MODERN POLITICAL

AWAKENING IN BIHAR:
Role of Western Education,
Association, Press
and Vernacular Literature
 1

The history of the British rule in India is the history of

oppression and exploitation and uprising and civil disturbance.

The battle of Plassey in 1757, sowed the seeds of British

political supremacy in India and within a century it was narked

by its rapid development. This naturally conducted India through

nanifold processes of transition, i.e., political, economic,

social and cultural, which for many reasons, generated fumes of

discontent leading to secret plots or open revolts against the

growing power of the English in India . The very nature of the

British role resulted in the growth of nationalist sentiments

among the Indians. It produced the material, moral, intellectual

and political conditions for the growth of a powerful national

2
movement .

The British rule in India started with the acquisition of

Bihar, Bengal and Orissa. Thus, it was natural that the earliest

manifestation of the spirit of defiance should have occurred

first in these regions. Bihar remained a constant source of

. challenge to the of British in India. The first challenge against

the British imperialist power came from Ilir Qasim, the Nawab of

Bengal, in 1762-3 and then from a confederacy of three allias Hir

Qasim, Shujauddaulah, the Nawab of Awadh and the Mughal Emperor

Shah Alam II at the battle field of Buxare in 1764^.

1. K.K. Datta, Freedom Movement in Bihar, vol.1 (Govt.of
Bihar, 1957), p.l.

2. Bipin Chandra, Freedom Struggle, pp.2-3.

3. K.K. Datta, Unrest Against British Rule in Bihar, 1831—

1859. (Patna, 1957), p.l.
 1

The history of the British rule in India is the history of

oppression and exploitation and uprising and civil disturbance.

The battle of Plassey in 1757, sowed the seeds of British

political supremacy in India and within a century it was narked

by its rapid developnent. This naturally conducted India throuah

manifold processes of transition, i.e., political, economic,

social and cultural, which for many reasons, generated fumes of

discontent leading to secret plots or open revolts against the

growing power of the English in India . The very nature of the

British role resulted in the growth of nationalist sentiments

among the Indians. It produced the material, moral. Intellectual

and political conditions for the growth of a powerful national

movement 2.

The British rule in India started with the acquisition of

Bihar, Bengal and Orissa. Thus, it was natural that the earliest

manifestation of the spirit of defiance should have occurred

first in these regions. Bihar remained a constant source of

challenge to the of British in India. The first challenge against

the British imperialist power came from tlir Qasim, the Nawab of

Bengal, in 1762-3 and then from a confederacy of three allias Nir

Qasim, Shujauddaulah, the Nawab of Awadh and the Mughal Emperor

Shah M a m 11 at the battle field of Buxare in 1764^.

1. K.K. Datta, Freedom Movement in Bihar, vol.1 (Govt.of

Bihar, 1957), p.l.

2. Bipin Chandra, Freedom Struggle, pp.2-3.

3. K.K. Datta, Unrest Against British Rule in Bihar, 1831—

1859. (Patna, 1957), p.l.
 The history of modern political awakening among the people

of Bihar was accompanied by a series of political events leading

to the liberation of India from the British rule. The Kol

4
insurrection in 1831-33 in Chotanagpur . The Patna conspiracy of

1846 , and the Santhal insurrection of 1855-57 , are notworthy In

the revolt of 1857-59 Bihar played a very significant role

under the inspiring leadership of Babu Kunwar Singh, Araar Singh,

Sheikh Bhikhari, Peer Ali, Rabat All, Peer Bakah and others who

had carried the message of the movement inside and outside Bihar
7
very successfully . The revolt of 1857 was a mass movement with
popular support of the Sepoys and peasants both Hindus and

Muslims, who carried out the movement to every nook and corner of

Bihar John Kaye believeci that the prime movers in the rebellion

of 1857 were the Muslims while Brown held that they were mostly

Uahabies of Patna who aimed at overthrowing the British

Government from India and wanted to re-establish the Muslim rule

xn India .

4. Datta, Unrest Against British Rule in Bihar, pp.10-16.

5. Ibid., pp. 17-18.

6. Ibid., pp. 19-28.

7. K.K.Datta, Biography of Kunttar Singh and Amar Singh (Patna,

1957), pp. 59-78. See also, Datta, Unrest Against British
Rule in Bihar, pp. 41-54.

8. J.K. Thakur, "Movement of 1857-58 in Tirhut* in the Journal

of Bihar Reseach Society, Patna 1975, vol. LXI, p. 105.

