State the purpose of the main components of a computer system

Introduction:
A PC requires a variety of external devices in order to function - some of these are input devices and some are output devices. As
the names imply, an input device provides information TO the PC while an output device provides you with data FROM the PC.
Common input devices include mouse, keyboards, webcams, digital cameras, and scanners (scanners are discussed in Domain
4.0). There are also specialty input devices such as bar code scanners, fingerprint scanners, touch screens, and others. Common
output devices are monitors and printers.

Serial:
Serial ports are nearly extinct and have been largely replaced by USB and Firewire, but they do still exist. The most common
places they are still seen today are the built-in modems on laptops and the communications port on many routers. Their other
main function was for mouse connections.

Serial devices used a DB-9 connector that plugged into a DB-9 port on the computer. Because the expansion bus
uses parallel communications, the serial port on the computer has a chip called Universal Asynchronous
Receiver/Transmitter (UART) that is responsible for converting between the parallel and serial data streams. RS-
232 is the standard that defines all of the specifications of serial communications.

The serial port must be configured in the Device Manager. The exception to this rule is modems which have their own built in
serial ports. They still use a COM port like other serial devices, but their settings are pre-configured internally. The other major
problem with the serial port was its lack of speed which maxxed out at 115 Kbps.

Parallel Port:
Most PCs still have a parallel port, although it is being used less and less. The main function of the parallel port was for
connecting printers and scanners. Both of these devices are largely connected via USB (some printers are now networked). The
maximum speed of a standard parallel port was 115 Kbps; although the later EPP/ECP varieties increased this speed to 3 MBps.

Parallel connectors are DB-25 and use a male to connect to the PC and a female to connect to the device. These connectors are
shown below.

USB:
Serial and parallel ports are very slow by modern standards and suffer from a host of other problems. This led to the development
of the Universal Serial Bus (USB) which has become the standard for connecting peripherals (input/output devices). USB has the
advantages of being much faster, it is plug-and-play compliant, the bus is expandable via the use of USB hubs, and devices are
hot-swappable. USB comes in 3 basic speeds as follows:

 Low Speed - Has a rate of 1.5 Mbps that is mostly used for Human Interface Devices (HID) such as keyboards, mice, and
joysticks.
 Full Speed - Has a rate of 12 Mbps. Full Speed was the fastest rate before the USB 2.0 specification and many devices fall back
to Full Speed. All USB Hubs support Full Speed.
 High-Speed - Has a rate of 480 Mbps and is known as USB 2.0. Though Hi-Speed devices are advertised as "up to 60 MB/s", not
all USB 2.0 devices are Hi-Speed. Most hi-speed USB devices typically operate at much slower speeds. USB 2.0 devices will
work on USB 1.x hubs, but will run at the lower speed.

Firewire:
Firewire was developed by Apple and is also known as IEEE 1394. Firewire is another high speed connection type for
input/output devices that has most of the same features as USB. In fact, Firewire came out before USB and was much faster.
Firewire did not become the standard that many thought it would be due to licensing fees implemented by Apple. Firewire is still
around, but is not nearly as common as USB despite the fact that theoretically and practically, it is much faster.

Firewire has 2 speeds: 1394a which runs at 400 Mbps and 1394b which runs at 800 Mbps. It can support 63 devices which can
use a hub, or be daisy chained (like SCSI devices). The maximum cable length between 2 devices is 4.5 meters.

Firewire has 2 different connector types, both of which can be found on a PC. One is a 6-pin connector that provides
power to input devices and the other is a 4-pin connector that does not. Like USB devices, it is generally a good
practice to install the driver before connecting the device.

Keyboards:
They connect to the motherboard at the back of the PC (USB keyboards can connect in front if there front-side USB
ports). Older keyboards used a 6-pin mini DIN connector knows as PS/2; however, newer keyboards are typically
USB or wireless. Most keyboards are of the 101/102 key variety. Most keyboards simply plug in and work. Some
advanced keyboards may need to have a driver installed for advanced features. Keyboard features can be configured in the
keyboard control panel applet.

Mouse:
Older mouse also used a PS/2 connection. The mice and keyboards were color coded to help prevent them from being plugged
into the wrong port. If you plugged the mouse into the keyboard port and the keyboard into the mouse port, neither would work.
Normally, you would get a 302 keyboard error during the boot process. Like keyboards, PS/2 mouse have all but been replaced
by USB and wireless varieties.

