Tesi TF 21122016 PDF

POLITECNICO DI MILANO
I School of Engineering
Master of Science Course in Civil Engineering
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
A BRIDGE MADE OF COMPOSITE
PLASTIC TUBES AND CONCRETE FOR
A BASIC ROAD NETWORKS
Supervisor:
Prof. Ing. Pier Giorgio MALERBA
Co-Supervisor:
Ing. Elisa CONTI
Master Thesis by:

Thomas FOURDINIER 836798
Accademic Year 2015-2016

Fourdinier, T.
A Bridge made of Composite Plastic Tubes and
Concrete for a Basic Road Networks.
© December 2016
[email protected]
Politecnico di Milano
Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering
Graduation session: 21 December 2016
Preface
My special thank and acknowledgement go to Ing. Nicolas Metge, who gave me the
opportunity to intern at the Company ISC. This experience was extremely dense
and rich, as I was confronted to many different projects and types of infrastructure.
I could also work at a great variety of levels: public tenders, technical expertises,
execution studies. This stage answered my personal desires of understanding and
entering deeply into subjects. He did not hesitate to give me autonomy and respon-
sibility, and I really appreciated being challenged as I was at ISC. My appreciation
also goes to the entire ISC team, always available for explanations, prompt to share
their knowledge and willing to learn more.
Special mentions go to Ing. Patrick Barbier and Ing. Riyadh Benosman, who
particularly supported me during these six months and communicated their passion,
enthusiasm and know-how.
I would like to express sincere gratitude to Prof. Ing. Pier Giorgio Malerba for
the time and attention he dedicated to my thesis project. He was sufficiently patient
and open-minded to examine the work I suggested. I thank him for sharing his large
know-how and experience in civil works and especially his expertise in bridges.
Finally, a large thank you goes to Ing. Elisa Conti for her help preparing and
setting this work. Its advice has showed very precious for me to understand and
answer the expectations of a thesis work in Italia. Her availability and enthusiasm
was a constant support during the last months.
Milano, December 2016
Thomas Fourdinier
Abstract
The present thesis work takes advantage of the opportunity of a stage, at ISC, a
French engineering firm. This company, whose field includes Africa, develops new
structural design processes, to adapt to the local context. Hence, the present work
aims at developing such a process for a footbridge. Starting from a blank page,
requirements include durability of the material, low environmental and economic
impact of the structure, simplicity of the process. To fulfil them, the structure shall
be light, requiring manhandling elements and no lifting machine. These specifica-
tions open two main inter-dependant fields of prospects: the static scheme and the
material.
The thesis follows the path opened by a first design attempt made by ISC: a
reinforced concrete bridge, cast in PVC tubes. Taking account achievements and
limitations of the experience, this thesis develops and expands this intuition, enlarg-
ing the use of PVC. First, a different static scheme, that fits better the particularities
of PVC, is chosen. The nature of a piping system offers its modularity and container
ability, whose interest is weighted in the project framework.
Then, despite the proven interest of PVC for piping systems, the main obstacle to
use it in civil engineering is the lack of knowledge the sector has about the mechanical
abilities of PVC. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate its types, its modes of
production, its characteristics, its reference codes and its structural behaviour of
this plastic. Its principal semi-finished derivatives, tubes and fittings, are analysed
in terms of geometry and possible implementation.
Once the useful equipment has been presented, several attempts are made before
designing the footbridge. Among them, a scale model is realized, to experience and
improve the static scheme. Loading test is led and analysed. It helps assessing the
structural abilities of PVC piping systems.
To find a correct shape, the study has reaped huge benefits from the use of a
parametric algorithm, Grasshopper, combined to a 3D software, Rhinoceros. After
parameters are determined, a complete algorithm has been written to model the
geometry of the footbridge, and convert it into finite elements thanks to the use of
Karamba.
Once the model validated, the works are sequenced. An integral PVC skeleton,
vi
supported by a metallic cable, is built. Reinforcement is disposed before is filled

with concrete. The model is calculated under different load cases. Peculiarities
of realization are pursued to the very detail of execution studies and normative
verifications to European standards.
Originality resides in the structural role given to PVC tubes during concreting
phase. This thesis concludes as a matter of fact with the delivery of a ready-to-built
footbridge.
Sommario
Il presente lavoro di tesi si avvale della possibilità di uno stage, svoltosi presso lo
studio di ingegneria francese ISC. La società, inserita nel contesto di sviluppo dei
paesi del continente africano, rivolge la sua attenzione a progetti nuove strutture che
si adattino al contesto locale di riferimento. Il presente lavoro, inserendosi in tale
contesto, si propone dunque di studiare una passerella pedonale.
Una prima fase è rivolta allo studio dei requisiti quali la durabilità del materiale,
il basso impatto ambientale ed economico della struttura, la semplicità del processo
di costruzione. Al fine di soddisfare questi criteri, la struttura scelta dovrà essere
leggera e composta da soli elementi sufficientemente leggeri per essere trasportati
a mano, in modo tale da non richiedere opportune macchine di sollevamento. Tali
specifiche aprono lo studio a due principali campi interconnessi tra loro: lo schema
statico e il materiale.
La Tesi prende spunto inizialmente da un tentativo di nuovo design progettato
da ISC: un ponte in cemento armato, gettato mediante tubi in PVC. Considerando
in conto i risultati e le limitazioni di questa nuova idea, il lavoro si sviluppa e
espande, ampliando l’utilizzo del PVC come materiale strutturale. In primo luogo
viene scelto uno schema statico differente, che si adatti meglio alle peculiarità del
PVC. In particolare, la natura del sistema di tubazioni manifesta ottime capacità in
termini sia di modularità e sia di involucro, il cui relativo interesse è messo in luce
nel contesto del progetto.
Nonostante l’interesse del PVC per i sistemi di tubazioni, la principale difficoltà
che si manifesta nel campo dell’ingegneria civile riguarda la mancanza di conoscenza
che il settore ha nei confronti delle sue capacità meccaniche. Pertanto, è stato neces-
sario analizzare le diverse tipologie di PVC attualmente in uso, i modi di produzione,
le caratteristiche fisiche e meccaniche, così come le normative di riferimento e il suo
comportamento strutturale. I principali semilavorati di derivazione, come tubi e
raccordi, vengono analizzati dal punto di vista della geometria e della possibilità di
attuazione.
Presentato il materiale e i suoi prodotti a disposizione, diversi tentativi relativi
allo schema statico sono fatti prima di progettare la passerella. Tra questi occorre
citare il modello in scala realizzato ad hoc per sperimentare e migliorare lo schema
viii
statico. Eseguendo una prova di carico è stato inoltre possibile valutare le capacità
strutturali dei sistemi di tubazioni in PVC.
Per definire una forma geometrica appropriata, in questo lavoro si è ricorso
all’utilizzo di un software Grasshopper basato su un algoritmo parametrico. Una
volta determinati i parametri, all’interno del software utilizzato è stato possibile
scrivere un algoritmo per modellare la geometria della passerella e successivamente
convertirlo in elementi finiti. Infine l’analisi strutturale è stata eseguita mediante
l’utilizzo del programma Karamba.
Dopo la validazione del modello, si sono studiate e verificate le diverse fasi del
progetto della passerella. Si definisce uno scheletro integrale in PVC, sostenuto da un
cavo metallico. Prima del getto viene disposto il rinforzo e riempito con calcestruzzo.
Il modello viene analizzato sotto diverse condizioni di carico. Vengono infine definiti
i dettagli costruttivi e vengono eseguite le verifiche in accordo agli standard europei.
L’originalità del lavoro risiede nel ruolo strutturale dato a tubi in PVC durante
la fase di getto e nella definizione di u progetto di una passerella finalizzata alla sua
reale applicazione in paesi in via di sviluppo.
Contents
Preface iii
Abstract v
Index xiii
List of Figures xviii
List of Tabels xx
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Limitations and assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Used Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 Thesis framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 A Different Way to Realize Structures 5

2.1 Modularity concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Examples of modular structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.1 Paper Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.2 Facade of the EcoArk pavilion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.3 Make-A-Bridge system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Formwork concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Examples of formworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.1 Geotube panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.2 Lost formworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4.3 Spacing tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Case Study. An existing particular pedestrian bridge . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5.1 Presentation of the project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5.2 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
x CONTENTS
2.5.3 Peculiarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5.4 Geometrical Chracteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.5 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.6 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5.7 Results of the analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5.8 Analysis of the costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5.9 Disadvantages and Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 PVC: a material for civil engineering 29

3.1 Family of plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Generalities on Plastics Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3 Classification of Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3.1 On the behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3.2 On the refinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4 Interest and use of plastics for construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4.1 Towards new prospectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5 The PVC plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.6 PVC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.7 Production processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.7.1 Polymerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.7.2 Transformation of raw PVC into PVC compound . . . . . . . 39
3.7.3 Transformation of PVC compound into finite products . . . . 40
3.8 Types of PVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.9 Reference Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.10 Properties of PVC material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.10.1 American classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.10.2 Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.10.3 Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.11 Structural Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.11.1 Design quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.11.2 Time-varying volume variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.11.3 Durability of PVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.12 Possible connection with other materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.13 Project parameters and characteristics of use . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.14 Situation of the market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.15 Main applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.16 Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4 Products made by PVC 55

4.1 Semi-finished products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2 PVC Transformation techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.3 Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
CONTENTS xi
4.3.1 Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.3.2 Tube ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3.3 Solvent cementing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3.4 Flanging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3.5 Threading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3.6 Possible association with other materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.4 Normative references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.5 Categories of uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.6 Geometrical characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.6.1 Diameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.6.2 Available lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.6.3 Type of pipe wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.6.4 Classes of rigidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.7 Situation of the market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.8 Other tools and material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.8.1 Clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.8.2 Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.8.3 Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.8.4 Other accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.9 Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5 Attempts to create a PVC bearing structure 75

5.1 Principle of the conception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.2 Scale model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.2.1 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.2.2 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2.3 Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.2.4 Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.2.5 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2.6 Structural conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.3 Structure at realistic scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.3.1 Main elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.3.2 Phases and loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.3.3 Criteria for verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.3.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.3.5 Structural conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6 Presentation of the footbridge 93

6.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.1.1 PVC Fittings and Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.1.2 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.1.3 Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.1.4 Ordinary steel for reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
xii CONTENTS
6.1.5 Wooden planking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

6.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.2.1 Permanent loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.2.2 Pedestrian load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2.3 Traffic load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.3 Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.4 Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.4.1 Preliminary Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.4.2 First Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.4.3 Second Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.4.4 Third Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.4.5 Fourth Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.4.6 Fifth phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7 Structural Analysis 113

7.1 Algorithm and its implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.1.1 Rhino3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.1.2 Grasshopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.1.3 Karamba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.1.4 Flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.2 Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.3 Computation on Karamba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.3.1 Traffic impact modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.3.2 Actions in the concrete elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.3.3 Actions in the cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.4 Global behaviour of the structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.4.1 Instability (ULS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.4.2 Deflection (SLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.5 Plastic tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.5.1 Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.5.2 Normal resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.5.3 Bending resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.6 Wooden Planking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.6.1 Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.6.2 Flexural resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.6.3 ULS: resistance of the tenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.7 Reinforced concrete elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.7.1 Overlapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.7.2 Analysis of the section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.7.3 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.7.4 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.7.5 Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.7.6 Limitation of stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
CONTENTS xiii
7.7.7 SLS: Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

7.7.8 Limitation of deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.8 Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
A Description of used software 139

A.1 Rhinoceros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
A.2 Grasshopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
A.3 Karamba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
B Description of used software 145

B.1 Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Conclusions 147
References 149
List of Figures
2.1 Ready-to-use pedrestrian bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.2 Paper Bridge structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Paper Bridge. Details of the connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Paper Bridge details. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 Chracteristics of EcoArk pavilion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6 Detail of a Polli-Brick panel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.7 Components of a Make-A-Bridge kit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.8 Domains of utilization for Make-A-Bridge solution. . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.9 Failure test scheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.10 Examples of wooden formworks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.11 Use of different formworks for casting columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.12 Unconventional forms of KAP formworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.13 Spacing tubes with corresponding nozzles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.14 Spacing tubes containing a metallic threaded rod. . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.15 Model of plastic connections and plastic skeleton. . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.16 Disposition of the reinforcing bars in the plastic sections. . . . . . . . 20
2.17 Concrete peculiarities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.18 Practical decisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.19 Pedestrian Bridge results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.20 The structure is moved to its definitive support once concrete has
hardened. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.21 Density of reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.22 Liquid seal to avoid concrete leaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.1 Variation of Young modulus according to a specific weight-and price

growing function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2 European total demand for plastics in 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3 Flachdach Technologie, by the German company FDT. . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 Roof of the church of Corbrera d’Erbre (Spain). . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
xvi LIST OF FIGURES
3.5 European plastic demand by segment and polymer in 2014 ((Plastic-

sEurope, 2015)). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.6 Scheme of PVC process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.7 Two parts of the mould and cavity (at the top) and finite contracted
product (at the bottom). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.8 Example of use of a PVC membrane. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.1 Calendering process: PVC compound passes between cylinders. . . . 56

4.2 Extrusion process: PVC compound passes from the hopper to the die. 57
4.3 Blow-moulding process: particular shape is given by the mold. . . . . 58
4.4 Mono-axially and bi-axially oriented PVC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.5 Once expanded in radial direction, PVC-BO is cooled. . . . . . . . . 59
4.6 Circumferential direction is preferred for PVC-BO (interempresas.
net). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.7 Caption for LOF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.8 Different fitting ends types (Antaki, 2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.9 Different pattern exist for flanging, according to the project specifi-
cation and diameters (Antaki, 2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.10 Transition joints (on the right) and threaded adapters (on the left)
allow to associate PVC pipes with other materials (Antaki, 2003). . . 64
4.11 Different types of fittings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.12 Main types of walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.13 Types of structured-walls for PVC pipes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.14 Labor and discounted cost for Drainage, Waste, Vent piping installation. 71
4.15 Labor and discounted cost for Water piping installation. . . . . . . . 71
4.16 Comparison of labour and discounted cost for plastic and metallic
piping systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.17 Variation of the price of PVC piping systems according to increasing
diameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.18 Screw leg metal clamps (left and center) for large diameters and lyre
clamps (right) for smaller pipes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.19 Screw leg metal clamps (left and center) for large diameters and lyre
clamps (right) for smaller pipes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.20 Examples of valves: ball valve, diaphragm valve and knife gate valve. 73
4.21 Various supports for pipes (Antaki, 2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.1 Principle of the conception. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

5.2 Material for the scale model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.3 Footbridge set with deck on the ground. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4 Bracing system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.5 Different levels of articulation of the fittings: S1, S2, S3. . . . . . . . 80
5.6 Disposition along the footbridge of the 5 points of loading. . . . . . . 81
5.7 Loading with paper blocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
LIST OF FIGURES xvii
5.8 Measured deflection in cm as a function of the load by plate in kg. . 83

5.9 Computed step-by-step deflection compared to measured deflection,
at midspan for situation S2 and rigidities varying from 0 to 1 kg.m/◦ . 83
5.10 Computed step-by-step deflection compared to measured deflection,
at midspan for situation S3 and rigidities varying from 0 to 1 kg.m/◦ . 84
5.11 Computed maximum deflection at midspan as a function of the rigid-
ity of the articulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.12 Sewing of the bracing rope along the longitudinal axis. . . . . . . . . 85
5.13 Alignment problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.14 Geometry of the model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.15 Fittings (mf and ff) in the brochure Nicoll. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.16 Flexion of the fittings: in-plane and out-of-plane. . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.17 Section of the cable used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.18 Criteria and results of the computation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.19 Stability: the footbridge is too deformable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.1 Dimensions of the fittings used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

6.2 Different cables supplied by Teci, from their brochure. . . . . . . . . 96
6.3 Cable, from brochure Teci. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.4 A 6 m x 2.4 m panel of welded wire, with respective spacing 0.3 m x
0.1 m. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.5 Sectional view of a reinforced concrete beam: PVC tubes are in green,
reinforcing mesh is in rose, the void is filled by concrete. Overlapping
exceeds 250 mm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.6 Wooden planking: the largest planks are on each sides, joined at their
midspan by mortise and tenon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.7 Dimensions of the planks used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.8 Details of assembling on the crosspieces: screws are used to provide
vertical compatibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.9 Van Nissan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.10 "Pick-up" Nissan Navara. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.11 Illustration of the implicit condition of Asimont’s theorema. . . . . . 103
6.12 Flexion of a crosspieces under an axle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.13 Section view of the concrete supports: from behind at the left, from
the deck at the right. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.14 Top (on the right) and bottom (on the left) views of the supports. . 106
6.15 Lateral view of the supports: the footbridge lies on special hooped
bearings, entirely coated with elastomer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.17 Assembling details of the wooden planking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.16 Dimensions of reinforcing cylinders and tubes for some elements: end
crosspieces, deck, and inferior crosspieces (CPI) of section 1-1. . . . . 111
7.1 A Grasshopper window. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

xviii LIST OF FIGURES
7.2 Interoperability of Grasshopper and Rhino: Grasshopper components

controls the graphical schemes in the Rhino screen. . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.3 Model of a car load: 4 vertical forces localized at the deck, and 4
torsional moments to account for the eccentricities of the wheels with
respect to the edges of the deck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.4 Main quantities of the confined reinforced concrete section. . . . . . 127
7.5 Geometrical quantities of the reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.6 Strains in the hypothesis of Navier-Bernoulli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.7 Geometrical quantities of the concrete section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.8 Flowchart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
A.1 Software interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

A.2 Karamba workflow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
A.3 Steps of a basic example in Karamba. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
List of Tables
2.1 Comparison of steel and aluminium characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.2 Pedestrian Bridge Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 Pros and cons of modular structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1 Comparison of specific weights of different construction materials. . . 31

3.2 Suggestions of strain limits of plastics for engineering purposes. . . . 31
3.3 Class Requirement for PVC-U and PVC-C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4 Physical properties of PVC and of different materials. . . . . . . . . 43
3.5 Mechanical properties of different construction materials. . . . . . . . 44
3.6 PVC mechanical properties for the present work. . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.7 Long-term and Short-term design value for PVC and other materials. 47
3.8 Shrinkage ratios for different plastics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.9 Import and Export prices for PVC compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.1 Typical values for nominal diameters (Part I). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

4.2 Typical values for nominal diameters (Part II). . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.1 Main characteristics of PP for design with respect to PVC and steel. 77
5.2 Dimentions of mf-fitting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.3 Dimentions of ff-fitting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.4 Values for the resistance of cables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.1 Main characteristics of weight and dimensions of the vehicles considered.103
7.1 Coefficients applied to the loads according to the nature of the limit
state and the type of loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.2 Maximum actions in sections and extremal linear stresses, calculated
along the deck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
along the inferior crosspieces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
along the superior crosspieces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
xx LIST OF TABLES

along the columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
along the columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.7 Deflection of the structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.8 Bending resistance MRd of the elements (Deck, CrossPiece Inf. or
Sup, Columns). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.9 Shear resistance VRd,c of the elements (Deck, CrossPiece Inf. or Sup,
Columns), without special shear reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Chapter 1
Introduction
The thesis work intent is introduced and put into context. The assumptions
behind the project developed and the analysis methods for the study of a bridge
made of a combination between plastic tubes and concrete are briefly recalled.
1.1 Background
The present work is born from an opportunity that has been given to me: a French
engineering consulting company of the VINCI group, ISC offered me a stage to de-
velop and expand an ambitious attempt. Working since a few years in African
context (for example Oyala, tribune présidentielle, pont au Cameroun, Burkina),
the firm has been confronted the difficulties that such a context raises:
(a) Materials are far less supplied than in Europe, which makes onerous import
often necessary, striving up the costs and the delays;
(b) Road network is not decent, making large zones inaccessible to trucks and
cranes;
(c) Most of the workers have no qualification: technological tools and materials
shall be avoided.
Moreover, in the sector of construction, environmental issues find a growing reso-

nance, as the necessity to find alternative materials and to integrate the environment
in the design process raises.
Therefore, in 2015, with the willing to develop a relevant answer to these acknowl-
edgements, ISC designed a reinforced concrete footbridge using a permanent form-
work made of PVC pipes. More details are given in Chapter 2 about this project.
1.2 Aim
The first objective of the work was to find the best static scheme to realize a PVC
bridge, using the parametric algorithm Grasshopper in the Rhino environment, and
2 Introduction
then to design such a bridge. After analyzing pros and cons of the main different
static systems, the footbridge has to answer to a specification note:
- Use of light materials, if possible man-handling, to avoid cranes and lifting
machines;
- Use of widespread economical materials, to limit transportation and costs;
- Use of durable material, suited to rustic environment; to avoid maintenance

in remote areas;
- Use of material with low environmental impact;
- Span from 15m to 25m, to beat the competition of wooden and aluminium
footbridges, for spans up to 10m-12m;
It quickly resulted that the intuition ISC had a year ago was right: I was put in
charge of studying the material PVC and enlarging its structural role.
1.3 Approach
The project will be done by support of structural engineers at ISC and in collab-
oration with the department of architecture who has already tested a method for
structurally optimized generative geometry. I have written this thesis parallel with
the aim of exploring a structurally informed design process.
The main parametric tool to be used in the project is Grasshopper which is a vi-
sual programming editor. As a plug-in for Rhino3D, Grasshopper is integrated with
the modelling environment used in e.g. architecture and engineering. Grasshopper
offers the opportunity to define precise parametric control over models, the capabil-
ity to explore generative design work flows and a platform to develop higher-level
programming logic by using an intuitive, graphical interface.
For structural evaluation of structures modelled within the parametric design tools
Karamba will be used. Karamba is a plug-in for Grasshopper that makes it easy to
combine geometric models, finite element calculations and optimization algorithms
like Galapagos.
For evaluation of the structural outputs given from Karamba, the limits in terms
of internal action and displacements are checked with reference to the Codes (in
particular Eurocodes)
Furthermore, the models will focus on the structural and architectural concepts,
which are tightly connected. This is likely where the focus on the transdisciplinary
collaboration between architecture and engineering will take place.
1.4 Limitations and assumptions

Only linear elastic analysis will be performed, i.e. the calculations are based on the
following conditions:
1.5 Used Software 3
1. Hook’s law is valid, i.e. the materials are ideally elastic;
2. Bernoulli’s hypothesis that the linear distribution of strain in the cross-section

is retained during loading.
Furthermore, Karamba is also limited to linear elastic calculations.
- Only thin plate theory or Kirchhoff theory, i.e. a line that is straight and
normal to the mid-surface before loading remains straight and normal to the
deformed midsurface. Furthermore, this prohibits transverse shear deforma-
tions. (Cook et al., 2002).
- Only three-node triangular element. This is a limitation in Karamba, used

FE software integrated with the parametric design tools, that only work with
triangulate elements.
- The structures or parts of structures that are analyzed have the same cross-
sectional thickness everywhere, i.e. non varying cross-section.
- Buildability or construction method are not investigated in depth. A smaller

presentation of this will although be presented for the collaboration project.
- The core plug-ins but not every used plug-ins will be described in detail. This
due to that a lot of plug-ins have been used and some of them to a small
extent, i.e. small influence on the overall project.
- The most important components in different plug-ins but not all components
will be described in detail. For further information about all components for
every plug-in the reader is referred to the manual of the program.
1.5 Used Software

The software used in the project are presented in Attachment A. Rhino3D and
Grasshopper were predetermined which, in this case, are the foundation of the para-
metric design tools and consequently the most important tools for e.g. defining
geometries. Karamba is also one of the most essential tool in the thesis. It is a
well-known FE motor within the parametric design tools.
In particular, the parametric scripts are developed in Grasshopper - Karamba while
visualized in Rhinoceros. The scripts are mode of components whose proper in- and
out-puts are connected through wires. This creates a very visual way of scripting,
not requiring the knowledge of a specific programming language.
1.6 Thesis framework

This thesis deals with the following topics:
4 Introduction
- Chapter 2 presents basic concepts that are keystones for the new type of struc-
ture.
- Chapter 3 is a state of the art for PVC: reminding the common properties
and interests of plastics in general, it shows why PVC is the most pertinent
plastic to be used for our scope. Its production processes and classifications are
described. Specific mentions of PVC in Codes are referenced. Its mechanical
and physical properties as well as its structural behavior are detailed. Project
parameters such as its market and main applications are not forgotten.
- In chapter 4, the same methodology as for chapter 3 is applied to semi-finished

products derived from PVC: tubes and fittings. The different ways to connect
them are analyzed. Influence of their geometry on their load-bearing capacity
is studied.
- Chapter 5 is dedicated to a few preliminary attempts to design a PVC foot-

bridge. A scale model has been realized and loaded. Taking into account
necessary refinement, a phasing has been proposed to build a full-scale PVC
footbridge: it brought to light the impossibility to project a full-PVC bridge
and oriented the role of PVC to the role of structural formwork.
- Chapter 6 details materials, loads and supports for the realization of a realistic
full-scale PVC concrete composite footbridge.
- Finally, normative verifications according to Eurocodes are made in Chapter 7,

for all the materials implemented. The software used to create the parametric
FE algorithm of the footbridge are quickly presented. Their inter-operability
is briefly described.
- The two Attachments deal with the used software and the drawings of the
realized footbridge.
Chapter 2
A Different Way to Realize

Structures
In the first part of the work is presented an example of structure that illustrates
a new way to realize structures. This structure has a PVC skeleton. That mate-
rial is well-known and often used for piping systems. It offers the possibility to
combine its classical abilities to contain and transport fluids and its mechanical
properties, to think out structures differently. Moreover, the building sector is
nowadays more and more concerned by social issues, such as green materials,
low emissions, durability, recycling, modularity. A promising conception should
inspire from these inspiring concepts.
2.1 Modularity concept

The first inspiring concept for this work is Modularity. It recalls to the geometrical
aspects of the structure considered as a whole. This whole is constituted of initially
independent and identified elements, with proper geometry and properties.
The word modular, according to one of its most common acceptation, means part
with standardized units or dimensions, as for easy assembly and repair or flexible
arrangement and use (Morris et al., 1969). At the same time, according to the
Modular Building Institute, a modular construction can be defined as a design and
construction process performed in a manufacturing facility which produces building
components or modules that are constructed to be transported to a permanent
building site.
As a consequence, modularity is very close to the concept of Prefabrication, which
is the manufacture of whole buildings or components in a factory or casting yard for
transportation to the site (Pevsner et al., 1998).
So, first of all, Modularity recalls flexibility and ease in the use of the components.
It also implies standardization and standard products. In some way, it shifts the
difficulty from the execution stage to the production stage: a modular structure is
very interesting from the building point of view if its components themselves are
easy to find, simple, quick and economical to produce. In other words, modularity
6 A Different Way to Realize Structures
has critical prerequisites. Despite its advantages, it is often worth realize the work
on site for reasons of implementation rather than prefabricate or provide tailor-
made components. As stated above, this concept is at stake for all the different
phases of the life of a civil structure: assembly, arrangement, use, reparation, and
eventually recycling and deconstruction. Modular construction invokes building a
structure with a large quantity of elements but with only a few number of different
component. Diversity lies in the use rather than in the nature of the component.
Prefabrication and Modularity are already widely spread in architecture and
housing construction. Entire houses are indeed nowadays built in factories and ei-
ther assembled on site or transported as a whole. One of the pioneers of such global
prefabrication systems was Raymond Camus (1) and its famous so called procédé
Camus Delemontey (2007). (2) It largely helped to reconstruct the destroyed french
cities after the Liberation. When it began to be used in the 1950s, it was very
innovating with respect to other processes that were employed: Camus unified and
standardized the prefabrication processes for all the components of the building,
whereas before, each was realized according to a specific process. Moreover, he inte-
grated all the secondary functions (f.e. pipe networks) to the civil works (concrete
slabs). Obviously, it has been largely criticized ever since because of the aesthetic
poorness of constructions. Today, this revolutionary system is mainly associated to
some sad and gloomy building blocks of the french suburbs.
Prefabrication is of course also used in public works, for example to realize con-
crete pre-stressed beams. However, for what concerns small pedestrian bridges, as it
is the focus of the present work, entire prefabrication processes exist and many com-
panies are able to deliver ready-to-use pedestrian bridges (i.e. Marcanterra, Maadi
and Rocla companies).
A. Marcanterra Company
This company produces ready-to-use prefabricated bridges for pedestrian bridges:
mixed steel-wood bridges or wooden bridges. They are dimensioned taking into
account an 450kg/m2 admissible load and a L/400 maximal deflection. In particular:
- mixed steel-wood bridges are self-supported, they consist of a metallic frame

on which are fixed a wooden plate and mixed steel and wood guard rails.
Available spans reach 30m;
- wooden bridges are laminated timbers whose spans reach 6-8m for simply sup-
ported bridges (depending on the type of bridge) and 30m for arch bridges.
B. Maadi Company
This delivers in every part of the world poney truss aluminium bridges designed to
the finite elements according to American and Canadian standards, up to 40m-spans.
(1)
https://www.cairn.info/revue-histoire-urbaine-2007-3-page-15.htm
(2)
http://materiauxdeconstructiondapresguerre.be/material/heavy-prefab-systems/
2.1 Modularity concept 7

(a) Prefabricated bridges by Marcanterra.

