Computer in Education

Block-1 Computer Based Instruction [4]

Unit-1 Concepts in Computer-Based Education

Unit-2 Design and Development of CBI Courseware-I

Unit-3 Design and Development of CBI Courseware-II

Unit-4 Design and Development of CBI Courseware-III

Block-2 Designs, Issues and Strategies [4]

Unit-5 The Teaching and Student Models

Unit-6 Documentation and Technical Support

Unit-7 Courseware Writing

Unit-8 Management of CBI Development Project

Block-3 Introduction to Computers in Education [4]

Unit-9 The Computer System : Hardware for Educational Computing

Unit-10 Software Tools for Educational Computing

Unit-11 The Use of Computers in Education

Unit-12 Evaluation of Educational Software for Use in Teaching Program

Block-4 Computers in Educational Administration [4]

Unit-13 Role of Computers in Educational Planning

Unit-14 Role of Computers in Educational Administration

Unit-15 Question Banking, Answer Scoring and Item Analysis

Unit-16 Computers in Open Learning Systems

UNIT 1 CONCEPTS INCOMPUTER
BASED EDUCATION
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
History of Computer Based Education (CBI)
1.3.1 Background Concepts
1.3.2 Evolution of CBl
1.3.3 Where are we Today?
1.3.4 Terminology
Computer Based Instruction (CBI) and Conventional Teaching
1.4.1 Definition and Background
1.4.2 Physical Components
1.4.3 Methodology
1.4.4 Hardware and Software Considerations
1.4.5 On the Internet
1.4.6 Uses
1.4.7 Implementation: Pitfalls and Promises
1.4.8 Characteristics of a Human Teacher
1.4.9 Drawbacks of a Human Teacher
1.4.10 Comparison with Conventional Teaching .Practices
Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS)
1.5.1 Background
1.5.2 Concept
1.5.3 Development
1.5.4 Components
1.5.5 Representation-of Knowledge
1.5.6 Role in Teaching
1.5.7 Characteristics
1.5.8 Personnel
1.5.9 Uses
1.5.10 ITS Systems and Projects
1.5.11 Limitations
Let Us Sum Up
Unit-end Exercises
Answers to Check Your Progress
Suggested Readings

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The use of computer as a tool has affected almost every walk of life. It afYects the way we live,
work and communicate with each other. The application of computers in education though
started late, but has recently made deep inroads in this area. The conventional teaching
methodology has undergone tremendous change and has radically modified the role of a teacher.
The terms like computer-based education (CBI) which is also sometimes referred to as computer-
assisted instructions (CAI), Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) have become quite common in
the education sector. These developments have been a result of amalgamation of advances in
the fields of education, psychology and computer science.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
understand the role of computers in education; 7
 Computer Based l n s t ~ c t i o n appreciate the role of CBI in the learning process;
understand historical developments and terminology used in CBI;
undarstand What, Why, When and How of CBI in education;
differentiate between conventional and computer based instructions;
appreciate the role of Artificial Intelligence in computer based education;
undarstand the concepts and issues of Intelligent Tutoring Systems.

1.3 HISTORY OF COMPUTER BASED EDUCATION (CBI)

1.3.1 Background Concepts

Technology has come of age and many a dream is coming true. The present day coriputers are
not only compact, extremely powerful and versatile but are also low priced, commonly accessible
and easy to use. The computer has, indeed become an integral part of our daily life. Most
importantly, the society at large is rapidly overcoming its initial hesitation and is all set to
exploit the full potential of this new tool. Parallel developments in the field of
telecommunications have opened up unique opportunities. The synthesis of computers and
cornmun~cationswhi* together is referred as Information Technology (IT) and the convergence
of these technologies has resulted in radically improved methods of work, modes of transactions
and a broad spectrum of innovative applications.
The.preslent day desktop computer has come a long way since its conception as a primitive
number srunching machinezed primarily for numerical computation or information retrieval.
The nineties has consolidated new standards in both hardware and software. Today, the computer
is viewed as a multimedia machine with distinctive features such as:
i) immense capacity to-store data;
ii) Extremely fast processing and retrieval rates;
iii) UO operations with digitised audio and video signals;
iv) Interactive modes of usage.
These facilities enable devtlopment of truly powerful application that process complicated
models, access vast information and knowledge bases and seamlessly integrate media elements
such as text, sound, 3-dimensional graphics, animation, still pictures and live video clips. This
is a majar advancement which, in principle, promises to overcome the individual limitations of
stand a l ~ n printed
e texts, audio and video presentations and other devices.
Compuders in Education
Although education sector was late in recognising the power of computers but its significant
role in the field of education and training was soon realised and has recently made deep inroads
especially in the field of Computer Based Instructions (CBI) which is also referrred as Computer
Assisted Instructions (CAI). In our subsequent discussions, we shall be using these two terms
interchangeably. Development of high-quality instructional programs however has lagged far
behind developments in hardware and software. The amalgamation of Artificial Intelligence
techniques in CAI has given rise to new breed of interactive systems known as Intelligent
Tutoring Systems (ITS) and Interactive Learning Environments (ILEs). Today, computers are
being used on an ever-widening front in educational environments. Broadly, the applications
can be classified as those for:

~ i) Research
ii) Teaching Computing
iii) Administration

I iv) Management
v) Teaching-Learning
Computers were initially used in the educational sector in the form of mainframe computers at
large institutions primarily for research and administrative functions such as accounting, payroll
8 and inventory control in the early 1960s. At that time, the computers were very large and
 expensive machines and the communication procedure with these machines was cumbersome Concepts in Computer Bas* .
Education
and lengthy. It required the punching of cards, which had to be taken to the computer centre,
after a day or two the output would be delivered with lots of errors and after the errors were
corrected, the set of cards used to be resubmitted and then again it used to take a day or two to
get the output. Due to these reasons, the use of computer as alearning aid was totally unrealistic
and was considered a fdt .ion. Despite this, a few experiments to find usage of computers as an
aid to learning were conducted using mainly the multiple choice question technique where
students answered questions by using a pencil to punch pre-perforated cards. This was supposed
to make marking various exercises automatic, without any loss of time for the teacher.

Computer as an Instructional Aid

The rapid development of Computer Based Instruction (CBI) and its evolutionary path has
mainly been encouraged by society's pressures to educate large numbers of people, our
knowledge about the psychological principles of teaching and learning and the availability of
the computer. The large scale demand for education was identified as the major problem
throughout the world. As more and more students arrived, class size increased. The addition of
more teachers, more classrooms (often in tents or other makeshift arrangements where school
construction was too slow or too costly) staggered school sessions (morning and evening shifts)
etc., though accommodated students, but did little to improve teaching or learning. The demand
for teachers and courses continued.
The declining achievement on the part of students of noma1 intelligence led to the emergence
of an entire discipline of special .education whose focus was those students who could not
possibly survive in a regular classroom. It was argued that many students, who underachieve in
regular classes, could benefit from special or improved learning environments. A need was
realised for cost-effective and training-effective methods of instruction. It was realised that
computers can be used as an instructional tool to impart education and training giving rise to a
new discipline called Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI). CAI provides the potential to impart
instructions tailored to meet an individual student's needs, and at the same time are relatively
low cost.

1.3.2 Evolution of CBI

Each discipline has its own h'istory, traditions and an evolving practice. This is true with computer
based education as well. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) started in the 1950s with 'linear
programs'. Alinear program is a stream of steps involving a question and its response based on
the previous knowledge or by trial and error. The development of such programs was influenced
by the prevailing behaviourist psychological theories and the programmed learning machines
of the previous century.
You may be familiar with these experiments. In the early to mid-1950s, psychologists began to
incorporate psychological principles of learning, derived from laboratory experiments with
people and animals, into a practical framework for teaching courses. The pioneer in this area
was B.F. Skinner, who himself had conducted important laboratory research in animal learning.
Skinner, suggested that effective teaching hinged on the mastery of small steps, each building
on the preceding step, active participation on the part of the student, and active participation on
the part of the instructor to present the information in carefully sequenced bits and to assess the
student's performance.
i Skinner (1986) noted that Pressey in the early 1920s developed a mechanical testing device
that administered multiple-choice items one at a time. In this, if the student gave the right
answer, the next item appeared; otherwise, the student repeatedly answered the same question
until the correct answer was selected. Pressey observed that learning occured, and that perhaps
' the testing machines could also be used for teaching. In the 1950s and 1960s. Skinner and
others developed mechanical devices that would piesent instruction. The benefit of teaching
machines over programmed textbooks was that they helped assure that the student would answer .
1I all the questions in the lessons and not skip over important material.
Around this time, the computer programming language called BASIC, was developed which
processed words as well as numbers, and was used in writing instructional programs. During
this time, programmed instruction (as well as non-interactive textbook-style instruction) was
1 incorporated into CBI. The fire was then fuelled by the need for mass education. Several major
1 universities, including Dartmouth, Florida State University, the University of Illinois, the
Computer Based Instruction University of Califomia and California State University were prominent in early CBI projects.
The PLATO project developed at the University of Illinois helped make CkI available at many
schools. In US, a large number of PLATO courses are available, even to home computer owners,
via telephone link to one of the large PLATO mainframe computers. Now most, if not all,
universities have computer centers that provide primary (complete courses) or adjunctive (drills,
refreshers, etc.) CBI.
Many educators resisted the machines and their programs because they felt the machines might
displace teachers or impart instruction in an undesirable, mechanistic fashion. Skinner answered
critics by saying that the machines would improve teacher-student interactions because the
teacher would be freed of 'routine instructional presentation', drill, and testing duties. The
teacher would thus have more time to interact with students in the capacity of an advisor or
friend. Many instructional programs were prepared and for a while, enjoyed popularity. In
many instances, however, students were not experienced at being active during instruction, and
many expressed displeasure with programmed course. Many of the courses were horribly boring
because of their strict adherence to a certain format, repetitive nature, etc. So the use of computer
as ad aid to learning was tried, studied, researched and placed in the background for some
future time. However, the principles behind programmed instruction live on and underlie the
design of the current CBI systems.
In the early 1970s, the decreasing price of equipment and the increasing availability of time
sharing systems led to small-scale experiments in schools in France, U.K. and in US largely
fundtd by the government. The advent of micro-computer in the late 1970s, its low price and its
rapidly increasing use in industry, commerce and administration has led to the adoption of
computers in schools on a large scale. The efforts were directed to have 'best' use of computers
to 'ihprove' education but the general trend was to replace the teacher by a computer. The
supprting arguments were: non-availability of teacher all the time, dependency of learning
process on speed of teacher, lack of patience in teachers, etc.
Role of other electronic media
In the meantime, another machine, telelvision, was being applied in education. Education at
that time was trying to solve the problem of mass education. As White (1983) points out, CBI
and instructional television are both examples of electronic learning. White suggested that
television changed education, even society itself, in several critical ways. First, television
provided a means for students to learn autonomously. Second, television made learning very
entettaining, more entertaining than traditional education. Further, television was easily
available. In retrospect, we also know that home television has taught values to many people.
In India, Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) started in 1975 was aimed at
preparing and delivering educational programmes on various subjects through the television
which became a mass media in a shorter time-span than Radio. Recently, an exclusive educational
TV ahannel of India "6yan Darshan" has been launched which is a joint venture of Ministry of
Human Resource Development, Prasar Bharti and Indira Gandhi National Opeh University
(IGMOU). This channel provides 16-hours non-stop transmission and is aimed at providing
interaction by enabling the viewers to talk to the experts, while the program is being aired, by
dialing the studio.
Educational television is available today, but its popularity has been eclipsed by many factors,
including CBI. Like movies and textbooks, educational television does not allow for active
participation on the part of students and teachers, and teachers, and thus does not possess the
instmctional power of CBI. CBI allows for individualised instruction not available through
television.
The micro-computer era
Untin the late 1970s, only select few countries had made significantefforts to introduce computers
into general education. Computers were still expensive and their massive use to improve
eduaation seemed still unrealistic. However, the subject of computer science was available in a
number of universities. The advent of the micro-computers changed drastically the problem of
the b e of computers in education, not only because of their low price but also because of their
less weight and absence of air-coylitioning which made it transportable to any place including
the classroom (Lewis, 1982). However, electronic games was the major use in the beginning of
micto-computers.
The use of IBM of the name PC (Personal Computer) as a trademark for its micro-computer
r
- Concepts in Computer Based
had a tremendous impact on the use of these small machines in society at large. The proliferation
Education
of the micro-processor in the 1990s greatly expanded the depth and breadth of instructional
computing (Kohl and Su, 1995). The advent of a variety of software such as spreadhseets,
word processing, databases, etc. further added impetus to this proliferation. The awareness of
the key role of informatics led to the introduction of computers in the education system from
kindergarten to university. With the declining prices of computers alongwith growing capabilities
and friendly (easy to use) user-interface, the computers were easily available in the educational
institutions enabling the teachers and the students to harness the power of computers. This
witnessed a whole lot of application of computers such as Computer Aided Instructions,
Computer Managed Learning, Computer Managed Instruction, Intelligent Tutoring Systems,
etc.