In addition to the connection type, the mouse itself has changed in recent years. Older mice used a ball and rollers which often got
dirty and had to be regularly cleaned. Newer mice, called optical mice, use LEDs or lasers to track the movements of the mouse.
Optical mouse rarely require any maintenance or cleaning. In addition to this improvement, many mouse now come with a scroll
wheel between the 2 buttons that allows you to scroll pages on the screen up and down.

A mouse can be configured in the Mouse control panel applet. This allows you to adjust such settings as double-click speed,
acceleration, right-hand/left-hand orientation, and other settings.

Digital Cameras:
Digital cameras have been slowly replacing film cameras for many applications as prices have come down over the years. They
offer the advantage of being able to view a picture right after it is taken, massive storage, and of course, the ability to connect to a
PC. Almost all digital cameras connect to PCs via a USB connection - typically USB mini-B. Once connected, pictures can be
saved to the hard drive, emailed to people, and printed. Most cameras come with some sort of software for managing picture.
Many cameras will also show up in My Computer and you can open the camera like you would your hard drive and browse the
contents. Some computers and printers have card readers that you can insert the memory card directly in to. The quality of picture
a digital camera can take is measured in megapixels - higher being better. It is important to note that the higher the quality, the
bigger the file size and the fewer pictures you can fit on a memory card.

Web Cameras:
Web cameras, or webcams, are mainly used for web conferencing (and porn, but that won't be on the exam) and typically connect
via USB. Applications such as MSN Messenger and Skype allow you to video conference with another person with a webcam for
free. Not all webcams are equal and vary widely on quality. Quality is basically determined by 2 things: resolution and frame rate.
Like digital cameras, resolution is measured in megapixels. There are webcams with very high resolution; however, this creates
large video sizes that are difficult to transmit over the internet. The frame rate is the number of "pictures" your camera takes per
second. The higher the frame rate, the smoother the video will appear on the other end.

Specialty Devices:
Biometrics is playing an increasing role in computer security and biometric devices are becoming more common on
PCs. These devices provide access security by requiring verification of a person's identity. There are many different
kinds including fingerprint scanners, retina scanners, and voice recognition software just to name a few. These
devices can be built into the PC, keyboard, or other device, and they can also be external devices usually connected to
a USB port. After installing such a device, you will likely need to do an initial scan of whatever biometric information the device
measures so that it knows what to look for in the future.

Touch screens are computer monitors that are technically input and output devices. You input commands by touching the screen
with your finger or a stylus. These are most commonly found in PDA format or in store/information kiosks. Touch screens allow
one to get rid of the keyboard and mouse. In addition to the regular monitor connection, there will usually be a separate USB or
PS/2 connection for the mouse portion of the monitor. This will typically require driver installation.

Bar code readers are used to read standardized Universal Product Code (UPC) bar codes that are commonly found on
most products you will find in any major store. Bar codes readers can scan product information to the PC to update
inventory databases. Modern readers use a USB, PS/2, or wireless connection and typically interface with specialized
software.

Printers

Connections:
Very old printers utilized a RS-232 connection that was either a 9 or 25 pin serial port and cable. The cable should be less than 50
feet long (15.25 meters). These connections required that the port be configured with parity type, speed, protocol and character
frame. This connection type was eventually replaced with a higher speed parallel connection which has recently become obsolete.
Parallel connections utilize a DB-25 port on the computer to connect to the printer. The newest parallel ports were Extended
Capability Ports (ECP) which offered increased performance over previous parallel standards. Both the computer's parallel port
and the peripheral's port had to support ECP in order to take advantage of the higher speeds. Parallel cables are limited to less
than 10 feet (3 meters) in length.

Most current printers use USB, Firewire, or Ethernet (RJ-45) network connections. More expensive models are available that
offer Wi-Fi or Bluetooth connections. USB and Firewire connected printers can be shared over a network, however, the host
computer that it is connected to must be left on in order for others to print to the printer. This is an advantage of the newer
network printers which do not have this limitation.