9. Mushirul Haque, Muslim Politics in Modern India 1857-1947

CMeerut, 1970), pp. 153-54. See also Muzaffar Imam Role of
Muslims in the National Movement (Delhi, 1987), p. 14.
(Hereafter, Role of Muslims)
 3

As th« nuslins ver« considered more agaressive and nilitant,

the heavy hands o£ the Britishers fell upon then more heavily and

harshly than on the Hindus. It was really a very tragic event in

the history of the nuslins Indian that everyone of then was

considered a rebel or suspected as a Uahabi, a conspirator and an

eneny of British rule in India. This a conspirator and an eneay

of British rule in India. This was followed by a period of

econonic ruin, intellectual stagnation and general degeneration

of the Muslins of India The British also looked upon the

Muslins "as their opponents - hostile to their rule and tried to

suppress then" . For the expansion of the new power and its

continuance" says M. Noanan, "the only course was to crush the

Musalnan", and the governnent "deliberately adopted policies

which had their aim the economic ruin of the Muslim and their

intellectual stagnation and general degeneration" 12 It was Sir

Syed Ahmad who realized the need of the times and started a

cultural renaissance among the Muslins of India by providing then

facilities of studying nodern science and technology. On the

other side he wrote Asbab-i-Baganat-i Hind and the Loyal

Hahommadans by which he clarified the cause of the revolt and

proved that the Muslims were not anti-British and tried to

fulfill the gap between the two the ruler and ruled.

10. M. Noaman, Muslims India s Rise and Gronth of All India

Muslim (Allahabad, 1942), p. 23.(Hereafter, Muslim India).

11. G.N.Singh Landmark in Indian Constitutional and National

Development vol.1, (Delhi, 1963), p.170.

12. Noaman, Muslim India, p. 23.

 In. the nodern history o£ India, the political awakenin£ has

been traced from Ben£al first which subsequently helped other

provinces in the firowth of political, social and intellectual

consciousness. The centre of political activity then shifted froa

Bengal to Bihar which soon held a high position in the political

set-up of India. It was a significant aspect of the history of

Bihar that the beginnins of social and political consciousness

appeared first anong the Muslins and Kayasthas of Bihar who took

the lead in the political salvation of the province . The

Nusliais of Bihar were keen to opt nodern education. No wonder,

Bihar had a galaxy of good Huslin leaders by the end of 19th

century and the beginning of the 20th century. They went abroad

and brought in new ideas on liberty and denocracy fron the

Uest. They were Syed Abdullah, Haulvi Abdul Hasan Khan. Haulvi

Sharafuddin, Haulvi Sakhawat Hussain, Khuda Bakhsh, Nurul Hoda,

Hazharul Haq, Hasan Inan, Ali Inan and nany others .

The emergence of educated aiddle class in Bihar created an

anti-Bengali aovenent which led to the separation of Bihar fron

Bengal. This anti-Bengali sentiment created an unprecedented

unity among the non-Bengali population - the Hindus, Muslins and

13. Datta and Jha, Comprehensive History o-f Bihar, vol. Ill,
pt. I, p. 228.

14. P.N. Ojha (ed.). History of Indian Hational Congress in

Bihar, 1885-1985 (Patna, 1985), p. 10 (hereafter, Indian
National Congress in Bihar) See also Datta
C^d.),Comprehensive History of Bihar vol.Ill, pt II, CPatna.
1976), p. 103.
others speaking different dialects. An Urdu Nonthly Al—Hadi had

rightly observed the Bengali dominance: "in addition to the

govarfuient of the British there was a governaient of the Bengalis

because Calcutta had a nodern university but Bihar had none"

The Benglis and enigrated to Bihar in large nuabers and had

captured almost all the fields of enployvent like educational

institution. Governsent Offices, the railways, etc. The Biharis

and had been left merely with a handful of clerical Jobs. .The

•ducated Biharis disliked then for "Swamping the collectorates,

the courts, the police offices and schools like locusts,

depriving the local people of the Job opportunities" The detail

has been discussed elsewhere. The political consciousness among

the people of Bihar was reflected in the activities of the

leaders of the public opinion. Khuda Bakhsh gave up his

government Job and started his legal practice at Patna. Later on,

he became the vice-chairman of the Patna Hunicipality and of the

Patna District Board and set up the famous Khuda Bakhsh O.P.

Library in Patna. 17

15. i4i-Madi, April-Hay, 1891,Quoted in OJha, Indian Hmtional

Congress in Bihar,p.10.