(b) Prefabricated bridges by Maadi.
Figure 2.1: Ready-to-use pedrestrian bridges.

2.2 Examples of modular structures

Some inspiring modular structures are presented below. More than entering in
technical and structural specifications than will be explained later on, the focus will
be put on their modular properties: that is what makes them interesting for our
scope.
2.2.1 Paper Bridge

The Paper Bridge is a structure designed by famous architect Shigeru Ban and real-
ized in France during the summer 2007 by 27 students, taking part to a workshop,
in cooperation with Terrell, a french engineering firm. It is an ephemera arch made
of 281 paper tubes, as shown in Fig. 2.2. The Paper bridge has a single span equal
to 20m and the rise about 6.5 m. Paper tubes are assembled into a trussed arch. A
bracing system avoids any move and stabilizes the structure. The bridge can bear
the weight of 20 people at one time, that is about 1.6 tons.

Figure 2.2: Paper Bridge structure.
The students only used the following components, delivered on site and assemble
with simple tooling:
- Paper cylinders, with a diameter D = 115 mm, a thickness e = 11.9 mm (for

a D/e ratio of 10);
- Steel disks (2 by cylinder) with two screw holes;
- Metallic threaded rod;
- Continental net support to assemble the disks;
- Metallic bracing cables.
Steel plates are used to provide rigidity to paper tubes and to ease their connections
(Fig. 2.3). They have a double function: one is to allow the paper beams to be
pre-stressed, and the second is to connect them. In such way they are similar to
equivalent tools for steel frames. Two screws connect them to the support, to restrain
their hinge behaviour.
2.2 Examples of modular structures 9
A threaded steel rod is tightened between two plates at each end of the tube so as
to provide pre-stressing (Fig. 2.4a) and avoid any boning of the system. Erection is
made by a crane thanks to provisional shoring (Fig. 2.4b).

Figure 2.3: Paper Bridge. Details of the connections.
Tubes of internal and external diameters 25cm x 28cm of the same type as those
employed by Shigeru Ban have been tested by Terrell (Terrell, 2014) so as to de-
termine the gross mechanical properties of the paper material (values of the Young
modulus and of compressive and flexural resisting strengths).
The following orders of magnitude are deduced:
(a) Compressive resisting strength σc = 10 − 11 M P a;
(b) Flexural resisting strength σf = 15 − 16M P a;
(c) Elastic Modulus E = 2.1 − 2.2 GP a;
(d) Specific weight ρ = 0.82 t/m3 .

(a) Prestressing. (b) Provisional shoring.
Figure 2.4: Paper Bridge details.
Closing remarks. Theses values place the type of paper that Shigeru Ban
employed in the category of the poor construction materials. Nevertheless, they
allow it to be used for structural applications. The use of paper raise obvious
durability questions, despite applied costly and time-spending protective treatments:
it remains a non-durable material in exterior environments.

Shigeru Ban bypassed the main structural problem - connections - thanks to a steel
frame method. But the final result quite sophisticated. Therefore setting it up takes
a long time. Moreover, such a solution adds a considerable weight of steel to the
structure. Consequently, the component of the Paper Bridge are not as standard
as they were meant to. They had to be proceeded, even if can not be inferred that
they are custom-made.
As a conclusion, coming back on the concept of Modularity, the Paper Bridge
components allow for flexibility, they have standardized dimensions. Elements of few
different natures were used in large quantities. Though, they are not so standard
nor easy to find. Finally, erection is not very rapid. Even if this bridge has never
come to a commercial scope because of these drawbacks, its modular conception is
interesting. Shigeru Ban introduced a new material for structural applications. The
structures satisfies the spirit of simplicity and ease. Ulterior problems of durability
made design become more complex.
2.2.2 Facade of the EcoArk pavilion

The EcoArk pavilion, in Taïwan, was built by the Taiwanese conglomerate Far
Eastern Group in 2010. The element of interest for our scope is the façade (Fig. 2.5a):
it is made of 480000 Polli-Brick (100% PET bricks) (Fig. 2.5b), which are realized
thanks to 1.52 million plastic bottles (3) . Although its structure is a classical steel
frame traditionally built, the façade is entirely modular. Thanks to its original
design, the EcoArk façade weights 1/5 of traditional façades.
The building has a length about 130 m, its height is 20 m and it is made by 9
floors. The ground area covers approximately 4300 m2 . As often for expositions (f.e.
Expo2015 in Milan), the pavilion is thought to be quickly built, deconstructed and
then reconstructed elsewhere.

(a) Façade. (b) Polli-brick elements.
Figure 2.5: Chracteristics of EcoArk pavilion
For what concerns the Pollibrick panels (Fig. 2.6), the main details are summarized
(3)
http://www.miniwiz.com/miniwiz/en/projects/archi/ecoark
in the following:
- Area of one panel: 2.85 m2 (162 x 76 x 38.5 cm thickness);
- Weight: 63 kg (that is 57 kg/m3 or 22 kg/m2 );
- Resistance: Wind pressures of 3.3 kP a and loads q of 345 kg/m2 , which rep-
resents a q/g ratio major than 15.

Figure 2.6: Detail of a Polli-Brick panel.
Modular structures can as a matter of fact achieve great results in terms of resistance.
The ratio between the admissible load and the weight by unit area is really high. It
demonstrates the mechanical properties of widespread and common plastics if they
are wisely used.
From left to right, the façade is constituted of :
1. A solar PV module;
2. Solar clipping joints;
3. Nano-treated PC hard coat;
4. Prefabricated Polli-Brick assembly;
5. Fastening joints;
6. A structural sub-framing.
Closing remarks. Such pollibrick plastics offer moreover the great advantage
to be recyclable. At the same time Modularity is thus a hefty argument, as it offers
facility and rapidity of supply and erection. For the façade of the EcoArk, facility,
simplicity, rapidity and economy requirements are satisfied in the execution. But
its components are quite sophisticated.
2.2.3 Make-A-Bridge system

The Make-A-Bridge system (Fig. 2.7) is a kit developed by the north American
engineering and design firm Maadi, specialized in structural aluminium applications.
This company often delivers ready-to-set-up structures like pedestrian bridges. The
design is done without any welding. Transportation is ensured even in most remote
areas. Only a small crane (1.6 t) is required. Setting it up is very fast: it can be
done by 3 people in 5 hours. Available spans go up to 18.3 m, for 0.9 m and 1.8 m
widths.
The pedestrian bridges delivered by Maadi have the following characteristics:
- Self-weight: 44 − 73 kg/m2 , depending on the components arrangement and

on the type of footbridge;
- Admissible variable load: for golf car is 240 kg/m2 or 480 kg/m2 ;
- Maximal deflections: from L/500 to L/240.
The ratio q/g varies between 3 and 11: modularity has been demonstrated again a
mean to design light structures and to increase significantly the part of self-weight
in the total loads to bear.

Figure 2.7: Components of a Make-A-Bridge kit.
The commercial documentation on Fig. 2.8 presents the limits of use for the Make-
A-Bridge system depending on their width, span, expected loading (on the left:
bicycles, pedestrian and lightweight vehicles; on the right: pedestrian and lightweight
vehicles (4) ).
In addition, for these types of bridges a fatigue tests have been performed. A 0.61 m
width and 6.1 m length Make-A-Bridge model (the corresponding area is 3.72 m2 )
is loaded in 3 points, according to Fig 2.9. As an order of magnitude, the uniform
(4)
The expression Lightweight vehicles is meant for example for small golf cars

Figure 2.8: Domains of utilization for Make-A-Bridge solution.
maximal admissible load is:
tot = 4.8 kP a · 3.72 m = 1.8 t

Qmax 2
In similar way, it weight approximately is:
Gtot = 44 − 73 kg/m2 · 3.72 m2 = 165 − 270 kg
The model bends of 6.1 mm under a total load of 14 t (elastic limit), which is 8
times the uniform maximal admissible load. Ultimate force is 18.3 t, which is about
100 times the weight of the structure.
Figure 2.9: Failure test scheme.
In the end, Maadi is a skilled company in the use of aluminium for structural appli-
cation. So, it is useful to recall the role of aluminium as a construction material. In
fact, Aluminium would be a very serious contender of steel for what regards struc-
tural applications if its price was not so high: indeed it is often twice as expensive
as steel. Here is presented a short comparison of steel and aluminium about some
important design values: respective resisting - tensile - strength, Young modulus and
specific weight and gross price for civil works supply. As both steel and aluminium
for construction are alloys, the table only contains ranges and orders of magnitude.
Characteristics Steel Aluminium

Price [e/kg] 0.5 - 1 1-2
Strength [M P a] 250 - 1500 200 - 500
Young Modulus [GP a] 200 70
Specific Weight [kg/m3 ] 7.8 2.6 - 2.8
Table 2.1: Comparison of steel and aluminium characteristics.
As shown in Tab. 2.1, even if the mechanical properties of steel are better for struc-
tural applications (between 1.5 and 3 times higher than for aluminium), it is 3 times
as heavy as aluminium. That’s why aluminium is more and more used in appli-
cations for which lightness is crucial. Speaking of bridges, this fact is significant
as self-weight is often the main load to carry. Therefore, a reduction of self-weight
could potentially be accompanied by the use of a weaker material.
Closing remarks. As matter of fact, the Make-A-Bridge system constitutes
a robust footbridge. It is besides an efficient solution, as it is very simple, light,
easy to deliver and to set up, in a word accessible. Thus it became a competitive
footbridge for small ranges (lesser than 20 m). Its components are basic, even if
they are custom-made for this application. It demonstrates the feasibility, interest
and competitiveness than modularity can find for bridge applications.
2.3 Formwork concept

In this section, we focus on the specific nature of the elements that this documents
aims to propose as structural elements: tubes or tubular shapes. Despite the most
well-known and widespread domain of use of tubes is fluid transportation, resisting
to the internal pressure may be assumed their only structural role. A wide range of
tubes cover this scope. Further details will be given in Chapter 3. Basically, a tube
is first and foremost a container: it contains - in general - a fluid (gas, air, water,
oil). According to this, it could have the use of creating a sort of formwork system.
According to a famous English dictionary (Simpson and Weiner, 1989), a formwork
is an arrangement of wooden boards, bolts, etc, used to shape reinforced concrete
while it is setting. On the contrary a scientific dictionary (Parker, 1984) insists in
its definition on the notion of temporariness; it means a temporary wooden casing
2.3 Formwork concept 15
used to contain concrete during its placing and hardening. Whereas for a famous
American dictionary (Morris et al., 1969), a formwork is not necessarily a wooden
structure. It simply is the structure of boards that make up a form for pouring
concrete in construction. A crucial element dealing with formworks, which appears
transparently from the word itself, is the word form: a formwork makes up a form for
concrete, it acts as a mold, a cast. Not only a formwork shapes the final structure.
It is concrete container; it prevents it from pouring away. The use of formwork is
inseparable from the use of concrete.
That being said, the most used and widespread formworks are currently made of
wooden plates, bolt and supported to resist the thrust of liquid concrete, as shown
on Fig. 2.10.
Figure 2.10: Examples of wooden formworks.
For every concrete elements, casting is the critical step for many reasons:
- Firstly beacuse it lasts a long period, in general 28 days, which is necessary

duration for concrete to harden and be able to resist loads;
- Then because, whereas before casting any modification or adaptation can be

made to structure, once casting is finished, prior orientation or decision is
endorsed and definitive. Any change would involve destructing the new rein-
forced concrete structure or element;
- Next, because casting needs a lot of preparation: it involves manpower, time,

money, and materials. The casting material is reused as much as possible to
limit the budgetary impact of this step: in this case we deal with re-usable
formworks. On the contrary, they are called lost formworks. The amount of
preparation that casting requires increases with the complexity and originality
of the concrete element to cast; casting a rectangular slab is quite easy, be-
cause it is a simple geometrical form, whereas casting a double curvature wall
is much more requiring, because the desired form has to be a custom-made
created footprint; what’s more it is executed with rectangular standard plates.
Therefore one always tries whenever possible to take advantage of existing
structure or surface to become natural formworks.
Many different types of formworks exist. For our scope, the review will focus on the
modular and the tubular ones.
2.4 Examples of formworks
Some types of formworks with their properties are now presented and taken into
cosideration, in order to underline which kind of elements cover a structural role
during the casting of concrete.
2.4.1 Geotube panels
Geotube are principle of re-usable plastic panels to cast rectangular or square re-
inforced concrete columns or beams (Fig. 2.11a). They are made of nylon, treated
against UV radii. The two complementary part fit together to create a waterproof
mold. They are obviously modular, as the system is based on assembling as many
elementary parts as needed. Different dimensions are available to adapt different
columns. As a matter of fact, the design dimensions have to fit which available
width, so as not to overbuild the structure. Moreover, they are more than 100
times re-usable, easy to use thanks to the presence of handles, and allow for rapidity
and precision in their setting up. However, it demonstrates a drawback of modular
systems: they only adapt to a discrete range of situations, which correspond the
available dimensions.
(a) Plastic panel. (b) KAP formworks.

Figure 2.11: Use of different formworks for casting columns.
2.4 Examples of formworks 17
2.4.2 Lost formworks

The french company Accessbat commercializes lost formworks for columns. Their
formworks are made of KAP material (5) . It is a composite light and resisting
material which allows to cast as much as 4 m high at once. Such KAP formwork
(Fig. 2.12) are therefore able to resist the internal pressure generated by a 4 m height
of concrete:
pint = γc · H = 2.4 kN/m3 · 4 m = 9.6 kN/m2 = 9.6 kP a
Available diameters vary by 50 mm from 150 mm to 600 mm. Obviously, the cylin-
ders are impermeable, and demoulding is possible thanks to an helical metallic wire.
These formworks also exist for rectangular and less conventional sections of columns.

Figure 2.12: Unconventional forms of KAP formworks
2.4.3 Spacing tubes

The main reference for plastic casting tools are spacing tubes, which are PVC cross-
pieces. They are used to cast in situ the threaded metallic rods that maintain the
correct spacing between wall formworks submitted to concrete lateral thrust. Plastic
nozzles allow to seal the ends. Available diameters are (int x ext) 22 x 26 mm or 26
x 32 mm. They will then be lost in concrete when the metallic rod is removed and
re-used.

Figure 2.13: Spacing tubes with corresponding nozzles.
Closing remarks. Plastics are more and more used to cast concrete as they
allow waterproofing, flexibility and modularity on site. Among them, plastic tubes
are about the major part. Modular formworks have already permitted to facilitate
concrete casting and reduce its cost. Tubular formworks are very handy. They
indeed join together both:
(5)
Acronym for Kraft, Aluminium, Paper
Figure 2.14: Spacing tubes containing a metallic threaded rod.
- the possibility to contain a fluid like liquid concrete;
- the ability to resist well internal pressure, especially concrete pressure for ver-
tical members.
A great domain of prospective would ally the concepts of tubularity, formwork and
modularity to quickly create and set up a formwork network in which concrete would
flow to fill at once the entire structure.
2.5 Case Study. An existing particular pedestrian bridge

Starting from the concepts previously explained, a special focus is hold on an existing
pedestrian bridge realized in 2015 by a company named ISC, an engineering firm
of the French group Vinci. Its main peculiarity is the use of PVC tubes as a lost
formwork to ensure the casting of reinforced concrete and to led a more efficient
design. The project and its main characteristics and information of interest are
detailed below. It is necessary to state that this work is a prototype. At the same
time it forces its way in evaluating the possibility to associate a structural role for
PVC formwork.
2.5.1 Presentation of the project

The project was based on the belief that the main barrier to the realization of
reinforced concrete trusses is casting. Even if a truss is usually one of the most
efficient and material saving solution, this step would actually be too demanding
and difficult if compared to the realization of an equivalent plain reinforced concrete
beam. And reinforced concrete trusses references are indeed quite tough to find.
This is especially true for what concerns short-span bridges (minor than 30m): at
this point, the trade-off between the casting cost and the relative ease to cross such
distance is always unfavourable to concrete trusses. One should always prefer using
prefabricated pre-stressed concrete beams.
The underpinning key-idea of the project itself was the inspiration to use classical
PVC tubes (for evacuation) as a lost formwork to make a reinforced concrete truss
become competitive against other pedestrian bridges solutions, like prefabricated
2.5 Case Study. An existing particular pedestrian bridge 19
delivered concrete or aluminium bridges, or aluminium kits (f.e. Maadi, as described

in Ch. 2.2.3).
PVC tubes and their connection system (as described in Chapter 3) are indeed by
nature a waterproof modular system. They are designed to welcome quite pressur-
ized fluids. At this point, formwork is not a problem anymore because no particular
effort should be spent on :
1. connecting the basic formwork elements;
2. realizing the particular shape;
3. ensuring the sealing.
2.5.2 Requirements
The company ISC gave itself a specification notes for the project. The main require-
ments for this challenge in the design are:
- Durability;
- Simple set up: composed of light materials, to ease its implementation and
shall not need any lifting machine;
- Simple statical scheme: to be implemented even by unqualified workers;
- Low cost: materials will be cheap and sufficiently available to limit transporta-
tion and costs;
- Adaptability: referring to rustic environment.
2.5.3 Peculiarities
This paragraph details particular design features of the project and practical deci-
sions that were made necessary, even against the original spirit:
(a) The only shaping elements are plastic tubes and connections (Fig. 2.15);
(b) Reinforcing bars are placed in the PVC tubes (Fig. 2.16);
(c) Self-compacting concrete has been used to make it flow more easily in the
congested formwork (Fig. 2.17). In particular, concrete is poured thanks to
plastic awnings into 6 holes, distributed at the top of the truss, so as it flows
directly in the diagonals. Concreting is helped by the presence of shoring
facilities. PVC tubes have been broken at some points to check the aspect
of the concrete. It resulted to have hardened well, despite the unavoidable
presence of small air bubbles trapped between the tube and the concrete;

Figure 2.15: Model of plastic connections and plastic skeleton.

Figure 2.16: Disposition of the reinforcing bars in the plastic sections.
(d) Tightening of half-shells to ensure sealing (Fig. 2.18a). In fact PVC connections
had to be sliced into two half-shells so as to let reinforcing bars overlap and to
allow their fastening. Metallic hose clamps are used to tighten the half-shells
and avoid any concrete leak during pouring;
(e) Setting up on supports necessitated a mobile crane and a strap system (Fig. 2.18b).
2.5.4 Geometrical Chracteristics

The dimensions of the pedestrian footbridge are summarized in Tab. 2.2.
Two different materials compose the section, that is uniform for any component of
the truss:
• PVC tubes, diameter Φ 200 mm, thickness 4.9 mm ;
• Concrete C25/30 constitutes the interior section, diameter Φ 190.2 mm.
2.5.5 Loads
Pre-Designing was done taking into account the following loads:

(a) Concreting step.
(b) Position of concreting holes.

(c) Satisfying aspect of concrete once
hardened and deshuttered.
Figure 2.17: Concrete peculiarities.
- Self-weight of concrete (as permanent load): g;
- Pedestrian uniform load (as variable load): q = 500 kg/m2 (according to (Eu-
rocode, 1991)).
As a tube has an interior diameter Di such as:
Di = De − 2 · e (2.1)
where e is the tube thickness (4.9 mm) and De is the exterior diameter (200 mm).
Assuming for the reinforced concrete a specific weight ρ = 2.5 t/m3 and computing
the internal concrete area Ai , the permanent load is given by:
π
Ai = Di2
4 (2.2)
g = ρAi

(a) Tightening hose clamps. (b) Setting up of the pedestrian bridge on supports.
Figure 2.18: Practical decisions.
Data
W idth w 1.00 m
Height H 1.20 m
Span l 11.00 m
Overall length L 12.00 m
Table 2.2: Pedestrian Bridge Data
2.5.6 Calculation
So as to resolve quickly the truss, calculation was done by ISC team with the finite
element software Graitec Advance Design (6) , performing a linear elastic analysis.
Supports are placed at 50 cm of each end of the bridge, so as to get a 11 m span
out of the 12 m length bridge.
2.5.7 Results of the analysis
Axial Forces. As expected because of the horizontal shape of the truss, highest
normal stresses are around midspan, where bending moments are maxima. As it
can be seen in Fig. 2.19a, the maximum axial force Fmax is:
Fmax = ±12.5 t = ±125 kN
(6)
Graitec Advance Design is a software for structural analysis and design of Reinforced Concrete,
Steel and Timber structures according to the latest versions of Eurocodes (EC0, EC1, EC2, EC3,
EC5 and EC8), North American (ACI-AISC) codes and Canadian codes(A23.3, S16). http://
www.graitec.com/it/ad.asp
The corresponding normal stress in concrete is:
N Fmax
σmax =
A (2.3)
N
σmax = 4.4 M P a
which is far below the resisting strength of a C25/30 concrete.

Bending Moments. ISC team did not manage to design a perfect truss because of
compatibility problem between plastic tube connections. Further explanations and
details on this will be given in Chapter 3. The fact is that the non-optimal truss,
with subsequent eccentricities at nodes - truss members do not strictly converge
to one node - engenders parasite bending moments in the members, as shown in
Fig. 2.19b.
Maximal calculated bending moments are around:
Mmax = ±14.3 kN.m
They are located, as a logical expectation, at the level of the nodes. Subsequent
bending stress is computed as:
π.D3
W = (2.4)
32
Mmax
b
σmax =± (2.5)
W
Therefore, neglecting the shear contribution to stress, bending contribution to stress
writes as:
b
σmax = ±21.2 MPa
This contribution is far from negligible. It contributed to the need of a non-linear

classical reinforced concrete computation that, taking into account that maximal
axial forces and bending moments are not collocated, allowed to check the sections
and the structure.
As this short calculation showed, the effects of non-optimality of a truss for compat-
ibility reasons are tremendous. They clearly overweight the first order analysis and
become themselves critical.
Deflection. The FE element software also allowed for a rapid calculation of the
midspan maximal deflection. As showed in Fig. 2.19c, at ULS maximal deflection
occurs at midspan and equals 8.5mm. This is highly satisfying as, for a 11m-span
it stands far above the most critical deflection criteria:
L L

1300 500
(a) Axial Forces. (b) Bengind Moments.

(c) Displacements. (d) Repartition of costs.
Figure 2.19: Pedestrian Bridge results.
2.5.8 Analysis of the costs

An important factor to evaluate the relevance of a statical scheme is the total cost
of its production. For the studied structure, the costs of the different tasks are
classified and detailed in Fig. 2.19d. The repartition is such that the total cost is
divided according to:
- Formwork: it regroups the gross material (plastic tubes and connections), its
sealing (with a specific plastic seal) and tightening.
- Manpower: the cost of manpower for every task is included in this task.
- Concreting: includes the concrete material, its delivery on site and diverse
small equipment.
- Reinforcement: this embraces the price of steel reinforcing bars.
- Completions: contains the price of the crane to install the footbridge from the
shoring to the definitive supports.
- Wooden planking.
Total costs equal 14500e. Taking into account that the bridge is 1 m wide and 12
m long, the price by unit of area is 1208e/m2 . This is a quite elevated ratio, as
prefabricated pre-stressed concrete bridge are available for 800e/m2 . However, this
number deserves a discussion.
As it has been said before, this work is a prototype: as such, it required certain
unavoidable part of testing and thinking on site. Moreover, several solutions to
resolve sealing and reinforcement problems have been tested, and discarded. As a
consequence, the indicated total costs are obviously over-estimated with respect to a
well designed process. Formwork stands for a important part of the total cost (29%)
especially because of PVC connections (21%). As it will be explained in the next
chapter, their price is exponential of the nominal diameter. Then, 8% (1160e) of the
total price has been spent to recreate a sealing (plastic seal and tightening metallic
hose clamps), because the arrangement of the reinforcing bars make it necessary to
cut the connections.
It is worth notice that PVC materials costs more than concrete and steel structural
components together (21% vs 14% & 5% respectively).
The final displacement of the structure after concreting and hardening costed up to
7% of total cost (∼ 1000e).
A great amount of manpower has been needed because of what was said previously:
it is difficult though to evaluate the part that one could save. Though, avoiding the
cut of the connections and realize a cast-on-site operation would save more than 20%
of the total cost, because manpower would also be reduced. As a matter of fact, it
would induce a reduction of price by unit of area ratio to around 960e/m2 , which is
sufficiently low to be taken into account, given the advantages such a process offers
incidentally.
2.5.9 Disadvantages and Limits

The main limits of the project are summarized here:
1. Necessity to employ a crane after hardening;

As the structure had been erected on a provisional planking, the process needed
a crane to move the footbridge to its final position. A great font of economy
and rapidity would be to erect the PVC skeleton on the definitive support
with provisional shoring if necessary and to pour concrete directly into it.
Once concrete has hardened, only the provisional shoring would need to be
dismantled.
2. Density of reinforcement at the nodes (Fig. 2.21);

It is due to a non-optimal design of the truss causing parasite moments.
3. Complexity of subsequent sealing;

It needs to be sealed with liquid seal and metallic hose clamps.
4. Geometrical compatibility between PVC connections;

Figure 2.20: The structure is moved to its definitive support once concrete has hardened.

Figure 2.21: Density of reinforcement.
As explained in the next chapter, PVC connections are only available for a few
numbers of angles (67◦ 30, 87◦ 30, 45◦ ) which links the height and the length of the
footbridge to the number of horizontal subdivisions.

