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Space Charge Formation and its Modified Electric Field under Applied Voltage
Reversal and Temperature Gradient in XLPE Cable

Article  in  IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation · July 2008

DOI: 10.1109/TDEI.2008.4543123 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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 Space Charge Formation and Its Modified
Electric Field under Applied Voltage Reversal
and Temperature Gradient in XLPE Cable
M. Fu and L. A. Dissado
Department of Engineering
University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK

G. Chen
School of Electronics and Computer Science
University of Southampton
Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK

J. C. Fothergill
Department of Engineering
University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK

ABSTRACT
The results of space charge evolution in cross-linked polyethylene power cables under
dc electrical field at a uniform temperature and during external voltage polarity
reversal are presented in the paper. A mirror image charge distribution was observed
in the steady state, but the pre-existing field altered the way in which the steady state
charge distribution was formed from that obtaining when the cable was first polarized.
Polarity reversing charge was generated in the middle of the insulation and moved
towards the appropriate electrodes under the influence of a field in excess of the
maximum applied field. Our results show that the mirror effect is a steady state effect
that is due to cross-interface currents that depend only on the interface field and not its
polarity. Measurements on cable sections with an elevated mean temperature and
temperature gradient show that the interface currents are temperature dependent, and
that differences between the activation energies of the interface and bulk currents can
eliminate and possibly even invert the polarity of the space charge distribution.

Index Terms - Space charge, PEA, XLPE insulated power cables, voltage polarity
reversal, temperature gradient, “mirror image effect”

1 INTRODUCTION interfaces, insulating material processing, and divergent

electric field would be fully reflected in the space charge
The renewed interest in high voltage direct current behaviour. They would also make it possible to investigate
(HVDC) transmission has led to many manufacturers the effect of a temperature gradient in radial insulation on
worldwide investing in polymer insulated dc power cables. the space charge accumulation, and hence replicate the
Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) is the most common conditions experienced when the cable is loaded in service.
form of polymeric insulation, however the features that
In a dc transmission system, bi-directional power flow
make it a good insulator, may paradoxically lead to
may be achieved by exchanging the roles of rectifier
problems when it is used in dc operation. Thus its low
(sending end) and inverter (receiving end), i.e. through
carrier mobility and high trapping rates may, under certain
voltage polarity reversal. The presence of space charge may
conditions, give rise to space charge in the body of the
result in an enhanced electric field within the insulation as
insulating material. This will result in localised electric
its spatial distribution may not be able to synchronously
stress enhancement and even premature failure of the cable
follow the polarity reversal due to low charge carrier
insulation when the localised fields exceed the design values
mobility, but the magnitude and the location is
[1-3]. This issue has stimulated the investigation of space
unpredictable. This could pose a vital threat to the cable
charge accumulation and retention, and abundant data has
insulation in service. The temperature gradient existing
been obtained from film and plaque samples over the past
across the insulation in a fully loaded cable will make the
two decades [4-11]. However, less attention has been paid
space charge distribution, and consequently the electric field
to space charge dynamics in full sized cables presumably
more complex. The investigation of space charge at elevated
due to a limited range of experimental systems suitable for
temperature in cable geometry is therefore of importance for
examining cables. Such investigations would however be
the electric field distribution and performance of dc cable
more relevant to practical situations as all the features
insulation.
specific to cable design, such as insulator/semiconducting
 Here we present results for the space charge evolution to the ground electrode the outer semiconductive screens at
and response to external voltage polarity reversal measured the two ends of the cable were stripped, and the remaining
on full size XLPE power cables using the pulsed electro- section used as the outer-earthed electrode. Stress relief
acoustic (PEA) technique. The corresponding electric field rings were also built at the screen cuts to reduce the
distributions along the radial direction are derived from the likelihood of flashover along the insulation surface.
space charge distribution, and the local field distribution is A current transformer was set up in the testing rig, as
discussed in terms of the evolution of mirror space charge shown in figure 1, to generate a radial temperature
distributions in the steady state, and the basic physics distribution across the cable insulation by means of
behind the formation of an inverted space charge induction-heating (joule heating I2R). It is assumed that the
distribution on reversing the polarity of the conductor thermal conductivity of the cable insulation remains
potential. The effect of a temperature gradient on space constant over the temperature range used in the present
charge in cable insulation is also investigated, and it is study (e.g. 30oC to 80oC). For a cable sample with a
argued that the reduction of space charge observed is caused conductor radius of rc and outer sheath radius of rs, the
by differences in the temperature dependence of the bulk temperature distribution across the insulation thickness can
conductivity and those applying to the cross-interface be calculated as a function of the radius r [18] through:
currents.
Tc Ts r (1)
T r Ts ln s
2 EXPERIMENTAL ln rs rc r
2.1 PEA FOR CABLE SAMPLES where Ts and Tc are the temperature of the outer screen and
the conductor respectively.
The PEA system used for space charge distribution in A typical induced ac current of 350A was used to heat
cable insulation measurement is schematically shown in the cable, which has a cross section of 78mm2 aluminium
figure 1. A detailed description of the principle of PEA and conductor and 5.7mm thick insulation. A temperature of
the modified system suitable for cable geometry has been 70oC at the conductor was obtained with a temperature
given elsewhere [1, 12, 13] and only a brief overview is difference of 13oC across the insulation, when the outer
given in this paper. semiconductor was kept at ambient by natural convection
There have been several reports on the application of cooling.
PEA for space charge measurement in full size cables [13-
16] in most of which a curve-shaped ground electrode, 2.3 VOLTAGE REVERSAL EXPERIMENTAL
transducer, and acoustic absorber block were designed to fit PROCEDURES
around the diameter of the cable sample. For different cable In the voltage reversal test the sample was initially
sizes, modification is required to the above components in stressed with a positive voltage at the centre conductor and
addition to extra care in the sample assembly in order to the space charge distribution was measured at different
ensure a good acoustic contact between the cable and stressing times. When the space charge distribution
curved electrode. The PEA system employed in this work appeared to reach a steady state the external dc voltage was
adopts a flat ground electrode which enables the system to switched off and the cable was short-circuited for a short
be easily applied to cables with different radii such as time to release the surface static charge. Then the dc voltage
described in [17]. was switched to the opposite polarity and ramped up again.
In order to make the voltage reversal a more realistic
representation of the operation of dc transmission systems,
the above implementation was finished within about 90
seconds. The space charge distribution measurement was
then conducted over the following stressing period until a
steady state was again apparently obtained. The
experimental procedure and the voltage application are
illustrated in figure 2.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of PEA system for cable geometry

