4.48 17.3 0.1566 0.512757 0.000009 0.511919 +6.4±0.5 778
sk202b 2.68 711 0.0109 0.703693 0.000016 0.703572 4.05 15.1 0.1625 0.512779 0.000009 0.511908 +6.2±0.4 802
sk-203b 3.02 748 0.0117 0.704188 0.000012 0.704058 4.31 16.1 0.1618 0.512767 0.000009 0.511900 +6.1±0.4 825
sk-204 2.99 901 0.0096 0.704036 0.000015 0.703930 4.69 17.9 0.1586 0.512757 0.000009 0.511907 +6.2±0.5 807
sk-240 10.5 316 0.0959 0.703415 0.000015 0.702349 2.38 8.26 0.1744 0.512813 0.000007 0.511879 +5.7±0.3 905
sk-240a 1.98 286 0.0201 0.703020 0.000012 0.702797 2.93 11.9 0.1487 0.512663 0.000008 0.511867 +5.3±0.6 899
sk-254 2.28 74.0 0.0892 0.704266 0.000010 0.703275 11.1 39.0 0.1303 0.512798 0.000007 0.511876 +5.7±0.3 859
sk255 36.5 51.0 2.0751 0.721407 0.000012 0.698354 4.23 19.6 0.1242 0.512577 0.000006 0.511880 +5.5±0.8 792
sk256 84.2 41.4 5.9156 0.753392 0.000011 0.687676 11.1 53.9 0.1291 0.512584 0.000008 0.511918 +6.2±0.8 789
sk257 0.56 59.2 0.0274 0.704842 0.000010 0.704537 11.4 53.2 0.1478 0.512611 0.000007 0.511919 +6.3±0.8 854
sk258 14.1 157 0.2605 0.706625 0.000010 0.703732 5.47 22.4 0.1566 0.512678 0.000007 0.511886 +5.7±0.6 778
sk-014 4.15 197 0.0609 0.704823 0.000015 0.704146 4.47 17.2 0.1567 0.512776 0.000006 0.511937 +6.8±0.5 732
Rb Sr 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr 2σ Sri at 976Ma Sm Nd 147Sm/144Nd 143Nd/144Nd 2σ Ndi at 976Ma Nd at 976Ma TDM Ma
SK 25 1.76 624 7.149683 0.783052 0.000010 0.683274 7.394 34.9 0.1275 0.512527 0.000009 0.511911 +6.4±0.5 925
SK 25A 2.68 711 7.072846 0.783399 0.000012 0.684693 5.279 24.54 0.1295 0.512531 0.000009 0.511906 +6.2±0.5 939
SK 27 3.02 748 1.901475 0.719691 0.000015 0.693155 5.211 32.78 0.0957 0.512317 0.000009 0.511911 +6.3±0.8 946
SK93 2.99 901 8.786430 0.787351 0.000010 0.664730 11.26 61.69 0.1099 0.512394 0.000009 0.511773 +6.1±0.6 957
SK231 10.5 316 0.772212 0.711028 0.000015 0.700251 19.28 129.7 0.0895 0.512273 0.000007 0.511767 +6.3±0.8 949
SK234 1.98 286 7.442692 0.760097 0.000024 0.656229 7.13 34.78 0.1234 0.512468 0.000008 0.511770 +5.9±0.5 975
Rb Sr 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr 2σ Sri at 600Ma Sm Nd 147Sm/144Nd 143Nd/144Nd 2σ Ndi at 600Ma Nd at 600Ma TDM Ma
SK4 2.28 74.0 2.816971 0.727191 0.000018 0.703088 4.015 24.53 0.09852 0.512439 0.000007 0.512025 +3.7±0.1 807
SK5 36.5 51.0 0.966498 0.711586 0.000011 0.703316 5.285 38.7 0.08220 0.512380 0.000006 0.512029 +3.8±0.1 776
SK224 84.2 41.4 1.530476 0.715616 0.000011 0.702520 2.787 17.46 0.09608 0.512427 0.000008 0.512038 +3.6±0.1 806
SK275 0.56 59.2 0.559396 0.707869 0.000012 0.703082 3.122 25.77 0.07292 0.512329 0.000007 0.512026 +3.5±0.1 780
Appendix 5-1 Isotopic data for the low and medium-grade rocks and granitoids of the western Nuba Mountains
(1) (1) %
(1) 206
Pb 207
Pb Dis- (1) (1) (1)
% ppm ppm 232
Th ppm / U
238
/ Pb
206
cor- 207
Pb* Pb*
207
Pb*
206
err
Grain.Spot Pbc
206
U Th /238U ±% 206
Pb* Age Age dant /206Pb* ±% /235U ±% /238U ±% corr Th/U Domain
1.1 0.30 2252 41 0.019 2.38 190 603 ±7 593 ±17 -2 0.0602 0.7 0.816 1.4 0.0982 1.2 0.9 0.02 rim