Figure 2.22: Liquid seal to avoid concrete leaks.
2.6 Concluding Remarks 27
2.6 Concluding Remarks

Table 2.3 summarizes the main advantages and drawbacks or lacks of a modular
structure. It has already be detailed why a modular structure was, in general,
simple, easy, economical, rapid - in a word: smart - to set up.
But, in general, it can’t be hidden that they lack aestheticism. Indeed, they are not
designed in that scope. This is not their specific focus. Design are often basic and
above all studied to be performing. Even though the same components can be used
for different modular systems.
Depending on the material, they can be as robust as that an equivalent non-modular
structure. Their lightweight often make them more efficient.
The question of their adaptability depends on the context: the design of such struc-
tures is completely adaptable because it only depends on assembling components.
But, once the design is validated and the works have started, they give birth to quite
rigid structures, because of the need of compatibility the diverse elements require.
Advantages Drawbacks
Simplicity Aesthetics
Facility Importance of the choice
Diversity of the material
Adaptability of design Adaptability on site
Rapidity Appropriate/Custom-made
Economy components
Not Custom-made structures
Table 2.3: Pros and cons of modular structure.
One could have thought that using PVC tubes and their appropriate connections
would have led to a more efficient design. But, problems occur with reinforcement.
As it is means to deal with tensile concrete, another solution is to avoid concrete
to be under tension. Therefore a further improvement could lie in a pre-stressing
phenomenon in concrete members.
Geometrical compatibility problems of the piping system have raised from this
project. Again, this demonstrates the drawbacks of modular systems when it comes
to refinement: a wide range of solutions exist, but this range is discrete.
However, that being said, the casting of the reinforced concrete footbridge demon-
strates the possibility to use plastic tubes to cast concrete. A certain number of
problems has to be solved at this point so as this solution to become really interest-
ing from a practical point of view.
A further improvement would be to make this modular tubular formwork able to
carry to the concrete weight, until it has hardened so as to install it very quickly on
site on its supports and then pour concrete into it. It would not need any lifting
equipment and would limit the provided that the previous remarks are taken into
account. Determine whether this is possible is the task of the present work. This
amounts to giving a structural role to the formwork in question.
As a consequence, the problematic is about the possibility to build efficiently a
safe and robust concrete structure with a formwork having the following character-
istics:
- structural role;
- tubular form and resistance;
- modular conception.
Chapter 3
PVC: a material for civil

engineering
The objective of this chapter is to demonstrate that PVC is a pertinent struc-

tural material for civil engineering applications. Reminding that PVC is part
of the family of plastics, an overview of the material is proposed as it is nec-
essary to fix why it is interesting to our purpose. Its physical and mechanical
characteristics will be detailed, as well as its production, use and parameters.
Then description will move on the semi-finished products that derive from it:
different types of pipes, connections, and auxiliary elements.
3.1 Family of plastics

After the nineteenth century, the use and production of plastics were still in their
infancy. Current modern plastics have only seen their first developments between
1920 and 1940. During this period were invented f.e polyvinyl chloride, low density
polyethylene, polystyrene, and polymethyl methacrylate. The advent of the Second
World War increased steadily the demand, mainly to substitute for materials in short
supply, such as natural rubber. Large-scale production after the war combined to
the founding of new types of plastics reduced dramatically their cost and allowed it
to compete with classical material, such as wood, metal, leather, glass. Nowadays,
they greatly contribute to reduce weight and prices of industrial products and to
increase energy efficiency.
In the 2010s, there are more than 90 generic classes of plastics. These classes can
be then split into 1000 sub-generic variants. Finally, plastics exist under more than
50,000 commercial denominations. Therefore, it is necessary to fix what is intended
by the word Plastics and which category this work will deal with.
Among the great diversity of definitions of the word plastic, we will agree on the
definition of the Collins English Dictionary (Collins, 2004): any one of a large number
of synthetic usually organic materials that have a polymeric structure and can be
moulded when soft and then set.
Therefore, all plastic materials have a polymeric structureare, which means that
30 PVC: a material for civil engineering
they are polymers (1) . Again, the use of a dictionary enlightens the meaning of this
word: any of numerous natural and synthetic compounds of usually high molecular
weight consisting of up to millions of repeated linked units, each a relatively light
and simple molecule.
This reminds the definition of the word modular. Polymers are very long chains
of molecules linked between them. These molecules are called monomers. The
characteristics of the polymers will result from their atomic structure and chain
composition, that can include cross-linked chains (reticulation) and other types of
monomers (co-polymerization).
They have a synthetic origin, which means that they result of an artificial process
invented by humans, in contrast to natural polymers such as proteins. Then, all
plastics come from organic materials, among which first and foremost: oil. From
this ensues a full range of common properties.
Finally, and most important for our scope here, they can be moulded when soft and
then set. This is what often confuses because it is the definition of "‘having plastic
properties"’, as dealing with art or mechanics(2) (ductility of a material). Plastic
have a common feature with concrete: the first part of their life is carried out in a
soft form, and the second in a solid and tight form.
The next part develops the common factors affecting the behaviour of plastics.
3.2 Generalities on Plastics Properties

Generally, plastics have in common the following properties (Lecomte-Beckers, 2015):
- a relatively good resistance to chemical agents. This property actually depends

heavily on the type of plastic and chemical;
- an easy shaping;
- notch sensitivity;
- a low specific weight. A short comparison of densities for classical construction

materials is presented in the Tab. 3.1;
- sensitivity to cracking. Like concrete, plastics are susceptible to crack. Two

different cracking are distinguished:
1. Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC). The vulnerability to cracking is mea-

sured before and after immersion by loadings of a sample;
2. Environmental Stress Cracking (ESC). ESC takes into account the simul-
taneous actions of stress and environmental actions.
(1)
From the Greek polumeros: consisting of many parts, formed of polu-, poly- & meros, part
(2)
Actually, Plasticity is a state that materials can reach: they may then support additional
strains without significant reaction forces. In other words, they are softer, more deformable.
3.2 Generalities on Plastics Properties 31
Materials Density [g/cm3 ]

Steel 7.8
Stone 2.7 - 3
Aluminium 2.7
Glass 2.5
Concrete 2.4
Masonry 2
Plastics 0.9 - 2
Wood 0.4 - 1.2
Table 3.1: Comparison of specific weights of different construction materials.
- (quite) weak mechanical properties - except for composites - relatively to other

construction materials;
- a temperature-limited behaviour, and thermodynamic effects;
- a visco-elastic behaviour.
In general, provided data sheets show short-term properties. They do not take into
account temperature, stress, time and environment effects. Yet, engineering design
can not ignore these factors. This is all the difficulty of converting theoretical prop-
erties into design data: such a challenge will be faced in section 3.5 and followings.
As an example, limit strain y from regular tests and data sheets is often greater
than 20% or even 50%, which means a 1m-long plastic profile sample could support
stretching up to 20 cm or 50 cm. Chris O’Connor, from the consultancy company
Smithers Rapra, which has developed an expertise in plastics (Booth and Robb,
1968), prescribes not to overpass severe limits for engineering purposes: its rec-
ommendations are shown in Tab. 3.2. As a reference, for concrete, strain limits at
Ultimate Limit State (ULS) cu are around 0.25% - 0.35%(3) . For steel, uk rise up
to 2.5% or 7.5%(3) .(4) Consequently, plastic have similar strain limit to concrete
(Tab. 3.2).
State of polymer Static Stress Conditions Cyclic Stress Conditions

Amorphous 0.5% 0.3%
Crystalline 0.8% 0.5%
Table 3.2: Suggestions of strain limits of plastics for engineering purposes.
In addtion, the family of plastics presents a very wide range of mechanical properties:
tensile strength is comprised between 20 MPa and 800 MPa and Young modulus
between 1 GPa and 100 GPa. Indeed, the elastic limit of a polymer depends on:
(4)
Depending on the type of concrete/steel, and on the type of model for the stress-strain rela-
tionship.
Figure 3.1: Variation of Young modulus according to a specific weight-and price growing
function.
1. the nature of the polymeric chains (type and chemical functions of the molec-
ular monomers), their length, their entanglement, interactions, etc;
2. the degree of crystallinity Young modulus and elastic limit are growing functions
of it;
3. the state of polymeric material: glassy, rubbery, viscous;
4. the temperature and the solicitation speed.
Interesting information can be recalled from Fig. 3.1: it shows a Young modulus to
price-by-specific weight diagram in which are displayed the main families of plastics.
Both are indicators to help choosing the right plastic for a particular application:
• Young modulus is a mechanical indicator;
• Price-by-specific weight is a design indicator: interest of the designer is to use

as light and cheap material as possible. Moreover, beside the purchase price,
heavy materials often lead to additional costs (lifting equipment, etc).
Ideal plastics for structural applications are on the left superior corner of Fig. 3.1,
where at first both price and specific weight are low, so as to get the most light
and economical structure, and secondly mechanical properties are high, so as to
get the most efficient structure. Obviously, no material answers perfectly to these
requirements. Two categories of plastics, which will be distinguished in 3.3, can be
observed: the classical and most produced plastics, in blue, and the most resistant,
3.3 Classification of Plastics 33
technological and expensive composites, in red, emphasized by two red arrows (glass
or carbon fiber reinforced composites - FRP).
For our scope, particular interest will be held on mechanical and physical properties
of plastics, in particular their elastic behaviour, which is determined by two principal
quantities: the Young Modulus (E), the elastic limit strength (fy ,).
3.3 Classification of Plastics

The consequence of the great diversity of properties of plastics is the huge number
of their potential applications (Departement, 2009). They are commonly classified
according to their use or their behaviour.
3.3.1 On the behaviour

With referce to their behaviour, three categories exist:
1. Thermoplastics;
2. Thermoset plastics;
3. Elastomers.
Thermoplastics. Thermoplastics are composed of branched chains: they are retic-

ulated. They have a melting point. As it is said (PlasticsEurope, 2015), these are
plastics which soften on heating and then harden again on cooling.
For example, the Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association (PPFA) (5) states a ther-
moplastic as a plastic that can be repeatedly softened by heating and hardened by
cooling and that in the softened state can be shaped by flow into a product by
molding or extrusion.
Thermoplastics can support many of such cycles before enduring severe damages.
Two different classes exist:
1. Amorphous Polymers: have no apparent order. At the micro-scale their struc-

ture is similar to a liquid or a glass. No melting temperature can be accurately
measured, but they have a softening phase. They can provide transparency,
good appearance, high dimensional accuracy and stability to the applications
they are used for. On the contrary, they are highly sensitive to thermal or
mechanical stress cycling or contact with chemical environments. They are
characterized by low shrinkage and reep resistance. Examples: PS, PMMA,
PC, PVC.
2. Crystalline Polymers: have an ordered structure in an amorphous matrix. The

rate of crystallinity gives the importance of crystal structure throughout the
material. This rate depends on the material and on the cooling during molding:
(5)
https://www.ppfahome.org/
instantaneous or rapid cooling gives a low rate of crystallinity, whereas a long

cooling would probably result into a very crystalline material. They have
a good resistance to fatigue and chemical contacts, a smaller sensitivity to
cracking and a low friction coefficient. Examples: PE (polyethylene), PET
(polyethylene terephthalate), PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene).
Thermoset plastics. Thermoset plastics have their macromolecules oriented in the
three directions of the space. There is no melting point. The molding is obtained
by using a crosslinking agent, a catalyst or hardener. In general, they are stiffer
than thermoplastics and are more resistant to creep. Thermosets can be defined
(PlasticsEurope, 2015) as plastics which never soften on heating once they have been
molded. According to the PPFA they are plastic that, when cured by application of
heat or by chemical means, changes into a substantially infusible product. The main
families are: polyester, phenolic, epoxy, aminoplast, fibreglass reinforced plastics,
PEX (cross-linked PE).
Elastomers. Known even as rubber, they are especially characterized by their
exceptional deformability before failure. Their structure is reticulated and they are
used above their softening temperature, or phase transition temperature. The most
famous applications of elastomers are car tyres.
3.3.2 On the refinement

Another classification may be made according to the refinement of their process.
Generally are distinguished between:
- the Mass-Polymers, such as: PVC, PMMA, Polyurethane, resins thermosets,
polyolefins and styrene;
- the Technical Polymers, speciality polymers or composite materials, which

possess better qualities. Among them: polyamides, PC, polyacetals, poly-
imides, polymer alloys and fiber reinforced polymers (FRP). Composite ma-
terials and especially FRP are a great font of innovation as their production
volume and use are exponentially growing. However, they enter the category
of high technology plastics, whose characteristics will not be detailed in this
work. Further information can be found nowadays also in construction lit-
erature, such as for what concerns the Aberfeldy cable-stayed bridge (1992)
(Skinner, 2009), (Burgoyne and Head, 1993), (Association, 2015), (Stratford,
2012).
3.4 Interest and use of plastics for construction

The main applications for plastics in industry concern packaging, construction, elec-
trical, electronic applications and transport industry (Fig. 3.2).
In particular, for the domain of construction, second highest user of plastics af-
ter packaging in 2012 according to Plastics Europe (PlasticsEurope, 2015), plastics
3.4 Interest and use of plastics for construction 35

Figure 3.2: European total demand for plastics in 2012.
are widely used for their good strength to weight ratio, durability and corrosion
resistance (do not rot, rust, need re-painting) and subsequent cost effectiveness,
low maintenance, and great versatility. They are also easily formable, easily trans-
portable and movable on site (Booth and Robb, 1968).
Nowadays, piping and conduit represents 35% of the plastic production for con-
struction. Plastics are also used for cladding, skirting and thermal insulation. They
constitutes profiles for windows and doors. They even furnish roofs. In this field,
it is worth citing the Spanish initiative in Corbrera d’Erbre (Tarragona): Archi-
tect Ferran Vizoso has designed a PVC transparent light roof of 1050 m2 area to
rehabilitate the roof of an old church (Fig. 3.4).

Figure 3.3: Flachdach Technologie, by the German company FDT.
These plastics are generally recyclable; in practice only a small part is recycled
though. Another great field of innovation for plastics stands in its alloy with
concrete, to optimize its qualities and decrease its environmental impact: super-
plasticizers to get ultra-high performances concrete, polyacrylates or polycarbon-
ates to increase its mechanical strength reducing its weight or thermoplastic resins
to make it 90% translucent.
3.4.1 Towards new prospectives

The rarefaction of fossil energies, the increase of the price of energy and the rising
difficulties to manage wastes, strive ahead energy efficiency, waste management and
recycling, taking into account the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). Therefore, despite
their fossil origin, plastics are in pole position to tackle such challenges as they
are highly recyclable and efficient. Moreover, their nature makes them able to be
designed to a very wide range of uses.
The most produced plastics are Polypropylene (PP), Polyethylene (PE) and
Polychlorure Vinyl (PVC). Looking back to Tab. 3.1, PVC appears to be one of the
most interesting plastics for our scope because it has among the highest mechanical
properties of classical plastics and is though one of the most light and cheap of them.
This provide it henceforth a worldwide use and supply. In particular, it is slightly
better than PP and PE. Furthermore, a famous field of predilection of PVC concerns
pipes and tubes. These advantages made the choice of PVC quite obvious for the
sake of this study. More detail will now be given on its characteristics.

Figure 3.4: Roof of the church of Corbrera d’Erbre (Spain).
3.5 The PVC plastics

As it is said before, Polychlorure Vinyl (PVC) are a suitable choice towards a possi-
bile structural purpose. Here more details will be given on its characteristics, bearing
in mind that the object of this part is to introduce to PVC pipes design and the
aspects relative to their plenned use.
Firstly, PVC belongs to the category of amorphous thermoplastics. It can also be
considered a mass-polymers. Indeed, it is one of the most produced and widespread
plastics. It is even the most used plastics in construction, as this sector absorbs 60%
of PVC production (6) . The building sector is the first PVC consumer far ahead the
packaging sector (Fig. 3.5).
PVC is one of the earliest plastics. It was discovered between the end of the XIXth
Century and the beginning of the XXth Century, and used for the first time as pipe
in 1933 in Germany. In North America, after the first intallation of a pipe in 1949,
standards are introduced in 1960 by ASTM (Ch. 3.9). More than 30 millions tons
are produced each year in the world. In America, it represents more than 70% of
the linear footage of all plastics pipes and in 2004 the PVC water pipe market share
even exceeded 78% (cf. PPFA).
(6)
http://www.pvcconstruct.org
3.6 PVC Structure 37
Figure 3.5: European plastic demand by segment and polymer in 2014 ((PlasticsEurope,
2015)).
3.6 PVC Structure

PVC is an homopolymer - which means it is produced from only one type of monomer
- composed of barely ramified macromolecules chains. It is derived from marine salt
(57% of its mass) and oil or gas (43%). In reality, PVC is made from chlorine -
produced by an electrolysis decomposition of salt water - and ethylene, which is
obtained from oil or gas via a ’cracking’ process. Ethylene is though increasingly
produced from sugar crops, corn or soybeans as a green alternative (7) . It is worth
note that consequently and contrarily to most of other plastic, less than 50% of
the weight of this plastic derive from fossil fonts (actually, it is the only one plastic
material whose weight comes more than 50% from a mineral origin). For example,
PE is 100% derived of oil or gas.
From the chemical point of view, PVC has a similar structure to PE, but, as its names
presumes, it contains some chloride atoms randomly distributed along the chains.
Such a polymer is called atactic, in contrast to isotactic polymers (typically crystalline
polymers). The principal chains are prevented to align and PVC to crystallize
because of sterically hindered chloride atoms (chloride is 17 Cl, whereas Carbon is 6 C:
chloride atoms are much bigger than carbon atoms and thus obstruct the organic
chains). That is why the molecular structure is amorphous, like glass. And it is
indeed transparent. Colouration is only induced by the addition of plasticizers and
fillers (Ch. 3.7).
(7)
Plastics Europe: http://www.plasticseurope.org/
A polymeric chain contains 750 to 1500 Vinyl Chloride Monomer (VCM), whose
formula is:
CH2 = CH − Cl (3.1)
3.7 Production processes

To improve safety and recycling, to allow recuperation of subproducts and to limit
environmental impact, PVC production units nowadays implement closed cycles
and automatic functioning. From raw natural material to finite PVC product, it
comprises 6 steps (Fig. 3.6):
1. Salt and oil extraction;
2. Chloride and ethylene production;
3. Vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) synthesis;
4. Polymerization of VCM in raw PVC;
5. Blending of raw PVC with additives (stabilizers and/or plasticizers);
6. Transformation of PVC compound in finite products.
Chloride/ Blending
Salt/Oil VCM Polymerization
Ethylene with Transformation
Extraction synthesis of VCM
Production additives
Figure 3.6: Scheme of PVC process.
Salt and oil extraction will not be detailed. Ethylene and chloride production
are quickly covered in 3.6. VCMs are formed by basic direct chlorination or oxy-
chlorination reactions. These monomers are gaseous under normal conditions, and
therefore stored under pressure in order to keep them liquid. Further details will
concentrate on elaboration of polymers and PVC materials. In the following parts,
some conventions are set for the different forms that PVC takes throughout the
synthesis:
- Raw PVC or PVC resin is the PVC polymer formed after polymerization,
whose elements (cf. PPFA) are chemically bonded and cannot be disconnected
by any exterior forces;
- PVC compound is the ready-to-use PVC transformed by additives;
- PVC product is a finite product. PVC has been moulded.

3.7 Production processes 39
3.7.1 Polymerization
Here are presented the 3 different processes of manufacture of raw PVC. Raw ma-
terial for all kinds of polymerization is constituted by VCM.
Suspension polymerisation. Suspension PVC is also known as S-PVC. PVC
made from suspension is by far the most common.
1. During the first step of suspension polymerization, VCM is fed into the poly-
merisation reactor alongside water and suspending agents. The mixture en-
dures high-speed agitation. Small VCM droplets are formed.
2. As a next step, an initiator or catalyst soluble in VCM is added in the pres-

surized and heated reactor (temperature ranges from 40◦ C to 60◦ C). In this
conditions, the VCM droplets, suspended in water, become PVC slurry parti-
cles of 50 ∼ 200µm diameter.
3. At the final stage of the S-PVC process, un-reacted VCM is separated from
the suspension to be recycled and re-used. Water is removed, usually by
centrifugation. The solid is dried to become a PVC non-toxic,odourless and
inert white powder.
Emulsion and bulk polymerisation. These processes are alternative ways to

product what we call raw PVC. However, these processes are far less common tech-
nologies. Emulsion polymerisation is mainly used for certain applications which
require finer resin grades because it produces much smaller particles. This type of
resin is either known as E-PVC (for Emulsion) or P-PVC, since it is often used as
paste (especially for coating surfaces).
The product of bulk (or mass) polymerisation is similar resin to suspension poly-
merization, except that it is produced without water. Its main applications concern
products that require good plasticising properties and high transparency.
3.7.2 Transformation of raw PVC into PVC compound

Raw PVC powder is mixed with additives to custom the specific properties required
for diverse applications. Additives are the indispensable tool that parameters the
properties of PVC material. They can make PVC extremely rigid as well as com-
pletely smooth. They also give PVC its colour. Not only they provide it protection
against thermal degradation of polymeric chains during the successive processing
phases, but they also limit their vulnerability to UV radii (8) . As a matter of fact,
additives are the font of the great diversity of PVC types (Ch. 3.8).
The main additives are the following:
- Stabilizers: used to stabilize plastics under elevated temperatures, UV radii

actions or chemical exposure and to limit aging;
(8)
urlhttp://www.pvcconstruct.org/upload/documents/csiro-report-2001.pdf
- Plasticizers: PVC compound is naturally rigid. Plasticizers are used to soften

and smooth it. Most used are phtalate-derivated such as DINP (di-iso-nonyl
phtalate), DIDP (di-isodecyl phtalate), DEHP (di-ethylhexyl phtalate);
- Pigments: allow to give to PVC almost all possible colours. They are some-
times toxic;
- Loads: are used to reinforce fire resistance and modify some physical or elec-
trical properties;
- Lubricant: are used to ease PVC transformation preventing it from adhering;
- Fire delaying: are added to counteract the addition of plasticizers, that are
often inflammable (Ch. 3.13).
3.7.3 Transformation of PVC compound into finite products

The resulting PVC granules or powders are then moulded into the final product:
tubes, membranes, etc (Ch. 3.15). Its description is the point of subsection 4.2.
The present section however will enunciate the different types, properties and be-
haviour of PVC compound.
3.8 Types of PVC

This section briefly introduces the different categories of PVC and then describes
the different formulations used in the design of tubes and pipes.
The simplest difference can be made according to the input quantity of plasticizers.
PVC mainly exist under two forms:
- "smooth" or "soft" PVC, technically named plasticized PVC, or PVC-P.

They stands for around 30% of PVC production and are mainly used to create
membranes or sleeves. Such plastics contains more than 20% plasticizers (9) .
- "hard " or "rigid " PVC, called unplasticized PVC, or PVC-U. The PVC-U
are used for any applications requiring a minimum rigidity, such as pipes: they
indeed represents 40% of total PVC consumption (Augier, 2007). Generally,
it is the most furnished type of PVC for industrial uses.
PVC-P (1.1-1.35 g/cm3 ) is slightly lighter than PVC-U (1.3-1.45 g/cm3 ), but it only
has one third of the limit strength of plasticized PVC and far weaker elastic and
isolating properties.
PVC-U can be itself declined in more specific versions such as:
(a) PVC-NI (Normal Impact): it is the most common PVC-U declination, it pro-
vides a normal resistance to impacts (< 5k J/m2 );
(9)
urlhttps://solutions-in-plastics.info
3.9 Reference Codes 41
(b) PVC-RI, PVC-HI (Raised Impact, Hight Impact): are different types of PVC
with enhanced resistance to impacts (between 5 kJ/m2 and 20 kJ/m2 for PVC-
RI), even at low temperatures (PVC-HI);
(c) PVC-T & PVC-TF: it is a special denomination for PVC used for doors;
(d) PVC-GLAS: for transparent applications;
(e) PVC-C: it is a post-chlorinated unplasticized PVC, which means that chloride

content of PVC is higher. As a consequence it is more resistant (in particular
to fire and corrosion) and has an excellent behaviour at elevated temperatures.
It is consequently very used for pipes.
Many other denominations of PVC for pipes differ by their moulding and formatting,
not by their chemical composition: f.e: PVC-O.
For simplicity, in the following, PVC-NI will be referred as PVC-U, to contrast the
other denominations.
3.9 Reference Codes

Exploring comprehensively the content of the entire normative framework that con-
cerns thermoplastics in general and PVC material in particular is not the scope
of this work. Therefore, only some references of the American and international
regulation systems (respectively ASTM (10) and ISO(11) ) are listed.
These norms and specifications about PVC-U and PVC-C compounds can be found
in annex, for building products or non pressure applications. ASTM and ISO also
provide specifications for the testing and the determination of the properties of
plastics.
3.10 Properties of PVC material

The main useful physical and mechanical properties of PVC as a material are com-
pared (when appropriate) to the same properties of other classical construction ma-
terial such as: wood, aluminium, concrete, steel, stone, bricks. For the sake of this
comparison, distinction will be made between PVC-U, PVC-C and PVC-P.
3.10.1 American classification

To face the great variability of formulations and subsequent properties, regulation
organizations have introduced standard designations for plastics, and in particular
for PVC. For example, the ASTM (Ch. 3.9) classification (ASTM D1784), detailed
in Tab. 3.3, involves 5 digits:
(10)
The American Society for Testing Material edits more than 12,000 norms
(11)
More than 19500 norms of the International Organisation for Standardization are active
1. Material - Base resin
2. Impact resistance [J/m of notch under notch]
3. Tensile strength [MPa]
4. Modulus of elasticity [MPa]
5. Heat deflection temperature under load (1.82 MPa) [◦ C]
Cell Limits
N◦ Unit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
a
1 [−] PVC-U PVC-C VC
2 [J/m] < 34.7 34.7 80.1 266.9 533.8 800.7 5
3 MP a < 34.5 34.5 41.4 48.3 55.2
4 MP a < 1930 1930 2206 2482 2758 3034
◦
5 C < 55.0 55 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
a
Vinyl Copolymer.
Table 3.3: Class Requirement for PVC-U and PVC-C.
Most frequently used PVC for pipes is PVC 12454. Therefore, for PVC-U, the
corresponding properties will be used in the following.
3.10.2 Physical properties

Given the nature of the application - formwork, pipes in exterior environment -
the following physical properties have been considered (reference norm is indicated
between parenthesis). Tab. 3.4 sums up information for the different types of PVC
and main construction materials.
- Density ρ. It is expressed indifferently in g/cm3 or t/m3 (ISO 1183);
- Water absorption (DIN 53495). Secifically applied to polymers, it is defined

as the amount of weight gain (%) experienced in a polymer after immersion
in water for a specific duration under controlled environment (12) ;
- Vicat softening temperature TV icat (ISO 306). It may be expressed in K or ◦ C,

the determination of the softening point for materials that have no definite
melting point, such as plastics (13) ;
- Minimal temperature of use Tmin . Below this limit the material is fragile;
- Maximal temperature of use Tmax . Beyond this limit there are non-negligible
resistance and rigidity losses;
(12)
http://www.engineering-dictionary.org
(13)
http://www.definitions.net
3.10 Properties of PVC material 43
- Thermal dilatation coefficient αT . Expressed in K−1 , it measures the volume

variation under temperature variation (14) (DIN 53752);
- Thermal conductibility at 20◦ C. Expressed in W/m/K, it measures the ability

of a substance to conduct heat(15) (DIN 52612);
- Oxygen index. It is the minimal oxygen content that allows the material to
burn. As a reference, oxygen content of air is 20%;
Properties ρ [g/cm3 ] αT [10−6 K−1 ] TV icat [◦ C] Tmin [◦ C] Tmax [◦ C]

PVC-P 1.3 150 [-]a -20 60
PVC-C 1.55 60 - 80 105 -40/-15 90/100
PVC-U 1.4 - 1.5 70 - 80 75 - 80 -15 60
Concrete 2.2 - 2.4 12 - - -
Bricks 1.8 - 2 5-8 - - -
Stone 1.5 - 2.9 5 - 13 - - -
Wood 0.4 - 1.2 4 - - -
Aluminium 2.6 - 2.8 23 - 24 - - -
Steel 7.85 10 - 20 - - -
a
PVC-P is flexible so that it behaves like an elastomer, above its Vicat temperature.
Table 3.4: Physical properties of PVC and of different materials.
In the end, PVC is indeed among the lightest construction materials as discussed in
section 3.2. Its main drawback is the sensitivity to temperature variations: its range
of use is quite restricted by the fact that beyond 60◦ C, its use shall be avoided for
smoothing. Even if the temperature does not overpass this limit, a reducing factor
shall be applied on mechanical abilities. Morevoer, PVC-U is the most-dilating
construction material.
However, the range [-15◦ C-60◦ C] covers all possible uses of PVC as a beam for usual
applications in European countries.
3.10.3 Mechanical properties

Similarly, interesting mechanical properties, as showed on table 3.5, are the following.
Data is given for a 20◦ C temperature:
- Tensile stress at yield σy . It is the stress at elastic limit under axial tensile
force [MPa] (ISO 527);
(14)
In reality, thermal dilatation coefficient depend on temperature, so that data is given for 20◦ C
as an order of magnitude.
(15)
It is determined by the rate of heat flow normally through an area in the substance divided by
the area and by minus the component of the temperature gradient in the direction of flow ((Parker,
1984))
- Strain level at yield y . It is the strain at elastic limit under axial tensile force
[MPa] (ISO 527);
- Young modulus E. It is the slope of an elastic stress-strain diagram [GPa]

(ISO 527);
- Poisson modulus ν. One measures transversal deformations [-];
Properties σy a [MPa] y % E [GPa] ν [-]