1.3.3 Where are we Today?

Computers have been used in the classroom for more than three decades now. This has generated
a wealth of ideas, experience and resource material. So much so, that "Computer in Education"
has emerged as a rigorous discipline in its own right. In recent years, phrases such as "computer
awareness" and "computer literacy" have been chanted like a mantra and "computer studies"
has become an essential part of school curriculum even at the primary level. The reasons for
this are to be found in the dynamics of a technologically evolving society. However, there is
growing realisation that it is not learning about computers per se but knowing what to do
with computers that is going to make all the difference.
CAI is now widely accepted as a complementary to conventional method of teaching in most
academic institutions. Schools vary in their ability to provide computers and other necessary
software, which in turn influences a student's ability of use CAI effectively (Everett, 1995).
The author explains that most traditional engineering classes are taught using a verbal description
(lecture) and two-dimensional chalkboard drawings of concepts. Often, this method of instruction
is insufficient for students to grasp complicated content during class. Students interpret the
simple drawing differently and have to re-learn the concept through many hours of text reading
after class. Teachers found that using CAI in the classroom allowed the students to visualise
complex phenomena. The computer generated graphics enhanced students' learning and the
scientific concept could be explained much more quickly using CAI (McMahon, 1995).
CAI is now being used to replace traditional laboratories. An on-line article from Dalhousie
University (1997) describes an on-line chemistry program where the teacher enters instructions
and the program changes accordingly. Students then simulate the entire lab experience using
the CAI, which saves time, resources and is safer than the traditional laboratory. CAI is now
being used in place of biology labs where students can visualize dissected frogs and label the
internal organs using the computer.
Intelligent Computer Assisted Instruction (ICAI) involves the use of artificial intelligence
techniques so as to make the CAI more responsive. This development resulted in education and
the A1 researchers to look towards each other and work in a collaborative manner. This has led
to the development of Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) and Interactive Learning Environments
(ILE) which are a step beyond ICAI leading to a new class of problems and approaches and
where learning is atleast as important as teaching. ITS involves artificial intellligence concepts
including knowledge representation and communication,problem-solving approaches, dynamic
student modelling, human cognition, Intelligent user interfaces, Intelligent help systems, use
of strategies and so on.
In order to make the existing education system more adaptable to future scenario in which
Information Technology will play an active role, a general consensus has to evolve on the ways
and methods to improve the process of imparting education. One of the suggestions which has
already been accepted and implemented in almost every country including India, is the mandatory . '
introduction of computers in colleges, high schools, and even at the primary level.
The power and flexibility with which computers can be used has led many people to believe in
a scenario where all of education will be computer based. Although the pedagogic merits of
this eventuality are a matter of debate, you will frequently encounter terms such as Computer
Based Learning (CBL), Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) and Computer Based Instruction
(CBI). Exact definitions are difficult and most people use CAL, CBL, CAI and CBI
interchangeably without pondering about the extent of the role computer plays in the teaching-
learning process.
. - - - 11
Computer Based Instruction 1.3.4 Terminology
The discipline of Computer Based Instruction (CBI) is interdisciplinary in nature as it involves
concepts from the field of Education, Computers and Psychology. As a result of this, CBI
makes use of certain terms which may be either exclusive to the field of CBI or may be a term
used in any of the three disciplines. A list of both types of terms which are used frequently is
given below:
Terminology Used in Computer Based Instructions (CBI)
Authorirug language: A common language designed for use by those who wish to write CBI
materials. It is a computer program that enables the user to enter commands which instruct the
computer to carry out various tasks, such as the presentation of a DRILL or TUTORIAL.
Authoring system: A programe that allows the teacher to create CAI materials by typing
responses to computer prompts. The formats of the materials are preset.
Branching: To skip certain part of a computer presented lesson depending on the response.
Program logic used to bypass some instructions during program execution.
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI): The use of computer to provide instruction directly to
the learner. The use of computers to instruct or drill students on an individual or small group
basis. When students run a Drill, Tutorial or Simulation, they are engaged in CAI.
Computer Assisted Learning (CAL): The use of computers to impart learning i.e. changing
student's state of knowledge or skill.
Comput&rBased Instruction (CBI): The use of computers to present instructional material to
the studehts and provide their active participation.
Computer Managed Instruction (CMI): The use of computer to co-ordinate instructional
activitiessuch as testing, recordkeeping, and individualising plans and in reporting all facets of
the manalgement component of education. Map also be used with non-computerised modes of
instruction.
Courselare: Computer software designed for instructional purposes. Software designed
specially for classroom use and usually accompanied by a number of ancillary materials.
Drill: A program that provides repeated practice and feedback regarding a skill or concept.
Drill-and-PracticeExercises:Exercises involving a type of CAI software that uses a series of
questions to test the understanding of prior instruction and to present further practice in using
the conckpts.
Intelligent CAI or CBI (ICAI): The application of principles of artificial intelligence to
Computer-Assisted Instruction which enables the computer to analyse learner characterstics
and to adjust its presentation of information in response to these characteristics.
Intelligeht lhtorial Systems: A step beyond ICAI. Concentrate on developing system which
provide supporting interactive environment for more limited topics.
Linear programmed Instruction: A form of programmed teaching in which all learners go
through the lesson from beginning to end, in exactly the same sequence.
lhtorial: A program which provides instruction on a topic. A tutorial is usually a computerized
presentation of Branching Programmed Instruction.
..
The most commonly used terms in the area of computer-based education are discussed below:
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
The earliest use of computers followed the Programmed Learning path prevalent in the sixties.
The subject matter was broken into a highly structured modules followed by a series of questions.
This apparently offered a self-paced individualised learning scheme with reinforcement at
different stage of learning wherein mastering a particular unit, the student moved on to the next
stage o r level of complexity. Conventional CAI programs target the conventional curriculum
and adopt the traditional method of teaching. The aim is to improve performance in specific
subject areas and take some load off the teacher by automating certain activities. The classic
examplds of this approach are the tutorials and drill and practice programs.

12
Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) Concepts in Computer Based
Education
Instruction does not necessarily promote learning. The strict emphasis on instruction has since
been replaced by the moqe loosely structured, yet more effective, teaching-learning practices.
CAL refers to using computers as a learning resource that can enhance and extend the
traditional curriculum. The computer is viewed as a tool that can assist students in the totality
of their tasks. On one hand, it can help by taking over tedious tasks such as representation
and analysis of data and on the other, it can provide mechanisms for improving thinking and
problem-solving skills that are not curriculum specific and can be transferred to new learning
situations.
Computer Based Training (CBT)

acquisition of skills necessary for solving a particular problem or executing a certain task.
Training can be isolated from learning and any distinction is made on the basis of the context
and the setting in which learning takes place. Thus, 'the basic principles of CAL used for

are the same.