Dot Matrix:
Dot Matrix printers for home use are nearly obsolete having been replaced with faster, higher quality varieties; however, you may
still come across them at some businesses. In fact, most cash registers use a dot matrix printer for printing out receipts. Dot
Matrix printers use an impact printing process whereby a matrix of pins imprint an image on a ribbon. The ink from this ribbon is
transplanted to the paper. Very old dot matrix printers used a pin feeding system that used paper with a series of holes along the
sides of the paper (see image to the right). After printing the perforated edges with the holes are torn off. Newer models of dot
matrix printers typically use a friction feed (rollers) mechanism.

Thermal Wax:
These are not a very common printer type; however, you will run across them in use for specialty applications. Thermal wax
printers use a roll of cellophane like film that is made up of colored wax panels. These panels are cyan, magenta, and yellow
(CMY) or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK). This film is rolled past a printhead containing thousands of heated
elements that burn the wax from the film onto the paper. When the roll is all used up, simply replace it with a new one. These
printers are very slow because the ribbon prints each color separately so it takes 3 or 4 (depending on the roll type) panels to pass
a page to complete it. These printers typically print 300 dpi at about 1 ppm.

Dye-Sublimation:
The print process is very similar to the thermal wax printers, however, there are a couple of differences. Dye-sublimation printers
use film that contains dye rather than wax and must be used with specially coated paper. Second, dye-sub printers do not melt
 wax from the ribbon to the paper; the printhead turns the dye into gas which then solidifies on the paper. Most importantly, they
offer extremely high quality due to their continuous tone printing. Continuous tone refers to the fact that the dots put down by the
printer can vary in size and intensity depending on the heat output by each element on the printhead. This is in contrast to the use
of a dithering process like other print processes. For this reason, dye-sub printers can produce photographic quality output and are
used for desktop publishing, medical imaging, and other high-end applications. The image to the right shows an example of a
large poster-size dye-sub printer.

Ink Jet:
Ink jet printers are the most common types of printers for home use because of their good quality and affordable price. The image
to the right shows the printhead of an ink jet printer. This particular one has an extra black cartridge, however, most have CMYK
cartridges. Each of these cartridges contains liquid ink that is sprayed onto the paper through very tiny nozzles in the printhead.
The printhead makes a pass across the width of the page printing a strip. Then the paper is fed a little and the printhead passes
back across the page printing another strip. This process continues until the whole page is printed. Ink jets can print 2400+ dpi at
24+ ppm which is a big part of their attraction.

Solid Ink:
Solid Ink printers were invented by Tektronix which is now owned by Xerox. Solid ink printers are very fast and offer vibrant
colors because of the inks that they use, and a printing process that produces continuous tone output. These printers use solid
blocks of wax ink that are melted down into the printhead that sprays the ink onto a drum. The paper is then rolled over the drum
which transfers the ink to the paper. These printers are pretty expensive.

Laser Printers:
Laser printers are very popular in offices, but not so much for home use due to their initial cost and cost of consumables (items
which must be periodically replaced). Laser printers use dry ink, called toner, static electricity, and heat to place and bond the ink
onto the paper. This is known as the electro-photographic process.

 Cleaning Blade - This rubber blade or felt pad removes excess toner off the drum after the print process has completed.
 Photosensitive Drum - The core of the electro-photographic process. This component should not be exposed to light and needs to
be replaced periodically. Also known as an "imaging unit" or "imaging kit". See image
 Primary Corona Wire - Highly negatively charged wire erases the charge on the Photosensitive drum to make it ready for another
image. Needs to be cleaned periodically.
 Transfer Corona - A roller that contains a positively charged wire to pull the toner off the photosensitive drum and place it on the
page.
 Toner - Plastic resin that is the ink for a laser printer. Naturally negatively charged. See image
 Fusing unit - Bonds the toner particles to prevent smearing. Uses heat to bond. Needs to be replaced periodically as the fusing
platens (rollers) get worn down. Often the thermal fuse will blow and then you will know it is time to replace the unit because it
will no longer heat up. Note: Fusers can reach temperatures over 200 degrees - make sure you let it cool before handling it. See
image

Page Description Languages:

PDLs are programming languages used to "describe" the contents of a page in terms that a printer can understand. Adobe's
PostScript and HP's Printer Control Language (PCL) are the 2 most common PDLs used in desktop publishing. When sent to the
printer, a document is parsed by the driver which converts the document into the language that the printer understands and
instructs the printer how to format the document. This is why it is so important to use the correct driver for your printer. If you
use a PCL driver for a PostScript printer, most likely a bunch of garbled text or nothing will print out.

