Hydraulic machinery

Hydraulic machines are machinery and tools that use liquid fluid power to do simple
work. Heavy equipment is a common example.
In this type of machine, hydraulic fluid is transmitted throughout the machine to
various hydraulic motors and hydraulic cylinders and becomes pressurised according to the
resistance present. The fluid is controlled directly or automatically by control valves and
distributed through hoses and tubes.
The popularity of hydraulic machinery is due to the very large amount of power that can be
transferred through small tubes and flexible hoses, and the high power density and wide
array of actuators that can make use of this power.
Hydraulic machinery is operated by the use of hydraulics, where a liquid is the powering
medium.

Force and torque multiplication

A fundamental feature of hydraulic systems is the ability to apply force or torque
multiplication in an easy way, independent of the distance between the input and output,
without the need for mechanical gears or levers, either by altering the effective areas in two
connected cylinders or the effective displacement (cc/rev) between a pump and motor. In
normal cases, hydraulic ratios are combined with a mechanical force or torque ratio for
optimum machine designs such as boom movements and track drives for an excavator.
Examples
Two hydraulic cylinders interconnected
Cylinder C1 is one inch in radius, and cylinder C2 is ten inches in radius. If the force exerted
on C1 is 10 lbf, the force exerted by C2 is 1000 lbf because C2 is a hundred times larger in
area (S = πr²) as C1. The downside to this is that you have to move C1 a hundred inches to
move C2 one inch. The most common use for this is the classical hydraulic jack where a
pumping cylinder with a small diameter is connected to the lifting cylinder with a large
diameter.
Pump and motor
If a hydraulic rotary pump with the displacement 10 cc/rev is connected to a hydraulic rotary
motor with 100 cc/rev, the shaft torque required to drive the pump is 10 times less than the
torque available at the motor shaft, but the shaft speed (rev/min) for the motor is 10 times
less than the pump shaft speed. This combination is actually the same type of force
multiplication as the cylinder example (1) just that the linear force in this case is a rotary
force, defined as torque.
Both these examples are usually referred to as a hydraulic transmission or hydrostatic
transmission involving a certain hydraulic "gear ratio".
Hydraulic circuits
For the hydraulic fluid to do work, it must flow to the actuator and/or motors, then return to a
reservoir. The fluid is then filtered and re-pumped. The path taken by hydraulic fluid is called
a hydraulic circuit of which there are several types. Open center circuits use pumps which
supply a continuous flow. The flow is returned to tank through the control valve's open
center; that is, when the control valve is centered, it provides an open return path to tank and
the fluid is not pumped to a high pressure. Otherwise, if the control valve is actuated it routes
fluid to and from an actuator and tank. The fluid's pressure will rise to meet any resistance,
since the pump has a constant output. If the pressure rises too high, fluid returns to tank
through a pressure relief valve. Multiple control valves may be stacked in series [1]. This type
of circuit can use inexpensive, constant displacement pumps.
Closed center circuits supply full pressure to the control valves, whether any valves are
actuated or not. The pumps vary their flow rate, pumping very little hydraulic fluid until the
operator actuates a valve. The valve's spool therefore doesn't need an open center return
path to tank. Multiple valves can be connected in a parallel arrangement and system
pressure is equal for all valves.

A simple open center hydraulic circuit.

Constant pressure and load-sensing systems
The closed center circuits exist in two basic configurations, normally related to the regulator
for the variable pump that supplies the oil:
Constant pressure systems (CP-system), standard. Pump pressure always equals the
pressure setting for the pump regulator. This setting must cover the maximum required load
pressure. Pump delivers flow according to required sum of flow to the consumers. The CP-
system generates large power losses if the machine works with large variations in load
pressure and the average system pressure is much lower than the pressure setting for the
pump regulator. CP is simple in design. Works like a pneumatic system. New hydraulic
functions can easily be added and the system is quick in response.
Constant pressure systems (CP-system), unloaded. Same basic configuration as
'standard' CP-system but the pump is unloaded to a low stand-by pressure when all valves
are in neutral position. Not so fast response as standard CP but pump lifetime is prolonged.
Load-sensing systems (LS-system) generates less power losses as the pump can reduce
both flow and pressure to match the load requirements, but requires more tuning than the
CP-system with respect to system stability. The LS-system also requires additional logical
valves and compensator valves in the directional valves, thus it is technically more complex
and more expensive than the CP-system. The LS-system generates a constant power loss
related to the regulating pressure drop for the pump regulator :

The average is around 2 MPa (290 psi). If the pump flow is high the extra loss can
be considerable. The power loss also increases if the load pressures vary a lot. The cylinder
areas, motor displacements and mechanical torque arms must be designed to match load
pressure in order to bring down the power losses. Pump pressure always equals the
maximum load pressure when several functions are run simultaneously and the power input
to the pump equals the (max. load pressure + ΔpLS) x sum of flow.