Computer Managed earn in^ (CML)
This refers to computers being used for assisting the teacher in managing learning resources
and classroom tasks such as maintaining profiles of students, records of assignments and
examinations and determining appropriate teaching material and learning sequences. .
Authoring Languages
An author is a writer, an originator, a creator. Using an authoring language or an authoring
system, a teacher can be the writer (originatar, creator) of computerised lessons. This language
is a computer programming language with simple commands. The teacher creates and designs
interactive lessons for students directly, without a professional programmer.
PILOT (Programmed Inquiry, Learning or Teaching), a well-known authoring language, begins
each program line with a code letter or two that tells the computer what to do with the rest of
the line. For example, " T at the beginning of the line informs the computer to "type" or show
on the screen the message that follows. A unique feature of PILOT is the special program that
can be used to create sound effects, music, colour, and graphics in the lessons.
The author must be able to present the material effectively on the screen, provide adequate
practice, design the problems so they reflect proven pedagogy, and give a student not just be a
series of questions and answers but should require attive student involvement in learning
something more,than just facts.
One of the major.criticisms of authoring .languages is that the programs are time-consuming .
to design. Pogue (1980) gave the equation twenty-five to one hundred authoring hours for
each one-hour lesson. But without spending the appropriate time and effort on the project, the
teacher creates ineffective software. Another criticism is that authoring commands encourage
only one instructional strategy. The format is flexible enough, but the commands encourage
repetition.
On the positive side, teachers can create material that they cannot find commercially. They can
tailor the software to the subjectat hand and to the particular students that year. Furthermore,
after taking the time to use such a language, teachers are better equipped to evaluate CAI
programs already in the market.
Authoring Systems
Authoring systems are more structured than authoring languages; the system essentially create
the lessons. The user fills in the material to .be presented in response to computer prompts. No
programming commands are used. Authoring systems lack flexibility; the order and method of
presentation are preset, thus reducing the number of possible teaching strategies. Often, only a
few formats are available: multiple-choice questions, blocks of text followed by questions, or a
game format.
Some of the factors to be considered while evaluating an authoring system are:
Computer BasedInstmction 1. Does the system have good branching capabilities? That is, does it send the student ~
forward or backward in the material according to the response to questions?
2. Does it keep track of student performance?
3. Does it allow for differences in student responses to each question?
Terminology used in Computers and its Related Areas in the Field of Education
A list of the terms which are used in the field of computer and its application is given below:
Algorithm: A set of well-defined instructions that outline the solution of a problem in a finite
number of steps.
Application Program: A sequence of instructions written for solving a specific user problem
in some computer language.
Application Software:A set of computer programs written for a specific purpose (application).
Examples include Word Processor, Gradebook, Drill and Tutorial programs.
Artificial Intelligence (AI): The use of computers to imitate or expand human intelligence.
Computers that play chess usually employ artificial intelligence. It is the intelligence exhibited
by a machine or software. It is the field of research currently developing techniques whereby
computers can be used for solving problems that appear to require imagination, intuition, or
intelligence.
ArithmeticILogic Unit (ALU): The section of the processor, or CPU, that handles arithmetic
computations and logical operations.
Batch Processing: A method of processing data in which data items are collected into a group
or batch for certain period of time to be executed in a continuous stream without user intervention.
BASIC (Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code): A high-level programming
languagie commonly available with interpreter programs. It is widely implemented on micro-
computers and often taught to beginning Programmers.
Bit: Short for Binary digit. It is the smallest unit of data that the computer can handle and that
can be represented in the digits (0and I) or binary notation.
Byte: A fixed number of adjacent bits, usually eight, operated on as a unit.
CD-ROM:Compact Disc-Read Only Memory. An auxiliary storage device that employs laser
technology for storage of data. CD-ROM discs are smaller and less expensive than laser discs
and can be used in combination with a micro-computer for interactive instruction.
Central Processing Unit (CPU):The section of the computer that acts as its "brain"; composed
of three parts- arithmeticnogic unit (ALU), control unit and primiuy memory.
Clock $peed: The number of electronic pulses a micro-processor can produce each second.
Coding: The process of writing a programming problem solution in a programming language.
Computer-Aided Design (CAD): The process of designing, drafting, and analysing a
prospective product using computer graphics on a video terminal.
Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM): The use of a computer to simulate or monitor the
steps of a manufacturing process.
Computer Literacy:General knowledge about computers, including some technical knowledge
about hardware and software, the ability to use computers to solve problems,
the ability to write a program, and an awareness of how computers affect society.
Control Unit: The section of the CPU that directs the sequence of operations by electrical
signals and governs the action of the various units that make up the computer.
Caprokessor:Amicro-processor that can be plugged into a micro-computer to work with or in
place of the micro-computers original micro-processor. Usually used for faster mathematical
processing.
Data: Facts or raw data. It is the raw material of information.
Data Processing:A systematic set of procedures for collecting, manipulating and disseminating
data to achieve specified objectives.
Data Base: A collection of data that is commonly used and c o n i k n t l y organized to fit the Concepts in Computer Based
information need of a wide variety of users in an organisation. lh!i~& stored operational data Education
of an organisation.
DBMS: Data Base Management System. It is a software program that provides electronic access
to a set of information stored in a database by permitting entry, storage, manipulation, sorting,
and retrieval of data.
Data Reduhdancy: Unnecessary repetition or duplication of data.
Debugging. The process of locating, isolating and resolving errors in a program.
Desk Top Publishing (DTP): The use of micro-computer equipment's to typeset and layout of
pages for reproduction. Software for desk top publishing enables the user to specify a variety of
type fonts and sizes, insert decorative lines and other graphics elements, and use a printer that
provide a fairly high degree of resolution for both the text and the art.
Direct-Access Storage: Secondary storage from which data can be retrieved at random.
Examples are magnetic disk, floppy disk, etc.
Documentation: Written material that accompanied a computer program or a system which
includes definitions, explanations, charts, and tests made on the program or system.
Download: To transmit or copy information from a host computer (such as one belonging to an
information services or electronic bulletin board or Internet) to one's own computer and store it
on a disk.
Electronic Bulletin Board: A small, user-run information service, offered at little or no cost
and often assuming the role of a forum for users with common interests; it operates through
existing communication networks. An electronic communication system, usually accessed via
modem, which enables users to share information about topics of common interest. Also referred
to as a Bulletin Board System (BBS).
Electronic Mail (E-mail): The sending and receiving messages electronically. The transfer of
messages via computer, usually through a Local Area Network or Internet via Modem, analogous
to the use of the postal service.
Expert System: A software program that uses databases of knowledge in a particular field of
study for decision-making and evaluation to arrive at suggestions for actions similar to those of
a human experts in far less time.
Field: A meaningful item of data, such as a student roll-number, student name.
File: A group of related records, such as student or teacher records.
File Name: A meaningful name given to a file for storage and subsequent retrieval.
Floppy Disk: A low-cost direct access secondary storage device made of flexible-plastic'. A
flexible magnetic disk currently made in diameters of 3.5 and 5.25 inches.
Flow Chart: A graphical presentation of algorithm or flow of data. Symbols represent the
flow of operations, logic, data and equipment of program or system.
Function:A built-in formula and process included in a spreadsheetprogram; a function simplifies
typing formula. For example, rather than typing an entire list of cells to be added, you can use
a function within a formula to signal that a SUM should be performed on a range of cells.
Function may include SUM, COUNT, RANGE, AVE (average), and ROUND.
Gigabyte:Approximately, one thousand MEGABYTES (a million KILOBYTES).
Graphic Software. Software that produces the images such as chart and product design on a
computer display screen.
Graphical User Interface (GUI):A picture-based user-friendly system of operation. A system
of pictures and icons that enable the user to interact with a computer program. For example, the
user may click with a mouse on buttons rather than typing complex commands in order to make
an application program work.
Hard Copy: Printed output. For example, output printed on paper or microfilm.
Hardware: Physical components that make up a computer system.
15
Computer Based Instruction HTML: Hyper Text Markup Language. A language that enables even novices to create and use
some information on the Internet (world wide web).
Icon: A picture or graphic image that appears on the screen to represent a command or menu
choice. A graphical symbol representing a file, disk, tool, or computer operation. Used in
conjunction with the mouse and eliminates the needs for typing and memorising complex
commands.
Impact Printer: A printer that forms characters by physically striking ribbon, paper and
embossed character together. Example, Dot Matrix and Line Printers.
Internet: Network of networks. A major network that provides access to smaller networks
througpout the world making it possible to communicate with them by sending e-mail, exchange
files and generally to share information with other users. Nowadays, the Internet is most often
accessed through the World Wide Web.
<
Inforaation: Data that have been organised and processed into usable material.
Input: Data submitted to the computer for processing.
Intera~tiveProcessing: A processing method in which the user is able to communicate directly
with thle computer during program execution. Input is usually entered at a keyboard during
execution, and the output is then displayed on a monitor.
Interactive Video: A multimedia learning concepts that merges computer text, sound, and
graphics by using a videodisk, videodisk player, micro-computer with monitor and disk drive
and computer software. It requires input from the student in the form of responses to questions
from the system and inquiries made to the system.
Joystidk: An input device which a stick mounted on a base is rotated to control the cursor on
the display screen. Used frequently with games and graphic software.
Keyboard: An input device designed much like a typewriter and used for entering information
into the computer.
KiloByte (KB): A measure of the capacity of a computer's storage. 1 KB refers to 1.024 bytes.
Light $en: A pen-shaped input device with a photoelectric cell at its end used to draw line on
a monitor screen.
Local Area Network (LAN): A number of computers linked together for sharing expensive
resouroes and operates within a limited geographic area generally 1- 10 kms such as a building,
office complex or a campus. It requires special hardware and software for operation. It allows
the sharing of data and hardware.
LOGO: An education-oriented programming language designed to easily enable anyone to
begin programming and communicating with the computers. It commonly uses an object such
as Turtle for tracing the formation of images on the screen.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Projection System: A mechanism that can be connected to a
Computer System to project its output onto a large movie screen, instead of (or in addition to)
the regular computer monitor.
MegaByte (MB): Approximately 1 million bytes. Refers to the amount of storage capacity on
a particular inedium.
Micro-computer: A relatively small computer that employs a micro-processor. A small, low-
priced Qomputer,which is used in homes, schools, and business that has components similar to
a mainframe computer but with smaller memory and less capacity for supporting equipment.
Also called a personal computer (PC).
Modemh: Acronym for modulator/demodulator.Adevice that modulates and demodulates signals
submitted generally over telephone lines. It cohverts digital signals into analog signals and
vice-versa. Used for connecting to Internet. A modem allows linkage with another computer.
Mouse: An input device that is moved on a pad or desk top in order to control the cursor. It is
shapedlike a small box and operates mechanically or optically.
Multimedia: The integration of the computer with at least one other electronic medium for
presenting information. For example, the computer can be combined with audio and video.
 -- - --