2.2 CABLE SAMPLES AND TEMPERATURE

GRADIENT
Two types of cable sample were tested in the research.
One is a commercial XLPE ac power cable with an
insulation thickness of 3.6mm, Cable A, which is tested to
investigate the space charge response to the voltage polarity
Figure 2. Voltage application procedure
reversal. The other one is a prototype HVDC power cable
with a 5.7mm thick insulation. This was received in both 2.4 DATA PROCESSING AND CHARGE DENSITY
degassed and un-degassed condition, but only results from CALIBRATION
the un-degassed form (Cable B) are reported here. Due to its
thicker insulation, the latter cable was the one chosen for the 2.4.1 GEOMETRICAL FACTOR AND CORRECTION
temperature gradient experiments. In order to allow PEA measurements made on plaque samples can assume
sufficient clear distance from the voltage-applying terminal that a uniform pulsed electric stress is applied and that the
acoustic wave propagation is without divergence throughout deployed in [19, 20] to give an accurate space charge
the sample‟s thickness. This does not apply to cable distribution measurement, in particular, for thick samples.
geometry where the electric stress ep of the external pulse The reader is referred to [19, 20] for details of the derivation
voltage, vp(t), is given by: and the algorithm, which has been used here.
vp t 2.4.3 CHARGE DENSITY CALIBRATION
e p t, r (2)
r ln b a As the PEA technique is an indirect method of space
with a and b being the inner and outer radii of the insulation charge profile measurement, the correlation between the
respectively. The PEA principle is based on the acoustic wave and charge density needs to be determined by
measurement of the acoustic wave emitted as a result of the calibration. In the process of calibration a voltage is applied
interaction of the pulsed electric field and the space charge across the dielectric sample for a short period of time that is
layer, with the delay in reception by the transducer defining sufficiently low enough to ensure that no space charge is
the spatial location of the space charge emitting the pressure developed in the bulk sample, and only the capacitive
wave. The divergence of the pulsed electric field thus makes charges on two electrodes are present. In the case of cable
the intensity of the acoustic pressure wave initiated samples, for instance, the capacitive charge density induced
dependent not only on the charge density but also on its at the inner and outer electrodes is proportional to the field
position. at the interfaces, i.e.
It is generally assumed that the length of the cable a 0 rE a (5)
sample is much greater than the insulation thickness and the
b 0 r Eb (6)
material along the axial direction is homogeneous. The
space charge distribution in the coaxial geometry therefore where 0 is the permittivity of free space, r the relative
only varies in the radial direction and hence it can be permittivity of the insulating material, E(a) and E(b) the
concluded that the acoustic pressure wave representing the electric stresses at the two interfaces respectively. Knowing
space charge density is also a function of the radial position. the actual charge density at a given interface, the constant of
The pressure wave per unit area at position r may be proportionality between the output of the PEA system and
expressed as [19], charge density can be determined.
t, r j u sa Ak There has been a long-term interest in the determination
p t, r e jk r u sat
(3) of the electric field distribution in dc cables. This is
t r governed by the conductivity of the insulating material.
where is the density of the medium in which the acoustic However the conductivity is determined by temperature and
wave is launched and travels through. This equation the electric stress, which it also determines. It is therefore
describes the propagation of an acoustic wave in an elastic difficult to predict the electric field distribution throughout
(or lossless) medium in the radial direction within a the cable insulation under dc voltage with the accuracy of
cylindrical coordinate system. It is noticeable that the that under ac voltage. The method used in the calculation of
intensity of the pressure wave generated by the space charge interface electric stress for charge density calibration was
layer inside the cable insulation decreases along the radial fully explained in [19], where the electric stress at a distance
direction. This factor or ratio can be best described by r from the centre of the conductor was shown to be given
p t t, b 1 by,
rb 2 (4) r 1
U
p t, r Er (7)
where p(t,r) and p(t+ t,b) are the acoustic pressure wave b a
intensities produced at radius r and detected at the outer where is a constant that is determined by the material and
sheath b after transmission through the insulation, t is the the temperature difference across the cable insulation. U is