Scanners are input devices that are comprised of a Charge Coupled Device (CCD) array. This array is like a series of "eyes" that
read and record light intensities and stores them in digital form. This is achieved when the scanners internal light source passes
over the image that is being scanned.

Most scanners sold today use a plug-and-play USB or firewire connection. Older scanners typically used a SCSI, parallel, or
proprietary connection method depending on the scanner model.

To scan a document, simply place it face down on the scanner's glass and close the lid. Most scanners will allow you to initiate
 the scan from the front panel or from the software/driver that is included with it. If you initiate the scan from the front panel, the
software will open on the PC anyway. This software will allow you to control important scan settings that are discussed below:

 Resolution - Scanner quality is measured in DPI or dots per inch. 300 DPI is usually adequate for normal scanning, however,
modern scanners can scan at resolutions of 9600 DPI and higher. The higher the resolution, the larger the resultant scanned file
will be.
 Color Depth - This describes the number of bits of information that the scanner can use to describe each dot. The higher the bits,
such as 36 and 48-bit scanners sold today, the greater the variations in color, shade, hue, etc. the scanner can reproduce.
 Gray scale Depth - This is the same as color depth, but is a measure of how many shades of gray the scanner can reproduce. Once
again, higher is better.

Introduction:
RAM stands for "random access memory" and is volatile. When an application is launched, it is placed in RAM for faster
access by the CPU. It is one of the main components that affects system performance. Over the years a variety of memory
types have emerged including DIP, SIP, SIMM, DIMM and most recently RIMM.

Types of RAM:

 Static RAM (SRAM) - SRAM doesn’t have to be constantly refreshed. Uses a lot of power. Used in old IBM XT machines and
was limited to 256K per chip. This type of memory is no longer used and has been replaced by DRAM.
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM) - DRAM uses capacitors instead of transistors and switches. Needs constant refreshing. This type of
memory is still in use, however, has undergone upgrades such as the SDRAM and RDRAM varieties below.
 Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) - SDRAM is tied to the system clock which provides support for the faster bus speeds of modern
computers. The speed of the memory that you install in a system must match or exceed the system speed in order to work.
Installing RAM that is faster than the system speed will operate at the system speed. For example, if you put PC 133 RAM into a
system that is running at 100 MHZ, the RAM would operate at the 100 MHz speed. You can sometimes mix speed ratings when
installing multiple modules, however, it is not recommended because it can cause the system to lock up or not start at all.

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of memory is
non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that
are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also
in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired
contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can
be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves
this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more
than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal
window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
Word size: 16Kbits.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and
programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed.
EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible
but slow.
Advantages of ROM

 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified
A RAM chip can store multiple gigabytes (GB) of data, ranging from 1 GB to 256 GBper chip. A ROM chip stores several
megabytes (MB) of data, typically 4 MB or 8 MB per chip.

Hard Drives
Hard drives are magnetic storage devices that contain several discs inside called "Platters" that are attached to a spindle motor.
The number of platters varies depending on the capacity of the drive. Platters are coated with a film of magnetically sensitive
substance that is primarily made of iron oxide. Another important ingredient is a thin layer of cobalt alloy. The read/write heads
are responsible for reading and writing to the platters and are attached to the head actuator which is in charge of moving the heads
around the platters.

The voice coil actuator is found in modern drives and assures that the heads are in proper position which ensures that the
appropriate tracks are read. The guidance system used by the heads is called a servo. Its job is to position the head over the
correct cylinder. The spindle motor is responsible for spinning the platters at a rate ranging from 3600 RPM to 10000 RPM
depending on the drive. Heads typically have a coil of copper wire inside. Currents are passed through the wires which causes the
surface underneath to become magnetized, creating 1 bit of data. The direction of the current passing through the wiring dictates
the polarity of the magnetization, which creates a 0 or a 1. To read the data, the drive's electronics detect polarity differences.

The disk's surface has tracks that are rings that are located next to each other. Each platter has the same number of tracks, and the
tracks on the outside are larger than the tracks on the inner part of the surface. A track location that cuts across all platters is
called a cylinder. Each cylinder is divided into sectors that are 512K in size. The size of the sector determines the amount of data
that can be written, and the amount that will be wasted if only a few characters are in a record. A one byte record written to a
sector occupies the entire track in that sector.