Magnetic Disk: A direct-access storage medium consisting of a metal or plastic coated with Concepts in ComputerBased
Education
magnetic recording material upon which data is stored as magnetised spots.
Magnetic Tape: A sequential storage medium consisting of a narrow strip of material treated
with magnetisable coating upon which spots are magnetised to represent data.
Mainframe: A large, f~ii-scdecomputer capable of supporting many peripheral devices.
Mega Hertz (MHz): One million times per second. Unit of measurement for clock speed.
Memory: Storage within a computer.
Micro-processor: A programmable processing unit mounted on a chip of silicon containing
arithmetic, logic and control circuitry. Used in micro-computers, micro-wave ovens and for
many other applications.
Monitor: A device that displays data and/or output on a screen similar to a television screen.
Motherboard: The main circuit board containing a collection of chips and linking circuitry. It
includes the micro-processor chips and RAM and ROM chips.
Non-impact Printer:A printer that uses heat, laser, or photographic methods to produce images.
Since no striking is involved, it is a quiet means of printing.
Offline: Not in direct communication with the central computer.
Online: In direct communication with the central computer.
Ocerating System ( 0 s ) : A collection of programs used by the computer to manage its own
resources such as memory, processor, information. It is the interface between the user and the
computer hardware.
Optical disk: A secondary storage medium that uses stored data in the form of presence or
absence of pits burned into the surface of the disk by a laser beam.
Optical Recognition: Method of electronic scanning that uses light to read marks, bars, or
characters and then converts the optical images into appropriate electronic signals. OCR and
OMR equipment's are based on this technology.
Output: Information that is received from,the computer in usable form as a result of processing.
Pascal: A high-Jevel structured programming language originally developed for instructional
purposes and now commonly used in a wide variety of applications.
Password: A confidential sequence of alphanumeric characters used to access computer files.
Piracy: The unauthorised copying of copyrighted computer software.
Plotter: An output device that converts data emitted from the CPU into graphic forms. It typically
uses pen in producing hard copy graphic output such as drawings, chart, maps and primary
storage.
Primary Memory: The section of the computer that-holds instructions,data and intermediate1
final results during processing. Also known as Internal or Main Memory or Primary storage.
I Printer: A device used to produce permanentjhard copy) computer output.
Program: A series of step-by-step instructions that tells the computer exactly what to do.
Programming: The act of writing computer software.
I Public Domain Software: Software which is not protected by copyright restrictions. It is legal
j to make copies of:public domain software. Also called Freeware or Shareware.
1 Random Access Memory (RAM): The temporary portion of the computer's memory. It is the
primary memory into which instruction and data can be read, written or erased. It is the volatile,
or temporary memory that is erased when the computer is turned off.
Read Only Memory ( R O M ) : permarient
~~ portion of the computer's memory. ROM is not
\ -
erased when the computer is turned off. It is often described as hard wired.
Record: A collection of data items, or field, that constitutes a single unit, such as a student.
Robotics: The science dealing with the construction, capabilities, and applications of robots.
Computer Based Instruc~ron
Shareware: Software that users can obtain at no initial cost, but for which they pay a fee if they
decide to continue to use it.
Simulation: A process of duplicating the real life situations by modeling them for the purpose
of study. A program.that imitates realistic events which would otherwise be impossible or
difficult to incorporate into the classroom because the presentation would be expensive.
dangerous, time-consuming, unethical, or otherwise impractical.
Software: Agroup of programs which achieves a desired objective by acting on the data supplied
to it. For example, Financial Accounting Software.
Spreadsheet: A program that permits the organized entry and tabulation of numerical data in
such a way as to provide automatic recalculation of formulas programmed by the user.
Telecommunications:The process or exchanging data between two places or computers via a
modem.
Virus: A component of computer software that is inserted as a form of vandalism and is designed
to do hnexpected (often harmful) things while a program is running.
Word Processor: A computer program, that enables the computer to be used to type and edit
written documents such as letters, reports, etc.
World Wide Web (WWW): A series of interconnected documents stored on various web-
sites. An Internet resource which enables users to access information through a Graphical User
Interface.

.........................................................................................................

i 4. , Which otiter eiecL~i)nicrncdia wcrc used far educ;irir~ili List iirni!atic;nr.

~iiciir~~;i,ii!r
 fGaww--
tlabfortisn
1.4 COMPUTER BASED INSTRUCTION (CBI) AND
CONVENTIONAL TEACHING
There are various viewnoints regarding the use of computers in education. For some, it is a
device, which has to be avoided, as it may distract the traditional pathway of the education
system, while others find it so exciting that they want to experiment with it. For another group,
increasingly the majority, the excitement, enthusiasm and opportunities on offer throughout
the education system have encouraged a broader interest in its applicability into every subject
area. However, such interest is tampered by lack of knowledge and also a certain anxiety,
which stems from the possible upheaval to the traditional teacher's role.
In order to compare the methods of conventional teaching and the computer-assisted teaching
it would be desirable to have proper understanding of the concepts and methodology for
computer-assisted (or based) instructions in terms of what it is, how it works, what does it
require for its implementation, what are the limitations, etc.

1.4.1 Definition and Background

The term computer-assisted instruction (CAI) refers to any use of a computer to present
instructional material, provide for active participation of the student and respond to student
action. In simple terms, the goal of CAI is to 'teach'. The terms Computer-Based instructions
(CBI), Computer-Aided Learning (CAL) and Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) shall be
used interchangeably in the discussions and they all convey the same concepts and meaning.
Definition of CAI
Computer-aided instruction (CAI) is defined as the use of a computer and other associated
technology with the intention of improving academic performance (Everett, 1995). The idea is
to achieve greater learning and attention than is possible with didactic instruction (i.e. a lecture),
since the computer allows the student to interact at his or her pace and repeat as many times as
needed to master the material (Allender, Khan and Miles, 1997). In addition to instruction, CAI
offers additional benefits such as managing the learning environment by controlling a variety
of media, and keeping a record of student responses so that trends can be obtained (Allender; et.
al. 1997). CAI can be offered as a software package or it may be accessible via the World Wide
Web (the Web). The Web is basically a part of the Internet that consists of millions of documents
stored on computers around the world (Maran Graphics, 1996). Therefore, CAI published on
the Web can be accessible to students globally. The two basic objectives of CAI, i.e. impart
learning and teaching are explained below for better clarity of concepts of CAI.
Learning is defined as relatively permanent change in the student's behaviour. Learning is a
process that progresses from an initial level of poor knowledge and performance to levels of
increased knowledge and much better performance, when and only when something or someone
such as a human or computer teacher supports a student's progress.

i Teaching consists of the teacher (human or computer) supported activities that cause a student
to learn. These activities include presenting new instructional challenges, providing enough
practice, reviewing when necessary, informing the student about the correctness of his or her
responses, allowing the student to discover for himself or herself when learning certain skills,
I and keeping track of the student's progress. The understanding that, learning progresses as a
function of teaching is fundamental to the design of computer-based teaching.

1.4.2 Physical Components

According to Bunderson, Teaching in CAI is accomplished by the use of'three components.
a computer i.e. hardware component,
programs to operate the computer i.e. software component, and
a program designed especially to administer the instructions or present a lesson to the
learner i.e. courseware.
'
Hardware includes the physical, electronic and electro-mechanical components of computers.
CAI may be designed for use on a variety of hardware platforms or computers ranging from
19
Computer Based Instruction mainfIiame computers to Personal Computers. Effective CAI can be designed for a computer of
any size.
Softwhre used in a CAI environment is of two types: Delivery System Software and Authoring
System Software. Delivery system software interfaces the learner with the computer while
authoring system software interfaces the coursewriter with the computer for designing lessons
or makrial.
Coursleware refers to programs that administer or impart instruction to the learner. This refers
to tho$e programs that are course material apart from the handbooks and performance aids.

1.4.3 Methodology
The CAI most common in the past was "frame-based". In this mode, the instructional material
or program is presented to the learner frame by frame in a relatively fixed sequence except
certain simple remedial loops. With the developments in computer technology, a number of
flexible ways to present the instructional material by computer have been developed, which are
not frame-based. Today, CAI makes use of a number of techniques for teaching. It can provide
drill and practice session on grammar, run a tutorial to teach a concept in algebra, simulate a
science experiment or may provide practice in problem-solving. The educational programs can
make use of these techniques either i~dividuallyor in combination. No programming knowledge
is needed to use CAI package, although the user need to know how to operate the computer and
load the software. Some of the prominent methods for CAI are:
' Lessons or Tutorials
~eknforcedDrill and Practice
Intblligent CAI
Trdining Simulations
-- Ingtructional Games
Exbert Systems
Camputer Managed Instructions etc.
Thesewill be discussed in detail in the subsequent lessons. However, a brief sketch of these
techniques is given below:
%torial Mode: The tutorial mode was the first effort at using computers in education. A CAI
tutorial is simply a computer-presented lesson. Computerised tutorials introduce students to
new materials and new concepts followed by questions that test the student's understanding of
the miterial and build towards a certain goal. The subject to be taught is divided into elementary
pieces of knowledge (called items) which are organised locally and presented to the leaner at
hislher request. After the presentation of each item, a question is asked whether the learner has
memotised correctly the item followed by an immediate feedback - negative or positive. Tutorials
are more difficult to use than drill and practice programs because they must teach a skill as well
as test the results. User manuals for programming languages and packages often include tutorials.
In this mode, computer is used to simulate the most visible part of a teacher's activity - to.
transmit knowledge and check whether the knowledge has been Correctly transmitted. Some of
the shbrtcomings in this mode of learning are:
Nd initiative for learner
Laarning is boring because it is repetitive ,

No questions from the learners

Rigidity of the tutorial software (not possible to skip parts of a lesson, change level of
difficulty, to go back to previous part of a lesson, etc.).
, .
Despilte these shortcomings, the tutorial mode is effective in majority of the cases. A properly
desiglbed tutorial can be an excellent teaching device. The design of a tutorial can be linear or
branch. It has been and is still used successfully to teach subjects that have a checklist structure
(e.g. electronic trouble sboting), mainly for on-the-job training in various companies. It is not
much used in schools and universities.
Drill and Practice: Computerised Drill and Practice exercises, also known as 'electronic
 - - - ---
workbooks' follow a general format: learner is presented with a problem; learner responds to Concepts in Computer Baed
the problems; at correct response learner goes cn to the next problem, at incorrect response Education
learner goes through the same problem again. In this, exercises and problems on the topic
taught are presented to the learner in sequence of increasing difficulty (Figure 1.I). In case of
a wrong answer, the computer sometimes offer some help. The help is generally not provided,
as it is difficult to infer from an error, the kind of mistake that has been committed. The objective
is to reinforce the regular classroom instruction and test the level of understanding and the
ability to use the tools and methods taught. The drawback of this method is poor quality of drill
programs in the market, these are dull, repetitive and too expensive. This mode is used mainly
in arithmetic, gt-ammar, history, etc. In case of scientific disciplines, drill and practice is, in
most cases mixed with simulation mode.

Fig 1.1: Diiii and Practice Format

Firnulation: Computerised simulations are models or imitations of processes. Simulations

present life-like situations that allow students to learn through experience and to take risks
without suffering the consequences of poor choices. Some training uses of simulation are: car
driving, aircraft, and astronauts, etc. Simulation is not meant to replace actual hands-on
experience or experimentation if those are available options. Educators add that simulation is a
worst case and should be avoided as far as possible as it is based on psychology of learning.
They are certainly a major tool to overcome the above difficulties because carefully prepared,
simulated experimenis are conducted at the child's initiatives, at various levels of abstraction,
can Include a wide spectrum of cases and can explore many different examples in a short time
and act upon it. The simulations should be used as extensions of other classroom activities.
With this the students can explore ideas and skills learned in some other manner. But there are
certain threats of using simulation in education. These are :
It is not a real thing and therefore gives a wrong appreciation of the difficulties involved
in real expenmentation.
Simulation does not develop various aptitudes and crafts that are necessary for real

No model on a computer can include all the complexity of the real world and simulation
A
gives an over-simplified view of the real world.
Problem-Solving: To solve a problem, students define it and state the desired end result. What
must take place in between is a logical progression of steps to reach the end result. The interactive
nature of CAI helps the students to attempt problem-solving in a logical, and orderly manner.
Various problem-solving packages teach different problem-solving skills. For example, the
trial and error, multiple solutions to a problem, etc.
Instructional Games: This is one of the most effective technique of CAI. If a teacher has a set
of objectives that students should achieve through a game activity and has evaluated a package
carefully, then games can add dimension to classroom teaching. A number of marketing and
business policy games are available in the field of management teaching. Games are encouraging
co-operative efforts - i.e. two or more students play against the computer. Exploratory games
are beneficial for the younger children. For example, those involving visual discrimination in
pictures, sizes, etc. This may help build the self-esteem of the students who are otherwise
unsuccessful in the classroom. As with other methods of CAI, it is upto the educator to decide
when to use a game in place of a actual classroom experience.
used in programming
the teaching of a small bit of instruction or task. (Figure 1.2)
 1 Secure student attention I