time for the acoustic pulse travelling from position r to b the applied voltage. A value of 2/3 is given for the constant
(i.e. the position of outer semiconducting layer). in [21] and [22, 23], whereas a value of 1/2 is quoted in
The divergent effects due to coaxial geometry have been [24] for XLPE without a temperature gradient. In view of
taken into account for precise appraisal of the space charge the complexity of the problem, the value of ½ for
distribution in cable samples by applying the geometry suggested in [24] has been adopted in this paper for the
factor (b/r)1/2 to the signal after the deconvolution, which is calculation of the electric stress needed for the purpose of
the result of combination of divergences of pulsed field and charge density calibration.
acoustic wave intensity in the radial direction [19]. 3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
2.4.2 ATTENUATION AND DISPERSION 3.1 SPACE CHARGE DEVELOPMENT UNDER
COMPENSATION OF ACOUSTIC WAVE IN THICK VOLTAGE POLARITY REVERSAL
INSULATION 3.1.1 SPACE CHARGE ACCUMULATION WITH
Apart from the divergence of the pulsed electric field and POSITIVE VOLTAGE AT CENTRAL CONDUCTOR
acoustic pressure wave in cylindrical geometry, the Figure 3a illustrates the space charge evolution in the
attenuation and dispersion caused by thick cable insulation insulation of cable A when a positive voltage of +80kVwas
to acoustic wave pressure is another negative aspect to the applied to the central conductor. It was found that
PEA technique which would introduce inaccuracy in the heterocharge gradually accumulated in the vicinities of the
charge density measurement and loss of spatial resolution. inner and outer electrodes and approached an apparently
However, this issue has been well discussed and a proper stable distribution within 90 minutes.
compensation (or recovery) algorithm has been derived and
 3.1.2 SPACE CHARGE EVOLUTION FOLLOWING position. This can be seen clearly in the space charge
POLARITY REVERSAL AT THE INNER CONDUCTOR distribution in Figure 3c corresponding to 30 minutes at -
80kV, which exhibits successive positive and negative
Following the measurements with positive voltage at the peaks as one moves away from the outer electrode towards
central conductor the external voltage polarity was switched the inner conductor (anode). The final result of the
to a negative polarity and space charge measurements again cancellation is the formation of a new negative heterocharge
carried out. The results obtained during the polarity reversal peak, and a corresponding increase of the capacitive charge
(e.g. ramping up of the negative voltage on the inner at the outer electrode/insulation interface. The time required
conductor) are presented in Figure 3b. The heterocharge for the space charge distribution to approach a new steady
previously accumulated remains almost the same during the state is about 90 minutes just as was the case when the
voltage ramp. See, for example, the positive charge labelled applied voltage had a positive polarity. The interesting point
by b adjacent to the outer electrode. The continued existence here is that this time is the same even though the negative
of this positive charge in the bulk insulation contributes a heterocharge now accumulates in a region where positive
negative image charge on the outer electrode (peak a) in space charge had been present as a result of the previous
addition to the positive capacitive charge from the applied poling, whereas the data in Figure 3a was obtained for a
voltage. Consequently the net electrode charge only has a sample that initially contained no space charge.
small positive magnitude at this stage, albeit one that The steady state heterocharge distributions under
increases linearly with the applied voltage. reversed voltage polarity have almost the same shapes but
After the applied voltage reached its assigned reversal the opposite polarities to those obtained initially. They even
value of –80kV, the bulk space charge regions were first have the same charge accumulation rate. This phenomenon
reduced in magnitude and then reversed polarity to become had been reported in [16, 25] and was termed the “mirror
heterocharge again, as shown in Figure 3c. The polarity image effect” charge in [25]. Such “mirror image” charge
reversal occurs by the penetration of space charge of distributions are clearly displayed in Figure 3d where the
opposite polarity to the retained charge, which first reduces capacitive charge on both electrodes due to the external
the magnitude of the retained charge and then cancels it out voltage has been removed.
to form the reversed polarity peak in essentially the same
1.5 1.5
Outer electrode Inner electrode Outer electrode Inner electrode
90 min + 80kV for 90min
1 - 80kV for 0 time
1
Charge density (C/m3)