PVC-P 26 - - -
PVC-C 55 - 70 3-4 2.3 - 3.4
PVC-U 36 - 55 1-4 2.2 - 3 0.4
Concreteb -20/-80 0.2 - 0.3 30 - 40
Bricks 2-8 & 15-60c 1-8 & 3-13
Stone 0.5-30 & 5-220d 20 - 25
Wood 10 - 11 - 1 & 7-10
Aluminium 80 - 160 0.1 - 1 72
Steel 200 - 500 2 190 - 210 0.4
a
Default values are tensile. Compressive strengths are indicated with negative values.
b
Concrete from C20 to C80 are considered.
c−d
Different strengths exist because the material is not isotropic and homogeneous .
Table 3.5: Mechanical properties of different construction materials.
PVC is indeed one of the most elastic and deformable materials because of its low
Young modulus. However, it makes its sensitivity to temperature easy to handle: a
restraint would generate less efforts in PVC than in steel. For example, if σpvc and
σsteel are the stress induced by such a restraint under an increase of temperature
∆T :
σpvc Epvc αT,pvc 2 80
= · ≈ · ≈ 4%
σsteel Esteel αT,steel 200 20
Tensile and compressive strengths reach 50 MPa, which is decent and even more
than wood. Note that PVC can handle both compressive and tensile stresses.
In accordance to ASTM classification for PVC 12454, the following properties on
Tab. 3.6 are considered as common minimum properties for a classical structural
PVC.
Properties σy [MPa] y % E [GPa] ν [-]

PVC-U 48.3 1.75 2.76 0.4
Table 3.6: PVC mechanical properties for the present work.
From now on, this document will exclusively deal with unplasticized PVC (PVC-U)
and its derivatives, because it is the type of PVC that is used for tubes and piping
3.11 Structural Behaviour 45
systems.
3.11 Structural Behaviour

Plastics do not behave under loading as metals: they are not elastic: like concrete,
they have a visco-elastic behaviour (Ch. 3.2). This means a plastic material will
behave as if it were a combination of elastic solids and viscous fluids. Therefore,
their real stress-strain relationship is non-linear. Two main consequences emerge
from this property: strain is not proportional to stress and strain is not independent
of loading time. Actually, for viscous-elastic materials, total strain (t) can be
written as:
(t) = σ (t) + sh (t)
(3.2)
σ (t) = e + v (t)
Where:
• σ (t) is the mechanical strain, depending on solicitation and time;
• sh (t) is the strain due to shrinkage (Ch. 3.11.2);
• e is the classical elastic instantaneous strain;
• v (t) is the - time dependent - viscous strain: v is the object of present section.
At short-term, exerting a force F on a plastic sample will induce instantaneous defor-

mations and stress: this is the elastic behaviour. In long-term though, maintaining
this force F on the same sample will lead to delayed additional deformations. These
deformations can reach up to 3 times the instantaneous deformations. When re-
moving the force, delayed deformations are not cancelled: the are residual. Such a
behaviour is a viscous behaviour. This phenomenon is called creep.
On the contrary, imposing a deformation to the same sample will induce at short
term an instantaneous reaction force F. Maintaining the same deformation will
though engender a decrease of the reaction F. This phenomenon is the dual phe-
nomenon of creep: it is called relaxation.
However, as stated in the Unibell’s guide for "Thermoplastic Pressure Pipe Design
and Selection" (UNI-TR-7-01, (bell PVC Pipe Association et al., 2002)), even though
plastics do not behave elastically, most of the design equations that have been derived
on the assumption of elastic behaviour can still be used, provided the strength values
are appropriately established. The use of elastic equations requires the selection of
strength values that account for long-term loading response.
3.11.1 Design quantities

Tensile limit stresses at yield or at failure are stresses determined by a test un-
der specific conditions: the test duration is very limited (a few minutes) and the
solicitation is particular (most frequently tri-axial). The corresponding procedure
is regulated by an ISO norm. Therefore, both indicate an order of magnitude of

the tensile abilities of a material and allow its comparison and ranking with other
materials.
But these two limit stresses do not give any information on effective (or on-site)
mechanical limits of the material: PVC is indeed a visco-elastic material, which
means its mechanical answer will depend on the duration and the nature of the
solicitation (frequent, continuous, etc). A PVC pipe is actually used during many
years: in comparison, the result of a tensile test is instantaneous. As a consequence,
the resisting strengths of a thermoplastic material such as PVC need to take it into
account.
Moreover, a realistic approach would have to consider the phenomenon of fatigue:
repeated cyclic stressing can cause failure, as for any construction material, even for
solicitations far inferior to the elastic limits.
Thus, to cope with this requirement, three distinct strengths have been defined:
(a) Long-term Strength;
(b) Short-term Strength;
(c) Cyclic Strength.
According to the project situations, three different design checks have to be done.
Usually and as stated in Unibell’s(16) PVC Main Force Design guide, each SDR
is associated to different admissible internal pressures, depending on the type of
solicitation: pressure Ratio (PR) is associated to long-term situations and Short-
Term Ratio (STR) is linked to short-term designs.
Young modulus is also affected by visco-elasticity: they have different values, ac-
cording to long-term or short-term design. As for concrete, short-term moduli EST
are often three times as high as long-term moduli ELT :
EST ∼ 3 ELT
Orders of magnitude are given in Tab. 3.7 for PVC and other materials.
These long-term and short-term values will be alternatively used in design for long-
term or short-term situations.
Procedures and values for hydraulic pipes such as found in (ASTM, 2004), (Spangler
and Shafer, 1938) and (ASTM, 2009) are the only example of structural design of
PVC. It takes into account visco-elasticity and allows to use equations of elasticity
as for concrete.
3.11.2 Time-varying volume variation

Time varying volume variations are not intended the volume variations linked to
temperature. These are taken into account thanks to the thermal dilatation coeffi-
cient (defined in Ch. 3.10) which links volume and temperature variations.
(16)
Unibell is an American association of plastic pipe manufacturers.
Material [MPa] ELT [GPa] EST

PVC 984 2.8
ABS 457 2.1
PE 155 0.77
Concrete C30/35 - -
Steel 200 200
Aluminium 70 70
Ductile Iron 168 168
Table 3.7: Long-term and Short-term design value for PVC and other materials.
As seen in section 3.11, time-varying volume variation is called shrinkage. It is

mainly known of civil engineers because it affects concrete. This paragraph recalls
its principal characteristics for concrete before describing the shrinkage of plastics.
Shrinkage is a contraction of plastic after moulding. As for concrete, it is in
general undesirable in PVC products, as it affects dimensional stability: it can f.e
generate oil canning, or permanent warpage of profiles if it is greater in the edges
than in the center.
PVC is subject to shrinkage when moulded, cooled and solidified. It would result
from re-arranging molecules at micro-scale during moulding. Therefore, in compar-
ison of the lifetime of PVC product, shrinkage is instantaneous and we can write
the expression as:
sh (t) = sh (3.3)
Further information on the transformation of PVC into finite products is given in
section 4.2.
Generally speaking, There are two types of shrinkage:
- Volumetric shrinkage: it affects the entire volume of a moulded piece;
- Linear shrinkage: it associates the effects of the flow to the effects of the con-
traction. Molecules are mostly oriented in the direction of the flow, therefore
longitudinal shrinkage is always higher than transversal shrinkage.
As explained above, a measurement of shrinkage should account for a volumetric

change. Therefore, an indicator will be a ratio, called moulding shrinkage factor(sh ),
between the dimensional difference mould-plastic and the mould dimensions, its
value about 0.2% to 2%:
L0 − L
sh = (3.4)
L0
or
V0 − V
sh = (3.5)
V0
where:
• L0 and V0 stand for the cavity dimensions or volume;

Figure 3.7: Two parts of the mould and cavity (at the top) and finite contracted product
(at the bottom).
• L and V stands for the dimensions or volume of the moulded product at room
temperature (usually 20◦ C).
The shrinkage of a moulded part can be affected by many factors. Here are described
the main ones and their effects on shrinkage: ’+’ (resp. ’–’) means an increase of
the factor is favourable: it decreases shrinkage (resp. unfavourable):
+ injection speed/rate and pressure;
– wall thickness;
– temperature;
± nature and quantity of the filler;
+ cooling duration;
+ size of the nozzle and of the gate;
+ venting of the cavity;
– rate of crystallinity.
If shrinkage ratio is sufficiently well-known, the molded item can be given the in-
tented dimensions by enlarging its dimensions V by the amount of shrinkage sh to
get the volume of the mould V0 :
V
V0 = ' V (1 + sh ) sh 1 (3.6)
1 − sh
An order of magnitude of shrinkage is given in Tab. 3.8 (17) . PVC-U is anyway one
of least shrinking plastics.
Material Shrinkage[%]
PVC-U 0.2 - 0.4
PP 0.2 - 0.8
ABS 0.4 - 0.7
PVC-sm∗ 0.5 - 2.5
PVC-P 1 - 3
PE 1.5 - 3.5
∗
PVC semi-rigid.
Table 3.8: Shrinkage ratios for different plastics.
Contrarily to concrete shrinkage, shrinkage of plastics does not affect the long-term
statics: it is due to its transformation and can be ignore if the PVC products do not
have visible defaults. The pipes that will be considered in section 4.1 are without
default, as they come from retails. Therefore, shrinkage is not taken into account in
further conduct of this work.
3.11.3 Durability of PVC

Many aspects make PVC a durable material. It is indeed:
1. Rot-proof: in contrast to organic material such as wood;
2. Not sensitive to aging: no alteration of properties after years. Experience

and supporting evidences teaches that the buried tubes and pipes keep their
technical characteristics after more than 50 years of use. No alteration could
be observed when unearthed. Durability concerns also appearance as no colour
or shape alteration occur when aging;
3. UV-radii: thanks to its additives, PVC is protected against UV deterioration.

However, the long-term effects of UV radii on PVC structure and their effective
effects on physical and mechanical properties are not clearly established. Some
literature warns about long periods of direct exposure to sunlight, that would
discolor the pipe surface and slightly reduce its impact resistance, sometimes
making necessary to cover it with a opaque substance;
4. No sensitive wear;
5. Recyclable: even after decades, PVC can be 100% recycled;

(17)
www.pitfallsinmolding.com, www.stelray.com
6. Chemical resistance: additives provide PVC protection against chemical at-

tacks of a normal environment;
7. Waterproof: PVC is by nature 100% waterproof;
8. Weather resistant: this ability comes from both its waterproofing and its chem-
ical resistance;
9. Rust-proof: PVC does not rust and therefore it does not require any cover
(like painting for steel);
10. Ductility: does not crack, even under shock and frost. Brittleness only appears
for temperatures below the minimal temperature for use (cf. 3.10).
As its use is quite recent, real time-lasting will only be known in decades. PVC used
for building applications (f.e windows) are replaced and recycled in most cases after
the renovation of the building, and not for wear or malfunction reasons.
The phenomenon of fatigue, very important for what concerns durability, will be
detailed in the following. It is important to notice that fatigue sensitivity can vary
for the same plastic depending on molecular structure, formulation and fabrication
quality.
For all those reasons, PVC is often the preferred choice for many different long-life
and outdoor applications. In fact, medium and long-term applications account for
some 85% of PVC production in the building and construction sector(18) . For exam-
ple, it is estimated that more than 75 % of PVC pipes will have a lifetime in excess
of 40 years with potential in-service lives of up to 100 years. In other applications
such as window profiles and cable insulation, studies indicate that over 60% of them
will also have working lives of over 40 years.
As such, durability is one the hugest advantages of PVC as material for civil en-
gineering because whatever project lifetime, it does not not need any particular
maintenance.
3.12 Possible connection with other materials

PVC is also often associated with ABS (Acrilonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene), another
polymer, to realize plastic semi-finite products, like pipes. Indeed, plastic pipes can
also associated with other tyep of material, such as steel. Particular examples are
given for the case of pipes in paragraph 4.3.6.
PVC is planned to be used to form concrete. Existing plastic formworks do not
have significant structural role, thus association and compatibility between plastic
and concrete have not been studied. No detail nor scientific work substantiate the
important hypothesis of compatibility between concrete and PVC under loading
(18)
www.pvcconstruct.org
3.13 Project parameters and characteristics of use 51
conditions. Adding lubricant to PVC compound (Ch. 3.7) smooths PVC, but its
effect on compatibility can not be evaluated.
3.13 Project parameters and characteristics of use

It is worth reporting here an important phenomenon when dealing with civil engi-
neering structures and materials: fires. Even though the behaviour under fire affects
first and foremost residential and industrial buildings components, a study of PVC
characteristics would not be comprehensive without noticing the main following fea-
tures.
Fire Behaviour. PVC products are difficult to ignite. As a matter of fact, heat
production is comparatively low and they tend to char rather than generate flaming
droplets.
Fire Resistance. Even if PVC is naturally fire delaying, and resist even better to
fire than other plastics, PVC products burn in presence of a flame. Though, they
are self-extinguishing, which means that it stops burning if the ignition source is
withdrawn.
Emissions. If there is a bigger fire, for example in a building, PVC products will
burn and emit toxic substances like all other organic products. The most important
of them is carbon monoxide (CO), which is responsible for 90 to 95 % of deaths
from fires. CO is one of the most dangerous gas, since we cannot smell it and most
people die in fires while sleeping. Moreover, as its chemical formulation shows, CO
is emitted by all organic materials (wood, textile or plastics).
Finally, as some other materials, PVC also emits acids, whose emissions are irritating
if breathed. In particular, when burning PVC emits hydrochloric acid (HCL).
3.14 Situation of the market

The price of plastics is largely depending on the class of plastic (1-2 e/kg for PP -
PVC and more than 50-100 e/kg for more technological plastics).
For PVC, different data are available. The following comes from values of the French
finance department and the French customs(19) . The prices are a good indicator for
international rates. Three different products are distinguished:
- Poly [vinyl chloride], in primary forms, not mixed with other substances: it
relates to raw PVC, as defined in section 3.7 (ID: 39401000).
- Poly [vinyl chloride] in primary forms, plasticized, mixed with other substances
(PVC-P) (ID: 39402200);
- Poly [vinyl chloride] in primary forms, non-plasticized, mixed with other sub-
stances (PVC-U) (ID: 39402100).
(19)
lekiosque.finances.gouv.fr
These will be compared to aluminium (ID: 76012020, aluminium alloys, unwrought,

in slabs or billets) and steel (ID: 72241090, alloy steel other than stainless steel, in-
gots or other primary forms, excluding tool steel and other than ingots and products
obtained by continuous casting).
Two numbers are available:
(a) CIF values: imports are recorded on the basis of invoices CIF (Cost, Insurance,
Freight). It includes the price of the product itself, transportation costs and
insurance required for its routing on the territory.
(b) FOB values: exports are identified on the basis of invoices FAB (Free On
Board): including the cost of transport to customs clearance, excluding of
those incurred outside the territory to bring the goods to the consignee.
Both numbers do not show only the real value of the good, as both include additional
costs. As a matter of fact, Tab. 3.9 sums up the average FOB & CIF values ofraw
PVC, PVC-U and PVC-P in 2015 from France to the rest of the world.
PVC FOB Values CIF Values

Type Volume Total Average Volume Total Average
[t] value [ke] price [e/t] [t] value [ke] price [e/t]
Raw PVC 726,919 603,062 829.61 230,930 200,978 870.30
PVC-U 35,834 48,186 1344.70 47,123 51,523 1093.37
PVC-P 39,813 88,556 2224.30 30,359 41,366 1365.86
Alum. 95,503 245,580 2571.44 251,307 544,373 2307.44
Steel 77,772 175,750 2259.81 8,011 38,623 2463.19
Table 3.9: Import and Export prices for PVC compounds.
These values, even if very approximative because relative to special categories of

uses and to one country in particular, clearly show that steel and aluminium as raw
materials are twice as expensive as PVC-U compound. Therefore PVC is defini-
tively interesting from the economical point of view. Paragraph 4.7 shows similar
comparison for semi-finite products such as pipes.
3.15 Main applications

Some applications of PVC in various fields will be shortly proposed whatever the
type described be. A particular application will be more extensively discussed in
section 4.1.
As shown in Fig. 3.5, principal applications (60% of total world PVC consumption)
relate to construction. This ratio rises to 3/4 in North America(20) .
(20)
Source: PPFA - Plastics Pipe and Fittings Association
3.15 Main applications 53
Applications in construction. Main applications in construction regard build-

ings. As said before, this due to PVC’s resistance, lightweight, durability and ver-
satility qualities. Especially, it is worth citing:
- window and door profiles;
- joineries (imitation of wood appearance);
- internal and external cladding;
- pipes and fittings;
- wallcovering and flooring.
(a) As roof for a tollgate (www.pvcdesign. (b) As printing support for advertise-
org). ment.
Figure 3.8: Example of use of a PVC membrane.
In public works, PVC is mainly used for various piping systems (Ch. 4.1) because
of its lightweight and resisting strength. Especially, for rainwater, soil and waste
systems because of its inertia, chemical resistance and waterproofing, as well as for
roofing membranes (Fig. 3.8a) because of its versatility. The latter is nowadays at
stake because of the recent developments in matter of complex shapes, funicular
structures and suspended membranes. As an example, the 50,000m2 of the roof of
the Stade de France stadium, a 80,000-seat stadium built to welcome footbal World
Cup in 1998.
Other applications. Thanks to PVC’s excellent flame retardant and electrical
insulation properties, other uses of PVC include above all wiring and cable ducting
for power, data and Telecom networks and advertising supports (Fig. 3.8b).
It is also used in cars, since in Western Europe, cars currently produced contain
from 10kg to 16kg of PVC.
As a conclusion, PVC has been extensively used in a wide range of construction

products for over half a century. However, PVC applications do not require any
particular mechanical resistance except supporting PVC’s self-weight. They are
neither calculated nor dimensioned to withstand particular load or forces. Exception
are pipes: in piping systems, PVC plays a real and prominent structural role: beside
bearing self-weight, it supports the weight of the transported fluid, eventual dynamic
effects, local reactions and internal pressure. That is the reason why the main
normative literature regards piping systems dimensioning.
3.16 Concluding remarks

PVC is light, it has a broad and flexible range of utilization. It is quite weak as
a construction material, but it ensures no brittleness, as it offers flexibility and
ductility. That is why PVC pipes have 1/6 of the weight of most non-plastic pipes
according to PPFA.
PVC pipes are is perfectly adapted to contain concrete: this plastic is an excellent
insulator, it is inert, so that it provides a good protection against chemical and envi-
ronmental actions, including additives and cements of concrete and it is waterproof,
to avoid concrete leaks.
Other advantages are its availability: over 100 PVC piping products plant is North
America, and recyclability, as almost 100% of PVC can be recycled.
Describing PVC as a raw material is not sufficient to introduce it as a decent con-
struction material. One shall examine the finite product which is planned to be
used. Thus, discussion move on on further technical details on PVC pipes.
Chapter 4
Products made by PVC
Semi finished products are the resultant of the last production process of PVC:
transformation (as it can be said in the previous Chapter). It allows to shape
in particular form of pipes or fittings to PVC compound: engineering structural
design will be introduced considering a pipe as a particular type of beam.
4.1 Semi-finished products

The first plastics pipes were made in the 1930’s. During a few decades, they were
then used to replace corroded metal pipes. Their first applications therefore con-
cerned drinking water supply. From that time plastic pipes have been implemented
for their lightweight and flexibility qualities with respect to steel pipes(1) . Buried
pipes are commonly classified as "rigid" or "flexible". These denominations arise
from the notion of rigidity of the system backfill-pipe. It corresponds to the ratio
between the rigidities of both pipes and backfill. Therefore, it accounts for relative
deformability of the pipe with respect to the backfill. For example, a "rigid" con-
crete pipe will deform less than adjacent backwill while a "flexible" PVC-U pipe
will have opposite behaviour. It is more or less at that time that PVC started to be
produced industrially.
As said in section 3.5, the chemical resistance to ordinary chemicals such as acids,
bases, salts, and oxidants combined to its mechanical properties has quickly en-
hanced the use of PVC pipes in the field of sewers, soil and waste, for pressure and
non-pressure tubes.
Their use continued to widen as PVC pipes turned out to be cost-effective, long-
lasting, easy to install and low maintenance requiring.
4.2 PVC Transformation techniques

There are many different ways to transform PVC compound into PVC products:
- calendering;
(1)
www.teppfa.eu
56 Products made by PVC
- extrusion;
- blow-moulding;
- injection moulding;
- expansion;
- thermoforming;
- coating;
- rotational moulding.
They will be shortly described, particular mention will be made of the most useful
techniques to shape pipes and fittings. For any transformation, the moulding process
can induce a significant level of residual stress, as mentioned with shrinkage in section
3.11.2.
Calendering. This technique is derived from the rubber and paper industry pro-
duction techniques. Calendering was the first processing procedure for plastics. It
has become widely used especially for PVC processing into films and sheets of vary-
ing width and thickness, with wide range of surface finishes.
The main applications are:
- sheets and plates for thermoforming packaging or shaped components;
- rigid plastic sheets for the papermaking or printing industry (f.e credit cards);
- clothing and decorative details (wall coverings, curtains).
After blending of additives and heating in special machines, as PVC is an homoge-

neous mass, it is entered in the calender. The calender is constituted of 4-5 parallel
cylinders whose spacing is progressively decreasing. At the exit, the semi-finished
passes the winding machine (if film) or the cut (if sheet), as shown on Fig. 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Calendering process: PVC compound passes between cylinders.

4.2 PVC Transformation techniques 57
Extrusion. It is currently the most widespread transformation process for plas-

tics material in general. Its main application is the production of linear manufac-
tures such as pipes and profiles (window frames) because they can be made to any
length. Another advantage lies in the possibility to integrate a coupler for rubber
seal (Ch. 4.3) It is also used to derive thin films, continuous coatings or cables and
wires.
The main body of the extruder is a cylinder within which rotates a or more worm
screws. PVC compound is fed directly by a hopper into a cylindrical barrel, where
it is progressively heated until melting. The rotational movement of the screw
homogenizes and, by extreme pressure, transports it towards the outlet hole. This
matrix, called die, is shaped according to the desired type of profile. It can thus
be a flat section (for the production of films or laminates), a circular section (for
the production of tubes or tubular films) or a more sophisticated section (for the
production of profiles). Once forced into the die, the product is cooled so that it
maintain permanently its dimensions. Procedure is shown on Fig. 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Extrusion process: PVC compound passes from the hopper to the die.
Injection moulding. It allows the production of very complex and important

objects (from the body of typewriters and computers to artificial transplant pros-
theses) with great precision of details. Most voluminous pipes are injection moulded,
as well as all standard and most non-standard PVC fittings. Based on the type of
the press, there are two different processes. Plastic material is placed in a heated
cylinder, where it is melt. Then it is pushed toward a small nozzle by a piston or
a screw. Hence it is injected at pressure into a mold cavity to completely fill the
transition. Once cooled and solid, the object is extracted from the mold.
Blow-moulding. This technique allows for the production of hollow objects: bot-
tles can hence be given an infinite range of sizes, shapes and colors. The technique
of blowing is mainly combined with the extrusion process (extrusion-blow moulding
process) or - less frequently - with the injection process (injection-blow-moulding
process). The only difference stands in the type of material introduced in the mold:
in the first process, they are already extruded sections which are cut the correct
dimension, whereas in the second process, hot plastic compound is directly injected.
Then, for both processes, air is blown so as to inflate and make plastic perfectly
adherent to the walls of the mold itself. The mold actually constitutes the negative
impression of the object. After a short cooling, the mold is opened, the artifact is
extracted and the cycle begins again (Fig. 4.3).
Figure 4.3: Blow-moulding process: particular shape is given by the mold.
Expansion. The term expansion refers to a machining technique in which the spe-
cific weight of the starting polymer can be adapted to obtain lighter materials with
a cellular structure. Those plastics are used in thermal and acoustic insulation ap-
plications, in imitation leathers or in lightened structures such as tubes and profiles.
PVC foams can be rigid, semi rigid, flexible, depending on the formulation and the
degree of expansion used. The cell structure can be obtained by various processes,
all including gas.
The combination of extrusion and expansion techniques allows the production of
PVC-O, also known as Bi-Oriented PVC. The process, developed in the early 1970s,
lies on the polymeric properties of PVC and on their three-dimensional molecular
orientation. As said in section 3.6, every plastic is constituted of long disorganized
molecular chains. Indeed, PVC stands among the amorphous polymers. A wise
design would take advantage of the preferential dimension to make it carry the load:
doing so, stress is supported by covalent molecular bonds (in the direction of the
chains) which are strong interactions, instead of indifferently by covalent bonds and
reticulation bonds and other weak interactions between chains.
4.2 PVC Transformation techniques 59
Figure 4.4: Mono-axially and bi-axially oriented PVC.
This principle is similarly used when dealing with composites materials and es-
pecially Fibre Reinforced Material (FRP), for which fibres with very high tensile
strength are woven in one or two preferential direction(s) and set in a matrix or a
resin. Whereas after extrusion, classical PVC-U is mono-axially oriented, for PVC-
BO, molecular orientation is achieved in two successive phases:
1. PVC pipe is extruded at about half the diameter and twice the thickness of
the finished PVC-O pipe. This unexpanded pipe, called starting stock, is
longitudinally stretched;
2. Then, the starting stock pipe is expansed, being pulled over a mandrel: the
diameter of the pipe is doubled. This stretches the pipe in the radial direction,
reorienting the molecules to become biaxially oriented, as shown on Fig. 4.4.
Figure 4.5: Once expanded in radial direction, PVC-BO is cooled.