1 Present the task stimulus I

I
Direct the student to the task stimulus
I
I
Prompt the student to observe salient 1
1
characteristics of the task stimulus
II
I Direct the student to respond

Prompt the response

I

Signal that it is time for the student to respond

I

Student responds
i
Correct errors by re-presenting the material

Fig. 1.2: Steps in Instruction i

1.4.4 Hardware and Software Considerations
Hardware and Software (programming languages) being the major driving tools of CAI are
obviously important to the extent that they provide a vehicle for the courseware. Computer
manufyturers have made available a large number of interesting features that may be used in
delivering the courseware. For example, on some computers, the student may answer a multiple-
choice question by typing the letter of the desired choice. But on computers with a touch
screen feature, the student need only touch the desired answer. The finger breaks a photocell
that triggers the computer's next frame. A touch screen, now widely available a feature that
makes it easier a student's physical interaction with the computer. The touch screen increases
the systeni's transparency. This permits the student to concentrate on the lesson without being
distracted by the computer's operating procedures.
Split screens (a single frame that presents diverse information in separate sections or windows 1
of the screen) are another computer capability that eases student-computer interaction. Use of
split screens may reduce memory demands on the student, as well as prevent the student from
having to page .back to review previous screens. Poorly designed split screens however may
present a complex appearance hindering learning. 1
Colour graphics is another capability that improves learning. The colour graphics and good
courseware could, if well designed, create an interesting and effective course. 1
The multimedia capability in the computer systems has further made the learning process not
only highly effective but entertaining and interesting as well. The mixing of audio and video
effects during the lesson presentation adds value to learning and makes it more convenient to
understand it.
Software like hardware too plays an important role in CAI. The software should provide reliable
access to the course. For example, the software should allow a student to recover quickly from
a typographical error. The software should allow the student to progress easily through the
course.
The purpose of CAI is to facilitate learning. Computer programs improve the delivery of
instructicn but they do not accomplish instruction without good courseware. Computers features i
cannot ovemde the poorly designed instruction. The courseware should hold attention and
maintain motivation. Some of the principles, which should be followed in making a ConceptshComputerBased
Education
courseware effective, are: clear instructional objectives, careful oeverall and detailed sequencing,
frequent opportunities for students practice and appropriate consequences delivery by the
computer.

1.4.5 On the Internet

The explosive growth of the Internet has breathed new life into CAI which now includes
interactive multimedia (text, graphics, audio, video and animation) and may incorporate the
use of hypertext documents. Hypertext documents contain highlighted text that connects to
other pages on the Web. The student can select this highlighted text and be connected to
additional related information from a computer that may be across the nation or world. This
linking component is one aspect that contributes to the "interaction" of CAI. Hypertext
documents also increase information available to the user and increases their satisfaction
(Allender, et. al., 1997, Maran Graphics, 1996, and Ebersole,1997).
While using CAI through the Internet, the students will be contstantly using a mouse, keyboard,
selecting icons, opening windows, or touching a screen. This interaction between the student
and computer's hardware and software facilitates access to the content and should be easy to
learn, not overwhelming. They make use of a "Web browser" software. A Web browser is
computer based graphical program that allows you to search and explore information on the
Web. Common Web browsers are Netscape Navigator, Microsoft Internet Explorer. Many authors
stressed the need to not overload students with complicated CAI because they get too focused
on navigation, frustration sets in and cognition stops (Ebersole, 1997). It is believed by many
that Web-based CAI will become the single most popular medium for CAI because it allows
for distance education, among other reasons.

1.4.6 Uses
The computers have come into the classroom through the use of CAI. Teachers can use computers
to assist them in helping the students learn a variety of material. CAI programs are designed to
enhance the understanding of students and to promote the student's self-confidence. Students
using CAI change from passive note takers to active participants in the classroom. CAI
encourages students to explore more and memorise less. One of the major advantages of CAIis
that it allows students to have a sense of control over what they are learning. If CAI is well
designed according to learning principles, they will allow for the individual differences. French
(1986) mentioned in her article "Using Learning Theory to Design and Evaluate Computer-
Assisted Instruction Software" that when CAI are designed correctly, the quick students can
move forward while the other students who need more time to learn, can repeat and review the
same material without judgement. Repeated exposure of material enhances the understanding
in learning.
When implementing CAI, the teacher's role changes from that of a dispenser of information to
more of a guide and/or resource person. Teachers who use CAI in the classroom shift from
using overheads and slides, to computer software, and laser disc technology. The teacher becomes
a technical advisorlmanager of the environment and must be proficient in computer software,
hardware, in addition to being knowledgeable about the content topic.

1.4.7 Implementation: Pitfalls and Promises

The primary reason for lack of success with instructional technology is poor planning which
results from a kind of bandwagon enthusiasm.

Many of CAI's promises can easily become pitfalls. If we reason that with CAI software student
will acquire basic skills and develop problem-solving strategies, we will be expecting magic.
CAI software can help cut through student's boredom and confusion, but computers cannot
solve all the problem of student's attitude toward school. CAI program can very well be used as
enrichment exercises, yet using the comp~itercan easily become merely a reward for students
who finish their work quickly. CAI can bring experiments and lessons to the classroom that
students might never be exposed to otherwise, yet computer program also become replacements
for other, more valuable classroom activities. Most CAI allows students to work at their own
pace; if teachers do not look at other ways to individualise lesson, however, the pace of learning
becomes the ~naiorfocus of individualised instruction.
Computer Based Instruction How cqn these pitfalls be avoided and the promise be realised? All experts say that before CAI
or any other concept can be effective, planning for its implementation must occur. One cannot
jump oh the bandwagon and say, "Do it-now". Aplan that recognises and deal with the realities
and potential problems of implementing computer instruction must be put into place. Major
responsibility for developing this plan of action rests with the school administration along
with input from classroom teachers. The administrator must provide the necessary groundwork,
and the /teachermust give feedback on how the implementation is working. An ongoing evaluation
of the pkogram by those involved will help keep it alive.
I

1.4.8 Characteristics of a Human Teacher

Human beings are versatile teaching devices. The outstanding ability of the teachers is their
adaptability which even a poor teacher potentially exceeds that of the best adaptive Computer-
Aided Instruction (CAI) package. A human teacher is able to sense and probe a pupil's learning
difficulties and tfien try a succession of different strategies, either singly or in combination in
an atterhpt to overcome the problem. For example, when the st~dentsare unable to understand
the basic operations of addition and subtraction, the teacher makes use of alternative methods
such as Number Line, counting of beads, etc. The teacher can learn from his or her previous
encounhers with the learners and the subject matter being taught and on that basis can evolve
new more effective methods of teaching or presentation. For example, changing the sequence
of topics, using real life examples to explain complex processes, etc. The humar, teacher is
versatilt. he can teach large number of topics within a broad subject area of his specialisation.
He can even teach much wider range of subjects at lower levels. For example, a Mathematics
teacher may easily teach the related topics such as Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry,
Statistics, Dynamics, etc. Similarly a Physics teacher can also teach the subjects of Mathematics
and Chemistry. The teacher is largely self programmed as he can prepare his own lessons with
minimal external support. A human teacher can operate with equipment's like Blackboard and
chalk, White Boards, Overhead Projector, LCD Projector etc. and at the same time can teach
without any extra equipment at all.
The huinan teachers are easy to produce but difficult to train and once in use are expensive to
keep. Idtelligence, Adaptability and Versatility have their price. Since the training of a teacher
takes several years, there is a considerable delay between the realisation that demand is
increasing and the response of an increased supply. Teachers are reliable but prone to minor
failures or illness, which may render them inoperative or less efficient for a few days.
-
1.4.9 brawbacks of a Human Teacher
Although human teachers are the most efficient teaching devices, they have certain drawbacks
also which offset their many virtues. Some of these are:
Hikh Cost: Due to high cost involved in keeping them, their availability is limited and
therefote it is not iossible to have a teacher for a few students.
Adaptability: The teacher's ability to adjust his teaching to the needs of the individual
student and hence his effectiveness can be strongly diluted in a large class. A good
tewher has to act judiciously to be more effective.
.-
\a ~dmnistrativeLoad: Teachers are generally burdened with administrative responsibilities,
which reduces the time they can devote to teaching. This load has to be taken off from
tham for better teaching.
Limited Presentation Bandwidth: The teacher can impart information to the learners by
speech and gestures. Thi's makes it,difficult.for him or her to explain visual phenomenon
or functioning of dynamic systems unless they make use of other media tb support it.
a Limited Speed of Calculations: The real world problems may involve calculation, which
makes the teacher inflexible.

1.4.10. Comparison with Conventional Teaching Practices

It has been obse~;vedthat CAI in itself seldom constitutes an entire course. Usually, CAI is an
adjunct to human instruction and is integrated into a course with other means of instructions.
CAI hds been found to compare favourably with traditional instruction. The findings of a
review of 51 studies conducted in US on CAI are very relevant. The studies conducted with
 - - -
.-
6th through 12th grade students found that students in CAI classes scored in the 63rd percentile ' Concepts in Computer Based
Education
on final examinations and students in conventional classes scored in the 50th percentile.
(Kulik, Bangert and Williams). The effects of CAI tend to be greater for low achievers than for
high achievers and greater at the secondary level than at the college level. As for a particular
subject, CAI has been found to be more effective than traditional methods in teaching elementary
and high school mathen--tics. College-level CAI has been found to be more effective than
traditional methods in teaching physics, anaesthesiology, etc. Kohl and Su (1995) compared
achievement and critical thinking in nursing students using a CAI program designed for the
Internet, to students receiving traditional lecture method. The results of their study showed that
the students using CAI showed a greater ability to problem-solving, analyse, synthesise, and
make clinical decisions. The comparative study by Newman (1997) showed that students using
CAI scored higher on being able to make linkages and well thought out contributions than the
students who experienced more Gaditional instruction.
The conventional teaching methodology is still in existence and shall continue to exist. It is
being used alongwith the computer-based instructional methodology. The two methodologies
can be compared broadly on the following points:
Computers, unlike teachers, are available all the time the learner wishes to learn.
Computers are never tired and never lose their temper i.e. they are certainly patient

The learner can learn at his or her own pace.