60 min - 80kV for 30min

- 80kV for 60min
Charge density (C/m3)

0.5 30 min
- 80kV for 90min
0 time 0.5
0

-0.5
0

-1 -0.5

-1.5 with ageing time

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 -1
Position (mm)
(a) Space charge accumulation with ageing time (+80kV at central -1.5
conductor)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.5 Position (mm)
Outer electrode Inner electrode
(c) Space charge accumulation with reversed voltage application time
1 Voltage increase 1.5
Outer electrode Inner electrode
b
Charge density (C/m3)

a
0.5 1
Charge density (C/m3)

Positive voltage
0 0.5

-0.5 0

-1 +80kV for 90 min -0.5

Negative voltage

-1.5 -1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Position (mm) -1.5
(b) Space charge during the polarity reversal ramp-up 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Position (mm)
(d) “Mirror image” space charge distribution with capacitive charge
removed from the electrode signal
Figure 3. Space charge development over the voltage polarity reversal
 3.2 SPACE CHARGE ACCUMULATION IN XLPE Measurements of space charge accumulation and decay
CABLES WITH A TEMPERATURE GRADIENT in Cable B under a temperature gradient were carried out on
a new piece of HVDC prototype cable. A temperature
Cable B (prototype HVDC power cable with 5.7mm
difference of 13oC between conductor and outer sheath was
thick insulation) was used to investigate the influence of a
obtained with the central conductor heated up to 70 oC while
temperature gradient on space charge behaviour. First
leaving outer semiconductor sheath in a natural convection
however, the space charge behaviour was measured for a
condition. The space charge accumulation during
uniform temperature (room temperature T~25oC) under the
polarization is shown in Figure 5a, and its subsequent
application of an external voltage of + 80kV to the inner
behaviour during depolarization in Figure 5b. Because the
conductor. This cable exhibited homocharge at the inner
space charge density in the bulk insulation is very small in
electrode and heterocharge at the outer electrode, and so all
comparison with that at a uniform room temperature its
the measurements were carried out both with the external
presence could only be discerned from the two induced
voltage applied and also with the external voltage
image charge peaks at the outer and inner electrodes,
temporarily switched off during the measurement. This
obtained when the applied voltage was removed for
procedure allowed a clear separation of the homocharge
measurement (i.e. the capacitive charge present during
from the capacitive charge on the inner electrode.
polarization was temporarily removed) . A very small
positive charge peak (homocharge) was observed next to
Figure 4a shows the space charge accumulation obtained
inner conductor (high temperature side), similar to that
with temporary removal of the external voltage. The
found at a uniform room temperature. In this case however,
strongest feature is a heterocharge peak next to the outer
there is no measurable heterocharge near the outer
electrode. A barely noticeable homocharge peak was also
conductor. A further difference is that the space charge
generated adjacent to the inner electrode (anode). After
accumulation reaches its saturation level within about two
reaching a steady state distribution the external voltage was
hours and then this amount of charge disappears within two
removed and the electrodes short-circuited, and
hours following the removal of the applied voltage with the
measurements made of the space charge over a period of de-
two electrodes short-circuited. In contrast room temperature
polarization. It was found that there was hardly any
accumulation takes about 24 hours and the subsequent
detectable change in the space charge distribution over 48
charge removal has not been achieved after 48 hours.
hours of de-polarization, see Figure 4.
2
2 Outer electrode Inner electrode
Outer electrode Inner electrode 1.5
(cathode) (anode)
1.5 1
Charge density (C/m3)

0 time In 2 hours
1 hr
0.5
1 8 hr
24 hr 0
Charge density (C/m3)

0.5 -0.5

-1
0
-1.5

-0.5 -2
0 2 4 Position (mm) 6 8 10

-1 (a) Space charge accumulation (measured with external voltage temporarily

removed)
-1.5 2
Outer electrode Inner electrode
1.5
-2 0 time
0 2 4Position (mm)6 8 10 1 1 hr
Charge density (C/m3)

2 hrs
(a) Space charge accumulation under applied voltage (measurement with 0.5
external voltage temporarily removed)
0
2
Outer electrode Inner electrode -0.5

1.5 0 time -1
1 hr
8 hr -1.5
Charge density (C/m3)