This new material (2) has twice the tensile strength and three times the impact re-
sistance of classical PVC-U (AUTHORITY, 2013)-(Association, 2002) and keeps its
corrosion and chemical resisting qualities. As a matter of fact, for the same appli-
cations, equivalent PVC-O pipes are thinner(3) and lighter. They also have larger
internal diameters (this finds a huge interest when dealing with project parameters
as it allows to lower flow velocities and reduce pumping costs). Finally, this gives
PVC-O pipes more flexibility and thus provide about three times the resistance of
PVC-U pipe to cyclic fatigue.
Figure 4.6: Circumferential direction is preferred for PVC-BO (interempresas.net).
Thermoforming. By effect of pressure, thermoforming allows to model rigid ther-

moplastic films, without reaching melting temperature, realizing cavities. In the
thermoforming under vacuum process, a material sheet is fixed to a support above
the mold and heated. The air is then sucked from the space separating the plastic
sheet from the mold, by creating a depression: the plastic sheet is pushed against
the mold by the atmospheric pressure above, and assume its shape. In the contrary,
in the thermoforming under pressure process, heated plastic sheet is made adherent
to the mold by the pressure exerted by compressed air.
Coating. There are two techniques to coat the surfaces of materials with plastics:
- Dip-coating, immersion in a fluid bed or plastisol;
- Coating by covering.
Immersion is mainly used to coat metal objects. A plastic material powder is sus-
pended in a flow of hot air in a closed environment. The object to be coated is
pre-heated so as the powder to adhere to its surface, forming a layer of the desired
thickness. It is finally placed in a baking oven where the heat melt the powder and
turns the coating into a continuous layer.
(2)
PVC-O is not chemically speaking a "new material" because its chemical composition remains
unchanged. Although, its physical microstructure has been modified: in this sense we deal with a
new material.
(3)
According to www.thinkpipesthinkpvc.com.au, the reduction of wall thickness would reach
between 40% and 60% compared to other materials.
4.3 Connections 61
Figure 4.7: Vacuum and pressure thermoforming processes (www.substech.com).
Rotational moulding. Rotational moulding is applicable to powder (dry blends)

or paste (plastisol) PVC compounds. Adherence to the mold is obtained by a cen-
trifugal force. Application can be found in the automotive industry (car dashboards)
or in the game industry (dolls, balls). Closer to our purposes, it is sed to produce
large inspection chambers, water and septic tanks, although from polyethylene (PE)
or polypropylene (PP).
In the next development, by piping systems are intended the associative systems
constituted by the pipes and appropriate coupling tools, or fittings.
4.3 Connections
The objective of this part is not to make a comprehensive presentation of the cat-
alogue of PVC tools. It will confine to explain the functioning of a PVC piping
system and to detail the main useful connections. Plastic pipes association is very
handy because it is based on an interlocking male-female system made of tubes and
connections (as presented in the following). Fittings – such as joints, elbows or
T-pieces – are usually produced by injection-moulding.
4.3.1 Fittings
PVC connections for pipes are meant to realize the most branching operations as
possible. Thus, there is a very impressive variety of forms and nature, from the
most produced and commonly used to the most particular ones. Some project even
require tailor made fittings. Different figures illustrate this diversity.
First, fittings differ by the number of ends they have: the simplest only have 2
ends, whereas some branching configuration require 3 (T-pieces), 4 or even 5 pipes
to connect at the same point. Next, spatial configurations differ by the planes
containing the pipes: some are coplanar, and other are orthogonal: the last allow
pipes coming from three spatial directions to connect. Then, a lot of different
nominal angles are doable: the angle are available in a discrete range, from 0◦ (a
straight socket connection) to 90◦ (right-angled elbows): nominal angles are 15◦ ,
22◦ 30, 30◦ , 45◦ , 67◦ 30, 80◦ , 87◦ 30, 90◦ .
They also differ by the nature of the ends and of the joints (as shown in Fig. 4.8):
• Plain-end: also defined as male end;
• Bell-end or socketed-end: we can also speak of female end. They connect with
Plain-ends either with a simple push fit dilatation joints with rubber seals or
with a particular sealing: it can be a welding (even though it is more used
for PP pipes), but in general it will be a solvent cementing; further detail on
solvent cementing is given below (Ch. 4.3.3).
• Flange-end: this method, originally used for metallic tubes, can be adapted
to PVC pipes (Ch. 4.3.4).
• Threaded-end: these are used when a great flexibility is required because they
mainly allow very easy disassembling. However, the PPFA states they should
not be used for critical applications. Further detail is given in paragraph 4.3.5.
• Grooved-end: two grooved-ends can be joined by using a metallic clamp so

that they be tightened and any leak be prevented.
Figure 4.8: Different fitting ends types (Antaki, 2003).
Fittings can also be constituted by several elements: assembled fittings are formed
from several injection-moulded parts assembled by clipsing or screwing, whereas
shaped fittings are produced by thermoforming (Ch. 4.2), welding or solvent cement-
ing from injection-moulded fittings or tubes. Finally, despite standards and regula-
tions, irrevocable differences come from the different moulds used by each manufac-
turer, which result in small design details and dimensional variations. Other variants
include the radius of gyration of the elbow, or the presence of a reduction: reduction
allows to connect pipes of different diameters. One should never forget that these
pipes are destined to fluid transportation, therefore many parameters such as 87◦ 30
4.3 Connections 63
angles derive therefrom: in particular, they result from the orientation of the flow
and from the minimization of online losses.
For fittings, some manufacturers recommend up to a 40% discount of the maximum
design pressure with respect to the associated pipe.
To sum up the features described above, diverse types of fittings are shown on
Fig. 4.11.
4.3.2 Tube ends

Prior observations about the nature of the ends and of the joints apply to PVC
tubes. They have either both male ends (MM), or male and female ends (MF). In
the first case, they require FF PVC sleeves to assemble. In the second case, pipes
can connect directly, joining the male end of the first pipe to the female end of the
successive one.
4.3.3 Solvent cementing

Main advantage of this type of connectivity is that often the joint is as strong or even
stronger than the pipe of fitting. Then, no special and potentially expensive tool is
required, and neither particular electric power nor heating procedure (open flames,
torches, molten lead, or hot plates) which result in less likelihood for on-site injuries.
It is very cost-effective. Though, one may be concerned that such connections are
permanent: as a result, any leak may require a total disposal and replacement of
the joint. They also take time on-site to be tested and validated.
4.3.4 Flanging
On the one side, flanging allows different piping material to be joined. It is used
because of its ease to disassemble for inspection or maintenance and to repair any
possible leak. Moreover the system can immediately be tested. On the other side,
it is quite expensive and cumbersome. Furthermore, the working pressure is limited
to 10 bars, which is a substantial limitation.
Figure 4.9: Different pattern exist for flanging, according to the project specification and
diameters (Antaki, 2003).
4.3.5 Threading
Last noticeable manner to connect PVC pipes is threading: among advantages
should be exposed the ease it provides to test the system, disassemble it and fix
leaks. Though, main concerns regard their sophistication. They can only apply to
sufficiently thick pipes. Once operating, threads constitute the weakest part of the
piping system and reduce working pressures by 50%.
4.3.6 Possible association with other materials

PVC pipes can be associated to other materials. References are shown on Fig. 4.10.
Transition Joints. These tools are made to join cast-iron pipe to PVC pipes.
Indeed, such pipes, because of their different normative framework and production
processes, have dissimilar outside diameters.
Figure 4.10: Transition joints (on the right) and threaded adapters (on the left) allow to
associate PVC pipes with other materials (Antaki, 2003).
Threaded Adapters. They allow to connect a PVC pipe to a standard threaded-

end pipe.
In the next part, only plain- and bell-ends fittings are used as they are the most
easily supplied in specialized retailers and the most simple to connect.
4.4 Normative references

The same remark as in 3.9 applies. A census of both ASTM and ISO normative
framework about PVC pipes can be found in annex. Main fields of application are
distinguished.
4.5 Categories of uses

In agreement with the categories adopted by ISO and ASTM, the main uses of PVC
pipes can be sorted as:
4.6 Geometrical characteristics 65
- Soil, drainage, waste and vent pipes;

All these applications are non-pressure, so that it is possible to add rainwater
evacuation and irrigation pipes. PVC-U and PVC-C are used, depending on
the project typology.
- Water supply pipes: adducted water is under pressure at various temperatures;

Such an application requires PVC-O, PVC-C pipes or barrier pipes (cf.4.6)
even if PVC-U can also be used.
- Gas supply pipes: in most cases the use of PVC-HI is required;
- Industrial pipes: pipes need to resist aggressive fluids. According to the typol-
ogy, PVC-U, PVC-C or PVC-HI are used.
PVC can also be found as a protective sleeve for telecommunication lines (Ch. 3.15),
but in general PVC-P is used. All these applications regard aboveground and un-
derground (According to the PPFA, more than 3/4 of PVC pipes are used for under-
ground application) implementation of PVC pipes: this will be taken into account
in the design of the piping system in conformity to the project data. These classes
are the most relevant to be used as normative prescriptions impose common precise
specifications to manufacturers. Therefore, despite the observed thousands of differ-
ent denominations, all the different type of PVC destined to one of those will have
sufficiently close properties to deal directly with those categories.
4.6 Geometrical characteristics

As said above, PVC piping systems have been used for more than half a century
in many different applications. The main categories of uses are described in section
4.5. As a consequent, there is a great diversity of geometrical parameters. Each
category of use underlies design specifications whose nature is often prescribed by
a suitable set of regulations and standards (as in Ch. 4.4). Beside the nature of the
plastic material and the different associative ways described in section 4.3, we can
cite among the parameters of PVC systems:
- the diameter;
- the length of the tubes;
- the class of rigidity;
- the type of pipe wall.
Geometrical data is regulated for thermoplastics pipes by two norms:
1. ISO 161-1:1996 Thermoplastics pipes for the conveyance of fluids - Nominal

outside diameters and nominal pressures - Part 1: Metric series;
2. ISO 11922-1:1997 Thermoplastics pipes for the conveyance of fluids - Dimen-

sions and tolerances - Part 1: Metric series.
Figure 4.11: Different types of fittings.
4.6.1 Diameters
When dealing with diameters, main variables are:
- Nominal External Diameter DN . It is the numerical designation of the size

which is common to all components in a thermoplastic piping system(4) . It
refers to the exterior diameter of the pipe. This value is a minimum require-
ment, which means that, for conservative reasons, real diameter has to be
included in a range [DN ; DN · (1+)], with the tolerance, which is typically
0.2% to 0.3%;
- Nominal Wall Thickness eN . It is the minimum wall thickness at any given

point emin . It is determined for each Dimension Ratio by Eq. 4.4, round at 0.1
mm.
- Internal Diameter Di . It is defined by:
Di = DN − 2 eN (4.1)
- Average Diameter Dm . Its expression isgiven by Eq. 4.2.
Dm = DN − e N = Di + e N (4.2)
These numbers and the associated tolerances are not given in this study because
they highly depend on the domain of application. One will only find typical values
of nominal diameters are shown in Tab. 4.1 and Tab. 4.2.
DN [mm] 32 40 50 75 80 90 100 110 125 140

Note Plumbing Civil Works
Very widespread Available in technical retail
Table 4.1: Typical values for nominal diameters (Part I).
DN [mm] 160 180 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000
Note Civil Works Civil Works
Available in technical retail Rare
Table 4.2: Typical values for nominal diameters (Part II).
4.6.2 Available lengths

PVC pipes are extruded and are generally available in: 2 m, 3 m, 4 m, 5 m, and 6 m
straight lengths. Other lengths are generally tailor made. Available lengths depend
on the domain of application of the pipe and of the manufacturer.
(4)
other than flanges and screw-thread elements
4.6.3 Type of pipe wall
PVC pipes either have:
1. Solid walls or compact walls are tubes or fittings whose internal and external
surfaces are smooth and which have same composition along the thickness
of the wall(5) . It means that the pipe is simply extruded from amorphous
PVC, as explained in section 4.2. Bi-axially oriented PVC (PVC-O) enter
this category.
2. Corrugated walls are solid wall whose shape provide more flexural flexibility,
as the ripples are along the hoop direction.
Figure 4.12: Main types of walls.
3. Structured walls. It is possible to find under this denomination convoluted

tubes or profile walls, whose external and internal surfaces are smooth and
connected by an intermediate layer or axial ribs (type A1), radial or spiral
ribs (type A2), or corrugated Their production is regulated in Europe by NF
EN 13476-2 of September 2007, from which Fig. 4.13 is derived. They offer a
better resistance to internal pressure and are more flexible.
4. Barrier type wall or Multilayer. Several cylindrical layers compose the pipe. In
the case of the barrier type wall, a flexible metallic layer(6) is inserted between
two external and internal solid layers so as to provide additional protection for
the fluids passing through the pipe (generally drinking water). Production is
made by extrusion.
(5)
see definition in NF EN 1401-1
(6)
Typically in aluminium.
(a) Top and center.
(b) Bottom.
Figure 4.13: Types of structured-walls for PVC pipes.
4.6.4 Classes of rigidity

An important parameter that defines the mechanical abilities of a pipe is its class of
rigidity, or ring stiffness This ability accounts for its resistance to internal pressure
and to crushing. Several abbreviations are used to identify such a class: SN (Stiffness
Nominal), DR or SDR (Standard Dimension Ratio), Sch (Schedule).
Denominations. The number which follows the letters SN represents, at a given
speed, the value of the necessary force to crush the pipe of 3% of its internal diameter.
It is expressed in kN/m2 (equivalent to kPa). It enters the European normative
framework. Most produced standards are: SN2, SN4, SN8 and SN16.
Schedule. The classical American framework for pipes deals with schedules this
number indicates the approximate value of the ratio:
P
Sch = 1000 (4.3)
S
where
• Sch = schedule
• P = service pressure (Pa)

• S = allowable stress (Pa)
In the US, schedule where originally applied to Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel
Pipes (7) (from Sch/10 to Sch/160) and Stainless Steel Pipes (8) (Sch/5S, Sch/10S,
Sch/40S and Sch/80S).
SDR. The designation SDR is internationally used: it is the ratio between outside
diameter DN and wall thickness eN . Literature also mention SIDR, which considers
internal diameter:
DN
SDR =
eN
Di (4.4)
SIDR =
eN
SDR = SIDR + 2
It is worth note that the function SDR(D, e) lies theoretically in the interval [2 ; +∞[
because the thickness e, whose exterior limit is D, can not exceed the radius r =
D/2. For example, the Belgian regulation BENOR states the following equivalences
for underground PVC pipes:
- SN2 or SDR 51 (for 1 m-to-3 m backfill);
- SN4 or SDR 41 (for backfill of thickness minor to 1 m or major than 3 m with

traffic load);
- SN8 or SDR 34 (for important loads).
For small diameters, thickness of a SDR range are not defined anymore by Eq. 4.4
because it would lead to number minor to 1 mm. However, data is exhaustively
reported in the corresponding European norms. For all ring stiffness numbers, the
higher the value, the stiffer the pipe.
In conclusion, this paragraph has established the main parameters of PVC pipes. In
the following, only compact-wall pipe will be used as they are the best compromise
between low price and resistance to flexure. Pipe will be referred to by their nominal
external diameter and standard dimensional ratio.
4.7 Situation of the market

The market of PVC piping system is divided according to the normative fields defined
in section 4.5. A exhaustive study of each of these is not possible here. General
features will solely be enlightened.
As concerns the price with respect to other materials, here they are presented the
results of an engineering report of 2006 in the city of New York. This report com-
pared the different costs of metallic and plastic plumbing systems in a 12-floors
residential building. It has taken into account technical details of implementation of
(7)
Terminology from ANSI/ASME B36.10
(8)
Terminology from ANSI/ASME 36.19M
4.7 Situation of the market 71
a piping network, considering specific limits and needs of each type of piping system.
The reasoning is based on an equivalence of performances: diameters, schedules and
fittings are adapted from a system to another if needed.
Figure 4.14: Labor and discounted cost for Drainage, Waste, Vent piping installation.
Figure 4.15: Labor and discounted cost for Water piping installation.
For the Drainage, Waste and Vent (DWV) network are considered PVC, ABS and
cast-iron pipes, whereas for the Water network are compared PVC-C, copper and
galvanized steel pipes.
Using PVC pipes instead of metallic pipes (copper or galvanized steel tube) would
spare 75% of the cost of the installation and almost 40% of the labour time. There-
fore, PVC is much more competitive than steel tubes for residential piping networks.
Therefore, PVC has shown itself economical and time-saving when used as pipes.
In addition, the price of PVC piping systems is exponential of the diameter, as shown
in Fig. 4.17. After DN = 200 mm, prices explode as production volumes decrease.
Therefore, this diameter is a delimiter below which a designer should remain so as
to maintain relatively low costs. Prices also increase with SDR, as shrinkage is less
favourable and input quantity of material is greater.
Figure 4.16: Comparison of labour and discounted cost for plastic and metallic piping
systems.
700 €
600 €
PVC Tubes -‐
500 € diverse uses
400 € Elbow FF 87°30
300 €
T-‐pieces FF
200 € 87°30
100 €
0 €
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Figure 4.17: Variation of the price of PVC piping systems according to increasing diam-
eters.
4.8 Other tools and material

4.8.1 Clamps
Several clamps are used to connect PVC pipes, as shown on Fig. 4.18:
- Screw leg metal clamps for larger diameters, to create a fixed point;
- lyre clamps, clipped for small diameters: they maintain the tube loosely. Can
be in plastic (PVC) or in metal.
Figure 4.18: Screw leg metal clamps (left and center) for large diameters and lyre clamps
(right) for smaller pipes.
4.8 Other tools and material 73
Other types of clamps are not used for pipes because they do not provide sufficient
rigidity (cf. fig 4.19.
Figure 4.19: Screw leg metal clamps (left and center) for large diameters and lyre clamps
(right) for smaller pipes.
4.8.2 Valves
Pipes need to be regularly inspected. Flow inside is regulated by the degree of
aperture of the valves. Of course, for pipes they have a crucial importance. Like
fittings, they are injection-moulded. Many types exist:
- ball valves (also multiport valve);
- butterfly valves;
- spring-, ball-, and swing-check non-return valves;
- diaphragm valves;
- knife gate valve;
- globe valves;
- pressure relief/reduction valves.
Figure 4.20: Examples of valves: ball valve, diaphragm valve and knife gate valve.
4.8.3 Supports
Fig. 4.21 show such systems used to fix, clamp or simply support pipes, for example
on a façade or under a roof.
Figure 4.21: Various supports for pipes (Antaki, 2003).
4.8.4 Other accessories

Finally, other accessories are always helpful when dealing with PVC pipes: solvents
- to seal and connect pipes and fittings -, cleaners, glues, clips, backing rings, and
gaskets.
4.9 Concluding remarks

This chapter has shown the great interest that plastics can have for structural ap-
plications. In particular, PVC is one of the most interesting among them, because
of its relatively good mechanical properties, excellent durability and low weight.
Its costs are much lower than other construction material and it is already more
competitive than steel for piping systems. Indeed, the large number of PVC resin
and product manufacturers supports a very competitive market (220,000 t of PVC
tubes and 25,000 t fittings are produced in 2010 in France, according to the PPFA
(Antaki, 2003)). Their main advantage remains their behaviour on-site: they do not
need maintenance, are easy to install and provide modularity thanks to its fittings
components. Their use as formwork ensues naturally from theses products.
As a conclusion, the following sentence of the British Plastics Federation (Booth
and Robb, 1968), applied to prefabricated and modular systems, is perfectly adapted
to PVC as pipes.
The future will see the growth of intelligent buildings and methods such as
prefabrication which will move work away from construction sites and into factories.
Their resistance to corrosion, light weight and strength make the potentiality of load
bearing structures as opposed to architectural features a possibility.
Chapter 5
Attempts to create a PVC bearing

structure
The material PVC and its products have been properly defined in the previous
chapters. This chapter states the different conception that have been thought
to implement PVC. When the principles of conception have been fixed, scale
models have been realized to understand better the effective behaviour of the
structure. A calculation with a full size model has been realized, giving to PVC
tubes a full structural role, removing intermediary supports.
5.1 Principle of the conception

The chosen conception is a bridge whose deck leans on vertical columns. The latter
are connected to a parabolic cable, carrying the load to the supports, as shown on
Fig. 5.2.
Figure 5.1: Principle of the conception.
Such a structure is efficient: it structurally behaves as an equilibrium of normal

compressive – for the deck – and tensile forces – for the cable. Bending effects are
small and only due to imperfect geometry and localized variable loads. The parabolic
shape is adapted to optimize allocation of the efforts as it approaches the funicular
curve of loads under self-weight and uniform loading. All plastic elements are under
compression which avoids dismantlement of the plastic elements. Assembling is
76 Attempts to create a PVC bearing structure
relatively simple because plastic-to-plastic connections are made thanks to apposite

elements and plastic-metal connections are limited. Then, the lower struts rigidify
the vertical stiles (Contrarily to the model presented in the first chapter, whose
height is determined by the choice of the number of diagonals). Design is flexible
by the possibility to adjust theoretically the height as it is decorrelated from other
parameters such as the number of vertical struts.
However, the form is strongly influenced by the shape and the deformability of the
cable: therefore it will be very sensitive to localized effects.
For what concerns prestressing, the structure is wall adapted as the plastic elements
are meant to be compressed. Vertical load is carried by the cable, compressing the
deck horizontally and the columns vertically. Prestressing could even be imposed as
a positive initial deflection, taking advantage that the great flexibility of the PVC
structure. The counterpart of this is the major buckling sensitivity of compressed
chords, especially the deck under strong compression.
Beside being elegant and letting the deck completely open, it also seems to be a
very simple structure to implement tube and fitting assemblies, with a cable to be
passed through.
Finally, contrarily to an arch, no clamping is required a the supports for stability: the
structure is simply-supported. It is only necessary to ensure freedom of longitudinal
translation on a support to allow for the deck to be compressed.
5.2 Scale model

A scale model has been made to gain more insight into the behaviour of such a
structure and into its on-site construction.
5.2.1 Components
It is meant to be approximately a 1:4 - 1:5 scale model. It has the following dimen-
sions:
- Length L = 5 m;
- Width w = 0.5 m;
- Maximum Height (at midspan) H = 0.8 m;
For the construction, tubes and fittings of thickness 2 mm and diameter 40 mm

have been used: they are the most furnished piping systems in retail because they
correspond to plumbing equipment. Cables are constituted by polypropylene ropes.
Again, these have been used for they are practical and use to use.
Tab. 5.1 details the main mechanical characteristics of PP, with respect to both PVC
and steel, according to commercial documentation. PP is far more deformable than
steel. As deformation of the scale model is strongly connected to cable deformability,
the scale model is expected to be quite deformable.
5.2 Scale model 77
Figure 5.2: Material for the scale model.
Characteristics Unit PVC PP Steel

E [MPa] 3 1.3 200
ν [-] 0.5 0.3 0.3
Specific weight [kN/m3 ] 14 6 78.5
fy [MPa] 40 21 450
Table 5.1: Main characteristics of PP for design with respect to PVC and steel.
5.2.2 Construction
First, tubes are cut at the right length, taking into account that the deck elements
and superior crosspieces have uniform lengths whether columns and inferior cross-
pieces have variable lengths. The non-zero length of fittings is subtracted from the
length of the different tube elements.
Then, it is necessary to drill holes in the fittings to make the cables pass. Their
position on the elbows is coherent with the sketch of the cable passing through each
of the fittings so as not to generate flexure. The cables are not fixed to the fittings
in this model as it would be too complicated.
The footbridge is built with the deck leaning on the ground. Fittings are not sealed
between then(1) . Crosspieces are alternated with columns along the deck because
available fittings don not allow more than 3 tubes to connect at a same node. Cables
are threaded into the fittings in the apposite holes and fixed at the supports. The
(1)
No glue is used to ensure continuity between the fittings.
model is then turned and set on its supports. Its very low weight (10-11 kg) makes
it mobile even by a single man.
Figure 5.3: Footbridge set with deck on the ground.
Figure 5.4: Bracing system.
Finally, bearing cables are tensioned to get a zero deflection at midspan. Bracing is
set up as in Fig. 5.4. The fittings have 87◦ 30 angles so that they have to be disposed
in a symmetrical manner with respect to the longitudinal axis of the footbridge to
avoid torsion of the bridge.
5.2 Scale model 79
5.2.3 Hypothesis
The behaviour of the bridge is very hypothetical. Its constitutive materials (PP,
PVC) are poorly known and in particular the mechanical abilities of their fittings
(stiffness, flexibility, plastic hinge) and their mechanical limits and modes of failure
(in tension, in compression, under bending, at rupture). Therefore, 3 situations are
considered, alongside with 3 levels of hypothesis:
- S1 - Perfect clamping. The first reasonable assumption is to consider a
perfect clamping for all fittings, which means no differential rotation would
be allowed between connected tubes. Though, this hypothesis seems very
optimistic. On the one hand because it is observed that the columns (it is
important underlined that the columns are the longest elements) are rather
mobile to some extent. On the other hand, because it is conceivable that,
under a heavy load, a perfect clamping would generate localized moments,
potentially sufficient to break them (or have them plasticized).
- S2 - Articulation of the columns with respect to the deck. The appear-

ance of the footbridge under its own weight (that is to say under moderate or
even weak forces) leads to questioning the hypothesis of perfect clamping. It
can be assume an articulation as the columns seems rotationally quite mobile.
- S3 - Articulation of the deck with respect to the columns. This

questioning can be done in two steps, the effect of which is to be evaluated:
articulation at the level of the columns (where the most important moments
occur when the deck is loaded - S3) and at the level of the crosspieces (S4).
Obviously, the clamping is replaced by an stiffened articulation, necessary for
the stability of the model on Karamba. The rigidity is expressed in terms of
kg.m/◦ : for 1kg.m/◦ , a force of 1 kg (10 N) exerted at 1 m of the tee deforms it
by 1◦ . Finally, the effect of a greater flexibility of the fittings in the direction
of will be analysed to evaluate the sensitivity of the model to this parameter.
The different hypothesis are presented in Fig. 5.5, where a square stands for a clamp,
a circle for an hinge. A longitudinal view is drawn, showing the deck elements and
a column. Crosspieces are out of plane.
5.2.4 Loading
A step-by-step loading test of the footbridge is realized to identify the correct prop-
erties with respect to the previous hypothesis. The midspan deflection is measured
and confronted to the increase of the loading. Loads are paper blocks, whose weight
is well known. With available A3 and A4 formats, blocks respectively weight 2.5 kg
and 5 kg. The amount of the load increase is 2.5 kg, that makes necessary a sub-
stitution of 2 A4 by 1 A3. This action will generate a small increase of deflection(2)
due to plasticity because they actually consist of local unloading-reloading cycles.
(2)
As can be seen on Fig. 5.8
(a) Level S1.
(b) Level S2.
(c) Level S3.
Figure 5.5: Different levels of articulation of the fittings: S1, S2, S3.
First loading. It was performed on 5 different points. The measurements were

made in 2 different positions, to detect possible torsional movements:
- at the level of the deck on one side of the model;
- in the center of the struts in the lower part.

The plates used to set the loads are large (37.5 cm wide x 80 cm long) with respect to
the dimensions of the deck: distance between two consecutive crosspieces is 50 cm,
and distance between a column and a crosspiece is 25 cm. Width of the footbridge
is 50 cm. As a consequence, setting the center point of the plates on the top of the
columns made their edges leans on the crosspieces. The real point of application
results be misplaced. In addition, a first unforeseen ruin occurred (the tubes are
unclipped at the supports) which made it necessary to reinforce the model before
reloading.
Second loading. It was carried out on 4 different points, in correspondence of

the spacers, to load the columns correctly. The unloading was monitored and the
corresponding deviations are reported. The results of the calculation were obtained
for a load Q on 5 plates. Therefore, the load will be extrapolated to the total load
parity so that 5Q = 4Q0 and thus Q0 = 54 Q.
Loading was stopped when the model began to become very unstable and threatened
to buckle laterally. A lateral instability of the footbridge and cracking noises at the
joints could be observed : they are due to plastic-counter-plastic frictions at the
fittings.
5.2 Scale model 81
Figure 5.6: Disposition along the footbridge of the 5 points of loading.
5.2.5 Results
The results of the loading test are presented in Fig. 5.8 for loading and unloading
phases. Max deflection vmax reached 24 cm, at midspan (see Eq. 5.1).
L
vmax ≈ (5.1)
20
Residual deflection vres after unloading is 13 cm, which is 50% of max deflection:
vmax
vres ≈ (5.2)
2
The total load on the deck at the maximum loading point was:
Qtot = 4 · Q = 25 kg · 4 = 100 kg (5.3)
which is far more than the weight of the bridge G.
Qtot ≈ 10G
Loading is not linear because of the large displacements. A first stage can be noted,
for which deflection increases with a gradually decreasing slope. The cable deforms
to adopt a form closer to the funicular shape. The design shape is the funicular of
an uniform load, that is of a load distributed uniformly on all the columns. Loading
is then globally linear, exception made of local increases mentioned in section 5.2.4:
the new funicular shape is then loaded classically.
In parallel, the model by conform implementation of the load has been step-by-step
computed on the finite elements software Karamba: a 3D geometry of the model is
built, and converted into a computational model of beams. By increments of 1 kg
by plate, load has been increased to the maximum of 25 kg resulted from the test.
For S2 and S3 situations, different flexural rigidities have been implemented for the
articulated fittings, from 0 kg.m/◦ to infinite rigidity(3) . Computed deflections for
situations S2 and S3 described in section 5.2.3 are shown on Fig. 5.9 and Fig. 5.10.
In particular:
(3)
Infinite rigidity is equivalent to a perfect clamping of the fittings.
Figure 5.7: Loading with paper blocks.
- For articulated columns, the deflection is clearly linear of the load, whatever
the rigidity be. Measured deflection is close of calculated deflection for zero
rotational stiffness.
- For the situation No.3, the initial non-linearity decreases with the rotational
rigidity. A second phase is linear and almost independent of the stiffness. De-
flection from the test hhas a loading path comprised between those of stiffness
0.01 and 0.1 kg.m/◦ .
For each of the following curves, the maximum deflection is stored and plot on
logarithmic graph of figure 5.11 according to the situation (S2 or S3) and the rigidity
(from 0 kg.m/◦ for a fully articulated behaviour to 106 kg.m/◦ , considered clamped
behaviour) to draw the variation of the maximum deflection according to the rigidity
of the articulations. For elevated values of stiffness, results may be influenced by
ill-conditioning of stiffness matrix. This figure clearly confirms that range of the
hypothetical rotational stiffness of the fittings. I other words, assuming that a
rigidity can be defined for such fittings, the procedure and subsequent logarithmic
graph allow to determine it quite precisely by intersection. Assessment on several
scale model would be necessary to state this.
From the previous graphs, it can be deduced that the actual behaviour of the fittings
is closer to situation S3 than to situations S1 and S2. As a consequence, for the
5.2 Scale model 83
structural analysis of this statical scheme, one shall take into account for the deck
articulations in correspondence of the columns.
25
20
15
10
F1 (cm)
F1' (cm)
5
F2 (cm)
F2' (cm)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 5.8: Measured deflection in cm as a function of the load by plate in kg.
30,0
25,0
20,0
15,0
10,0
5,0
0,0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
CD0 CD0,01 CD0,1 CD0,5 CD1 All Encastrated 2nd Loading
Figure 5.9: Computed step-by-step deflection compared to measured deflection, at

midspan for situation S2 and rigidities varying from 0 to 1 kg.m/◦ .
30,0
25,0
20,0
15,0
10,0
5,0
0,0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
DC0 DC0,01 DC0,1 DC0,5 DC1 All Encastrated 2nd Loading
Figure 5.10: Computed step-by-step deflection compared to measured deflection, at

midspan for situation S3 and rigidities varying from 0 to 1 kg.m/◦ .
30,0
25,0
20,0
15,0
10,0
5,0
0,0
1,E-‐06 1,E-‐05 1,E-‐04 1,E-‐03 1,E-‐02 1,E-‐01 1,E+00 1,E+01 1,E+02 1,E+03 1,E+04 1,E+05 1,E+06
Free Columns/ Deck Free Deck/ Columns Real
Figure 5.11: Computed maximum deflection at midspan as a function of the rigidity of

the articulations.
5.2 Scale model 85
5.2.6 Structural conclusions

As shown on Fig. 5.4, bracing is constituted by ropes "stitched" along the bridge,
so that their successive parts are alternately in compression and then in tension.
The compressed part obviously buckles as a rope is classically unable to withstand
compression. Thus it relaxes the parts in tension. As a matter of fact, bracing
becomes ineffective.
Figure 5.12: Sewing of the bracing rope along the longitudinal axis.
Moreover, the tension of the ropes was meant to provide a friction resistance against
any longitudinal displacement along the cable: in particular, it would have restrained
rotations of the columns, whose rotational rigidity is low. Therefore, the base of the
columns slightly moves along the cable. The rotations of the assemblies and the
horizontal translations of the columns along the cable are not completely prevented
by the present practical arrangements.
Friction at the level of the structure creates plastic effects: the deflection becomes
non-linear of the load, and is non-zero after unloading.
Maximum admissible loading was about 100 kg. Given its width (0.5 m) and its
length (5 m), this load represents an equivalent surface load of 40 kg/m2 , which is
very far from the 500 kg/m2 objectives that a 1:1 scale model should able to support
according to Eurocode. Several factors are responsible for this deformability:
1. Since the fittings do not seem to be stiff enough to consider them as clamped,
the presence of 19 potential hinge along the deck(4) considerably reduces the
stiffness of the deck. It can be shown on Fig. 5.19: even without loading, the
scale model can be waved. Therefore, to a solicitation does not correspond a
single configuration because of plastic effects.
2. The bearing cables are made of PP (E = 2 – 3 GPa): it is a very flexible and

deformable material, which amplifies these deformations. Using steel would
decrease the axial deformability of the cable and consequently the deflection.
3. Bracing has to be set independently for each members so as to make it effective.
4. The scale model had severe stability default. Among them, it is worth note
the alignment problems at the supports (as shown on Fig. 5.13). The cable is
(4)
There are 10 crosspieces and 9 columns along the deck.
diverted by the feet of the seat used as a support. Then, even if it would have
made construction quite less rapid, simple and economical, pipes and fittings
need to be fixed rigidly between them to avoid recurring uncoupling. Plastic
seal or metal screws are considered.
Figure 5.13: Alignment problems.
5.3 Structure at realistic scale