Some learners are less scared by machines (computers) than by teachers.
Learning with computers is a personalised process.
Computer learning is less expensive than institutional education.
More suitable, for average intelligence students as they can learn at their convenience

The CAI methodology can be effective when,

the subject matter does not change significantly over time, because changes in the topic
require reprogramming of CAI. For example, history, fundamentals of arithmetic, physics, etc.
repeated presentation of the same course is needed because computers are excellent tools
in repetitivestasks without any loss of reliability. For example, in training of personnel, etc.
actual practice of the skill being learned is important. Students using CAI can practise the
skills which otherwise is not possible. For example, learning software packages such as

human teachers spared as a result of the use of CAI may engage productively in some
other instructional activity.
Therefore we can conclude that CAI dies not replace teachers but it permits teachers to perform
their task more effectively by using their time for other activities not possible through CAI.
- - . - .- -
. , $ f "-'

z;.,..xs
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,..':'..,: ::.*:I!' ; . t i .VVC: '. \"$j(ij th(;sc: pivern at the end of the unit.
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25
Computer Based Instruction

..........................................................................................................................
and ><il!\v;:ri: fe;iturq:s !hilt iia\'e ~lirid:!i:.'-.I
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Couipare the con?:entlonal nnd coliiputer.-bascd teaching.
.....................................................................................................
.......................................................................................... . . . .

1.5 INTELLIGENT TUTORING SYSTEMS (ITS)

1.5.1 Background
Computer technologies are changing the practice of research and business, and -very slowly
-the content and practice of education are beginning to follow suit. In business we see growing
eviddnce that information technologies are,leading to substantial improvements in productivity
by automating routine activities. Similarly, it seems that if we can impart basic cognitive skills
of teachers to computers, we might delegate some teaching to machines and thus improve
educational outcomes.
By looking at the development of techniques and algorithms for CAI, developed over the last
30 years, we see that they have improved on the quality of feedback and the degree of
individualised instruction. CAI systems seem to have improved beyond expectation in
computational sophistication from their humble beginnings of replacing the programmed learning
machines. However, they fall far short of being any match for human teachers. Human tutors
unlike CAI tutor seem to know almost intuitively what is the best way to teach individual
learners. The main problem is the impoverishment of knowledge, which they contain. In
generative systems there is a mismatch between the program's internal processes (Boolean
&ithihetic) and those of the student's cognitive processes (rules and tables). None of these
systems have human-like knowledge of the domain they are teaching, nor can they answer
serious questions of the students as to "why" and "how" the task is performed. The solution to
this problem is provided by knowledge based CAI systems which are also referred to as ICAI
systems or Intelligent Tutorial Systems (ITS).

1.5.2 Concept
In order to overcome the above problems, attempts were made to inculcate sort of human
intelligence in the CAI courseware using the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). A1 is the
use of computers to imitate or expand human intelligence. It provides intelligence like an expert
in some specific area. The use of A1 techniques has given rise to a category of systems popularly
known as 'Expert Systems'. This include: knowledge representation and communication,
problem-solving approaches, dynamic student modeling, human cognition, Intelligent User
Interfaces, Intelligent help systems, use of strategies and so on.
The ability to learn is central to human intelligence. This abilitypennits ris to adapt to changing
envimnment, to develop a great variety of skills, acquire expertise in almost unlimited number
of specijic domains. People are capable of learning from information carried by multiple
physical media and expressed in an unbounded variety offonns. This informution can be stated
at di$erent level of abstraction, with different degrees of precision, with or without errors and
with different degrees of relevancy to the knowledge ultimately acquired.
26 (R.S. Michalski)
The central goal of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is to implant similar learning capabilities in C0nceptsinComPuter
Education
Based
machines. The search is for ways to program computers so that they might come to behave with
the "same flexibility, common sense, insight, creativity, self-awareness and humor" as a human
being. Computers are now able to process and interpret natural language, model psychological
processes and learn from environment by carryig out a dialogue with the end user. The hallmark
of A1 applications in ed~xationis that they attempt to explicitly represent some of the reasoning
skills and knowledge of expert practitioners, and to exploit that expertise for teaching and
learning. The learning systems making use of A1 techniques are referred as Intelligent Tutoring
Systems (ITS). These systems continually assess a student's knowledge, monitor each response,
analyse answers or solutions to problems, detect misconceptions and learning difficulties and
depending on all this information, provide remedial help and highly individualise instruction.
The addition of intelligence makes the CAI more responsive and interactive than traditional
CAI. The notion is that for many subjects such as medicine, a student will learn better with a
personalised tutor i.e. Intelligence CAI that has some sort of intelligence also available with it.
This will help in modeling the student learning pattern i.e. the tutor can understand how the
student is progressing and why the student is making errors.
Therefore ITS are programs designed to teach as a good teacher would. They concentrate on
developing systems which provide supportive environment for more limited topics i.e. a specific
doma~nof knowledge such as antibiotics, solution of quadratic equations, electronic fault
diagnostic procedures etc. Since the ITS are domain specific, the subject domain should be
chosen carefully as its development involves major investment of resources. Since the efforts
have been in the direction of developing experimental ITS, they are designed with future
technology in mind and hence require substantial computing resources to run. This makes the
ITS at present a cost-ineffective proposition.

1.5.3 Development
The development of Intelligent Tutoring System also popularly known as Intelligent Computer-
Assisted Instruction (ICAI) started from mid 60's when Uhr L and his collaborators implemented
a series of systems which generated problems in arithmetic and in vocabulary recall.
Subsequently a number of systems were devised to provide drill and practice in arithmetic and
to select problem at a level of difficulty appropriate to the student's overall performance (Woods
and Hartley, 1971). Such systems were called Adaptive Systems and their sophistication lies in
the task selection algorithm adopted by them. This was followed by O'Shea System (1981),
who attempted to improve the teaching strategy for a particular group of students. This was
aimed at determining whether the students or the program should choose the level of difficulty
of the next problem. The Kimball Systems (198 1) made use of thequality of the solution method
rather than the correctness of the answer to guide the teaching process. In the last decade the
focus of research has been on supportive learning intended to facilitate learning-by-doing i.e.
transferring factual knowledge into experimental knowledge. These systems attempt to compare
the problem-solving experience and motivation of discovery 'learning' with the effective
guidance of tutorial interactions.
The movement from ITS to interactive learning eniironments (ILEs), and to mixed-initiative
systems that represent a combination of both approaches, illustrates a general pattern in
educational technology today. Virtually all important computer-based applications to education
are not simply trying to teach traditional skills more quickly, efficiently or less expensively.
Rather, like ILEs, they are participating in an attempt to change methods of learning and teaching
and to redefine valued educational goals and learning outcomes. Microworlds and ILEs are
trying to implement an inquiry-based method of teaching and learning, perhaps helping to
bring this method into the classroom on a large scale for the first time.
Continued Development of ITS
Asubstatial amount of work continues within tne ITS framework.Different groups are attempting
to improve the various components of ITS, to develop applications in increasingly complex
subjects, and to make ITS more cost-effective to develop by providing "shells" and other system-
building tools that institutionalise the basic structure of ITS. While many early ITS focused
mainly on simple topics in high school mathematics, recently ITS have been developed for
more advanced topics in mathematics. ITS have also grown beyond mathematics and other
more formal subjects to include topics in history, language and social science. Similarly, ITS
have diversified beyond school cumcula to topics in training and vocational education. For
example, new ITS for electronics, maintenance, and troubleshooting have built on the seminal
ased Instruction work on SOPHIE (Brown, Burton and deKleer, 1982). In addition to extending ITS to new
subjects, ITS have also been enriched along several dimensions, improving the way their expert
systems reason, how they develop and use student models, as well as how they fashion tutorial
interventions. Some of the attempts to improve the performance of ITS included one or more
of the following features:
more "user-friendly",
graphical user interfaces (GUIs),
simpler communication between student and teacher,
higher bandwidth dialogue, and
visual explanations that are easy to understand and entertaining.
In the short-term it is very likely that better interface design will contribute more to improved
effectivenebs of ITS than will enrichments in the expertise underlying their reasoning. This is
not to say that knowledge is unimportant to tutoring. Moreover, effective interfaces are easier
to build than intelligent expert systems.

1.5.4 Components
Although ITS differ in a variety of ways, most have a characteristic structure. There are four
component$ to any intelligent tutoring system as shown in Figure 1.3. These components
incorporate knowledge of:
i) The specific domain;
ii) The learner or the student;
iii) The instructional strategies; and
iv) How strategies should be adapted to the needs of an individual learnertstudent.
The heart of an ITS is its expert system. The expert system embeds sufficient knowledge of a
particular topic area to provide "ideal" answers to questions, correct not only in the final result
but in each df the smaller intermediate reasoning steps. The expert system thus allows the ITS
to demonstrate or model a correct way of solving the problem. Often, like a human teacher, it
can generater many different answer paths or goal structures (McArthur, Stasz, Hotta, Peter,
and Burdorf, 1988).The same detailed data structures that expert systems generate in modeling
expert reasobing also permit ITS to explain their reasoning at arbitrarily detailed levels. For
example, if a student needs an explanation of why or how an algebra ITS did a step in solving
an equation, the system might first say that it used the distributive rule. If the student requested
more justifiaation, it could elaborate by describing the terms that were distributed and the
arithmetic "cleanup" steps that followed. Explanations thus turn expert systems from opaque
"black box" experts into inspectable "glass boxes" (Foss, 1987). A strong ITS is thus an expert
which is able to solve a problem along with the student, recognise partially 6&ect as well as
irrelevant responses, judge when and how much assistance should be offered when a student
gets stuck.
Superficially, ITS differ little from the CAI system$ preceded them. In general, both are
characterised by a common philosophy that includes high teacher control, and short-answer
task format. In most CAI systems and ITS students learn by working a series of relatively brief
questions. In both cases the system plays the exclusive role of the task expert, controlling the
selection of tasks or problems, while the student responsible for answering them. The system
also plays the role of the critic, and in most ITS the system rather than the student decides when
critical feedback will be supplied. The difference in ITS and CAI reflect engineering and
psychological enhancements that permit ITS to tutor in a knowledge-based fashion. Unlike
previous CAI systems, ITS represent some of the knowledge and reasoning of good one-on-
one human teachers, and consequently can coach in amuch more detailed way than CAI systems.

15.5 l4ep&enta&n of Knowledge

Intelligent Tutoring Systems started as an enterprise attempting to deal with shortcomings of
generative systems. This enterprise has benefited from the work of researchers in the field of
Artificial Intelligence who have had a long standing preoccupation with the problem of how
best to represent knowledge within an intelligent system. Various techniques have been tried
 -
.Concepts in Computer Based
Student Expert Education
Model System
(Records and updates (Model of deal
hlstones of student actions)
individual

(Makes teach~ng (input and output

decision) > device for
interaction)

Fig. 1.3: Components of a generic intelligent tutoring system

(Adapted from Dede, 1992)

within A1 with varying degrees of success. One of these methods seems to be well suited to the
1 domain of tutoring where it can be claimed that people seem to show some indications in the
I structure of their behaviour to support the feasibility of using "production systems" as a way of
modelling their behaviour. A production system is used as a method of representing knowledge
within computer based 'expert systems and provides a method of organising knowledge into
three different categories:
iI
i 1. Facts: Factual (declarative) knowledge about a particular case @his animal has feathers).