1
24 hr
48 hr -2
0.5 0 2 4Position (mm)6 8 10

0 (b) Space charge decay after short-circuiting

Figure 5. Space charge behaviour in prototype HVDC cable B with
-0.5 temperature gradient

-1 4 DISCUSSION
-1.5 4.1 ELECTRICAL FIELD AND SPACE CHARGE
DISTRIBUTION DURING POLARIZARION AND
-2 VOLTAGE REVERSAL
0 2 4
Position 6
(mm) 8 10
From a design engineers point of view the important
(b) Space charge profiles in decay after short-circuiting
factor during polarity reversal of a dc power cable is the
Figure 4. Space charge behaviour in prototype HVDC cable B at room
temperature behaviour of the electric field distribution. However this is
both dependent upon and involved in the time dependence
of the space charge. Therefore the transient field and space charge separation in the middle of the insulation where the
charge distribution must be discussed together. field is largest. For a period of time both the original charge
Figure 6 shows the electric stress distributions calculated and the polarity reversing charge co-exist in the bulk, before
on the basis of the space charge profiles presented in figure the charge peaks near the electrodes change polarity. This
3. During the 90 minutes of positive polarization (+80kV can be seen from figure 7, which shows the time-dependent
on the central conductor) heterocharge at both electrode behaviour of the integrated bulk charge density magnitude
have increased the interfacial stresses at the outer and inner (i.e. total charge independent of polarity) for a one metre
interface from the applied values of 20.5kV/mm and 45
25.3kV/mm to 30.3kV/mm and 27.3kV/mm respectively.
40
The electric stress in the central part of the insulation is
35

Total charge 10-6 (C)

reduced to a certain extent.
40 30
Outer electrode Inner electrode
25

Polarity reversal
30 Applied (+)
20
Electric stress (kV/mm)

20
(+) volt for 90' 15
10
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 Positive polarity Negative polarity
-10 (-) volt for 90'
Applied (-) 0
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
-30 External voltage application time (min)
Soon after volt reversal
-40
Position (mm)
Figure 7. Total bulk charge magnitude through polarization cycle.
Figure 6. Electric stress distributions on voltage reversal
section of cable, throughout the polarization and polarity
The heterocharge accumulation may be due to the reversal cycle. The capacitive charge is excluded from the
separation of ionised species. This would be expected to integration. It can be seen from figure 7 that the total space
give equal amounts of heterocharge at both electrodes in the charge in the cable section first decreases following polarity
absence of charge injection from the electrodes, since the reversal, but then starts to increase without going through
electrode interfaces can be expected to be blocking for ionic zero. Thus it is clear that the space charge regions produced
species. However this is not the case here as there is a during polarization do not just decrease, pass through zero,
greater increase of the outer interface stress due to a larger and then reverse polarity. Instead compensating space
amount of heterocharge in that region. This can be seen charge regions co-exist with the original space charge. The
from figure 3, where the charge density in the region of the observation in figure 3c that these compensating charges
inner electrode is smaller than that near to the outer originate in the middle of the cable correlates their
electrode in both polarities. Since the volume of material is generation with the electric field maximum that exists there
smaller for a given radial distance is smaller near the inner when the polarity reversal is made.
electrode it is clear that the amount of charge there is These results show that the dynamics of space charge
smaller than that near the outer electrode. It therefore seems accumulation on polarity reversal is not a time reversal
that there is charge injection from the electrodes and that image of the dynamics that occur during polarization. The
this is greatest at the inner conductor. However it has field distribution as modified by the existing space charge
recently been shown [26] that heterocharge may be formed has an effect on the space charge dynamics, and charge
in cables by means of many very fast small charge packets generation may not take place in the same location as it did
injected from both electrodes. This would also explain the on initial polarization This result suggests the way in which