2.1 0.08 350 202 0.597 0.23 30 614 ±10 597 ±22 -3 0.0612 1.5 0.844 1.9 0.1001 1.8 0.7 0.58 core
3.1 3.66 146 59 0.420 0.37 12 574 ±9 564 ±140 -2 0.0574 2.2 0.736 2.4 0.0930 1.8 0.5 0.41 core
3.2 0.84 3110 511 0.170 0.37 256 589 ±6 574 ±21 -3 0.0591 1.0 0.780 1.3 0.0957 1.1 0.7 0.16 rim
4.1 0.20 1654 80 0.050 0.65 142 614 ±8 600 ±13 -2 0.0606 0.4 0.836 1.4 0.1001 1.4 0.9 0.05 rim
5.1 1.91 1679 359 0.221 0.84 142 605 ±10 606 ±52 +0 0.0570 1.9 0.769 2.1 0.0980 1.9 0.6 0.21 rim
6.1 0.11 577 190 0.341 0.23 49 611 ±8 593 ±18 -3 0.0626 0.9 0.861 1.5 0.0997 1.5 0.8 0.33 rim
Errors are 1-sigma; Pbc and Pb* indicate the common and radiogenic portions,
respectively.
Error in Standard calibration was 0.28% (not included in above errors but required when comparing data from different
mounts).
(1) Common Pb corrected using measured 204Pb.
(2) Common Pb corrected by assuming 206Pb/238U-207Pb/235U age-concordance
Appendix 5-2a U-Pb isotopic composition of sample ZR1
(1) (1) %
(1) 206Pb 207Pb Dis- (1) (1) (1)
% ppm ppm 232Th ppm /238U /206Pb cor- 207Pb* 207Pb* 206Pb* err
Grain.Spot 206Pbc U Th /238U ±% 206Pb* Age Age dant /206Pb* ±% /235U ±% /238U ±% corr Th/U Domain
1.1 0.52 185 61 0.338 0.34 19 728 ±8 708 ±49 -3 0.0630 2.3 1.038 2.6 0.1195 1.1 0.4 0.33 core
2.2 0.02 568 153 0.278 0.22 50 624 ±7 626 ±14 +0 0.0606 0.6 0.849 1.3 0.1016 1.1 0.9 0.27 core
2.3 0.45 536 45 0.086 0.37 44 592 ±6 616 ±27 +4 0.0603 1.3 0.801 1.6 0.0963 1.1 0.6 0.08 rim
3.1 1.22 2104 302 0.148 0.31 169 576 ±7 648 ±29 +12 0.0612 1.3 0.789 1.8 0.0935 1.2 0.7 0.14 rim
4.1 0.08 179 31 0.178 1.67 17 692 ±14 684 ±25 -1 0.0623 1.2 0.973 2.5 0.1134 2.2 0.9 0.17 core
5.1 0.28 1225 93 0.079 0.25 100 583 ±6 619 ±14 +6 0.0604 0.7 0.789 1.2 0.0947 1.0 0.8 0.08 rim
5.2 0.00 280 85 0.312 0.28 29 743 ±8 721 ±16 -3 0.0634 0.8 1.068 1.3 0.1221 1.1 0.8 0.30 core
6.1 0.03 1161 103 0.091 0.24 95 586 ±6 604 ±9 +3 0.0600 0.4 0.787 1.1 0.0951 1.0 0.9 0.09 rim
7.1 0.58 6464 1502 0.240 0.09 438 490 ±5 516 ±8 +5 0.0576 0.4 0.627 1.1 0.0789 1.0 0.9 0.23 rim
8.1 0.05 1230 47 0.039 0.35 104 604 ±6 597 ±10 -1 0.0598 0.5 0.810 1.2 0.0982 1.1 0.9 0.04 rim
8.2 0.04 457 195 0.442 0.63 46 716 ±8 733 ±14 +2 0.0637 0.7 1.033 1.3 0.1175 1.2 0.9 0.43 core
9.1 1.70 1123 66 0.061 0.30 91 583 ±6 590 ±47 +1 0.0596 2.1 0.778 2.4 0.0946 1.0 0.4 0.06 rim
10.1 0.14 1507 161 0.110 0.83 129 613 ±6 607 ±15 -1 0.0601 0.7 0.827 1.2 0.0998 1.0 0.8 0.11 rim
11.1 -- 121 23 0.194 0.51 13 737 ±10 745 ±24 +1 0.0641 1.1 1.070 1.8 0.1211 1.4 0.8 0.19 core
12.1 0.53 865 66 0.079 0.63 72 594 ±6 613 ±20 +3 0.0603 0.9 0.803 1.4 0.0966 1.0 0.7 0.08 rim
13.1 2.47 87 29 0.347 0.45 8 631 ±9 863 ±107 +28 0.0678 5.1 0.961 5.4 0.1028 1.6 0.3 0.34 core
Errors are 1-sigma; Pbc and Pb* indicate the common and radiogenic portions, respectively.
Error in Standard calibration was 0.36% (not included in above errors but required when comparing data from different mounts).
(1) Common Pb corrected using measured 204Pb.
(2) Common Pb corrected by assuming 206Pb/238U-207Pb/235U age-concordance
Appendix 5-2b U-Pb isotopic composition of sample ZR2