Hard drive performance is measured as follows:

 Access Time - This is a measure of the average time that it takes the drives R/W heads to access data on the drive.
 Seek Time - This is the amount of time it takes for the drives head to move between cylinders and land on a particular track.
 Data Transfer Rate - The megabytes per second(MBps) in which data is transferred between the drive and the system.

Floppy Drives
Floppy drives are also a form of magnetic storage that function similarly to hard drives. There is a spring loaded metal cover that
is moved aside during operation that exposes a mylar disk that is coated with a ferro-magnetic substance. The drive's read/write
heads access the disk as it turns on a spindle. Older PCs used 5.25 inch disks and drives that were able to hold 1.2mb of data.
Modern 3.5 drives can hold 1.44mb of data. Given the popularity of newer storage types such as CDROM, ZIP disks and
removable hard drives, it is not likely that further advancements to floppy technology will be made. In fact, many new computers
are being built without them and it is probable that they will soon fade into oblivion.

CD-ROM Drives
In addition to being able to play CD-audio disks, a CD-ROM drive can read data disks, and those with the CD-R or CD-RW
designation can also record on CD media (more on this below). Here is how a CD-ROM works. A beam is emitted by the laser
and directed onto a single track on the disc by a prism/beamsplitter. As the disc rotates, the beam encounters a series of pits and
landings that determine whether the beam is reflected back into the detector(from a landing) or scattered(from a pit). Light from
the laser beam must penetrate a thin protective layer of plastic on the disc before striking the reflective coating that contains the
pits and landings. As the disc rotates, light reflected from landings on the disk strikes the photo sensor producing a series of
electrical pulses that are coordinated with a timing circuit to generate a stream of 1s and 0s that produce the binary code of
 information on the disc. The average storage capacity for a CD-ROM is 680mb of data.

Most current CD-ROM drives have the capability to record data. There are 2 main types of CD recorders.

 CD-R (Recordable) - Uses a chemical layer with a thin metal layer(silver alloy or gold). “Burning” removes reflective parts to
simulate pits and lands and represent 1s and 0s. CD-R media comes in 74 minute 650MB capacity and 80 minute 700MB
capacity versions.
 CD-RW (Re-Writable) - CD-RW media can be rewritten multiple times whereas CD-R can only be burned once. CD-RW uses
phase-change material that crystallizes to write, and rewrite CDs through a heating and cooling process. You can only record on
CD-RW media if the CD-ROM drive supports it.

DVD Drives
The reason for this is their incredible capacity for storing data and improved picture quality. Another major advantage is that
DVD players became available for computers which did not happen with the VHS (can you imagine?). DVDs come in single-
sided and dual-sided formats and can store 2 hours of video per side using the MPEG-2 compression standard. Because DVDs are
compressed, they need to be decoded as they play. On a computer this can be done with the use of software or a hardware
decoder. Hardware decoders use less CPU time.

DVD-ROM drives are the most common type of DVD drives sold for computers. DVD-ROM discs can hold up to 16 GB of data,
however, there are 2 newer technologies that are fighting for supremacy - HD DVD and Blu-ray. HD DVD was developed by
Microsoft and offers media that can store 30GB of data. Blu-ray was developed by Sony and can hold 50GB of data.
When working with CD-ROM and DVD-ROM burners, one of the most common problems is buffer underrun. Burners come
with buffer RAM onboard that temporarily stores the data coming from the source.

Tape Drives
Tape drives are another form of magnetic storage media that functions similarly to the other types. The tape is belt driven and
read/write heads magnetize portions of the tape as it passes by them. Tape drives are typically used for backing up and storing
data. Because they are comparatively slow, they are used to store data that does not need to be accessed very often. Tape Drives
are typically connected to Parallel or SCSI ports.

Flash Drives and Flash Cards

Also known as thumb drives, USB flash drives offer advantages over other portable storage devices and are partially responsible
for the disappearance of floppy and ZIP disk technologies. They are more compact, generally faster, hold more data, and are more
reliable due to both their lack of moving parts (solid state), and their more durable design. At the time of this writing there are
flash drives with a storage capacity of up to 64 gigabytes.
Another type of removable storage is flash cards which come in several different varieties and are used with portable devices such
as digital cameras, cell phones, and PDAs.