16. TheBihar Band/iu,February 11.1860, Cited in Indian National

Congress in Bihar,p.11.

17. S.P.Sen(ed.),Dictionary of National Biography,vol.11,pp.3A5-A6

EDUCATION AND PRESS

Two other factors were also responsible for the growth of

new political consciousness anong the people of Bihar, i.e.,

Uestern education and the Press Ifi. The Western education brought

about certain very important developnent and far-reaching

changes 19 . In the beginning, there was sose resistance to English

education as it was considered to be a aeans of conversion to

Christianity 20 . Slowly and gradually the Kayasthas and the

Husliais took to English education. For the Mualias it was Sir

Syed Ahnad Khan who tried to enlighten the Hualins by propagating

the ifltportance of the Uestern education and checked the

intellectual bankruptcy from the Muslim community. Very soon some

other contemporary leaders like Abdul Latif, Ameer Ali, Nawab

Mohsin-ul-Hulk, Nawab Viqar-ul Hulk, Aftha Khan, Shibli Nomani.

Suleman Nadvi, Khuda Bakhsh, Syed Sharfuddin and others felt the

deteriotion position of the Huslims and decided to promote

English education among the Muslims 21

18. J.R.tlclance, The Political Amekening in India, (Englewood

Cliffs,1970),p.30.

19. S.N.Bose,T/)e Indian Anekening and Bengal (Calcutta. 1960) ,

p.77-

20. S.R.nehrotra,r/>e Emergence of Indian National Congress

(Delhi,1971),p.240.see also , B.B. Hiara, The Indian Middle
Class (Delhi, 1961), p.158.

21. Peter Hardly. The Muslim of British India, (CUP, London,

1972), pp. 72-80.
 7

The Huslins of Bihar were also influenced by the new ideas

of educational reforns propagated by Sir Syed Ahnad Khan. The

Huslims of Bihar also made similar attenpts to popularize Uestern

education and worked for intellectual development. There were a

large number of Hadrasas and Maktabs in the different district of

Bihar where they were imparting traditional religions teaching,

now they turned to modern education and learning 22

To promote the English education in Bihar, "the Huhammadan

Education Committee* was formed at Patna in Harch 1884 with the

main objective to induce and encourage modern education and

science among the Muslims youth of Bihar. It had planned to start

new schools and colleges to impart Uestern education. On the

pattern of Aligarh Collegiate School, the Huhammadan Anglo-Arabic

school was founded in the Patna city in 1884 and many other

schools were opened in Bihar to promote Muslim education 23 . Up to

1845, there were only five schools in Bihar, one at Patna with

102 students, Muzaffarpur with 21 students. Bhaghalpur with 193

students. Chaibasa with 60 students and Chotanagpur with 110

24
students

22. Datta and Jha, Comprehensive History of Bihar, vol. III.,

Pt. II, pp. 357-58.

23. Qeyamuddin Ahmad,^Hohanmadan Educational Committee, Patna,

1884' Souvenir, 4th All India Muslim Educational Conference,
Patna, 1973, pp. 41-48.

24. B.B. llajumdar, Indian Political Association and Reform of

Legislature 1818-1917 (Calcutta, 1965), p.88.
 g

Uhile Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was leadins the nuslins alonft the

path of modernity, at the same time Bihar showed that they did

not want to fall behind others on the path of educational

progress. Bihar witnessed the foundation of many societies in the

later half of the 19th Century. The first literacy society the

Anjuman Islamia was established at Arrah in August, 1986. The

Chief patrons of the society were Uaris Ali Khan, Babu Surajmal,

Khwaja Fakhruddln, Nunshi Ahmad Husain and Khuda Bakhsh Khan of

Patna. The society was open to both the communities, the Blndus

and the Muslims. It played an important role in field of literary

activity in Bihar^^. Syed Imdad Ali started the Bihar Scimntific

Society at Nuzzaffarpur in Nay 1868 with the similar aims and

objectives as thofie of Sir Syed Ahmad's Scientific Society of

Ghazipur. The society had about 500 members. Both the Hindus and

the Muslims supported the society. It had its many branches in

Gaya, Patna, Bhagalpur and Honghyr 26 . The another society called

the Aajuman-e Tahzib was founded at Huzaffarpur. Its main

objective was to organize educational and cultural activities in

the province. At Patna a society was organized to impart social

and cultural reforms to the Muslims of Bihar. A school named

Hadrasa Zubdatul Hadaris was founded. Uilayat Ali was its

25. J.S. Jha, ^Origin and Development of Cultural Institution in

Bihar' in the Journal of Historical Research Society,
Ranchi, 1965, vol.VIII. p. 35.