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The geology of the western Nuba Mountains region, South Kordofan

State, Sudan, with special emphasis on the low-grade Neoproterozoic

Montasir Ahmed Ibinoof Mohammed

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree

In the Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Sciences

THIS THESIS REPRESENTS THE ORIGINAL WORK

OF THE AUTHOR, EXCEPT WHERE SPECIFIC

TO THE WORK OF OTHERS

Dismembered and low-grade metamorphosed occurrences of mafic extrusive and

represent part of an ophiolite sequence with a lower cumulate layer composed of

basaltic-andesite and andesite and a metasedimentary sequence identified as turbidite

Mountains represent a Neoproterozoic oceanic arc/back-arc assemblage. The massive

characterized by LILE enrichment indicating formation in an arc/back-arc environment.

Mountains metavolcanic rocks have εNd values of +5.9 at 778 Ma (average of 12

range from +6.5 to +8.4).

grade orthogneisses and supracrustal metasediments intruded by syn to late-orogenic

interpreted to be evolved from an arc magma source of early Neoproterozoic age

Neoproterozoic were recorded in any of the 19 zircon crystals analyzed.

and possibly assigned to the Abutulu suture zone.

1-2 Physiography and drainage system 3

1-3 Climates and vegetation cover 3

1-4 Socio-economic features 5

1-5 Previous works in the Nuba Mountains 5

1-5-1 Summary of the work of Vail (1973) 5

1.5.2 Summary of the work of Sadig and Vail (1986) 8

1-5-2-1 Lithological succession of Sadig and Vail (1986) 9

1-5-2-2 Field relations observed by Sadig and Vail (1986) 10

1-5-3 Summary of the work of El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981) 11

1-5-3-1 Lithological succession of El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981) 11

1-5-3-2 Structural framework suggested by El Ageed and El Rabaa (1981) 12

1-5-4 The work of Brinkmann (1986) 13

1-5-4-1 Summary of the work of Brinkmann (1986) 13

1-5-4-2 Field relations and stratigraphic successions 13

1-5-5 The work of Abdelsalam and Dawoud (1991) 14

1-5-6 Other studies relevant to the Nuba Mountains 17

1-6 Works on the Saharan Metacraton 17

1-7 The Eastern boundary of the Saharan Metacraton 23

1-8 Present study 24

1-8-1 Statement of the problem 24

CHAPTER 2: REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND PETROGRAPHY 26

2-2 Geology of the western Nuba Mountains 28

2-2-1 Medium-grade gneiss and migmatite 30

2-2-1-1 Ortho-granitic and monzoniitic gneiss 30

2-2-1-2 Low to medium-grade supracrustal meta-sedimentary rocks 33

2-2-2 Syn-orogenic granitoids 36

2-2-3 The Mafic Arid Unit 37

2-2-3-1 Layered gabbros 38

2-2-3-2 Massive gabbros 41

2-2-3-3 Basaltic lavas 42

2-2-4 Low-grade meta-volcanic and meta-sedimentary rocks (Abutulu Unit) 42

2-2-5 Late-orogenic granitoids 45

3-2 Alteration and testing of element mobility 49

3-3 Major and trace element geochemistry 52

3-3-1 Ortho-granitic gneiss and syn-orogenic granite 52

3-3-2 Pillow basalts 60

3-3-3 Massive gabbros 68

3-3-4 Basaltic andesites and andesite meta-volcanics 72

3-3-5 Late-orogenic granitoids 76

CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION OF THE WESTERN