SECURITY

Surge protector

A device that shields computer and other electronic devices from surges in electrical power, or transient voltage, that flow from
the power supply. A surge protector works by channeling the extra voltage into the outlet's grounding wire, preventing it from
flowing through the electronic devices while at the same time allowing the normal voltage to continue along its path. Electrical
surges can damage computer equipment by burning its wires or gradually over time wearing down the device's internal
components and even wipe out any saved data. Surge protectors can also protect telephone and cable lines as these also carry
electric current.

Voltage Regulator
 A voltage regulator is used to regulate voltage level. When a steady, reliable voltage is needed, then voltage regulator is the
preferred device. It generates a fixed output voltage that remains constant for any changes in an input voltage or load conditions.
It acts as a buffer for protecting components from damages.

Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a device that allows a computer to keep running for at least a short time when the
primary power source is lost. It also provides protection from power surges. A UPS contains a battery that "kicks in" when the
device senses a loss of power from the primary source. If you are using the computer when the UPS notifies you of the power
loss, you have time to save any data you are working on and exit gracefully before the secondary power source (the battery) runs
out. When all power runs out, any data in your computer's random access memory (RAM) is erased. When power surges occur, a
UPS intercepts the surge so that it doesn't damage the computer.

Types of computers

1. Supercomputers – Supercomputers are very expensive, very fast, and the most powerful computers we have in the world.

Supercomputers are optimized to execute a few number of programs. This makes it possible for them to execute these few
programs at a very high speed. Due to their inhibiting cost, they are used in high end places like in scientific research centers.
The supercomputer consists of thousands of processors making it clock very high speeds measured by petaflops. These computer
types are also very large in size due to the numerous parts and components involved in their design.

2. Mainframe computers — These are large and expensive computer types capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands,
of users simultaneously. Thus, they are mostly used by governments and large organizations for bulk data processing, critical
applications, transaction processing, census, industry and consumer statistics among others. They are ranked below
supercomputers.

3. Minicomputers — Minicomputers are mid-sized computers. In terms of size and power, minicomputers are ranked
below mainframes. A minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users
simultaneously.The use of the term Minicomputer has diminished and they have merged with servers.

Note: Users connects to the mainframe or minicomputers using dumb terminal – a keyboard and monitor. A dumb terminal is
simply an output device that accepts data from the CPU. In contrast, a smart terminal is a monitor that has its own processor for
special features, such as bold and blinking characters. Dumb terminals are not as fast as smart terminals, and they do not support
as many display features, but they are adequate for most applications.

4. Microcomputers or Personal computers – A personal computer is a computer designed to be used by one user at a time. The
term microcomputer relates to microprocessor which is used with a personal computer for the purpose of processing data and
instruction codes. These are the most common computer types since they are not very expensive.

Desktop computers are not built to be mobile. Desktop computers are large and heavy in comparison to portables. They can be
carried in specially manufactured cases, but only to assist a support engineer in moving, not as a frequent procedure. The monitor,
keyboard and mouse are all separate items on a desktop.Desktop computer components and devices, although quite resilient to
movement while active are not made to be constantly moved, even less so when they are operational. A mains power supply is
mandatory, as desktop computers cannot work without a constant supply of electrical power.

Portable or Mobile Computers

Portable or mobile computers are manufactured with a very important feature; they are portable (are designed for mobility). This
means a computer user can be able to move with it from one point to another comfortably. One can also work from any location
irrespective of if there is a power source. They:

 Are small, compact and light in weight

 Have their own power in form of a battery but of course it does not last forever, thus they have to be plugged to a source of power
once in a while.
These portable devices are produced in a variety of sizes and very high processing capabilities. Good examples are Laptops,
Palmtops, and PDAs.

PDA - personal digital assistant: a handheld device that combines computing, telephone/fax, Internet and networking
features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax sender, Web browser and personal organizer. PDAs may also be
referred to as a palmtop, hand-held computer or pocket computer.
For the XOR gate, NAND and NOR implementation is –
 Implemented Using NAND –

 Implemented using NOR –

Implementation of three basic gates using NAND and NOR gates is shown below –
Flip flop

A flip flop is an electronic circuit with two stable states that can be used to store binary data. The stored data can be changed by
applying varying inputs. Flip-flops and latches are fundamental building blocks of digital electronics systems used in computers,
communications, and many other types of systems. Flip-flops and latches are used as data storage elements. It is the basic storage
element in sequential logic.