results obtained as long as injection from the inner electrode polarity reversal may influence insulation reliability. Space
is greater than from the outer electrode. charge generation in the middle of the insulation and its
The charge accumulated during polarization retains almost movement towards the electrode regions will cause two high
the same distribution during the voltage reversal ramp. The field regions to move towards the electrodes with increasing
only changes during this period are the penetration of the local currents and possibly charge recombination in the
space charge near the outer electrode into the bulk and electrode/interface regions, both of which may cause
reduction of the amount of space charge at the inner damage [27,28].
electrode. This latter feature tends to confirm the existence
of charge injection from the inner conductor. Figure 7 also shows that the space charge distribution has
The electric stress in the central part of the insulation not reached a steady state after 90 minutes of polarization,
shows a significant enhancement. The maximum stress in though it is showing signs of saturation. In addition it can be
this region is about -30kV/mm, which is much higher than seen that the total charge on polarity reversal is higher than
the applied value of -25.3kV/mm at the inner interface in that obtaining on initial polarization. An inspection of figure
the absence of space charge. On the other hand, the stresses 3d shows that this is because the amount of heterocharge at
at the inner and the outer interfaces are reduced to about the inner electrode is greater than it was during initial
20kV/mm and 10kV/mm respectively, where the charge polarization, i.e. an exact mirror image has not been formed
generated on polarization now becomes homocharge. As during the poling time. Nonetheless the electric field
can be seen in figure 3c the charge that reverses the polarity distribution obtaining after 90 minutes of re-polarization at -
of the original space charge regions seems to originate from
80kV is almost a mirror image of that found after 90 electrode interfaces. The different values of the interface
minutes of polarization at +80kV. fields resulting from differences in space charge magnitude
reflect the differences in geometry and nature of the
4.2 “MIRROR IMAGE EFFECT” CHARGE
respective electrodes. A mirror image effect in the space
DISTRIBUTION
charge and electric field distributions will be produced when
The mirror image effect [25] refers to steady state space an opposite polarity voltage is applied to the conductor if
charge distributions that are inverses of one another when and only if the current across each of the electrode interfaces
the cable conductor is subjected to voltages of opposite has the same value for the same voltage magnitude,
polarity. This effect occurs whether the opposite polarity whatever the voltage polarity. This is the essential meaning
was achieved by polarity reversal as here, or by the of the mirror charge effect [25]. An explanation for the
application of opposite polarity voltages to different mirror charge effect therefore requires an explanation as to
sections of the same cable [29]. An example of the latter why the electrode interface current magnitude should only
feature measured on a different cable [29] is given in figure depend upon the electric field magnitude and not its
8. This figure also shows that the mirror effect includes polarity. This implies that there is no contact charge layer
space charge of both polarity at the outer electrode. The formed in the insulator, as the contact charge field would
injected charge can be seen as an extension of the capacitive introduce an asymmetry between positive and negative
peak into the insulation over a period of time, denoted as cross-interface currents. This means that there is no
„HOMOCHARGE‟ on the figure. Clearly therefore the difference between the chemical potential (Fermi energy) of
mirror effect occurs regardless of the nature and origin of an electron in the electrode material and in the XLPE at the
the space charge. interface. Such a situation is likely for the carbon loaded
3 polyethylene semiconductor electrodes used in cables. An
Anode
0 time 1 hr (inner electrode)
understanding of the process whereby charge carriers pass
2 Charge in 4 hr 8 hr
from the electrode into the insulator is required to complete
bulk insulation the explanation, and this is not yet available. Two
Charge density (C/m3)