Taking into account necessary improvements that section 5.2.6 concluded, a second
structure has been designed and calculated at a realistic scale.
The purpose of the second model computed is to resolve the previous problems and
to make the PVC skeleton able to bear the self-weight of concrete: such as structure
would allow to pour concrete in it directly in one phase. Concrete members are not
reinforced with steel bars because the members are assumed to be compressed.
5.3.1 Main elements

Dimensions of the structure are indicated on Fig, 5.14. The diameter of PVC piping
system has been set to 250 mm. Thickness is 6.2 mm, as stated in the brochure
Nicoll(5) .
Fittings. Crosspieces are connected directly on columns to reduce the number of
fittings alongside the deck. Obviously, for compatibility reasons, an eccentricity e
had to be imposed. In accordance with Fig. 5.15:
e = 191mm + 143mm = 33.4cm (5.4)

(5)
Nicoll is a pipe supplier
5.3 Structure at realistic scale 87
Figure 5.14: Geometry of the model.
Connections are made by assembling a FF tee between the deck and the column,
and a MF tee between the column and the crosspiece. Angles are 87◦ 30 because
they are the most suppliable in retail.
The respective dimentions are listed in Tab. 5.2 and Tab. 5.3 (from Nicoll brochure).
Bending tests of the fittings were carried out on diameters 100 mm, 160 mm and
200 mm. The conclusions of the report of these tests have shown the increase of
flexural stiffness with the diameter. For the diameters considered, a stiffness of 1
kg.m/◦ was a realistic order of magnitude for flexion out the plane of the fitting(6) .
It can reasonably be assumed that the stiffness would be lower if the flexion was
exerted in the plane of the tee. Therefore, conservatively, a value of 1 kg.m/◦ is taken
for tubes with a diameter of 250 mm.
(6)
Conventions are fixed on figure 5.16
Figure 5.15: Fittings (mf and ff) in the brochure Nicoll.
Cables. Fig. 5.17 show the section of the cables used as bearing cables and bracing
cables.
- Bearing cables are φ30 mm, typically used for lifting systems: 6x36 with textile
core.
- Bracing system is constituted by φ11mm cables, 6x19 with textile core.

Data on resistance and maximum admissible efforts are presented in Tab. 5.4. Service
effort Ns is calculated as the ultimate effort Nu divided by a safety coefficient of 3:
Nu
Ns = (5.5)
3
5.3.2 Phases and loads

Calculation is made in 3 phases, as required by the setting up procedure of the
footbridge.
1. Loading under self-weight: a PVC skeleton is built, cables are installed, the
structure is set on its supports. The amount of prestressing of the bearing
cables needed to cancel deflection at midspan is determined and applied;
Fitting D/d h z2 z3 L1 L2
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]
BD18 (mf) 250 191 143 143 61 61
Table 5.2: Dimentions of mf-fitting.
Fitting D/d z1 z2 z3 L1 L2
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]
BD188 (ff) 250 130 143 143 61 61
Table 5.3: Dimentions of ff-fitting.
2. Filling of the tubes by concrete: in addition of self-weight, each PVC member

bears the weight of concrete that its internal volume would contain. A specific
weight of 24 kN/m3 is taken as a reference for concrete;
3. Variable loads: once concrete has hardened, it bears the additional load. Brac-
ing cables are tightened. Therefore, geometry corresponds to internal section
of the tube, material becomes a C25/30 concrete. A uniform pedestrian load
of 500 kg/m2 is applied, in accordance with requisitions of Eurocode 2. Hy-
pothetical planking leans on crosspieces, therefore the load is transmitted to
them, and then directly to the columns.
Actions are taken at SLS (Serviceability Limit State), that is with all coefficients
equal to 1.
5.3.3 Criteria for verification

This section sums up the different checks the structure has to pass for each phase
so as to meet equilibrium, stability and safety. Verifications concern the structure
as a whole and specific members:
For what concerns the Structure:
- Buckling Analysis. A second order analysis by the software Karamba allows

to determine the buckling coefficient of the structure (which is the coefficient
fs that should multiply all the imposed loads to make the structure buckle).
It takes into account global buckling of the structure and local buckling of
members. A safety coefficient fs = 3 is taken. It applies to all the loads.
- Deflection. Deflection will be calculated mid-span. Criterion will be 0 at the

end of phase 2, and L/150 at the end of phase 3: for this model, admissible
deflection would be 10 cm.
at the same time, for the Elements is nesessary to perform analyses for:
Figure 5.16: Flexion of the fittings: in-plane and out-of-plane.
Characteristics Unit 6x19 TC 6x36 TC

Ns [kN] 23.6 178.7
σs [MPa] 427 517
Nu [kN] 61.7 536
σu [MPa] 1280 1550
Table 5.4: Values for the resistance of cables.
- Cables. Efforts shall remain positive (tensile) and minor than admissible
loads Ns defined in table 5.4 whatever the phase.
- Tubes. Verifications of the section of the tubes will concern the utilization of
the material with respect to buckling limits and limit strengths, for all phases
and with appropriate material properties:
utilRd ≤ utilEd = 1 (5.6)
Moreover, one shall ensure that all tubes are compressed (N < 0), in order to
avoid disassembling (for phases 1 and 2) and tension in concrete (for phase 3).
- Bracing. Similarly to the check of cables, efforts shall remain admissible in

regards of limit load Ns .
5.3.4 Results
Results are shown on Fig. 5.18. Convention is:
- Green boxes stand for verified criteria;
- Orange boxes mean the criteria could not be verified because doubts exist on
the resistance: it only applies to the flexural and compressive resistance of
fittings in phase 2, when the PVC skeleton is structurally resistant.
Figure 5.17: Section of the cable used.
- Red boxes are applied to criteria that is not checked.
Figure 5.18: Criteria and results of the computation.
5.3.5 Structural conclusions

The second model is not applicable stricto senso because, of shown in Fig. 5.18. The
following conclusions will concentrate on the limitations of the model and therefore
on its necessary improvements.
First, it is worth noting that the deck is submitted to large compression efforts. This
means small eccentricities of the deck could generate non-negligible parasite bending
along it. Imposing a zero deflection at midspan is not a sufficient condition to avoid
eccentricities along the axis of the deck and to ensure it be strictly. Eccentricities
are created by differential deflection of the columns. Indeed, again, the parabolic
shape of the structure is the funicular of uniform load. Though, at the end of the
concreting phase, the structure is loaded by self-weight which is not uniform because
of the presence of columns and of the load of the cables themselves. Moreover, given
that no mechanical data could be found on the resistance to compression and flexion
of PVC fittings, it is preferable to limit their structural role.
As a matter of fact, the procedure shall add intermediary support between the
columns so as to prevent the PVC structure from bending.
Design has should that bottom crosspieces and some columns are in traction during
phase 3(7) . Furthermore, definitive design footbridge shall allow to bear a vehicle
along it deck. This means supporting important movable point loads along the deck
and bending moments in concrete.
Reinforcement should be added in the concrete structure.
These structural modifications have to be implemented, especially since:
- ULS (Ultimate Limit State) coefficients shall be applied to design the structure
properly. They will raise the solicitation and decrease the resisting actions;
- No load has been considered for planking: an additional uniform load will have
to be imposed to the structure in phases 2 and 3 to take it into account.
Next chapter will present a definitive design of the footbridge.
Figure 5.19: Stability: the footbridge is too deformable.
(7)
Phase 3 regards variable loads applied to the concrete structure.
Chapter 6
Presentation of the footbridge
After two attempts, a realistic model of a full scale footbridge can now be de-
signed. Materials used and loads considered for its calculation are precisely
referenced in this chapter. Then, the definitive phases of construction are de-
scribed, taking into account the observations that concluded the previous chap-
ter, so as to complete data about the footbridge.
6.1 Materials
The material propertie for each component of the footbridge is here realled.
6.1.1 PVC Fittings and Tubes

Characteristics of the fittings chosen are taken conservative: resistances are slightly
decreased, actions are raised to account for the diversity of PVC types.
- Diameter φ = 250 mm;
- Thickness e = 6.2 mm;
- Standard Dimension Ratio SDR = 41;
- Young Modulus E = 2.8 GPa (short-term);
- Specific Weight ρpvc = 1.5 t/m3 ;
- Elastic Limit σadm = 22 MPa (short-term);
- Supplier: Nicoll(1)
Different types have been used: elbows FF and MF 87◦ 30, tees MF and FF 87◦ 30.
Such angles have been used because they correspond to the most affordable and
supplied fittings. Details and dimensions are shown on Fig. 6.1.
(1)
It is important to mention the supplier as each has different mould and therefore distributed
tees with varying dimensions.
94 Presentation of the footbridge
Figure 6.1: Dimensions of the fittings used.

6.1 Materials 95
6.1.2 Concrete
Concrete for pouring is a C25/30. Main properties are (UNI, 1992):
- Young modulus Est = 31 GPa (short-term);
- Young modulus Est = 10.3 GPa (short-term);
- Poisson modulus ν = 0.3;
- Specific weight ρc = 2.5 t/m3 for normally reinforced concrete;
- Characteristic compressive concrete strength fck = 25 MPa;
- Mean value of concrete compressive strength fcm = 33 MPa;
- Mean value of concrete tensile strength fctm = 2.6 MPa;
- Partial safety factors for concrete γc = 1.5;
- Coefficient taking account of long term effects αcc = 0.85
A self-compacting concrete is used so as it be able to flow in the structure and fill

the spaces between reinforcing nets.
6.1.3 Cables
Cable models are taken into the Teci brochure. Bracing are not installed on the
definitive model because in the attempts, they were set to limit deflection of the
PVC structure. Definitive structure is now regularly supported.
Classical properties for high-strength steel for pre-stressing are (UNI, 1992):
- Young modulus Es = 205 GPa
- Specific weight ρs = 7.85 t/m3 ;
- Failure stress fptk = 1860 MPa;
- Characteristic stress at 0.1% total strain fp(0,1)k = 1640 MPa;
- Characteristic stress at 1% total strain fp(1)k = 1670 MPa;
- Stress at service level σsp = 1670 MPa;
As concerns to the pre-dimensioning phase, the cables are full-locked coils, avail-
able at the Teci company. Section and perspective are shown on Fig. 6.3. Pre-
dimensioning of the cable computes predictable max effort Nmax in the cable, taking
into account the normal effort Ncable is equal to 161 kN calculated in section 5.3.3
for equivalent loads at SLS. It is multiplied by the partial safety factors γ equal to
1.5 for variable actions at ULS:
N max = γ · Ncable = 161 kN · 1.5 = 241.5 kN (6.1)

Considering a safety coefficient of 5 on the given minimal breaking force Ncr is

1285 kN, most suitable cable(2) has a diameter φ equal to 36 mm and a metallic
cross-section As to 862 mm2 :
Ncr
N max = 241.5 kN < = 257 kN (6.2)
5
Figure 6.2: Different cables supplied by Teci, from their brochure.
6.1.4 Ordinary steel for reinforcement

Ordinary steel has the following characteristics (UNI, 1992):
(2)
The brochure is given in Fig. 6.2.
6.1 Materials 97
Figure 6.3: Cable, from brochure Teci.
- Young modulus Es = 200 GPa;
- Specific Weight ρs t = 7.85 t/m3 ;
- Partial safety factors for steel γs = 1.15;
- Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement fyk = 450 MPa;
- Design yield strength of reinforcement fyd = 391 MPa.

Reinforcement is constituted by welded wire meshes, calendered to give them a
cylindrical shape with the correct diameter. A correct overlapping will be ensured
as for classical reinforcement nets.
Figure 6.4: A 6 m x 2.4 m panel of welded wire, with respective spacing 0.3 m x 0.1 m.
Calendering typically result from processing the mesh between three cylinders, whose
diameter is slightly smaller than nominal diameter of the tubes (250 mm). Panels
have dimensions 6.00 m x 2.40 m and weight 58 kg, resulting in 4 kg/m2 of mesh.
Minimum "recouvrement" of l0 = 250 mm is required by Eurocode 2 (UNI, 1992).
The interior diameter of a tube is Di = 237.6 mm, giving for perimeter Pi = Π Di
= 746 mm. Total length lpanel is therefore:
lpanel = l0 + Pi ≈ 1m (6.3)
Linear weight of cylindrical panels greinf becomes:
greinf = 4 kg/m2 · 1 m = 4 kg/ml (6.4)
A typical panel is presented on Fig. 6.4. An overlapping length l0 ≥ 250 mm gives

the shape shown on Fig. 6.5.
Figure 6.5: Sectional view of a reinforced concrete beam: PVC tubes are in green, rein-
forcing mesh is in rose, the void is filled by concrete. Overlapping exceeds 250
mm.
6.1.5 Wooden planking

Planking is made of a classical solid wood taken in service class 3 (external ap-
plications). Typical wood will be a D35 hardwood. Its characteristics are (UNI,
2009):
- Average axial modulus E0,mean = 10 GPa;
- Axial modulus at the 5th percentile E0.05 = 8.7 GPa;
- Flexural stress fm,k = 35 MPa;
- Shear stress stress fv,k = 3.4 MPa;
- Mean specific weight ρmean

w = 560 kg/m3 ;
- Characteristic specific weight ρkw = 670 kg/m3
Geometry of the planks is:
(a) Thickness hw = 0.1 m = 10 cm;
(b) Length: 1.875 m;
(c) Width of a plank:

6.2 Loads 99
1. bw = 0.35 m at both sides of the deck, to support the traffic load trans-
mitted by the wheels;
2. bw = 0.18 m in the central part of the deck,
(d) Weight of a plank: g = 44 kg for the widest planks, g = 22.6 kg else: they are
manual handling.
At both edges of the deck, the 35 cm wide planks are associated together by mortise
and tenon at midspan, to limit deflection. Technical details are given on Fig. 6.6,
Fig. 6.7 and Fig. 6.8.
Figure 6.6: Wooden planking: the largest planks are on each sides, joined at their midspan
by mortise and tenon.
6.2 Loads
The designed bridge is pedestrian. Therefore, traffic loads from EC2 for classical
road bridges are too requiring. The normative framework is section 5 of Eurocode
1, 1991-1-2: pedestrian bridges (Eurocode, 1991). An additional exceptional traffic
load is taken in account, and the most unfavourable of the two loads has to be
checked.
6.2.1 Permanent loads

Permanent loads are itemised in the following, with associated typical values.
- Self-weight of PVC pipes: linear weight is expressed as gpvc :
gpvc = γpvc π e(D − e) = 7.1 kg/ml (6.5)
- Self-weight of cylindrical reinforcing meshes: linear weight is expressed as

greinf , recalled in section 6.1.4:
greinf = 4 kg/ml (6.6)
- Self-weight of cables: linear weight is expressed as gcab and given in section

6.1.3
gcab = 7.1 kg/ml (6.7)
Figure 6.7: Dimensions of the planks used.
- Self-weight of concrete from the concreting phase: linear weight is expressed

as gc , including the reinforcement:
(D − 2e)2
gc = γc π = 111 kg/ml (6.8)
4
- Self-weight of planking: linear weight is expressed as gw , with hw = 0.1 m
being the thickness of the planking and w = 2.2 m its width. It is a permanent
non-structural load, whereas other loads are permanent structural.
gw = γw hw ww = 147.4 kg/m (6.9)
These loads are directly calculated by the FE software called Karamba (see the next
Chapter), on the basis of their dimensions and specific weights, as defined in section
6.1.
6.2 Loads 101
Figure 6.8: Details of assembling on the crosspieces: screws are used to provide vertical
compatibility.
6.2.2 Pedestrian load

For pedestrian bridges, Eurocode 1 (Eurocode, 1991) prescribes the uniform pedes-
trian load qf k = 500 kg/m2 to be applied on the whole surface of the deck. This load
is applied to the planking, and the planking bears on the crosspieces. Therefore, a
linear load is transmitted to the crosspieces qcp
f k , function of the distance between the
crosspieces . Except for the end crosspieces, whose load is halved, linear variable
(3)
loading is:
L
qfcpk = qf k = 937.5 kg/ml (6.10)
8
6.2.3 Traffic load

In case, a car would cross the bridge, for exceptional reason, the following models
have been considered:
(3)
There are 9 crosspieces, parting the deck in 8 segments: therefore this distance is L/8
- "Pick-up" Nissan Navara;
- Van Nissan.
Figure 6.9: Van Nissan.
Figure 6.10: "Pick-up" Nissan Navara.
They are shown on Fig. 6.9 and Fig. 6.10. The associated technical documentation
gives detail on weights and dimensions of these vehicles. They are summed up in
Tab. 6.1.
(a) Wheelbase is the distance between front axle and rear axle: the most un-
favourable case corresponds to the smallest wheelbase;
(b) Front/rear track is the distance between the two wheels of an axle;
(c) Overall width is the total maximal width of the vehicle, with or without mir-
rors;
(d) Authorized loaded weight (PTAC) is the maximal allowed weight of the vehicle,
including self-weight and additional service loads.
Hence, a 2.2 m-wide bridge prevents vehicles with excessive width (and weight) to
access the bridge: it allows 4 x 4 and vans, typically used on building sites.
6.2 Loads 103
Characteristics Van Navara

PTAC [t] 3.9/5 3
Wheelbase [m] 3.18 3.15
Front track [m] 1.73 1.55
Rear track [m] 1.73 1.55
Overall width [m] 2.47 2.08
Overall width without mirrors [m] 2.07 1.85
Table 6.1: Main characteristics of weight and dimensions of the vehicles considered.
Most unfavourable loading resultant from Tab. 6.1 is constituted by a 5 t van with
3.15 m wheelbase. Critical moment is given by Asimont’s theorem: for a couple of
force 2Q, whose spacing is r (the rear), maximum moment along a supporting beam
of width w [m] is in the central section, if and only if:
w 3
< r
2 4 (6.11)
2
r> w
3
Figure 6.11: Illustration of the implicit condition of Asimont’s theorema.
In the present case Asimont’s problem has no solution. Worst case scenario is then
the following symmetrical loading, as on Fig. 6.12.
Figure 6.12: Flexion of a crosspieces under an axle.
With the hypothesis of a clamped beam, and for Q = 1.5 t(4) :
- vertical reactions on the supports are Q at each end;
- maximal moments at the end MA and at midspan M0 are:
Q (w + r)(w − r) Q (w − r)2
MAmax = − M0max =
4w 4w
1.5 (2.22 − 1.552 ) 1.5 (2.2 − 1.55)2
MAmax =− = −415 kg.m M0max = = 72 kg.m
4 · 2.2 4 · 2.2
(6.12)
Q (w − r)2
M0max =
4w (6.13)
1.5 (2.2 − 1.55)2
M0max = = 72 kg.m
4 · 2.2
As a consequence, input efforts for Karamba to model the traffic loads are the end
moments MA and vertical reactions Q.
(4)
It is a conservative value for the load by wheel, given that it takes the fourth of the PTAC and
it raises it by 20% to take into account asymmetrical effects.
6.3 Supports 105
6.3 Supports
Specific supports are designed for the project. Indeed, designer is confronted to two
incompatible problems:
- on the one hand, the statical scheme leans on the hypothesis that the bridge
is simply supported: no clamping must be provided at the supports and lon-
gitudinal translation should be released at one end;
- one the other hand, PVC fittings can absolutely not resist the massive normal
force acting in the cable at the end of Phase 3, when concrete has not dried
yet (see section 6.4).
Therefore, solution implements a concrete block with special disposition to respect

the statical scheme. First, both PVC elbows are cut to prepare space for a metal-
lic cylinder to pass through. Then, metallic tube and PVC elbows are sealed in a
concrete block and set up on a elastomer support that provides rotation and longi-
tudinal translation abilities. A threaded rod (φ40mm), passing through the metallic
tube, is joined to the cable at on end, and tightened against the supports with ap-
propriate clamping nuts (φ100mm). Fig. 6.13, Fig. 6.14 and Fig. 6.15 illustrates the
implementation of the supports.
Figure 6.13: Section view of the concrete supports: from behind at the left, from the deck
at the right.
6.4 Phases
This part will detail for each phases the associated loads, resisting materials, hy-
pothesis, construction actions and necessary verifications.
Figure 6.14: Top (on the right) and bottom (on the left) views of the supports.
6.4.1 Preliminary Phase

Calendered reinforcement meshes are disposed in every tubes. They are fixed to the
tubes by appropriate screws at tubes ends to prevent reinforcement to disengage
from the plastic tubes. Their length ls shall exceed the thickness of the tubes e, and
the thickness of the welded wire mesh ereinf :
ls ≥ e + ereinf > 6.2 mm + 2 · 7 mm ≈ 21 mm (6.14)
The length of the mesh exceeds the length of the tube by l+ at each end to pro-
vide overlapping in the fittings and ensure clamping of the joints. For the overlap-
ping lengths, circumferential steel rings are removed to make interlacing with other
meshes and with bearing cable possible. Given the geometry of the elbows, a good
value for l+ is:
- ≈ 20-25 cm for the lower end of columns, for and for both ends of crosspieces;
- ≈ 55 cm for the upper end of columns;
- ≈ 25 cm for the deck members.
Fig. reffig:reinf shows typical disposition of reinforcing cylinders the plastic tubes.
Circumferential bars are removed near both ends to help the bars writh near the
fittings.
6.4 Phases 107
Figure 6.15: Lateral view of the supports: the footbridge lies on special hooped bearings,
entirely coated with elastomer.
Then intermediary supports are installed. Their position coincides with midspan of
each deck element. End supports are realized, in accordance with section 6.3.
Finally, circular holes are made in fittings, so as to let the cable pass through. Holes
will have a diameter dhole slightly greater than the diameter of the cable φcable :
dhole ≥ φcable (6.15)
For φcable equal to 36 mm, dhole equal to 40 mm is convenient.
At this stage, all members are ready to be assembled.
6.4.2 First Phase

During the first construction phase, the PVC skeleton is constructed:
- PVC elbows in which passes the cable are threaded along the cable;
- Cables are installed at the end supports: they are threaded into cylindrical
metallic tubes and temporarily blocked at proper length.
- PVC tubes and fittings are assembled by means of solvent cementing: as

recalled in section 4.3, such joints are at least as strong as the pipe of the
fitting. They will ensured sealing during concreting phase. For each transversal
framework, procedure will respect the following order:
1. inferior crosspieces and columns are assembled to the elbows that are
threaded along the cable. Cable provides resistance;
2. superior crosspieces are connected to tees and to columns;
3. deck elements are assembled horizontal tee and connected to the transver-
sal structures.
Transversal framework are built starting from midspan and then symmetri-
cally.
The length of the cable is adapted to compensate for the shape of the footbridge.
The loads acting in this Phase are self-weight of PVC, cable and reinforcement nets.
6.4.3 Second Phase

The wooden planking is added. It is fixed to superior crosspieces by means of long
screws, so as to be sealed in the concrete to pour in the third phase. A special shape
is given to be able to associate 2 wooden beams at the same point of a cylinder, as
Fig. 6.7 and Fig. 6.8 describe.
Every hole is inspected and voids are sealed with plastic joints to avoid concrete
leaks.
At the end of the second phase, the length of the cable is adjusted to give to the
structure the most straight shape possible before concreting phase.
The given loads are:
• Self-weight of PVC, cable and reinforcement nets;
• Self-weight of the planking is added to the loads.
Figure 6.17: Assembling details of the wooden planking.

6.4 Phases 109
6.4.4 Third Phase

Third phase corresponds to concreting: self-compacting concrete is poured in holes
dug in the upper part of the deck elements, at midspan. In this way, concrete fills
horizontal members and flows in the columns. Such a procedure has been used in
the for the concrete bridge of chapter 1.
The length of the cable is adjusted.
The given loads are:
• Self-weight of the planking;
• Self-weight of concrete freshly poured.
Some checks need to be performed:
- SLE: resistance of the plastic tubes to the loads;
- SLE: deflection of tubes is admissible and negligible so as not to alter the

shape of concrete structure.
These checks verify automatically the first and second phases.
6.4.5 Fourth Phase

During the fourth phase, the cable is tightened and blocked so as to lift the bridge
away from the intermediary supports. Hence, these supports are removed. An order
of magnitude of the necessary shortening of the cable is ∆L, based on the model
calculation and on the length of the parabolic cable:
∆L = · L ≈ 0.5% · 15.3 m ≈ 7.7 cm (6.16)
Loads are identical to the 3rd phase.
6.4.6 Fifth phase

Computation of the bridge is made under the variable loads, as described in section
6.2. Two computations are necessary the criticality of a load may depend on the
computed member.
As concerns the loads, it has:
• Self-weight of the planking;
• Self-weight of concrete freshly poured;
• Traffic load or pedestrian load.

At SLE and SLU, it is important to check:
- SLU: resistance of the reinforced concrete sections to the loads: bending/shear

in longitudinal members, and transversal members;
- SLE: deflection of the structure under imposed load;
- SLU: resistance of the cable;
- SLU: stability of the structure (resp. members) against global (resp. local)
buckling ;
- SLE: limitation of stress in members;
- SLE: deflection of the structure under imposed load;
- SLE: cracking of members
- SLE: deflection of the structure under imposed loads and deflection of mem-
bers;
- SLU & SLE: wooden planking under variable loads.