Flip flop v/s Latch

The basic difference between a latch and a flip-flop is a gating or clocking mechanism. For example, let us talk about SR latch
and SR flip-flops. In this circuit when you Set S as active the output Q would be high and Q’ will be low. This is irrespective of
anything else. (This is an active low circuit so active here means low, but for an active high circuit active would mean high)

SR Latch

A flip flop, on the other hand, is synchronous and is also known as gated or clocked SR latch.

SR Flip-Flop

In this circuit, the output is changed (i.e. the stored data is changed) only when you give an active clock signal. Otherwise, even if
the S or R is active the data will not change.

SR Flip Flop

There are majorly 4 types of flip flops, with the most common one being SR flip flop. As shown above, it is the simplest and the
easiest to understand. The two outputs as shown above are the inverse of each other. The outputs of an SR flip flop are
highlighted in the table below.

S R Q Q’

0 0 0 1

0 1 0 1

1 0 1 0
1 1 ∞ ∞

JK Flip-flop

Due to the undefined state in the SR flip flop, another is required in electronics. The JK flip flop is a improvement on the SR flip
flop where S=R=1 is not a problem.

JK Flip-Flop

The input condition of J=K=1, gives an output inverting the output state. However, the outputs are same when one tests the circuit
practically.

J K Q Q’

0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1

1 1 0 1

0 0 1 1

0 1 1 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 1 0

D Flip Flop

D flip flop is a better alternative that is very popular with digital electronics. They are commonly used for counters and shift-
registers and input synchronization.
 D Flip-Flop

In a D flip flop, the output can be only changed at the clock edge, and if the input changes at other times, the output will be
unaffected.

Clock D Q Q’

↓»0 0 0 1

↑»1 0 0 1

↓»0 1 0 1

↑»1 1 1 0

The change of state of the output is dependent on the rising edge of the clock. The output (Q) is same as the input and can only
change at the rising edge of the clock.

T Flip Flop

A T flip flop is like JK flip-flop. These are basically single input version of JK flip flop. This modified form of JK flip-flop is
obtained by connecting both inputs J and K together. This flip-flop has only one input along with the clock input.

T Flip-Flop

These flip-flops are called T flip-flops because of their ability to complement its state (i.e.) Toggle, hence the name Toggle flip-
flop.

T Q Q (t+1)

0 0 0

1 1 1
 0 1 1

1 1 0

Applications of Flip-Flops

These are the various types of flip-flops being used in digital electronic circuits and the applications of Flip-flops are as specified
below.

 Counters
 Frequency Dividers
 Shift Registers
 Storage Registers

In electronics, a flip-flop is a special type of gated latch circuit. There are several different types of flip-flops. The most
common types of flip flops are:
 SR flip-flop: Is similar to an SR latch. Besides the CLOCK input, an SR flip-flop has two inputs, labeled SET and RESET. If
the SET input is HIGH when the clock is triggered, the Q output goes HIGH. If the RESET input is HIGH when the clock is
triggered, the Q output goes LOW.
Note that in an SR flip-flop, the SET and RESET inputs shouldn’t both be HIGH when the clock is triggered. This is
considered an invalid input condition, and the resulting output isn’t predictable if this condition occurs.
 D flip-flop: Has just one input in addition to the CLOCK input. This input is called the DATA input. When the clock is
triggered, the Q output is matched to the DATA input. Thus, if the DATA input is HIGH, the Q output goes HIGH, and if the
DATA input is LOW, the Q output goes LOW.

Most D-type flip-flops also include S and R inputs that let you set or reset the flip-flop. Note that the S and R inputs in a D
flip-flop ignore the CLOCK input. Thus, if you apply a HIGH to either S or R, the flip-flop will be set or reset immediately,
without waiting for a clock pulse.

 JK flip-flop: A common variation of the SR flip-flop. A JK flip-flop has two inputs, labeled J and K. The J input corresponds
to the SET input in an SR flip-flop, and the K input corresponds to the RESET input.

The difference between a JK flip-flop and an SR flip-flop is that in a JK flip-flop, both inputs can be HIGH. When both the J
and K inputs are HIGH, the Q output is toggled, which means that the output alternates between HIGH and LOW.

For example, if the Q output is HIGH when the clock is triggered and J and K are both HIGH, the Q output is set to LOW. If
the clock is triggered again while J and K both remain HIGH, the Q output is set to HIGH again, and so forth, with the Q
output alternating from HIGH to LOW at every clock tick.