26. Or. Shamim Ahmad 'Nuzaffarpur Scientific Society' Souvenir

4th All India Muslim education Conference, Patna, 1973,
pp.69-73.
president and All Shad was its Secretary. It waa educating the

people up to entrance examination 27

A few more Scientific and literary societies cane into

existence in Patna. They were the Bihar literary Society (1873).

the Bihar Association (1871) and the Bihar Upkar Sabha (1876).

These societies worked for the welfare of all classes 28 . The

nohaiiunadan Educational Conitittee, Patna, was founded in 1884 on

the pattern of H.A.O. College, Aligarh. A Darul-ul-ulum was set

up at Bankipur (Patna) on the Deoband pattern which helped in the

development of education in Bihar. Even the Muslims of Bihar

founded Sir Syed Memorial Fund and generously contributed towards

29

the fund . The foundation of all these associations and

institutions were a clear manifestation of the Muslim

consciousness of education which produced so many great sons who

devoted their whole life for the cause of independent India.

Like the Muslims, the Hindus of Bihar had also founded many

associations like ^Suddar Anjuman-i Hind, the Kayastha Sabha the

Bihar Landholders' Associations (1978), the Bihar Indigo

Planters' Association (1878) and the Anglo-Indian Defence

Association

27. Shah Azimabadi, Shad Ki Kahani Shad Ki Zabani (Urdu), p.70.

28. Qeyamuddin Ahmad,'nohaounadan Education Committee, Patna',

1884, pp.46-48.

29. Imam, Role of Muslims, p.21.

30. Datta and Jha, Comprehensive History of Bihar, Vol.III,

Pt.I, p. 230.
 10

In the early phase of the ntovenent ,'all the Anjumans and the

Associations took leading part in representing genuine grievances

and interest of the people before the governinent.

The press as we know today was, however, brought to India in

the wake of Uestern ideas and civilization. The invention of the

printing press revolutionized the whole Europe by propagating

inforaation of day to day events. In India, the developnent of a

free press is one of the renarkable features of the 19th century

awakening which created aodern political consciousness aaong the

Indian people.

The printing-press played a vital role in inspiring the

birth of newspapers. In India, since the Britishers cane to

Bengal and settled over there, it received .the earliest inpact of

Uestern civilization.

The first printing-press was set up in Calcutta in 1778 by

Augustus Hicky who published the first English newspaper in India

The Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser which appeared

on January 29, 1780. The Bengal Gazette became famous as the

"Hicky Gazette" 31 Hicky described his paper as "A weekly

Political and Commercial paper, open to all parties but

influenced by none" 32 . But due to his outspoken criticism of the

31. N. Kumar, Journalism in Bihar (Govt, of Bihar, Patna, 1971),

pp. 9-10. See also M.K. Chanda, History of the English
Press in Bangal 1780-1857. (New Delhi, 1987), p.l.

32. Chanda, History of The English Press in Bengal, p.l

 11

government, officials and scurrilous attacke on Uarren Hastings,

the then Governor - General the Hicky press was seized in 1782 33

Hicky's weekly was followed by several others newspapers in

English and Vernacular languages. Mention nay be made of the

34 35 3£
India Gazette , the Calcutta Gazette , the Bengal Journal , the
Oriental Magazine or the Calcutta Anusenent 37 , the Asiatic
3fi 39
niscellany , the Calcutta Chronicle and General Advertiser

A number of newspapers and periodicals were started in English

and Indian languages. They played a significant role in the

creation of Indian Nationalism and freedom struggle. During that

period many vernacular papers from Bengal were brought out. They

were: SuJabh Samachar started by Keshav Chandra Sen, a Brahmo

33. Chanda, History of English Press, p.3.

34. The Indian Gazette or the Calcutta Public Advertiser came

.out on November 18,1780 by Peter Reed, a salt ugent and B.
nessinck associated with the Calcutta Theatre.

35. Francis Gladurin, an Officer of the East India Company

Started the Calcutta Gazette which came in March, 1784.

36. The Publication of the Begal Journal commenced in February

1785. It was a weekly periodical edited by Uilliam Duane.

37. The Publication of the Oriental Magazine came out on April

6, 1785 by M/S Godon and Hay. It was a monthly periodical.