6.4 Phases 111
Figure 6.16: Dimensions of reinforcing cylinders and tubes for some elements: end cross-
pieces, deck, and inferior crosspieces (CPI) of section 1-1.
Chapter 7
Structural Analysis
This chapter presents the principle of the finite elements (FEM) modeling of
the footbridge. It describes the structural verifications made of the different
elements at the different steps of the construction.
7.1 Algorithm and its implementation

This section will briefly introduce the different softwares used for the present work
and also reported in Attachment A. For more detailed information, the reader is
invited to consult the visual tutorials and articles explaining extensively their func-
tions.
7.1.1 Rhino3D
Rhinoceros or Rhino3D is hence used in CAD (Computer-Aided Design) or CAM
(Computer-Aided Manufacturing) processes:
- rapid prototyping;
- 3D printing;
- architecture;
- industrial design;
- product design (jewelry);
- multimedia and graphic design.
It also has a parametric modelling tool add-on: Grasshopper.
7.1.2 Grasshopper
Grasshopper is a visual programming language that runs within Rhino3D. It is
primarily used to build generative algorithms. Many of its components create 3D
114 Structural Analysis
Figure 7.1: A Grasshopper window.
geometry directly printed in Rhino space. Programs also include numeric, textual
or audio-visual applications.
The main interface for algorithm design in Grasshopper is the node-based editor.
As shown on Fig. 7.1, programs are created by dragging components onto a canvas.
Information is passed from component to component via connecting wires which
always connect an output grip with an input grip. Data can either be defined
locally as a constant, or it can be imported from the Rhino document or a file on
the computer. It is always stored in parameters, which can either be free-floating
or attached to a component as input and outputs objects. Grasshopper structures
information in trees, to deal efficiently with potentially high numbers of parameters.
Its principle makes it a very intuitive way to explore designs. A simple change
of parameter automatically modifies the impacted data. Combined to the FEM
software Karamba, it allows for direct FE computation and printing of the results –
efforts, stresses, displacements – in the Rhino screen. Therefore, in the scope of this
work, its use was extremely handy to help determine:
1. the appropriate shape of the footbridge;
2. its correct parameters: height, number of columns, angles, etc.

7.1 Algorithm and its implementation 115
7.1.3 Karamba
Karamba3D is an interactive and parametric FE program. It provides accurate
analysis of 3-D beam, truss or shell structures under arbitrary loads.
It is fully embedded in the parametric environment of Grasshopper. This makes it
easy to combine parametrized geometric models, finite element calculations and op-
timization algorithms. It is mostly used for optimization and conception, as it allows
to directly observe the result of parameter variations on the structural behaviour of
the structure.
Examples of combined usage of Karamba, Grasshopper and Rhino are showed in
section 7.3. A logical flow charts in section 7.1.4 details the articulation and inter-
operation of Rhino3D, Grasshopper and Karamba3D.
7.1.4 Flowchart
Logical process for parametric design follows the steps described in Fig. 7.8. Any
modification of a parameter causes an automatic update of the depending compo-
nents: as the elements are defined with respect to each other, the modification of a
parameter reverberate on the entire chain.
1. Choice of the parameters;

these parameters have to describe comprehensively the problem: because they
are the keystone of the process. Obviously, to ensure efficiency of the design,
final parameters have to be as few as possible.
For an example: L (length), H (height), w (width);
2. Construction of the parametric geometric model on Grasshopper;

the geometry consists of lines, points, splines, organized in trees and lists.
Elements are built on the basis of existing geometry at the previous steps:
(a) Shape of the deck and parabolic cables, based on parameters L, H, w;

(b) Columns, from parameters Nx (number of columns) and from step 1;
(c) Crosspieces, connect both ends of columns, based on step 3;
3. Conversion of the geometry into a FE model thanks to Karamba, in the

Grasshopper environment:
(a) Elements (beams), and proper IDs and sets;

(b) Cross-sections;
(c) Materials;
(d) Supports;
(e) Joints between the elements;
(f) Loads;
(g) Computation algorithms;
4. Structural optimisation, with inter-connection between parameter changes

and structural results. Parameters can be changed, improved and reduced
during the construction of the geometry and of the FE model.
5. Post-processing of the result, visualization on the Rhino 3D model and

export of data (for example to Excel).
7.2 Combinations
In the following, G, Q, q, and P S respectively represents the permanent – structural
and non-structural – loads, the traffic actions, pedestrian load, and intensity of
prestressing.
Tab. 7.1 shows the different combinations that have been computed to check
limit states: ULS & SLS (Ultimate Limit State and Serviceability Limit State re-
spectively).
Loading Case G Q q PS Limit State

LC0 1.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 T0
LC1 1.35 1.5 0.0 1.0 ULS
LC2 1.35 0.0 1.5 1.0 ULS
LC3 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 SLS
LC4 1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 SLS
LC5 1.0 0.0 0.0 1.35 ULS
LC6 1.0 1.5 0.0 1.0 ULS
LC7 1.0 0.0 1.5 1.0 ULS
Table 7.1: Coefficients applied to the loads according to the nature of the limit state and
the type of loading.
7.3 Computation on Karamba

Computation are made according to FE principles on Karamba: generalized efforts
N , M , V are computed and diagrams can be plot directly on the structure. Inter-
operability of Grasshopper and Rhino can be shown on Fig. 7.2.
7.3.1 Traffic impact modelling
Figu. 7.3 shows the way a traffic load is implemented in Rhino. Torsional actions
creates flexural moments in the crosspieces and in the columns, similarly to the
pedestrian load on Fig. 7.2. Flexion in the inferior crosspieces is very limited.
7.3 Computation on Karamba 117
Figure 7.2: Interoperability of Grasshopper and Rhino: Grasshopper components controls

the graphical schemes in the Rhino screen.
7.3.2 Actions in the concrete elements
Generalized actions and sectional stresses are detailed in Tab. 7.2 and in Tab. 7.5:
N , M , V , σmin , σmax , computed for every section by Karamba as:
N MD
σmin = −
A I 2 (7.1)
N MD
σmax = +
A I 2
N is the tensile or compressive normal force on a section, M and V are the total
moment and shear forces acting on a section, summed up for all normal directions
(including My and Mz , Vy and Vz ).
Figure 7.3: Model of a car load: 4 vertical forces localized at the deck, and 4 torsional
moments to account for the eccentricities of the wheels with respect to the
edges of the deck.
Loading Case N [kN] M [kNm] V [kN] σmin [MPa] σmax [MPa]

LC1 -25.3 17.2 30.3 -15.2 11.2
LC2 -175.2 2.1 10.9 -5.5 -2.4
LC3 -18.8 11.4 18.4 -10.2 7.4
LC4 -119.9 1.3 4.7 -3.6 -1.7
LC5 -18.9 2.1 2.1 -2.1 1.1
LC6 -18.8 17.2 29.6 -15.1 11.4
Table 7.2: Maximum actions in sections and extremal linear stresses, calculated along the
deck.

LC1 1.7 0.5 0.1 -0.6 0.2
LC2 14.3 0.8 0.1 -0.3 0.9
LC3 1.2 0.3 0.1 -0.4 0.2
LC4 9.7 0.5 0.1 -0.2 -0.6
inferior crosspieces.
Reminding that a C25/30 has a design compression value of fcd equal to 14.16 MPa
and a tensile capacity of fctm equal to 2.1 MPa, actions and stresses in the sections are
presented in the Tab. 7.2, Tab. 7.3, Tab. 7.4 and Tab. 7.5, for the different elements
under their most critical load cases:
7.3 Computation on Karamba 119
- deck elements, under LC1 to LC6;
- crosspieces, under LC1 to LC4;
- columns, under LC1 to LC6;
Loading Case N [kN] M[kNm] V [kN] σmin [MPa] σmax [MPa]

LC1 8.5 5.3 2.0 -4.0 4.0
LC2 0.0 8.3 17.4 -6.3 6.3
LC3 5.6 3.5 1.5 -2.7 2.7
LC4 0.0 5.6 11.8 -4.3 4.3
superior crosspieces.

LC1 -0.2 21.4 20.0 -16.4 16.0
LC2 0.6 5.5 14.4 -4.6 3.8
LC3 -0.1 14.3 13.3 -11.0 10.7
LC4 0.3 3.7 9.8 -3.1 2.6
LC5 -0.2 1.5 2.5 -1.2 1.1
LC6 -0.1 21.4 19.7 -16.4 16.0
columns.
7.3.3 Actions in the cables

The computed forces in each cable are shown in Tab. 7.6.
Loading Case N [kN]

LC1 29.7
LC2 185.7
LC3 22.0
LC4 126.0
LC5 23.2
LC6 22.0
columns.
7.4 Global behaviour of the structure

7.4.1 Instability (ULS)
Karamba includes a second order analysis algorithm. It allows to compute global
and local buckling buckling modes and coefficients. Calculation has been led for
LC1 and LC2, at ULS, as they are those giving most elevated compression in the
structure.
Initial time t0 is defined as the time for which concrete has hardened and for which
the structure is not loaded yet. The structure is given a positive camber because
the cable is pre-stressed. As it has a substantial self-weight, the deck is bent and
compressed. Buckling must be studied to ensure safety.
Worst-case computed buckling coefficient is:
fbuck = 7.2
This value is acceptable.
7.4.2 Deflection (SLS)

Deflections at midspan of the structure are calculated at SLS, with maximal variable
loads (negative deflection, under LC3 and LC4) and without variable load (positive
camber, under LC5). Results are compared to the overall length L equal to 15 m.
Loading Case Deflection [cm] Criteria

LC3 11 L/120
LC4 -9.5 L/150
LC5 11 L/120
Table 7.7: Deflection of the structure.
Deflection are quite elevated. Two reasons can be found:
- the two bearing cables are too thin, or one should add a third cable, at midspan
of each crosspiece, because deflection is controlled by the cable, not by the
rigidity of the concrete structure;
- the structure leans on a simply supported statical scheme. Clamping the

supports would cancel compression in the deck a generate too many efforts at
the supports.
7.5 Plastic tubes

The loading of plastic tubes is only transitory. Therefore, only SLS are checked, at
the end of step 3. They mainly consist of the verification of:
7.5 Plastic tubes 121
- resistance of the section: it regards both axial resistance of the tubes to normal
forces before hardening of concrete (worst case occur in the deck) and bending
resistance of superior crosspieces;
- limited deflection so as to consider straight concrete tubes.
7.5.1 Deflection
Worst case deflection is the bending of crosspieces, which are conservatively consid-
ered as simply supported (bending resistance of the fittings is neglected). Because
traffic loads Q are applied near the supports, maximal deflection (at midspan) is
computed as:
4
q lcp
vL/2,q = (7.2)
384 EI
Where:
- q [kN/ml] is the uniform distributed load, consists of the planking, reinforced

concrete and plastic linear weights:
q = gw + gc + gp = 125 + 111 + 7 = 243kg/ml (7.3)
where the linear weight of wooden planking is computed as:
gw = γw · hw · l = 670 kg/m3 · 0.1 m · 1.875 m = 125 kg/ml (7.4)
- lcp = 2.2 m is the length of a crosspiece;
- E = 2900 MPa is the Young modulus of PVC;

π D4 π (D − 2e)4
- I= - = 3.5 x10−5 m4 is the moment of inertia of a plastic
64 64
tube of thickness e and external diameter D.
One can obtain:

vL/2,q = 7.3mm (7.5)
According to the limit provided by the Code:
vL/2,q L
= 0.33% < (7.6)
L 300
7.5.2 Normal resistance

Normal resistance states that the stress in PVC must remain minor than the design
short-term limit resistance of PVC, which is 22 MPa.
N
σax = (7.7)
A
With:
π(D2 − (D − 2e)2
- A= = 4.75 x10−3 m2 ;
4
- N = -19kN is the maximum normal action computed at t = t0 by the FE
software.
One can obtain:
−19000
σax = = 4 M P a < 22M P a (7.8)
4750
The critical Euler buckling action of a deck element is Ncr :
π 2 EI
Ncr =
l2 (7.9)
π · 2.9 · 35
2
Ncr = = 285 kN
1.8752
The ratio results:
Ncr
= 15 (7.10)
N
Safety against buckling is ensured by a factor 15.
7.5.3 Bending resistance

As for section 7.5.2, the stress in PVC shall not exceed 22 MPa. Even if the
section are compressed, normal stresses are neglected. Maximal bending stress σb
and maximal bending moment M at t = t0 are computed as:
2
q lcp
M=
8 (7.11)
DM
σb =
2 I
Where:
- q = 243 kg/ml as calculated in section 7.5.1;
- lcp = 2.2 m.
One can obtain:
M = 1.47 kN.m
(7.12)
σb = 5.25 M P a < 22 M P a
The PVC tubes can resist the self-weight of concrete during concreting.
7.6 Wooden Planking

The planking has to be checked in accordance to requirements of Eurocode 5. Checks
have to be made under variable loading, as the planking is not loaded in other phases.
Two criteria are to be respected:
- Deflection, at SLS;
- Resistance, at SLU.
7.6 Wooden Planking 123
7.6.1 Deflection
General formulas for the midspan deflection vL/2 [m] of a simply supported beam
are:
5 q L4
vL/2,q =
384 EI (7.13)
Q L3
vL/2,Q =
48 EI
Where:
- Q [kN] is a point load, applied at midspan;
- q [kN/ml] is a uniform distributed load;
- L [m] is the length of the beam;
- E [MPa] is the Young modulus of the wood in longitudinal direction;
- I [m4 ] is the moment of inertia is the section, function of the thickness of the
planking hw and of the width of a plank bw expressed as:
bw h3w
I=
12
Most critical loading is traffic loading, since it would make the load of a wheel lean
on a single plank. In the design situation, at service limit state, reminding that bw
< 2.2 m:
vL/2,q qL 500 bw L 5 bw
= = = <1 (7.14)
vL/2,Q 8Q 8 · 1500 64
In case of 35 cm wide planks under traffic load, at SLS, deflection states:
L3
w=Q (7.15)
4 E0,mean bw h3w
With :
- Q = 1.5 t for the computation of instantaneous deflection winst ;
- Q = (1.5 t) kdef φ2 for the computation of delayed deflection wcreep , with:

φ2 = 0.8 for worst case;
kdef = 2 for outdoor application and massive wood;
The checks are:

L
winst <
300 (7.16)
L
winst + wcreep <
200
The tenon allows to divide the load by 2 as it is carried by to identical planks linked
by a tenon.
Computation:
Q L3
winst = ·
2 4 E0,mean bw h3w
0.0075M N · (1.875m)3 (7.17)
=
4 · 10000M P a · 0.35m · (0.1m)3
L
= 3.5mm < = 6.25mm
300
Q L3
wcreep = kdef · φ2 · ·
2 4E0,mean bw h3w
2 · 0.8 · 0.0075M N · (1.875m)3 (7.18)
=
4 · 10000M P a · 0.35m · (0.1m)3
= 5.66mm
Summing up the two terms, it has:
L
winst + wcreep = 9.2mm < = 9.37mm (7.19)
200
For 18 cm wide planks under pedestrian load, at SLS, deflection states:
5 L4
w = q· · (7.20)
32 E0,mean h3w
With :
- q = 500 kg/m2 for the computation of instantaneous deflection winst ;
- q = 500 kg/m2 kdef φ2 for the computation of delayed deflection wcreep , with:
φ2 = 0.8 for worst case
kdef = 2 for outdoor application and massive wood;
The verifications are:

L
winst <
300 (7.21)
L
winst + wcreep <
200
Computation:
5 L4
winst = q · ·
32 E0,mean h3w
0.005M N · (1.875m)4 (7.22)
=
10000M P a · (0.1m)3
L
= 0.97mm < = 6.25mm
300
5 L4
wcreep = kdef · φ2 · q · ·
32 E0,mean h3w
2 · 0.8 · 0.005M N · (1.875m)4 (7.23)
=
10000M P a · (0.1m)3
= 1.54mm
7.6 Wooden Planking 125
Summing up the two terms, it has:
L
winst + wcreep = 2.5mm < = 9.37mm (7.24)
200
7.6.2 Flexural resistance

For resistance, dimensioning action is the midspan moment ML/2 [kNm] created by
the variable loading:
q L2
ML/2,q =
8 (7.25)
QL
ML/2,Q =
4
Again, most critical situation is represented by traffic loading:
ML/2,q qL 500bw L 5bw

= = = <1 (7.26)
ML/2,Q 2Q 2 · 1500 16
Hence, verification is made only for 35 cm wide planks. At ULS, verification states:
σm,d
≤1 (7.27)
kcrit · fm,d
With:
Mf,y
σm,d =
bw h2w
6
(1.5 · 1.5t) · 1.875m
(7.28)
= 4
0.35m · 0.1m2
6
= 9.04M P a
kmod
fm,d = fm,k · ksys · kh ·
γM
!
150 0.2

= 35 · 1.1 · min 1.3; ·
0.5 (7.29)
100 1.3
= 16.05M P a
0.78 E0.05 b2w

σm,crit =
hw L kef
0.78 · 8700 · 0.42 (7.30)
=
0.1 · 1.875 · 0.8
= 6238M P a
kef is equal to 0.8 in the case of a single load on a simply supported beam.
Therefore, s
fm,k
λrel,m =
σm,cit
(7.31)
r
35
=
7238
= 0.07 < 0.75
kcrit = 1 (7.32)
Criteria is verified:
σm,d 9.04
= = 0.56 < 1 (7.33)
kcrit · fm,d 1 · 16.05
7.6.3 ULS: resistance of the tenon

The last wooden element to be check is the resistance of the tenon to the shear force
V acting on it when one of the plank is loaded by a wheel at ULS:
Q 1.5 t
V = = 1.5 · = 1.125 t (7.34)
2 2
At ULS, for a tenon whose height and width are bt = 20 cm and ht = 5 cm,
verification states:
τd
≤1 (7.35)
fv,d
With:
V
τd =
bt ht
=
1.125 t (7.36)
0.2 m · 0.05 cm
= 1.125M P a
kmod
fv,d = fv,k
γM
0.5 (7.37)
= 3.4 ·
1.3
= 1.3M P a
Criteria is verified:
τd 1.125
= = 0.87 < 1 (7.38)
fv,d 1.3
7.7 Reinforced concrete elements

7.7.1 Overlapping
Minimal overlapping of reinforcement is defined in section 8.7.5 of EN 1992-1-1,
for welded wire meshes of the distribution reinforcement (circumferential direction
corresponds to the secondary mesh).
7.7 Reinforced concrete elements 127
According to the prospect 8.4, for 6 ≤ φ ≤ 8.5, overlapping must exceed 250 mm.
In the principal direction, overlapping is l0 , as stated in equation 8.10 of EC2, section
8.7.3:
l0 = α1 α2 α3 α5 α6 lb,rqd ≥ L0,min (7.39)
Typical values are:
- α1 = 1 for straight bars;
- α2 ≤ 1 (conservative value);
- α6 ≤ 1.5 (conservative value);

φ σsd 7 σsd
- lb,rqd = = = 0.65 · σsd [mm];
4 fbd 4 2.25 · 1.2
- l0,min = min(0.3 α6 lb,rqd ; 15φ; 200 mm);
l0 ≈ min (200 mm; σsd [mm])
with σsd ≤ 391 M P a, giving for l0,max = 40 cm.
7.7.2 Analysis of the section

A cross-section can be modelled as shown on Fig. 7.4. The corresponding disposition
gives the minimal bending abilities, as any in-plane rotation of the section would raise
the resisting moment and increase the participation of tensile steel. Longitudinal
bars are separated by an angle 48◦ , except for internal overlapping layer, for which
angular distance raises to 55◦ .
Figure 7.4: Main quantities of the confined reinforced concrete section.

The section is modelled adimensionally, assuming an internal diameter of 2 (scale

factor is Di /2).
Minimal reinforcement.
According to EC2 section 9.2.1, the area of longitudinal reinforcement has to be
greater than the minimal reinforcement As,min , whose value is given by Eq. 7.40:
fctm
As,min = 0.26 bt d ≤ 0.0013 bt d (7.40)
fy
With:
- fctm = 2.1 MPa;
- fy = 450 MPa;
- bt is the average with of the tensile zone;
- d = 227.1 mm, as calculated in 7.7.4;
This requirement will be verified for each element at ULS Bending (section 7.7.3).
Sectional quantities.
Let define the following numbers:
- x the neutral axis of the section defined with respect to its center of gravity.
add drawing of the section;
- Acompr the area of compressed concrete;
- A1 the area comprised between the radii of angle ± arcsin x;
- A2 the area of A1 comprised between central axis and neutral axis;
- Pi the internal diameter of a tube: Pi = Π Di = 746 mm;
- e = 10 cm the spacing of the bars in circumferential direction;
Pi
- Nb = = 7.5 the number of longitudinal reinforcing bars;
e
360
- αb = = 48◦ the angle between two consecutive bars;
Nb
- di = cos(αi ) Ri −1.5φ
Ri the distances of the center of gravity of the bars with
respect to central axis;
- hi = di - x the distances of these bars to the neutral axis of the section;

Figure 7.5: Geometrical quantities of the reinforcement.
As shown on Fig. 7.7, a point of the circular section can be defined by its coordinates
(r,α).
180
cos(αi ) = cos(i αb ) (7.41)
Π
If failure occurs for steel, then, according to Navier-Bernoulli hypothesis of linear

strains:
fyd
s,max = su = ≈ 0.002 (7.42)
Es
Curvature is:
su
(1/r)s = (7.43)
hmax
If concrete fails, s,max = cu = −0.0035 and curvature is:
−cu
(1/r)c = (7.44)
1−x
Deformations at a distance z from central axis (z) write:
(z) = (x − z)(1/r) (7.45)
In particular, for the steel bars, stresses and strains come as:
si = hi (1/r) & σsi = Es si (7.46)
Areas of concrete.
Figure 7.6: Strains in the hypothesis of Navier-Bernoulli
With reference to Fig. 7.7 (λ = 0.8), the area of concrete results:

Z arccos(x) Z 1
A1 (x) = r.dθ.dr = arccos(x)
− arccos(x) 0
p
A2 (x) = x y = x 1 − x2
A(x) = A1 (x) − A2 (x) (7.47)
Acompr (x) = A(λx + (1 − λ)) = A(0.8x + 0.2)
Π φ2
As,i = 38, 5 mm2
4
Moments of inertia.
With respect to central axis, the moment of inertia is:
Z arccos(x) Z 1
1 2p
W1 = r.dθ.r.cos(θ).dr = 2 sin(arccos(x)) = 1 − x2
− arccos(x) 0 3 3
2x 2 x2 p
W2 = x y = 1 − x2
3 3 (7.48)
W (x) = W1 (x) − W2 (x)
Wcompr = W (λx + (1 − λ)) = W (0.8x + 0.2)
Ws,i = As,i sin(αi )
Therefore, the coordinate of the center of gravity is derived as:

Wcompr
yG,c = (7.49)
Acompr
Figure 7.7: Geometrical quantities of the concrete section.
7.7.3 Bending
To assess a section at bending ULS, the (NEd ,MEd ) state of the section has to stand
within the diagram (NRd ,MRd ): the following equation is a sufficient condition to
ensure safety:
MRd ≥ MEd with NRd = NEd (7.50)
Horizontal equilibrium.
N
Xi −1
N = fcd Ac + Asi σi (7.51)

i=0
This equation allows to determine the position of neutral axis x.
Rotational equilibrium at the neutral axis of the section.
N
X i −1
MRd = −fcd Ac yG,c − x + Asi σi sin(αi ) (7.52)

i=0
Tab. 7.8 shows for each ULS load case and elements the maximal resisting moment,
for NRd = NEd :
Therefore all sections are checked at ULS of bending. Any rotation of the section
described previously would raise the resisting moment as it would bring more rein-
forcing bars in the tensile part of the section. This means the section can be set in
an indifferent configuration.
Element Loading Case N [kN] M [kN] MRd [kN] x [-]

LC1 -25.3 17.2 28.7 0.594
LC2 -175.2 2.1 45.9 0.193
Deck
LC5 -18.9 2.1 28.2 0.615
LC6 -18.8 17.2 28.2 0.616
LC1 1.7 0.5 26.7 0.686
CPI
LC2 14.3 0.8 25.9 0.733
LC1 8.5 5.3 26.3 0.711
CPS
LC2 0.0 8.3 26.9 0.680
LC1 -0.2 21.4 26.9 0.679
LC2 0.6 5.5 26.8 0.682
Col.
LC5 -0.2 1.5 26.9 0.679
LC6 -0.1 21.4 26.9 0.680
Table 7.8: Bending resistance MRd of the elements (Deck, CrossPiece Inf. or Sup,
Columns).
7.7.4 Shear
According to EC2 section 6.2, if
VEd ≤ VRd,c = [CRd,c k (100ρl fck )0.3 + k1 σcp ]bw d (7.53)
then no special shear reinforcement is necessary. Eq. 7.53 mentions:

0.18
- CRd,c = = 0.12 as recommended;
1.5
- d is the maximal distance between a reinforcing bar and the edge of a section:
d = Di − 1.5φ = 227.1 mm;
r
200
- k = 1+ ≤ 2.0: k = 1.94;
d
- bw = Di = 237.6 mm is the width of the tensile part of concrete;
2
- Asl = Ni As,1 = 11 · Π4φ = 423.3mm2
Asl
- ρl = = 0.78 %
bw d
NEd
- σcp = < 0.2 fcd is the compressive stress due to axial compression, based
Ac
on the area Ac of a beam;
- k1 = 0.15;
Tab. 7.9 presents computed values of VRd,c for each element and load case, calculated
from efforts N and V of Tab. 7.2 and Tab. 7.5. It can be deduced that every element
is verified at ULS for shear and that no special shear reinforcement is needed, as
Eq. 7.53 is checked.
Element Loading Case N [kN] V [kN] σcp [MPa] VRd,c [kN]

LC1 -25.3 30.3 0.57 35.3
LC2 -175.2 10.9 -5.5 53.6
Deck
LC5 -18.9 2.1 -2.1 34.1
LC6 -18.8 29.6 -15.1 34.1
LC1 1.7 0.1 -0.6 30.7
CPI
LC2 14.3 0.1 0.0 30.7
LC1 8.5 2.0 0.0 30.7
CPS
LC2 0.0 17.4 0.0 30.7
LC1 -0.2 20.0 0.0 30.7
LC2 0.6 14.4 0.0 30.7
Col.
LC5 -0.2 2.5 0.0 30.7
LC6 -0.1 19.7 0.0 30.7
Table 7.9: Shear resistance VRd,c of the elements (Deck, CrossPiece Inf. or Sup, Columns),
without special shear reinforcement.
7.7.5 Instability
Instability is mostly critical for deck elements, as they are the most compressed.
They can be considered clamped, because of the presence of reinforcing bars. Critical
effort is then approximately for an homogeneous section:
4Π2 E I
Ncr = (7.54)
L2
Considering a length of 1.875 m, long-term Young modulus E = 10 GPa and modulus
Π Di4
of inertia I = = 1.56 x10−4 m4 , it comes:
64
4 · Π2 · 10, 000 · 1.56 10−4
Ncr = = 17, 500 kN (7.55)
1.8752
Most important compressive force is minor than 200 kN, as shown in Tab. 7.2, hence
safety is largely ensured.
7.7.6 Limitation of stress

Stress in a reinforced concrete beam can be calculated conservatively as in equation
7.1. In this case, for some elements, tensile capacity of concrete fctm = 2.1 MPa is
exceeded.
The admissible stresses are:
- for concrete:
σc,min = 0.45 fck = 11.25M P a
- for reinforcing steel:

σs,max = 0.8 fyk = 360M P a
- for the cable:

σs,max = 0.75 fpk = 1230M P a
It will therefore be verified that, at SLS, the normal effort in the cable does
not exceed:
Ncr
0.75 = 185.25kN
5
As shown in tab. 7.2 and Tab. 7.5, compressive linear stress (taking into account a
linear stress is conservative as it leads to consider the section as homogeneous and
to neglect the contribution of steel) in concrete does not exceed 11 MPa. Tab. 7.6
shows that requisitions are also verified for the cable.
Finally, maximal efforts in the reinforcing bars can approximately and conservatively
be calculated as:
Es
σmax,s = σmax,c (7.56)
Ec
Taking Es = 200 GPa and Ec = 31 GPa, maximal stress in reinforcing steel computed
this way is 103.5 MPa, for LC1 on the columns.
Limit state of limitation of stress is verified.
7.7.7 SLS: Cracking

Without special requirement, values of wmax from table 7.1N of EC2 are adopted: in
particular, wmax = 0.4 mm for normal reinforced concrete and pre-stressed elements
with non adherent cables.
In tables 7.2N and 7.3N of Eurocode 2 are given values of maximal diameter φ∗s
and maximal spacing of the reinforcing bars to ensure control of the cracking width.
These values are conservative.
As shown in section 7.7.6, maximal stress in steel is lower than 160 MPa at SLS.
Hence, maximal diameter and spacing to limit wk to 0.4 mm are respectively 40 mm
and 300 mm. Implemented data is:
- φ = 7 mm;
- eb = 0.1 m = 100 mm.
Taking into account that PVC tubes ensure sealing against exterior environment
and that it provides a good cover to concrete, SLS of cracking is verified.
7.8 Cable 135
7.7.8 Limitation of deflection

This limit state is critical for superior crosspieces, as they bear the planking. Con-
crete beam can be considered clamped. Therefore, at SLS, total linear load q is the
superposition of linear weight and linear variable load.
A traffic load would act only near the edges of the crosspieces and create little
deflection at the center, as shown in section 6.2.3. It will not be determinant for
this limit state.
The pedestrian loading results in a linear load qq along the crosspieces, such as:
qq = q L/8 = 500 kg/m2 · 1.875 m = 937.5 kg/ml (7.57)
Hence,
q = gc + gp + gw + qq = 125 + 7 + 111 + 937.5 = 1181kg/ml (7.58)
For the traffic load, deflection is created by an axle 2Q, each Q acting at 1/4th of
the crosspiece, at each side. It is equivalent to the deflection created by a single
central Q. Admissible criteria is L/300 = 7.3 mm. Considering an homogeneous
elastic concrete section, deflections at the center write at long-term (E = Elt =
10000 MPa):
Q L3
vL/2,2Q =
192 Elt I
(7.59)
q L4
vL/2,q =
384 Elt I
By substituting
15000 · 2.23
vL/2,Q = = 0.53 mm
192 · 10000 · 0.15636 (7.60)
11810 · 2.24
vL/2,q = = 0.46 mm
384 · 10000 · 0.15636
Therefore SLS of Limitation of deflection is checked for the concrete elements.
7.8 Cable
The resistance of the cable is verified at ULS under LC1 and LC2. Maximal com-
puted normal effort in the cable is NEd = kN. According to section 6.1.3, maximum
admissible effort is NRd = 257 kN. Therefore, safety is ensured:
NEd = kN < NRd = 257 kN (7.61)
The cable is even over-dimensioned. However, a smaller cable would induce larger
global deflections.
Figure 7.8: Flowchart.