18 hr 30 hr
1 alternative mechanisms have been proposed: thermal
activation via the vacuum state [30] to and from states
0 within the polymer, and tunnelling, with and without
thermal assistance, between the Fermi energy of the
-1
Homocharge
electrode and donor and acceptor states within the polymer
located in a narrow region of energy around the Fermi
-2 Cathode
energy of the polymer at the interface [31]. Of the two, the
(outer electrode) tunnelling process [31] seems the most likely in this case as
-3 the energies of the states between which the transfer occurs
0 1 2
Position 3
(mm) 4 5 will be very close and any thermal assistance will be to the
most effective state for tunnelling This intermediate state
(a) Positive voltage at central conductor will be the same whether electrons are being transferred
3
from the electrode or to the electrode. The interface electric
Anode
(outer electrode)
field will control the current in this case via its influence
2
upon the height and more particularly the width of the
0 time 1 hr
4 hr 10 hr
interface barrier (see section 9.2.2. of [32]).
The origin of the space charge is irrelevant to the
Charge density (C/m3)

18 hr 30 hr
1
generation of the mirror image effect however the
0
generation of compensating charges in the middle of the
insulation during polarity reversal in cable A indicates that
-1
Homocharge
in that case they are likely to be field-separable ionic species
Charge in [33-35]. In particular the lack of a change in the positive
bulk insulation
-2
charge around the outer electrode during the polarity
Cathode reversal ramp up indicates that the positive charge has a low
(inner electrode)
-3
mobility and that the mobile species is the negative charge.
0 1 2
Position 3
(mm) 4 5 What is clear though is that the conductivity of mobile
(b) Negative voltage at central conductor charge species in the insulating material is greater than the
conductivity of charges transferring across the electrode
Figure 8. Space charge distributions in a third type of XLPE cables with
opposite voltages applied at central conductor. Taken from [29] interfaces before the space charge distribution reaches a
steady state. It is this that leads to the formation of hetero
Our results have also shown that the mirror effect is not space charge regions, which increase the interface fields and
preserved during the charge dynamics brought about by reduce the bulk field so that the current across the interface
polarity reversal. The mirror image charge effect is thus a can come into coincidence with the bulk current. On
steady state feature independent of the nature of the space polarity reversal the reduction of the interface fields reduces
charges, and the way that their distribution is produced. the interface currents, while the high field in the middle
Since the key feature defining a steady state is that the radial process the space charge currents that invert the charges at
current must be the same at all radial position it must be the interfaces.
concluded that the field distribution produced by the mirror
space charge distribution is one such that current is
everywhere the same, including the currents across the
 4.3 SPACE CHARGE ACCUMULATION AT reversing charges will be produced by interface currents.
ELEVATED TEMPERATURE This may be more damaging to the cable than charge
generation in the middle of the cable by ion separation.
Cable B was used for the measurements in elevated
temperature and so the results are not strictly comparable
with those of cable A. However the space charge 5 CONCLUSIONS
distribution at a uniform temperature of 25 oC approaches
a steady state that is very similar to that found in cable A, It has been shown that the mirror image charge effect is a
figure 3a, with a large positive heterocharge at the outer steady state effect that is independent of the nature and type
electrode when the conductor had a potential of +80 kV. of the charges and the dynamics involved in the formation
The difference is that the heterocharge peak is spread more of the charge distribution. The reason for the occurrence of
widely than in cable A, and there is a small amount of a mirror space charge distribution is that the currents across
homocharge at the inner conductor that is reducing with the electrode interface are dependent only upon the
time. The time taken to reach the steady state is much magnitude of the interface field and not its polarity. It is
longer than in cable A, possibly because the insulation suggested that these currents are produced by a thermally
thickness is larger so that the charge transit time is longer. assisted tunnelling of charge carriers through the interface
The longer transit time may also be the reason why a barrier.
negative heterocharge has not yet appeared near the inner Measurements made during the polarity reversal process
electrode. The positive charge at the outer conductor shows show that the space charge reversal is influenced by the pre-
very little evidence of decaying when the cable was short- existing field distribution. Consequently space charge is
circuited just as the positive heterocharge in cable A did not generated in the middle of the insulation, where the field is
reduce during the polarity reversal ramp up, see figure 3b. It higher than the design stress. This leads to currents moving
therefore appears that this charge is the same in both cables, charge from the bulk to the interfaces, and a high field
i.e. a relatively immobile ion species originating with the position moving towards the electrodes that may be a source
volatile cross-linking by products that are present in both of damage.
cables. The measurements made in a temperature gradient Temperature gradients such as will be found in service
with a mean elevated temperature can therefore be used to change the space charge distribution because the activation
gain some insight into the effect of temperature on space energies for the cross-interface currents are different to
charge distributions., and hence indirectly upon the those for bulk transport. Here the space charge is much
temperature dependence of the bulk and interface currents. reduced, but this may not always be the case as the outcome
Figure 5a shows that higher temperatures has removed the depends upon details of the interface and semiconductor
heterocharge region near to the outer electrode and material among other things.
increased the homocharge at the inner electrode. This