 T flip-flop: This is simply a JK flip-flop whose output alternates between HIGH and LOW with each clock pulse. Toggles
are widely used in logic circuits because they can be combined to form counting circuits that count the number of clock
pulses received.

You can create a T flip-flop from a D flip-flop by connecting the Q-bar output directly to the D input. Thus, whenever a
clock pulse is received, the current state of the Q output is inverted (that’s what the Q-bar output is) and fed back into the D
input. This causes the output to alternate between HIGH and LOW.

You can also create a T flip-flop from a JK flip-flop simply by hard-wiring both the J and K inputs to HIGH. When both J
and K are HIGH, the JK flip-flop acts as a toggle.
Register are used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU,
there are various types of Registers those are used for various purpose. Among of the some Mostly used Registers named as
AC or Accumulator, Data Register or DR, the AR or Address Register, program counter (PC), Memory Data
Register(MDR) ,Index register, Memory Buffer Register.
These Registers are used for performing the various Operations. While we are working on the System then these Registers
are used by the CPU for Performing the Operations. When We Gives Some Input to the System then the Input will be
Stored into the Registers and When the System will gives us the Results after Processing then the Result will also be from
the Registers. So that they are used by the CPU for Processing the Data which is given by the User. Registers Perform:-
1) Fetch: The Fetch Operation is used for taking the instructions those are given by the user and the Instructions those are
stored into the Main Memory will be fetch by using Registers.
2) Decode: The Decode Operation is used for interpreting the Instructions means the Instructions are decoded means the
CPU will find out which Operation is to be performed on the Instructions.
3) Execute: The Execute Operation is performed by the CPU. And Results those are produced by the CPU are then Stored
into the Memory and after that they are displayed on the user Screen.
Types of Registers are as Followings
MAR stand for Memory Address Register
This register holds the memory addresses of data and instructions. This register is used to access data and instructions from
memory during the execution phase of an instruction. Suppose CPU wants to store some data in the memory or to read
the data from the memory. It places the address of the-required memory location in the MAR.
Program Counter
The program counter (PC), commonly called the instruction pointer (IP) in Intel x86 microprocessors, and sometimes
called the instruction address register, or just part of the instruction sequencer in some computers, is a processor register
It is a 16 bit special function register in the 8085 microprocessor. It keeps track of the the next memory address of the
instruction that is to be executed once the execution of the current instruction is completed. In other words, it holds the
address of the memory location of the next instruction when the current instruction is executed by the
microprocessor.
Accumulator Register
This Register is used for storing the Results those are produced by the System. When the CPU will generate Some Results
after the Processing then all the Results will be Stored into the AC Register.
Memory Data Register (MDR)
MDR is the register of a computer's control unit that contains the data to be stored in the computer storage (e.g. RAM), or
the data after a fetch from the computer storage. It acts like a buffer and holds anything that is copied from the memory
ready for the processor to use it. MDR hold the information before it goes to the decoder.
MDR which contains the data to be written into or readout of the addressed location. For example, to retrieve the contents of
cell 123, we would load the value 123 (in binary, of course) into the MAR and perform a fetch operation. When the operation
is done, a copy of the contents of cell 123 would be in the MDR. To store the value 98 into cell 4, we load a 4 into the MAR
and a 98 into the MDR and perform a store. When the operation is completed the contents of cell 4 will have been set to 98,
by discarding whatever was there previously.
The MDR is a two-way register. When data is fetched from memory and placed into the MDR, it is written to in one
direction. When there is a write instruction, the data to be written is placed into the MDR from another CPU register, which
then puts the data into memory.
The Memory Data Register is half of a minimal interface between a micro program and computer storage, the other half is a
memory address register.
Index Register
A hardware element which holds a number that can be added to (or, in some cases, subtracted from) the address portion of a
computer instruction to form an effective address. Also known as base register. An index register in a computer's CPU is a
processor register used for modifying operand addresses during the run of a program.
Memory Buffer Register
MBR stand for Memory Buffer Register. This register holds the contents of data or instruction read from, or written in
memory. It means that this register is used to store data/instruction coming from the memory or going to the memory.
Data Register
A register used in microcomputers to temporarily store data being transmitted to or from a peripheral device.