Appendix A
Description of used software
In this attachment, the details concerning the software mentioned in the Thesis
are discussed.
A.1 Rhinoceros
The Rhinoceros or Rhino3D, is a computer-aided design (CAD) and a 3-D modeler
application software developed by Robert McNeel and Associates (McNeel et al.,
2015). The first version, Rhino 1.0, was released in October 1998. The geometry
is based on NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines) which focuses on producing
3-D free-form surfaces or solid and mathematically precise representation of curves.
NURBS has a good flexibility and accuracy and can therefore be used in any process
from illustration and animations to manufacturing. The geometry is an industry
standard for designers who work in 3-D where both form and function is important.
The models can be rendered at any resolution and a mesh can be crated from the
model at any resolution.
Rhinoceros is primarily a free form surface modeller that utilizes the NURBS math-
ematical model. Its architecture makes it modular and enables the user to customize
the interface and create custom commands and menus. There are dozens of plug-ins
available, which complement and expand Rhinoceros’ capabilities in specific fields
like rendering and animation, architecture, marine, jewellery, engineering, prototyp-
ing, and others.
Rhino3D supports two scripting languages: Rhinoscript (based on VBScript) and
Python. It also has a parametric modelling tool add-on: Grasshopper.
A.2 Grasshopper
The precursor to Grasshopper was born in 2008 and was then titled Explicit History.
Later the same year it was re-branded to Grasshopper. It is developed by David
Rutten at Robert McNeel and Associates (McNeel et al., 2010). It uses a visual
programming language (VPL) which, by manipulating logic elements graphically
140 Description of used software
rather than by specifying them textually, lets users create programs. Grasshopper
enables for designers to explore new shapes using generative algorithms, which is a
combination of programming algorithms and geometry. The program is a graphical
algorithm
CHAPTEReditor tightly integrated
3. DESCRIPTION OF USED with Rhino’s 3-D modelling tools as a plug-in
SOFTWARE
CHAPTER 3. DESCRIPTION OF USED SOFTWARE
and offers the opportunity to define precise parametric control over models.
Grasshopper
Grasshopper
Grasshopper isis is
aa platform
aplatform
platformfor for development
developmentofof
fordevelopment higher-level
ofhigher-level programming
higher-levelprogramming
programming logiclogic
logic by by
by
using
using an intuitive,
an intuitive,
using an intuitive, graphical
graphical interface
graphicalinterface and
interfaceand the
andthe capability
the capability to
capability to explore
toexplore generative
exploregenerative
generativedesign
design
design
work
work work flows.
flows.(ModeLab,
flows. The logic 2016-02-08)
(ModeLab, 2016-02-08)
elements is functional blocks, so called components, that
isThe
added
The logic toelements
logic aelements
canvas. The components
is isfunctional
functional blocks,soare
blocks, connected
socalled
called by "wires"
components,
components, thatiswhere
that isadded
added the
totoaonly
a
canvas.
syntax
canvas. The
required components
is that the are
The components are connected
inputs by
of the by
connected "wires"
blocks
"wires" where
receive
where the
the only
thedata syntax
onlyofsyntax required
the appropriate
required
is that
type.is that
One thetheinputs
can inputs of of
either thethe blocks
design a receive
blocks receivethe
geometry data
the
in data ofofthe
Rhino3D theappropriate
add ittype.
appropriate
and type.
to theOne
One can
canei-
components ei-
ther
therdesign
design a geometry
a geometry inin
Rhino3D
Rhino3D andandadd
addit ittotothe
thecomponents
components ininGrasshopper,
Grasshopper, oror
in Grasshopper, or one can define the geometry in Grasshopper which in turn is
oneonecan candefine
define thethegeometry
geometry ininGrasshopper
Grasshopperwhich whichininturn
turnisisshown
shownand andupdated
updatedinin
shown
Rhino3D’sand updated inwile
Rhino3D’s viewport wile changing parameters/components in
Rhino3D’s viewport wile changing parameters/components in Grasshopper.(Mod-
viewport changing parameters/components in Grasshopper. (Mod-
Grasshopper.
eLab,
eLab, 2016-02-08)For example, in Fig. A.1 one can see a code for a dome in Grasshopper
2016-02-08)
(a) that automatically updates in Rhino3D (b) wile changing parameters.
In In
figure
figure 3.13.1
one one cancanseeseea acodecodeforfora adome
domeininGrasshopper
Grasshopper(a) (a)that
thatautomatically
automatically
updates in Rhino3D (b) wile changing
updates in Rhino3D (b) wile changing parameters. parameters.
(a)(a) Interface
Interface of of Grasshopper.
Grasshopper.
(a) Grasshopper.
(b)Interface
(b) InterfaceofofRhino3D.
(b) Rhino3D.
Rhino3D.
Figure
Figure 3.1:Grasshopper
3.1:
Figure Grasshopper
A.1: and
and
Software Rhino3D.
Rhino3D.
interface.
TheThe algorithms
algorithms areare stepbybystep
step stepprocedures
proceduresdesigned
designedtotoperform
performananoperation
operationand
and
The when
when using
algorithms Grasshopper
are step the
using Grasshopper the user
by step designs these
procedures
user designs algorithms
thesedesigned
algorithms that
tothat then
perform automate tasks
an operation
then automate tasksand
in in Rhino3D.
Rhino3D. (ModeLab,
(ModeLab, 2016-02-08)
2016-02-08)
when using Grasshopper the user designs these algorithms that then automate tasks
in Rhino3D.
1616
A.3 Karamba 141
A.3 Karamba
Karamba is a Finite Element program which predicts how structures behave when
subjected to external loads. It is fully embedded in the Grasshopper environment
which makes it easy to combine geometric models, finite element calculations and
optimization algorithms. Karamba takes full advantage of Grasshoppers visual com-
puting environment and enables an instant update of the structural response when
certain parameters are altered. The ability to get instant feedback on the struc-
tural performance, without additional software, gives a faster understanding of the
structural mechanisms and reduces time in the design phase (Preisinger, 2010).
One reason for the speed of Karambas calculations are the deliberate limitations
of the software e.g. instead of isoparametric finite beam elements Karamba uses
hermitian elements which are confined to linear elastic calculations of elements with
straight axes. The calculation of the element stiffness matrix can be done without
the need for numeric integration which greatly reduces computation time. The
advantage of the Hermitian element is that creating the element stiffness matrix
(and element load vector) can be done in one analytical integration step. The global
stiffness matrix is not inverted. Instead the global system is solved by triangular
decomposition and backward and forward insertion. To be structurally useful the
geometric entities needs to be converted to into structural elements.
Fig. A.2 shows the main parts of a model definition with Karamba where the ge-
ometry, a line between two points, is converted to a beam with a cross section,
gravitational load, supports and material properties. The given conditions are then
analyzed and the results can be viewed directly in the Rhino viewport with options
common to standard FE programs (Preisinger and Heimrath, 2014).
Karamba offers several different ways of evaluating a structural model. The numeri-
cal evaluation options consists of second order theory, large deflections, eigenmodes,
natural vibration modes, evolutionary structural optimization, cross section opti-
mization and iterative elimination of tension or compression elements. For each
calculation option there is a component which takes a model as input, calculates it
and adds the results to the model data (Preisinger, 2010).
Karamba provides truss, beam and shell elements. The shell element formulation
used in Karamba is based on the TRIC element with six DOFs per node, constant
strain state assumed for each layer, no in-plane rotational stiffness added but con-
trary to the TRIC element it is based on Kirchhoff theory. The Finite Element
Analysis (FEA) is performed with the assumption that deflections are small as com-
pared to the size of the structure. There is however a component that enables
calculations with large deflections which increases the load in several steps and up-
dates the deformed geometry but this approach leads to a solution which drifts away
from the exact solution.
Another assumption is linear elastic behaviour of the materials which suits the pur-
pose of an initial design.
It is possible to do analysis with both first and second order theory in Karamba.
142
CHAPTER 3. DESCRIPTION OF USED SOFTWARE Description of used software
Figure 3.2: Karamba workflow.

Figure A.2: Karamba workflow.
Karamba
The offers several
big difference between different
the twoways of evaluating
is that a structural
the latter count for the model.
influenceThe nu-
of axial
merical evaluation options consists of second order theory, large deflections, eigen-
forces in beams and in-plane forces in shells. These two influence the structures
modes, natural vibration modes, evolutionary structural optimization, cross section
stiffness. Also,and
optimization compared
iterativetoelimination
higher order of theory,
tension the first do not count
or compression for geometric
elements. For each
non-linearity. Second
calculation option order
there is atheory is considered
component withathe
which takes use as
model of input,
the "AnalyzeThII"
calculates it
component.
and adds the It results
accounts
to for
the axial
modelforces
data via the element’s
(Preisinger, 2015).geometric stiffness matrix
and is based on small displacements.
Karamba provides truss-, beam- and shell-elements (Preisinger, 2015). The shell
Utilization of a analyzed
element formulation used structure
in Karamba or part in Karamba
is based on the TRIC is calculated
element withas Von Mises
six DOFs
stress divided by the yield strength of the material. The results are
per node, constant strain state assumed for each layer, no in-plane rotational stiffness possible for
both
added beams and shells
but contrary to given
the TRICas contour
elementplotsit is where
based ontheKirchhoff
utilization is calculated
theory (Clemens, in
every element.
Accessed: Karamba only has components giving the maximum displacement of
2016-03-01).
the analyzed structure which means that one has to define a Grasshopper/Karamba
The Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is performed with the assumption that deflec-
definition
tions are ifsmall
one wants to find to
as compared thethe
deformation
size of the in specific nodes.
structure. There is however a com-
ponent that enables calculations with large deflections which increases the load in
Creating a statical
several steps model in
and updates theKaramba
deformedconsists of six
geometry butbasic steps (Fig.
this approach A.3):
leads to a solu-
tion which drifts away from the exact solution. Another assumption is linear elastic
- Create
behaviour wire-frame,
of the materialspoint
whichgeometry
suits the or meshesof for
purpose an the structural
initial model with
design. (Preisinger,
Rhino or Grasshoper;
2015).
It is possible towire-frame
- Convert do analysis
or with
pointboth first and
geometry second order
to Karamba theory
beams, in Karamba.
meshes to shells;
- Define which points are supports and which receive loads;

18
)+ A/"0'$ /"0 +2)9%9D$ %+0$'#=
EA$ -+'+.# +3 4/./%&/F# 9-+"# A/8$ / #2$-9/' %$/"9"?( &'/-C +. GA9)$

0$#9?"/)$# )A$
A.3 $")9)* +. $")9)9$# +" GA9-A / -+%2+"$") /-)#= H.+0,-)# 143
Karamba +3
-+%2+"$")# ?$) .$3$.$"-$0 &* / &',$ #*%&+'=
I/#9- C"+G'$0?$ +3 6A9"+
- Assemble /"0 J./##A+22$.
the Karamba 9# "$$0$0
structural model )+elements,
with points, ,"0$.#)/"0 )A9#
supports and
?,90$= loads. As optional:
K) 9# .$-+%%$"0$0 Define custom
)+ 0+G"'+/0 cross
)A$ sections and materials
J./##A+22$. H.9%$. and add )A$
3.+% them
as well. They reference elements either by index or user defined element iden-
J./##A+22$. G$&5#9)$ 3+. 9").+0,-)+.* %/)$.9/' +" J./##A+22$.=
tifiers;
- Analyze the Karamba structural model;

! "#$%& '()*(
- View the analyzed model with the ModelView-component. Deflections can
be scaled, multiple load cases can be viewed together or separately. The
!"! #$%&' ()$*+,-
"BeamView" and "ShellView" components can be used to generate mesh rep-
resentations of stresses, level of material utilization, ecc.
L.$/)9"? / #)/)9-/' %+0$' 9" 4/./%&/ -+"#9#)# +3 #91 &/#9- #)$2# M #$$ <?=
N(
Figure 3: Basic example of a statical model in Karamba

Figure A.3: Steps of a basic example in Karamba.
Karamba is being used in different types of research and projects, of which a lot
are listed on the website (1) . An example is the temporary and wooden pavilion,
!"# #$%&'()'#$%& &*+,%-.*% /0# -%1"#%- 02- 3+*4.50$%- () 6.#$"2 7"5%#
designed and constructed by Manuel Fabian Hartmann and his team at the university
of Innsbruck in 2013. The structural behavior of the physical model was investigated
and optimized iteratively with Karamba. Another building project, by Falkeis Senn
Architects, employs hybrid prefabricated column systems for dwellings which are
designed and optimized with the!use of Karamba. Karamba is also implemented
for the parametric modelling and multi-objective shape optimization of a deployable
origami-inspired shelter (Quaglia et al., 2014).
(1)
http://www.karamba3d.com/examples
Appendix B
Description of used software
In this attachment, the list of drawings is mentioned.
B.1 Drawings
The drawings of the footbridge are attached in the end of the document.
- Drawing n.1: Elevation and Plan View.
- Drawing n.2: Sectional Views.
- Drawing n.3: Sectional Views.
- Drawing n.4: Elevation, Section and Plan View of Supports.
- Drawing n.5: Planking Details.
- Drawing n.6: Planking Details.
- Drawing n.7: Details of Reinforcements.
- Drawing n.8: Details of Reinforcements.

Conclusions
Because of the depth of the initial objective, this work has discussed many aspects
of the design of a footbridge. Among them, it has shown that the modular nature
of a piping system is well suited to adapt several different static schemes. Piping
system can be used to divide the design is structural phases, with PVC skeleton
resisting permanent loads and concrete resisting to variable loads. Therefore, the
intuition of using PVC concrete composite structures, which underlays this thesis, is
applicable to many different types of structures. Two limits though shall be stated:
they do not allow casting in place complex forms; crucial bearing elements in the
present work are the steel cables.
Then, the structural abilities of PVC have been demonstrated. It provides an

extra durability to concrete as it acts like a cover with respect to it and contributes
to seal it from external environment and corrosive attacks. It has a behaviour simi-
lar to concrete. From the point of view of the resisting strength, it can be compared
to a C25/30 concrete. However, it is far more deformable. Hence, it could probably
not be used as a stand-alone material: a concrete matrix would still be needed to
rigidify the structure.
Moreover, the realization of a scale model has made it possible to highlight di-
mensional compatibility problems of piping system. It also emphasized the poor
mechanical properties of the fittings.
The execution studies assess the footbridge designed on strong basis; it helps
learning about the implementation of PVC in civil engineering design process. They
also underpin the advantages a parametric algorithm such as Karamba provides,
and hopefully contributes to make it known from the engineering world, possibly
striving synergies between architects and engineers in the design phase.
Even if the objectives of a 100% PVC structure have shown unrealistic, improve-
ments with respect to the first attempt of 2015 have been made: PVC has been
given a structural role, as it bears both wooden planking and concrete in concreting
phase. No lifting machine has been used and all the elements are manhandling.
Concreting is still made in a single phase, without construction joints in concrete.
148 Conclusions
Future prospects concern possible optimizations of the current static scheme:

changing the orientation of the cable, it could be possible to compress crosspieces
instead of extending it. From the point of view of implemented materials, an im-
provement would be the use, for domestic applications, of high-performance con-
crete, to avoid preparing and setting up reinforcement. One could also think about
replacing concrete by a simpler filler, like aggregates, resisting to compression and
burdening the bridge to avoid dynamic effects. Conjugated to the use of a more re-
sistant PVC (such as PVC-C, with higher strength and modulus), a trade-off could
be studied for the appropriate thickness of the tubes.
Finally, a satisfying answer shall not avoid the question of the intermediary
supports. Improvements can be brought to provide a way to concrete the PVC
skeleton without setting supports, to be able to cover more geographic situations.
References
Antaki, G. A. (2003), Piping and pipeline engineering: design, construction, main-

tenance, integrity, and repair, CRC Press.
Association, A. W. W. (2002), PVC Pipe–design and Installation, vol. 23, Amer-

ican Water Works Association.
Association, C. U. T. (2015), «Aberfeldy Bridge», Case Study.
ASTM, D. (2004), «2837,Ş», Standard Test Method for Obtaining Hydrostatic De-
sign Basis for Thermoplastic Pipe Materials.
ASTM, D. (2009), «1598,Ş», Standard Test Method for Time-to-Failure of Plastic

Pipe Under Constant Internal Pressure.
Augier, L. (2007), «Etude de lŠélaboration de matériaux composites PVC/bois à

partir de déchets de menuiserie: formulation, caractérisation, durabilité et recy-
clabilité», .
AUTHORITY, I. F. (2013), «I-69 Section 5 Project Public-Private Agreement

Technical Provisions Attachment 8-1 Consulting Parties», .
bell PVC Pipe Association, U. et al. (2002), «Recommended Specification for

Thermoplastic Pipe Joints, Pressure and Non-Pressure Applications», Rap. tecn.,
UNI-B-1-02, Dallas, Texas.
Booth, G. and Robb, J. (1968), «Bacterial degradation of plasticised PVC-effect

on some physical properties», Journal of Applied Chemistry, vol. 18 (7), p. 194–
197.
Burgoyne, C. and Head, P. (1993), «Aberfeldy Bridge–an advanced textile rein-

forced footbridge», in «TechTextil Symposium», p. 7–9.
Chung, S., Kosari, T., Li, T., Oliphant, K., Vibien, P. and Zhang, J.
(2007), «An Examination of Field Failures of Plastic Piping System Components
in Potable Water Applications», in «Proceedings of the Antec Conference», p.
1–5.
150 References
Coenders, J. (2008), «Parametric and associative strategies for engineering», in

«IABSE Symposium Report», vol. 94, p. 15–22, International Association for
Bridge and Structural Engineering.
Collins, H. (2004), «Collins English Dictionary», Glassgow: HarperCollins.
Delemontey, Y. (2007), «Le béton assemblé: formes et figures de la préfabrication

en France (1947-1952)», Histoire urbaine, vol. 20 (EPFL-ARTICLE-154147), p.
15–38.
Departement, C. T. S. (2009), «Caractéristiques et choix des matériaux», IN2P3.
DESIGN, M. O. (2006), «Richmond City Manual Of Design & Construction Stan-

dards», .
Eurocode, C. (1991), «1: Actions on structures, Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges»,

Brussels: European Standard EN, vol. 2, p. 2003.
Gulvanessian, H., Calgaro, J.-A. and Holickỳ, M. (2002), Designer’s guide

to EN 1990: eurocode: basis of structural design, Thomas Telford.
Lang, R., Stern, A. and Doerner, G. (1997), «Applicability and limitations of

current lifetime prediction models for thermoplastics pipes under internal pres-
sure», Die angewandte makromolekulare Chemie, vol. 247 (1), p. 131–145.
Lecomte-Beckers, P. J. (2015), «Physique des Matériaux: Partie Polymères,

Chapitre 8: Propriétés Mécaniques», Lesson.
Leonhardt, F. and Mariani, R. (1979), I ponti: dimensionamento, tipologia,

costruzione, Edizioni di Scienza e Tecnica.
Malerba, P. G. (1998), Analisi limite e non lineare di strutture in calcestruzzo

armato: tecniche di calcolo manuale ed automatico, CISM.
Malerba, P. G. (2015), Bridges Theory and Design - Notes of the course, Politec-
nico di Milano (Dica).
McNeel, R. et al. (2010), «Grasshopper-Generative Modeling with Rhino», Com-

puter software (2011b), http://www. grasshopper3d. com.
McNeel, R. et al. (2015), «Rhinoceros», NURBS modleing for Windows:

http://www. rhino3d. com/jewelry. htm.
Morris, W. et al. (1969), American heritage dictionary of the English language,

American heritage.
Mott, K. C. (1994), «Method of connecting plastic pipe joints to form a liner for
an existing pipeline and a plastic pipe joint for forming such liner», US Patent
5,360,240.
References 151
Parker, S. P. (1984), «McGraw-Hill dictionary of scientific and technical terms»,

.
Pevsner, N., Honour, H. and Fleming, J. (1998), The Penguin Dictionary of

Architecture and Landscape Architecture, Penguin Books.
PlasticsEurope, t. A. o. P. M. (2015), «Pipe and Plastic»,

Http://www.plasticseurope.org/.
Preisinger, C. (2010), «Karamba: parametric structural modeling», Computer

software (2011b), http://www.karamba3d. com.
Preisinger, C. and Heimrath, M. (2014), «KarambaŮA Toolkit for Parametric

Structural Design», Structural Engineering International, vol. 24 (2), p. 217–221.
Quaglia, C., Yu, N., Thrall, A. and Paolucci, S. (2014), «Balancing energy
efficiency and structural performance through multi-objective shape optimization:
Case study of a rapidly deployable origami-inspired shelter», Energy and Build-
ings, vol. 82, p. 733–745.
Rabinovitch, E. and Quisenberry, J. (1988), «Shrinkage in rigid PVC profile

extrusions», Journal of Vinyl Technology, vol. 10 (4), p. 200–204.
Simpson, J. and Weiner, E. S. (1989), «Oxford English dictionary online», Ox-

ford: Clarendon Press. Retrieved March, vol. 6, p. 2008.
Skinner, J. (2009), «A critical analysis of the Aberfeldy Footbridge, Scotland»,

Proceeding of Bridge Engineering, vol. 2.
Spangler, M. G. and Shafer, G. (1938), «The structural design of flexible pipe

culverts», in «Highway Research Board Proceedings», vol. 17.
Stratford, T. (2012), «The Condition of the Aberfeldy Footbridge after 20 Years

in Service», in «Structural Faults and Repair 2012», .
Svoboda, L., Novák, J., Kurilla, L. and Zeman, J. (2014), «A framework for
integrated design of algorithmic architectural forms», Advances in Engineering
Software, vol. 72, p. 109–118.
Tang, M. and Marcu, M. (2015), «Physics Simulation and Form Seeking in Ar-
chitecture Design Education», .
Terrell (2014), «Structures en carton», Presentation.
Turrin, M., Chatzikonstantinou, I., Tenpierik, M. and Sariyildiz, S.

(2013), «Engineering Performance Simulations in Architectural Design Concep-
tion», in «eCAADe 2013: Computation and Performance–Proceedings of the 31st
International Conference on Education and research in Computer Aided Architec-
tural Design in Europe, Delft, The Netherlands, September 18-20, 2013», Faculty
152 References
of Architecture, Delft University of Technology; eCAADe (Education and research

in Computer Aided Architectural Design in Europe).
UNI, E. (1992), «1-1 (2005) Eurocodice 2-Progettazione delle strutture in calces-

truzzo», .
UNI, E. (2009), «1-1: 2009 Eurocodice 5–Progettazione delle strutture di legno–

Parte 1-1: Regole generali e regole per gli edifici», .
Yang, D., Sun, Y., Turrin, M., von BUELOW, P. and Paul, J. (2015),
«Multi-objective and multidisciplinary design optimization of large sports build-
ing envelopes: a case study», in «Proceedings of the International Association for
Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium" Future Visions", Amsterdam,
The Netherlands, 17-20 August 2015», .

Tesi TF 21122016 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Tesi TF 21122016 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Tesi TF 21122016 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

POLITECNICO DI MILANO

Master of Science Course in Civil Engineering

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

A BRIDGE MADE OF COMPOSITE

PLASTIC TUBES AND CONCRETE FOR

A BASIC ROAD NETWORKS

Master Thesis by:

Accademic Year 2015-2016

Milano, December 2016

supported by a metallic cable, is built. Reinforcement is disposed before is filled

List of Figures xviii

2 A Different Way to Realize Structures 5

3 PVC: a material for civil engineering 29

4 Products made by PVC 55

5 Attempts to create a PVC bearing structure 75

6 Presentation of the footbridge 93

6.1.5 Wooden planking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

7 Structural Analysis 113

7.7.7 SLS: Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

A Description of used software 139

B Description of used software 145

2.1 Ready-to-use pedrestrian bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3.1 Variation of Young modulus according to a specific weight-and price

3.5 European plastic demand by segment and polymer in 2014 ((Plastic-

4.1 Calendering process: PVC compound passes between cylinders. . . . 56

5.1 Principle of the conception. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

5.8 Measured deflection in cm as a function of the load by plate in kg. . 83

6.1 Dimensions of the fittings used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

7.1 A Grasshopper window. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

7.2 Interoperability of Grasshopper and Rhino: Grasshopper components

A.1 Software interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

2.1 Comparison of steel and aluminium characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.1 Comparison of specific weights of different construction materials. . . 31

4.1 Typical values for nominal diameters (Part I). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

6.1 Main characteristics of weight and dimensions of the vehicles considered.103

7.5 Maximum actions in sections and extremal linear stresses, calculated

Moreover, in the sector of construction, environmental issues find a growing reso-

- Use of widespread economical materials, to limit transportation and costs;

- Use of durable material, suited to rustic environment; to avoid maintenance

- Use of material with low environmental impact;

1.4 Limitations and assumptions

1. Hook’s law is valid, i.e. the materials are ideally elastic;

2. Bernoulli’s hypothesis that the linear distribution of strain in the cross-section

Furthermore, Karamba is also limited to linear elastic calculations.

- Only three-node triangular element. This is a limitation in Karamba, used

- Buildability or construction method are not investigated in depth. A smaller

1.5 Used Software

1.6 Thesis framework

- In chapter 4, the same methodology as for chapter 3 is applied to semi-finished

- Chapter 5 is dedicated to a few preliminary attempts to design a PVC foot-

- Finally, normative verifications according to Eurocodes are made in Chapter 7,

A Different Way to Realize

2.1 Modularity concept

- mixed steel-wood bridges are self-supported, they consist of a metallic frame

Figure 2.1: Ready-to-use pedrestrian bridges.

2.2 Examples of modular structures

2.2.1 Paper Bridge

- Paper cylinders, with a diameter D = 115 mm, a thickness e = 11.9 mm (for

- Steel disks (2 by cylinder) with two screw holes;