Five basic types of load-sensing system

• Load sensing without compensators in the directional valves. Hydraulically controlled LS-
pump.
• Load sensing with up-stream compensator for each connected directional valve.
Hydraulically controlled LS-pump.
• Load sensing with down-stream compensator for each connected directional valve.
Hydraulically controlled LS-pump.
• Load sensing with a combination of up-stream and down-stream compensators.
Hydraulically controlled LS-pump.
• Load sensing with synchronized, both electric controlled pump displacement and electric
controlled valve flow area for faster response, increased stability and fewer system
losses. This is a new type of LS-system, not yet fully developed.
Technically the down-stream mounted compensator in a valve block can physically be
mounted "up-stream", but work as a down-stream compensator.
System type (3) gives the advantage that activated functions are synchronized independent
of pump flow capacity. The flow relation between 2 or more activated functions remains
independent of load pressures, even if the pump reaches the maximum swivel angle. This
feature is important for machines that often run with the pump at maximum swivel angle and
with several activated functions that must be synchronized in speed, such as with
excavators. With type (4) system, the functions with up-stream compensators have priority.
Example: Steering-function for a wheel loader. The system type with down-stream
compensators usually has a unique trademark depending on the manufacturer of the valves,
for example "LSC" (Lined Hydraulics), "LUDV" (Bosch Rexroth Hydraulics) and "Flow
sharing" (Parker Hydraulics) etc. No official standardized name for this type of system has
been established but Flow sharing is a common name for it.

Open and closed circuits

Open-loop: Pump-inlet and motor-return (via the directional valve) are connected to the
hydraulic tank. The term loop applies to feedback; the more correct term is open versus
closed "circuit". Open center circuits use pumps which supply a continuous flow. The flow is
returned to the tank through the control valve's open center; that is, when the control valve is
centered, it provides an open return path to the tank and the fluid is not pumped to a high
pressure. Otherwise, if the control valve is actuated it routes fluid to and from an actuator
and tank. The fluid's pressure will rise to meet any resistance, since the pump has a constant
output. If the pressure rises too high, fluid returns to the tank through a pressure relief valve.
Multiple control valves may be stacked in series. This type of circuit can use inexpensive,
constant displacement pumps.
Closed-loop: Motor-return is connected directly to the pump-inlet. To keep up pressure on
the low pressure side, the circuits have a charge pump (a small gearpump) that supplies
cooled and filtered oil to the low pressure side. Closed-loop circuits are generally used for
hydrostatic transmissions in mobile applications. Advantages: No directional valve and better
response, the circuit can work with higher pressure. The pump swivel angle covers both
positive and negative flow direction. Disadvantages: The pump cannot be utilized for any
other hydraulic function in an easy way and cooling can be a problem due to limited
exchange of oil flow. High power closed loop systems generally must have a 'flush-valve'
assembled in the circuit in order to exchange much more flow than the basic leakage flow
from the pump and the motor, for increased cooling and filtering. The flush valve is normally
integrated in the motor housing to get a cooling effect for the oil that is rotating in the motor
housing itself. The losses in the motor housing from rotating effects and losses in the ball
bearings can be considerable as motor speeds will reach 4000-5000 rev/min or even more at
maximum vehicle speed. The leakage flow as well as the extra flush flow must be supplied
by the charge pump. A large charge pump is thus very important if the transmission is
designed for high pressures and high motor speeds. High oil temperature is usually a major
problem when using hydrostatic transmissions at high vehicle speeds for longer periods, for
instance when transporting the machine from one work place to the other. High oil
temperatures for long periods will drastically reduce the lifetime of the transmission. To keep
down the oil temperature, the system pressure during transport must be lowered, meaning
that the minimum displacement for the motor must be limited to a reasonable value. Circuit
pressure during transport around 200-250 bar is recommended.
Closed loop systems in mobile equipment are generally used for the transmission as an
alternative to mechanical and hydrodynamic (converter) transmissions. The advantage is a
step less gear ratio (continuously variable speed/torque) and a more flexible control of the
gear ratio depending on the load and operating conditions. The hydrostatic transmission is
generally limited to around 200 kW maximum power, as the total cost gets too high at higher
power compared to a hydrodynamic transmission. Large wheel loaders for instance and
heavy machines are therefore usually equipped with converter transmissions. Recent
technical achievements for the converter transmissions have improved the efficiency and
developments in the software have also improved the characteristics, for example selectable
gear shifting programs during operation and more gear steps, giving them characteristics
close to the hydrostatic transmission.
Hydrostatic transmissions for earth moving machines, such as for track loaders, are often
equipped with a separate 'inch pedal' that is used to temporarily increase the diesel engine
rpm while reducing the vehicle speed in order to increase the available hydraulic power
output for the working hydraulics at low speeds and increase the tractive effort. The function
is similar to stalling a converter gearbox at high engine rpm. The inch function affects the
preset characteristics for the 'hydrostatic' gear ratio versus diesel engine rpm.