38. Asiatic Miscellany was a quarterly periodical. Its first

number came in September, 1785. (See Chanda History of the
English Press, pp.14-16.

39. The Calcutta Chronicle and General Advertiser came into

publication in January 1786.
 12

Samaj leader, in 181740, Dig Darshan41, Samvad Kaumudi42 and

Samachar Darpan

After the revolt of 1857, Ishwar Chandra Vldyaaaftar and

Dwitrika Nath Vidyabhuaan started the Shome Prakash with political

objectives. Many other newspapers and Journals of great

laiportance appeared from Bengal. For exaaple Gram Varta

Prakashika^* Amrita Bazar Patrika,*^ Bangadoota*^, Bihar

Baitdhu*^, Bharat Hitra'*^ and Sttatantrata*^, etc.

40. N.Kunar Journalism in Bihar,?.36.

41. The Dig Darshan a nonthly nagazine was started by the

Baptist missionaries at Seranpur in April 1818.(see N.Kuaar,
Journalism in Bihar, p.37.

42. The *Samyad-Kaumudi* a Bengali weekly was started by Bhandari

Chandra Banerjee in Decenber 1821, for the politics and
social purposes (see N.Kuaar, Journalism in Bihar}, p.37.

43. The Samachar Darpan , a Bengali weekly magazine started by

the Baptist nissionaries at Seranpur in June 1818 , (see
N. Kumar, Journalism in Bihar"), p. 38.

44. The Gram Varta Prakashika was founded by Harinath

Mazundar in April, 1863.

45. The Amrita Bazar Patrika appeared as a Bengali weekly,

later on some pages were devoted for English . The three
brothers Henant Kunar, Shishir Kunar and Ilotilal Ghosh
launched this venture and the first issue of this paper
appeared on April 22, 1874. This paper prompted the
nationalist aspiration for freedom movement.

46. The Bangdoota was founded and edited by Raja Ram Rohan
Roy which appeared on Hay 10,1829.

47. The Bihar Bandhu was founded by Bal Krlshan Bhatt with
Keshawram Bhatt in 1872 in Calcutta.

48.The Bharat Hitra was started by Durga Prasad Hishra and

Pandit Chhotelal Mlahra.on May 17 ,1878. Earlier this paper
was forthnightly but turned into a weekly from its 10th
issues. It became daily in 1897.

49. The Smatantrata appeared on August 4, 1920 , as a daily and

was edited by Amblka Prasad Bajpai. It throws light on
national views on Gandhlan era. .pl58
 13

The firowth of inodQrn vernacular newspapers and journals

specially in Bihar assumed a central place in the history of the

freedom movement. First such newspaper was an Urdu Ueekly the

Urdu Akhbar published in 1810 from Calcutta and was edited by

naulvi Akram All 50 The next weekly was Hoor—ul AnMar published in
51
1853 by Syed Hohammad Hashim from Arrah . Uilliam Tayler, the

Commissioner of Patna took a special interest in the publication

of an Urdu weekly named Akhbar-i Bihar which cane to lisht on

September 3, 1856. His main aim was to educate the people and for

that he provided all the facilities to promote the circulation of

the paper. 52
53
The Bihar Scientific Society was primarily devoted to the

translation work. But later on it started a monthly newspaper in

Urdu AkbharuJ Akhyar under the joint editorship of Hunshi

Surajmal and Rai Sohan Lai. Later on, Hunshi Surajmal started

another Urdu Journal Chashm-i 54

Urn in 1875

The first English as well- as Hindi newspaper of Bihar

started in the Year 1872. It was the Bihar Herald', an Enslish

50. N.Kumar ,Journalism in Bihar p.48.

51. Ibid.

52. Ibid.

53. It was Syed Imdad All who founded "Bihar Scientific

Society' at Huzaffar pur in Hay 1868 with the similar aims
and objectives that was of Sir Suyed Ahmad Khan , Scientific
Socieity at Gazipur (see Imam, Role of Huslims , p.21).

54. N.Kumar , Journalism in Bihar, p.50.

55. The Bihar Herald was started by Babu Guru Prasad Sen, a
leading Lawyer of Patna, with the cooperation of Babu
Saligram singh, Govinda Charan and othbers.Csee Journalism in
Bihar, pp.50-51.
 14

newspaper and the Bihar Bandhu', a Hindi Ueekly from Patna and

Calcutta respectively. In 1874, its printing-press was shifted to

Patna which played an important role in the public life of Bihar.