I
I
2. Rules: Procedural knowledge on how to reason in a domain and expertise (If it has
feathers then it is a bird).
1 3. Inference: Control knowledge of how to c a m out reasoning from a set of given facts
t and rules to come up with a conclusion.
An example of how the production rules can be written is given below:
IF precondition 1 ... precondition 2
THEN conclusion.
This type of a simple structure can be used to encode a variety of forms of knowledge used in
an ITS.
Although no clear general architecture which can be specified for such systems as yet due to
the experimental nature of work in the area of ITS, however, the work of the Carnegie-Mellon
University Psychologist, John Anderson and his colleagues, on the LISP tutor (Anderson and
Reiser, 1985) and the geometry tutor (Anderson, Boyle and Yost, 1985) are offering a strong
hint of a breakthrough.

1.5.6 Role in Teaching

In principle, ITS offers a highly interactiveenvironment that is responsive to individual learner's
needs. Like a good teacher it acts as a facilitator and a discerning advisor who determines what
the student knows and guides in a manner that the student remains in control and is always at
the centre of learning. However, all this requires accurate and extremely refined understanding
of characteristics of learners as well as of the domain and the methodology of instruction.
Frequently, the models built in are rather adhoc, restrictive and incapable of deciphering student's
response or offering appropriate remedial help. Even for well designed systems, the utility is
ultimately determined by the quality of dialogue and the actual degree of user initiative and
motivation.
An ITS within a teaching environment therefore fulfils two broad roles: Advisory and
Instructional. In its advisory role, the system is used to provide advice about particular courses
of action relevant to any given situation that might arise during CAI-oriented activity. For
example, ITS might be used to analyse student behavioural data and advise an instructor or
student appropriate counselling, tutoring or instructional strategies. In its instructional role, an
Computer Based Instruction ITS is able to make explicit both its knowledge and its mechanism of inference in order to aid
student's learning activity. This can be achieved in two ways: through the use of specially
designed human-computer didactic dialogues or by means of knowledge driven courseware.
This courseware is teaching software that calls upon one or more knowledge bases in order to
derive its instructional material and strategies.
ITS is a coach as well as model expert problem-s'olving. In particular, they can monitor the
student a$ he or she solves a problem and can determine if every step is right. Thus, while
questions were the atomic unit of discourse in CAI systems, in ITS the basic unit is the individual
reasoning step. To support this detailed coaching, ITS often create and update a student model.
The student model reflects the correct rules the ITS thinks the student knows - ones that are
also found in the expert system or in the "ideal" student model. The ITS watches each step in
the student's reasoning as he or she solves a problem. Each time the student makes an error, the
I'TS will diagnose the problem - possibly updating the student model - then attempt to
remediatk it with every detailed advice about how the expert system would do the step. This
process repeats at every step in the evolution of a complete solution to a problem.
One part of most ITS that receives relatively little mention is the pedagogical component.
While the expert system contains rules and knowledge that drive an ITS subject-specific
performance, the pedagogical component is supposed to contain similar rules that encode
expertise; about tutoring itself - for example, when to interrupt students and what kinds of
information to provide them.

1.5.7 Characteristics
The cha~acteristicsof ITS can be divided into two categories:
Characteristics related to teaching function of CBI
Characteristics related to the structure of CBI
The Table 1.1 and Table 1.2 list some of the dimensions of these functions. Although some ITS,
permit limited student choice, for the most part interactions with ITS are tightly controlled by
the software i.e. high tutor control of learning. In most cases, the ITS selects the next task or
problem, decides when the student needs support and feedback in problem-solving, and
determines the nature of the information the student receive. The principle of high tutor control
reflects an implicit belief that a competent tutor is usually in a better position to make decisions
about what experiences and information students need to learn effectively than the students
themselves. Of course, this assumes, at a minimum, that the tutor knows the content the students
want to learn, and also knows the students' specific knowledge level-what they know, and
what knowledge they require-at any given time.

a) ond or more domain experts whose experience, skills, and knowledge we attempt to
repkesent within the knowledge base;
b) the knowledge engineer who will help in fabricating the system and manipulate its
contents;
c) the studendtrainee who uses the system while attempting to acquire expert skills within
the domain of instruction covered by the knowledge base; and
d) the instructor who may be required to specify learning objectives, indirectly control the
use of the system and assess student performance.

Table 1.1: Dimensions of Functional Intelligence in CBI

Level of Intelligence
Dimension Low High
Instrudtional strategy
Teachiqg style Repetitive drill and practice System shapes student responses and
moves student to generalization exercise:
method of advancement depends on
student response patterns
IAmount of interaction I Little Interaction I Frequent interactions which begins early (
in lesson.
30
'

!
Course content Only simple content Simple and advanced content Education
Student data Simple model based only on the Complex model based on student's response
Student "model") student's most recent answer patterns
No performance records kept Detailed performance records kept, student
progress toward goal presented visually
r
Student-computer Student input accepted only on ( Student input accepted any time, student and
dialogue practice or test items teacher ask and answer questions
Oontrol of instructional System presents linear sequence, Student can request certain sequence or choose
sequence same sequence to each student the system selected sequence
Evaluation of student System evaluates only a one-letter System understands the sense of a student's
input answer answer
Feedback to student Canned feedback Tailored feedback
No prescriptive advice System gives advice based on student's response
pattern

Table 1.2: ~hnensionsof Structure Intelligence in CBI

Level of Intelligence
Dimension Low High
Course Content Content embedded in the courseware Content programmed in its own knowledge base
P
program P P

Instructional strategy Strategy embedded in the courseware Smtegy programmed in its own rule base: system ,
program generates instruction and tests based or rules
Student model (or "file") No student file, or a simple one Student file includes diagnosis and prescriptive
embedded in the courseware advice genemted by .instructional strategy rule
base
Feedback to student Simple, one word Tailored feedback created according to rule in
instructional strategy rule base
Graphics Line drawings Three-dimensional dynamic simulation
Speech No speech capability System speaks to students and recognizes

1.5.8 Personnel
There are four cdtegory of personnel involved in a typical ITS. They are:

Domain 9
Expert
Trainee
Knowledge
Assimilator

Knowledge
Engineer IInference Engine I
Reorganisation
and Review 1 1 structuring

KNOWLEDGE BASE Rules, Procedures, ac.

-
Fig. 1.4: Knowledge Based CAI a Simplified Vlew 31
Computer Based Instruction The interaction of each of these personnel with the computer based system is supported by a
number of dialogue units (DU). The function of these units is to facilitate the communication
processes involved in the different aspects of creating and using the knowledge base.

1.519 Uses
ITS is extremely useful in area of problem-solving and discovery type learning. Most ITS is
designed for adult students (university, military or industry), although there are some ITS
prodrams for children. e.g. WEST teaches arithmetic problem-solving in a game format for
elementary school children. ITS could be considered for use when the amount of training time
available must be held constant or shortened while at the same even more content must be
learned. ITS should be used when the learning levels of expected students are low or lower than
those of previous classes of students. One might expect that special tutoring expertise would
impcove the progress of these students.1ncreased tutorial expertise (e.g. easy student-computer
. interaction) may be able to bring these students to mastery faster than conventional CAI methods.
ITS actually fit quite well into existing classrooms, easily filling the shoes ofearlier CAI programs
and integrated learning systems that have enjoyed at least modest success.
Probably the greatest strength of ITS are their ability to generate highly detailed feedback
about problem-solving to micro-tutor. They can coach and model problem-solving down to
"atomic" levels of reasoning. Micro-tutoring is the main teaching principle ITS embody that
distinguish them from earlier generations of CAI.
9

1.5.10 ITS Systems and Projects

Presently there are ovkr thousand branching CAI programs in use. In contrast, only about 25
intelligent CAI programs have been developed. The number was just six in 1975 and sixteen in
1984. Some of the examples ofpbpular ITS (ICAI) systems are:
SOPHIE for diagnostic procedures in electronic circuits.
MEOMYCIN for medical diagnostic strategies.
BOILER to provide an accurate simulation of process control in an industrial boiler.
BUGGY to teach young children the procedure of subtraction.
SHERLOCK to teach people how to learn using the method of graphic mapping.
GUIDON to each medical diagnosis by simulating patients.
Most ITS are still being used on a very small scale, and only a few have been tested widely. Of
these, just a handful claim to improve students' outcomes in the classroom using standardised
tests. Successful ITS have been mainly restricted to areas of mathematics and science, where it
is both easier to build ITS and easier to measure learning outcome improvements. Perhaps the
most thoroughly tested ITS are Anderson's Geometry and Lisp tutors (Anderson, Boyle, and
Yost, 1985; Anderson and Skwarecki, 1986; Schofield, Evans-Rhodes and Huber, 1990).

1.5.11 Limitations
While ITS have been somewhat successful on a small scale, several problems must be overcome
before they have widespread impact. Various authors (e.g., Wenger, 1987; Psotka, Massey, and
Mutter, 1988) have discussed a wide range of limitations. These limitations could be associated
with the expert system, student model, pedagogical component, and interface. A few
shortcomings that are most fundamental and which may not be overcome simply through
incretnental improvements to various ITS components are:
Limitations in learning outcomes
Educational technologies can aim at a wide variety of learning goals or outcomes, frbm
helping students learn skills in traditional subjects and curricula, to making new topics
accessible to younger students, to facilitating deep conceptual understanding, to fostering
metacognitive skills like debugging. Most ITS have focused on subjects taught in typical
primary - and high-school level courses. In this context, probably the most significant
limitation of ITS is that, to date, they can be developed only for a few topic areas.
. Effective ITS require virtual omniscience - a relatively complete mastery of the subject
#ea they are to teach, including an understanding of likely student misconceptions.
Thus, the most successful ITS have been developed for simple "closed worlds" and
32 procedural skills like solving short problems in mathematics, science, and logic. These
 are the easiest topics for which to build completed expert systems simply because ConceptsinComputerBased
cognitive science provides elaborate task analyses of competence in these areas. Education

Limited teaching and pedagogical expertise

A second important limitation of ITS pertains to their restricted knowledge of teaching.
Most ITS have very impoverised pedagogical components. Such components often
comprise a collection of rules that just seem to work reasonably well in practice. There
is no scientific encyclopedia of good tutoring heuristics to consult. Cognitive science
has not yet progressed to the point where it can offer good task analyses of pedagogical
expertise the way it has articulated the reasoning in "closed worlds" like symbol
manipulation algebra, arithmetic, and chess. In short, the pedagogical component of ITS
is an "expert system" that we cannot yet build.
Limited conceptual knowledge
The drill-and-practice method of teaching embedded in ITS appears to be more suitable
for tuning existing knowledge than for conceptual learning of substantial pieces of new
knowledge (Ohlsson, 1991). This limitation, in part, reflects limitations in the cognitive
science that underpins ITS. For example, BUGGY provides a detailed model of the
microgenesis of misconceptions in arithmetic. But cognitive science does not have a
comparable understallding of the initial learning of large chunks of knowledge, and
consequently, we lack a rigorous theoretical basis that would guide the design of learning

-- -
systems for acquiring conceptual knowledge.
--
I

I
I
Check lionr Progress 1I
i
1 Notes: ii Write yciur answer in t k s p E @ given hclow.
I 1
11 10. Deflne Intelligent Tutoring System. W i c h computer technology they
11,' C:ompare your ansr*hs a - t h e those given at the end of Mm t .
aft based upon?
I

1
I
I I Llr the varicru ionlponents of ITS.
I

i
1, 12. Wbi,ir are the major l ~ m i t a t ~ o nofs ITS?