Open loop and closed loop circuits

Component

Hydraulic pump
Hydraulic pumps supply fluid to the components in the system. Pressure in the system
develops in reaction to the load. Hence, a pump rated for 5,000 psi is capable of maintaining
flow against a load of 5,000 psi.
Pumps have a power density about ten times greater than an electric motor (by volume).
They are powered by an electric motor or an engine, connected through gears, belts, or a
flexible elastomeric coupling to reduce vibration.
Common types of hydraulic pumps to hydraulic machinery applications are;

• Gear pump: cheap, durable (especially in g-rotor form), simple. Less efficient, because
they are constant (fixed) displacement, and mainly suitable for pressures below 20 MPa
(3000 psi).
• Vane pump: cheap and simple, reliable. Good for higher-flow low-pressure output.
• Axial piston pump: many designed with a variable displacement mechanism, to vary
output flow for automatic control of pressure. There are various axial piston pump
designs, including swash plate (sometimes referred to as a valve plate pump) and check
ball (sometimes referred to as a wobble plate pump). The most common is the swash
plate pump. A variable-angle swash plate causes the pistons to reciprocate a greater or
lesser distance per rotation, allowing output flow rate and pressure to be varied (greater
displacement angle causes higher flow rate, lower pressure, and vice versa).
• Radial piston pumps: normally used for very high pressure at small flows.
Piston pumps are more expensive than gear or vane pumps, but provide longer life operating
at higher pressure, with difficult fluids and longer continuous duty cycles. Piston pumps make
up one half of a hydrostatic transmission.

An exploded view of an external gear pump.

Control valves
Directional control valves route the fluid to the desired actuator. They usually consist of a
spool inside a cast iron or steel housing. The spool slides to different positions in the
housing, and intersecting grooves and channels route the fluid based on the spool's position.
The spool has a central (neutral) position maintained with springs; in this position the supply
fluid is blocked, or returned to tank. Sliding the spool to one side routes the hydraulic fluid to
an actuator and provides a return path from the actuator to tank. When the spool is moved to
the opposite direction the supply and return paths are switched. When the spool is allowed to
return to neutral (center) position the actuator fluid paths are blocked, locking it in position.
Directional control valves are usually designed to be stackable, with one valve for each
hydraulic cylinder, and one fluid input supplying all the valves in the stack.
Tolerances are very tight in order to handle the high pressure and avoid leaking, spools
typically have a clearance with the housing of less than a thousandth of an inch (25 µm). The
valve block will be mounted to the machine's frame with a three point pattern to avoid
distorting the valve block and jamming the valve's sensitive components.
The spool position may be actuated by mechanical levers, hydraulic pilot pressure,
or solenoids which push the spool left or right. A seal allows part of the spool to protrude
outside the housing, where it is accessible to the actuator.
The main valve block is usually a stack of off the shelf directional control valves chosen by
flow capacity and performance. Some valves are designed to be proportional (flow rate
proportional to valve position), while others may be simply on-off. The control valve is one of
the most expensive and sensitive parts of a hydraulic circuit.