Another English weekly. The Indian Chronicle started from

Patna in 1881, Bihar Patriot in 1884. Kayastha Gazette in 1869 by

Babu Hahesh Narayan, Bihar Times, in 1894 which later on became

famous as the Beharee. This paper played a very importamt role in

the agitation for the separation of Bihar from Bengal. The

Express was started in 1913. Th^Motherland' started by Hazharul

Haque in 1921, the * Indian Nation' founded by Kameshwar Singh in

February 1931.^^

Bihar being a predominantly Hindi-Speaking region the absence

of Hindi newspaper was noticed. The first Hindi paper published

from Patna was the Bihar Bandhu, in 1874. It was followed by a

number of newspapers and journals like "Motichur', Hindi Gazette,

Vinoda, Bhasha Pradash, Harishchandra Kala, Udyog, Shiksha, Sarva

Hitaishi"^^.

Besides these papers other papers and journals appeared in

the different parts of Bihar. From Arrah the Nagari Hitaishi

Patrika, Sahitya Patrika and a monthly magazine. Manor anjan,

Mithila Hihir from Darbhanga, Khadi Sevak' and Dharmavarta' from

Madhubani, 'Aryavarta' from Ranchi, the Kishan', Haldhar', and

56 The Bihar Bandhu had been founded by Keshava Ram Bhatt and
his younger brother Hadan Hohan Bhatt under the editorship
of nunshi Hasan All (see Kumar, Journalism in Bihar"), p. 64.

57. See Kumar Journalism in Bihar, pp. 50-62.

58. Ibid, pp. 64-86

 15

PaJanu Samacbar ' " Aryavarta' from Rsinchi, the Kishan', Haldhar ',

and Palamu Samachar, from Daltansanj (Palamu), 'Yugantar' from

Jharla (Dhanbad), "Saran Saroj', Hahila Darpan, and Saptahik

Vijaya', from Saran, *Tirhut Samachar' and Satyug', from

Husaffarpur.

Beside these newspapers, revolutionary papers containing

seditious articles aftalnst British laperlallsn were propagatlns

mass awareness. The "Yugantar, the first and the most militant,

the revolutionary paper of Calcutta was started in 1906 by

Barindra Kumar Ghosh and Abinash Chandra Bhattacharya. This

paper in its issue of 16th June, 1907, contained two articles

entitled "Away with Fear", and "The Medicine of the Big Stick"

for which Bhupendra Nath Dutt, the editor, was prosecuted.

Moreover, the earlier articles of this paper discussed the

economic aspects. In one such article, we come across the

following: "the foreigners manage by artifice to obtain and take

away the wealth of the country and everything substantial in it,

and throw the Indian, reduce them to skeletons, into the horrid

jaws of famine, pestilence and poverty... why should he who was

born a man and of a man, die like a worm ? ... if you cannot show

yourself a man in life, show yourself one In death. That is the

teaching of the times". 62

59. Ibid.

60. J.C. Ker, Political Trouble in India, pp.69.

61. Ibid.

62. Ibid. pp.72-73.

 IS

The revolutionary secret societies have been described in its

issue of IS July 1907, entitled" shall ve be able" ? This paper

contained many articles which created a sensation among the

masses as "Hindu Heroism in the Punjab" , the first Indian war

of independence", the Bengali's Bomb and the Traitor's

extirpation"**

Horeover, the Sandhya , the Bandematram and the

Karamayogin were also revolutionary papers which endeavoured to

develop public consciousness among the masses about the nature of

the British Government. These papers were declared extremely

dangerous by the British rulers as they contained seditious

articles.

63. The same article appeared in its issue of December 14, 1907.
See J.C. Ker, Political Trouble in India, pp.76.

64. See in its issue Hay 2, 1908, J.C. Ker, Political Trouble
in India pp. 76-77.

65. Ibid., p. 77

66. Ibid., p. 76.

67. The Sandhya was very closly associated with the yugantar.
This paper was edited by Brahmo Bandhap Upadhyaya, printed and
published by Haricharan Das on Sept. 3, 1907. (See J.C. Ker,
Political Trouble in India), pp. 76-77.

68. The Bandeaatram was an English daily which was started in

November, 1906 by Arabindo Ghosh. The paper was intended
to appeal to the educated class of readers about the then
Government.

69. The Karamyogin (The Devotee of Action) Hagazine was started

by Arabinodo Ghosh in June 1909. (see J.C. Ker, Political
Trouble in India, p.87.