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received the B. Eng. in electrical engineering from
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Xian Jiaotong University, China in 1983. He spent
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many years at China Electric Power Research
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Institute (CEPRI) as a Research and Development
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fellow at the University of Southampton in 1997, and
Shinoda and T. Hashizumi, “Space charge in XLPE power cable
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under dc electrical stress and heat treatment”, IEEE Trans. Diel.
lecturer at the University of Leicester, UK. His research interests lie in
Electr. Insul., Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 467-474, 1995.
dielectric materials, high voltage technology and the insulation system
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ageing and integrity diagnosis.
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cable using PEA system with flat electrode”, IEEE Annual
Len A. Dissado (SM’96, F’06) was born in: St.
Report, Conf. on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric
Helens, Lancashire, U.K on 29 August 1942 He was
Phenomena, pp. 266-269, San Francisco, USA, 1996.
educated: Thomas Linacre Technical School, Wigan,
[18] T. Tanaka and A. Greenwood, Advanced power cable
Lancashire, 1953-1960, gaining a State Scholarship
technology, Volume I, CRC Press Inc., USA, pp. 144-145, 1983.
for University Entry in 1959. He graduated from
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University College London with a 1st Class degree in
Insulated Power Cables Using Flat Ground Electrode PEA
Chemistry in 1963 and was awarded a PhD in
System”, IEE Pro. –Sci. Meas. Technol. Vol. 150, No. 2, pp.89-
Theoretical Chemistry in 1966 and DSc in 1990.
96, 2003.
After rotating between Australia and England twice he settled in at
[20] Y. Li, M. Aihara, K. Murata, Y. Tanaka and T. Takada, “Space
Chelsea College in 1977 to carry out research into dielectrics. His
charge measurement in thick dielectric materials by pulsed
interest in breakdown and associated topics started with a consultancy
Electroacoustic method”, Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 66, No.7,
with STL begun in 1981. Since then he has published many papers and
pp.3909-3816, 1995.
one book, together with John Fothergill, in this area. In 1995 he moved
[21] Z. Liu, Electrical Insulation Design, - Power Cables, Mechanic
to The University of Leicester, and was promoted to Professor in 1998.
Industry Press, Beijing, China (in Chinese), 1981
He has been a visiting Professor at The University Pierre and Marie
[22] I. W. McAllister , G. C. Chichton and A. Pedersen, “Charge
Curie in Paris, Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse, and Nagoya
Accumualtion in DC Cable: a Macroscopic Approach”, Proc. of
University, and has given numerous invited lectures, the most recent of
the 1994 IEEE Int. Symp. Electrical Insulation, Pittsburgh, PA,
which was the Whitehead lecture at CEIDP 2002 in Cancun, Mexico.
USA, pp. 212-216, 5-8 June, 1994.
He was awarded the title Docteur Honoris Causa by the Universite
[23] I. W. McAllister , G. C. Chichton and A. Pedersen, “Space
Paul Sabatier in 2007. Currently he is an Associate Editor of IEEE
Charge Field in DC Cables”, Proc. of the 1996 Int. Symp.
Transactions DEI, co-chair of the Multifactor Aging Committee of
Electrical Insulation, Montreal, Canada, pp. 661-665, 16-19
DEIS and a member of DEIS Administrative Committee.
June, 1996.
[24] T. Tanaka and A. Greenwood, Advanced power cable
George Chen was born in China in 1961. He
technology, Volume I, CRC Press Inc., USA, 1983.
received his BEng (1983) and MSc (1986) in
[25] K. R. Bambery and R. J. Fleming, “Space charge accumulation
Electrical Engineering from Xian Jiaotong
in two cable grades of XLPE”, IEEE Trans. DEL, Vol. 5, pp.
University, China. After he obtained his PhD (1990)
103-109, 1998.
from the University of Strathclyde, UK, on the work
[26] S.Delphino, D.Fabiani, G.C.Montanari, L.A.Dissado,
of permanent changes in electrical properties of
C.Laurent, G.Teyssedre, “Fast charge packet dynamics in XLPE
irradiated low-density polyethylene, he joined the
insulated cable models”, Ann.Rep.CEIDP (IEEE
University of Southampton as postdoctoral research fellow and became
pub.07CH37929), pp421-424, 2007
senior research fellow subsequently. In 1997 he was appointed as a
[27] J.Artbauer, “Electric strength of polymers”,
research lecture and promoted to a Reader in 2002. Over the years, he
J.Phys.D:Appl.Phys, Vol. 29, pp446-456, 1996
has developed a wide range of interests in High Voltage Engineering
[28] C.Laurent, “Optical pre-breakdown warnings in insulating
and Electrical Properties of Materials and published over 100 papers.
polymers”, IEEE Electr.Insul.Mag., Vol..15, pp5-13, 1999
[29] M. Fu, G. Chen and J. C. Fothergill, “Mirror image effect space
John C. Fothergill (SM'95, F'04) was born in
charge distribution in XLPE power cable under opposite
Malta in 1953. He graduated from the
stressing voltage polarity”, Proc. Of 14th Inter. Symp. on High
University of Wales, Bangor, in 1975 with a
Voltage Eng. (ISH), Beijing, China, August 25-29, 2005
Batchelor‟s degree in Electronics. He continued
(CDROM).
at the same institution, working with Pethig and
[30] D.K.Davies, “Charge generation on dielectric surfaces”,
Lewis, gaining a Master‟s degree in Electrical
Brit.J.Appl.Phys . (J.Phys.D), ser.2, Vol.2, pp1533-1537, 1969
Materials and Devices in 1976 and doctorate in
[31] T. J. Lewis, “Electrical effects at interfaces and surfaces”, IEEE
the Electronic Properties of Biopolymers in 1979. Following this he
Trans. on EI, Vol. EI-21, pp. 289-295, 1986.
worked as a senior research engineer leading research in electrical
[32] L.A.Dissado and J.C.Fothergill, Electrical Degradation and
power cables at STL, Harlow, UK. In 1984 he moved to the
Breakdown in Polymers (P.Peregrinus Ltd for IEE, London,
University of Leicester as a lecturer. He now has a personal chair in
1992)
Engineering and is currently Pro-Vice-Chancellor.
[33] T. Takada, “Space charge formation in dielectrics”, IEEE Trans.
on EI., Vol. Ei-21, pp. 873-877, 1986.
[34] M. Ieda, “Carrier injection, space charge and electrical
breakdown in insulating polymers”, IEEE Trans. on EI., Vol.
EI-22, pp.261-267, 1987.

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