• Pressure relief valves are used in several places in hydraulic machinery; on the return
circuit to maintain a small amount of pressure for brakes, pilot lines, etc... On hydraulic
cylinders, to prevent overloading and hydraulic line/seal rupture. On the hydraulic
reservoir, to maintain a small positive pressure which excludes moisture and
contamination.
• Pressure regulators reduce the supply pressure of hydraulic fluids as needed for
various circuits.
• Sequence valves control the sequence of hydraulic circuits; to ensure that one hydraulic
cylinder is fully extended before another starts its stroke, for example.
• Shuttle valves provide a logical or function.
• Check valves are one-way valves, allowing an accumulator to charge and maintain its
pressure after the machine is turned off, for example.
• Pilot controlled check valves are one-way valve that can be opened (for both
directions) by a foreign pressure signal. For instance if the load should not be held by the
check valve anymore. Often the foreign pressure comes from the other pipe that is
connected to the motor or cylinder.
• Counterbalance valves are in fact a special type of pilot controlled check valve.
Whereas the check valve is open or closed, the counterbalance valve acts a bit like a
pilot controlled flow control.
• Cartridge valves are in fact the inner part of a check valve; they are off the
shelf components with a standardized envelope, making them easy to populate a
proprietary valve block. They are available in many configurations; on/off, proportional,
pressure relief, etc. They generally screw into a valve block and are electrically
controlled to provide logic and automated functions.
• Hydraulic fuses are in-line safety devices designed to automatically seal off a hydraulic
line if pressure becomes too low, or safely vent fluid if pressure becomes too high.
• Auxiliary valves in complex hydraulic systems may have auxiliary valve blocks to
handle various duties unseen to the operator, such as accumulator charging, cooling fan
operation, air conditioning power, etc. They are usually custom valves designed for the
particular machine, and may consist of a metal block with ports and channels drilled.
Cartridge valves are threaded into the ports and may be electrically controlled by
switches or a microprocessor to route fluid power as needed.

Actuators
• Hydraulic cylinder
• Swash plates are used in 'hydraulic motors' requiring highly accurate control and also in
'no stop' continuous (360°) precision positioning mechanisms. These are frequently
driven by several hydraulic pistons acting in sequence.
• Hydraulic motor (a pump plumbed in reverse)
• Hydrostatic transmission
• Brakes
Reservoir
The hydraulic fluid reservoir holds excess hydraulic fluid to accommodate volume changes
from: cylinder extension and contraction, temperature driven expansion and contraction, and
leaks. The reservoir is also designed to aid in separation of air from the fluid and also work
as a heat accumulator to cover losses in the system when peak power is used. Design
engineers are always pressured to reduce the size of hydraulic reservoirs, while equipment
operators always appreciate larger reservoirs. Reservoirs can also help separate dirt and
other particulate from the oil, as the particulate will generally settle to the bottom of the tank.
Some designs include dynamic flow channels on the fluid's return path that allow for a
smaller reservoir.

Accumulators
Accumulators are a common part of hydraulic machinery. Their function is to store energy by
using pressurized gas. One type is a tube with a floating piston. On one side of the piston is
a charge of pressurized gas, and on the other side is the fluid. Bladders are used in other
designs. Reservoirs store a system's fluid.
Examples of accumulator uses are backup power for steering or brakes, or to act as a shock
absorber for the hydraulic circuit.
Hydraulic fluid
Also known as tractor fluid, hydraulic fluid is the life of the hydraulic circuit. It is usually
petroleum oil with various additives. Some hydraulic machines require fire resistant fluids,
depending on their applications. In some factories where food is prepared, either an edible
oil or water is used as a working fluid for health and safety reasons.
In addition to transferring energy, hydraulic fluid needs to lubricate components, suspend
contaminants and metal filings for transport to the filter, and to function well to several
hundred degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius.

Filters
Filters are an important part of hydraulic systems. Metal particles are continually produced by
mechanical components and need to be removed along with other contaminants.
Filters may be positioned in many locations. The filter may be located between the reservoir
and the pump intake. Blockage of the filter will cause cavitation and possibly failure of the
pump. Sometimes the filter is located between the pump and the control valves. This
arrangement is more expensive, since the filter housing is pressurized, but eliminates
cavitation problems and protects the control valve from pump failures. The third common
filter location is just before the return line enters the reservoir. This location is relatively
insensitive to blockage and does not require a pressurized housing, but contaminants that
enter the reservoir from external sources are not filtered until passing through the system at
least once. Filters are used from 7 micron to 15 micron depends upon the viscosity grade of
hydraulic oil.

Tubes, pipes and hoses

Hydraulic tubes are seamless steel precision pipes, specially manufactured for hydraulics.
The tubes have standard sizes for different pressure ranges, with standard diameters up to
100 mm. The tubes are supplied by manufacturers in lengths of 6 m, cleaned, oiled and
plugged. The tubes are interconnected by different types of flanges (especially for the larger
sizes and pressures), welding cones/nipples (with o-ring seal), several types of flare
connection and by cut-rings. In larger sizes, hydraulic pipes are used. Direct joining of tubes
by welding is not acceptable since the interior cannot be inspected.
Hydraulic pipe is used in case standard hydraulic tubes are not available. Generally these
are used for low pressure. They can be connected by threaded connections, but usually by
welds. Because of the larger diameters the pipe can usually be inspected internally after
welding. Black pipe is non-galvanized and suitable for welding.
Hydraulic hose is graded by pressure, temperature, and fluid compatibility. Hoses are used
when pipes or tubes cannot be used, usually to provide flexibility for machine operation or
maintenance. The hose is built up with rubber and steel layers. A rubber interior is
surrounded by multiple layers of woven wire and rubber. The exterior is designed for
abrasion resistance. The bend radius of hydraulic hose is carefully designed into the
machine, since hose failures can be deadly, and violating the hose's minimum bend radius
will cause failure. Hydraulic hoses generally have steel fittings swaged on the ends. The
weakest part of the high pressure hose is the connection of the hose to the fitting. Another
disadvantage of hoses is the shorter life of rubber which requires periodic replacement,
usually at five to seven year intervals.
Tubes and pipes for hydraulic applications are internally oiled before the system is
commissioned. Usually steel piping is painted outside. Where flare and other couplings are
used, the paint is removed under the nut, and is a location where corrosion can begin. For
this reason, in marine applications most piping is stainless steel.

Seals, fittings and connections

Main article: Seal (mechanical)
Components of a hydraulic system [sources (e.g. pumps), controls (e.g. valves) and
actuators (e.g. cylinders)] need connections that will contain and direct the hydraulic fluid
without leaking or losing the pressure that makes them work. In some cases, the
components can be made to bolt together with fluid paths built-in. In more cases, though,
rigid tubing or flexible hoses are used to direct the flow from one component to the next.
Each component has entry and exit points for the fluid involved (called ports) sized according
to how much fluid are expected to pass through it.
There are a number of standardized methods in use to attach the hose or tube to the
component. Some are intended for ease of use and service, others are better for higher
system pressures or control of leakage. The most common method, in general, is to provide
in each component a female-threaded port, on each hose or tube a female-threaded captive
nut, and use a separate adapter fitting with matching male threads to connect the two. This is
functional, economical to manufacture, and easy to service.
Fittings serve several purposes;

1. To join components with ports of different sizes.

2. To bridge different standards; O-ring boss to JIC, or pipe threads to face seal, for
example.
3. To allow proper orientation of components, a 90°, 45°, straight, or swivel fitting is
chosen as needed. They are designed to be positioned in the correct orientation and
then tightened.
4. To incorporate bulkhead hardware to pass the fluid through an obstructing wall.
5. A quick disconnect fitting may be added to a machine without modification of hoses
or valves
A typical piece of machinery or heavy equipment may have thousands of sealed connection
points and several different types:

• Pipe fittings, the fitting is screwed in until tight, difficult to orient an angled fitting correctly
without over or under tightening.
• O-ring boss, the fitting is screwed into a boss and orientated as needed, an additional
nut tightens the fitting, washer and O-ring in place.
• Flare fittings, are metal to metal compression seals deformed with a cone nut and
pressed into a flare mating.
• Face seal, metal flanges with a groove and O-ring seal are fastened together.
• Beam seals are costly metal to metal seals used primarily in aircraft.
• Swaged seals, tubes are connected with fittings that are swaged permanently in place.
Primarily used in aircraft.
Elastomeric seals (O-ring boss and face seal) are the most common types of seals in heavy
equipment and are capable of reliably sealing 6000+ psi (40+ MPa) of fluid pressure.