---_-.I A

1.6 LET US SUM UP

From the above discussion, we find that although computers are less flexible devices for
supporting learning or teaching, yet they are a great improvement on other educational media
such as TV or Radio due to their passive and non-interactive nature. Computer-Aided Instruction
33
Computer Based Instruction (CAI) or Computer Based Instruction (CBI) overcomes all these 1imitations.The key features
of CAI are: ability to process information, to carryout calculations and to mediate in the flow oS
information between the learner and hisher learning environment quickly and accurately. CAJ,
is not a panacea for all learning problems. It is often argued that CAI replaces the teacher with
technology and this replacement dehumanises the learning process. This is certainly true of any'
attempt to replace the teacher, whether it is through CAI or CBI, educational television or
exclrlsive use of programmed learning. The objective of computer based (or assisted) instructions
is not t~ replace the human teacher but to complement himiher so as to make the teaching
process most beneficial and effective to the learners of varied types. While CAI can be considered
a mature technology, ITS are currently at a pre-technology phase. However, with the arrival of
the first commercialised research in this area (so far primarily producing prototypes), we can
expect the beginning of a new phase of development where consideration of architectures and
tool kits for the development of ITS will play a major role. Attempts are already being made to
make ITS more user-friendly, cost-efective, simpler user-interface, etc. ITS is programmed in
three components i.e. the course content, the instructional strategy and the student model. Apart
from several adva~tagesand uses ITS offers, they have certain limitations as well.

1.7 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1. What has been the impact of PC revolution .on computer-based education. Discuss in
your words.
2. "Cmputers are going to repalce the teacher". Discuss the statement.
3. Discuss the role of expert systems in education.
4. Compare the ITS with conventional CAI.
5. At what stage in a child's educational career, do you think computer should be introduced
and why?
6. Visit the computer lab of your school. Identify and make a list of hardware and software
available.
7. Study some practical application(s) of CAI by visiting a school where it is being used.
Interview the teacher to find how the CAI has made a difference in student motivation
and performance. What process did the teacher use in s~kctingthe CAI software and
determining which subject/topic would need additional instructional support.
8. Identify a teacher who has undergone computer trainning. Try to find out what difference
did this training make in hisher life as a student and a teacher.

1.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Immense capacity to store data; Extremely fast processing and retrieval rates; 110
operations with digitised audio and video signals; Interactive modes of usage.
2. Research, Teaching, Computing, Administration, Management, Teaching-Lekning.
3. Society's pressures to educate large number of people; increasing number of students;
increasing class size, higher demand for courses and teacher and declining achievement
on the part of the students of normal intelligence. Need was therefore realised for cost-
effective and training-effective methods of instruction.
4. Radio and TV. These are passive or non-interactive. There is no active participation of
students and teachers.
5 . CBI - the use of a computer and other associated technology with the intention of
improving academic performance.
CMT - the use of computer so as to manage the learning resources such as assessing the
student needs, providing appropriate teaching material and sequencing them.
CBT-the use of computer and other associated technology so as to acquire a skill necessary
for solving a specific problem or executing a certain task.
4. Hardware, Software and Courseware.. Concepts in Computer Baseu
Education
7. Lessons or Tutorials, Reinforced Drill and Practice, Intelligent CAI, Training Simulations,
Instructional Games, Expert systems, Computer Idanaged Instructions.
8. Touch screen feature, Split screen, Colour graphics, Multimedia effect (audio and video),
, robustness of software
9. CAI encourages students to explore more and memorise less, provide them the control
over their learning, repeat, review the lessons at their own speed, available all the time;
infinitely patient (never tired, never lose their temper).
10. ITS are programs designed to inciude intelligence (thinking ability) in the learning
process through CAI so as to make it like a human teacher. Artificial Intelligence.
11. Student Model, Expert System, Pedagogical module for decision-making and User
Interface.
12. Limitations of learning outcomes, teaching and pedagogical expertise and Conceptual
Knowledge.

Criswell, Eleanor L. (1989): The Design of Computer-Based Instruction, Macmillan Publishing

Company.
Watson, D. (1987): Developing CAL: Computers in the Curriculum, Harper & Row Publishers,
London.
 Motivation: Clearly defined objectives motivate the student to achieve hisher goal. The Design and Development
d CBI Courseware-1.
\tudent is not engaged in learning irrelevant subject-matter. The student is able to organize
hisher efforts Into relevant activities to reach thk goal communicated to hlmlher in advance.

Guideline: Once the objectives have been stated in behavioural terms, they facilitate the
selection and organization of content by the teacher. They function as guidelines for evolving
appropriate teaching-learning strategy by the teacher. Writing instructional objectives limits
the task and removes all ambiguity and difficulties of interpretation by the teacher and the
student.

Evaluation: The instructional objectives help and make it possible to evaluate the outcomes
and performance of the student in an objective way. The teacher can evaluate the performance
in terms of specified objectives. Helshe can assess the success and failture of hisher method
of presenting subject-matter to the student and can eliminate the weaknesses of the method.
Thus, framing of instructional objectives ensures the measurement of learning experiences in
t a systematic and scientific way.

Therefore we use instructional objectives so that:

Ir
@ better instluction occurs

more efficient learning results

better evaluation occurs

a students become better self-evaluators

2.3.2 Components of Instructional objectives

Generally, instructional objective statements include the'following three components:

Condition: The setting in which the demonstration of learning will take place, including
environment and materials, where appropriate. An object?ve containing this component is
necessary to prepare a student for learning. It draws the learner's attention to the stimulus.
Through this the instructor can inform the learner about the learning goalslobjectives. It also
provides a prerequisite behaviour~learning.

Behnviour: A description of an overt (observable) behaviour that may be measured (and

from which one can infer that the student has learned). It is important to state objectives in
the forin of overt behaviour which can be observed and measured. Through objectives
containing this component the teacher conveys what changes of behaviour the students
should display when they learn and attain these behavioural changes.

Performance: Measurement criteria for achievement of the objective. Learning is not directly
observable but is inferred from ones performance. We can infer that a person has learnt
P something when helshe does something which helshe could not do before. You may know
how a computer works, but may not be able to operate ~ t The
. distinction between learning
or acquisition of knowledge and performance is an important one. Therefore, the objective
h
should convey the expected/desired performance of the students.

2.3.3 Domains of Instructional Objectives

Objectives should be specified in advance in order to evolve effective teachng-learning
strategies. The need for objectives at various (simple to complex) levels of learning has given
rise to frameworks that assist in analysis and development of objectives. The desirable
outcomes of learning experience - the way individuals are to act, think, or feel as a result
of participating in some instructional activities - are classified into three domains, namely,
.Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor. We will not discuss these domains here as you have
already lcarned them in your earlier course on 'Curriculum and Instruction' (refer Unit-6'on
'instructional Objectives', Course ES-317 on 'Curriculum and Instruction', pages 23-28).
Computer Based Instruction +
-, \ 1-1 P?05:r, ,-

2.4 WRITING SPE~IC

OBJECTIVES
The purpose of specific objectives is to describe precisely what the student will be able to do
after completing a unit, lesson, or segment. Using specific objectives, we write text, interactions,
and test items. Generally a specific objective include:
I . the conditions under which the student will perform,
2. the action required,
3. how the student will demonstrate the action, and
4. the mastety level required,
First, the conditions under which the student will perform are stated. Conditions specify the
antecedent stimuli. These conditions will be set up for the student following a unit, lesson, or
segment of instruction.
Second, the objective specifies exactly, with a verb and an object, what action the student is
to perform. The verb used should be an action verb. For example, the student will point to,
or write, or list, or match. Verbs that do not denote action, such as understand, appreciate, or
develop a feeling for, are not used in specific instructional objectives. Selection of a verb to
use in a specific instructional objective is important. The object of the object verb specifies
the task. For example, the student will list the colours of the spectrum. The verb is 'list', the
object is 'colours of the spectrum'. The action verb, of course, must be something the student
can do on the computer.
Third, the objective specifies how the student will demonstrate the skill. In other words, the
action required of the student in practice interactions or tests is specified. For example, the
student will list the colours of the spectrum by typing in a series of colour names.
Fourth, the objective states the mastery level required and the criterion for acceptable
performance. The criterion might be called standard. Examples of standards might include:
acquisition level, a minimum of 60% correct; mastery level, 5 correct answers in 5 minutes;
generalization level, 10 correct answers in 20 minutes with no more than two errors. A CBI
designer must determine with the help of the instructor or subject matter expert the criteria
corresponding to the desired performance levels. For example, is 5 correct in 5 minutes
acquisition or mastery? It depends on the course content.
The. specific objectives should confirm the following requirements.
 a) The specific objectives shall be derived from the tasks selected for training in the task Design and Develapment
analysis. At least one specific objective shall be written for each task selected for training. of CBI Courseware-I

b) Each specific objective shall have three parts: condition(s), performance, and standards.
c) The specific objectives shall be sequenced in the best order for learning and shall be
numbered consecutively, beginning with "1 ." etc.
d) The time for reaching each specific objective shall be estimated and indicated at an
appropriate place.
e) The type of learning represented by each specific objective shall be indicated in the
appropriate place using the following labels:
1. A specific objective requiring performance to emphasize major physical skills and
abilities, including effective and attitudinal behaviours, can be labelled "P."
2. A specific objective requiring primarily cognitive skills, such as knowledge,
comprehension, or judgement, can be labelled " C G . 'A specific objective that
requires cognitive skills should be analyzed to determine whether it is actually an
enabling objective, which supports a terminal performance objective. In most cases,
cognitive objectives are enabling objectives.
Examples of specific objectives that might be accomplished with CBI are given below.
I

I 1. Following completion of the lesson on probability, given 10 correct and 5 incorrect

definitions, the student will identify correct definitions of probability by pointing to 6 of
the 10 correct definitions in 10 minutes.
.
2. Following the unit on world rivers, given 25 world river names, the student will type in
the name of the country in which the river orginates, to mastery level, to an accuracy of
5 correct names in one minute.
3. Following the lesson on generating new solutions, given a computer screen and light pen,
the student will trace the lion through the maze, to generalization level, three different
ways in 20 minutes, without crossing a solid line.

.............. ......... ...... .. ----

2.5 TASK ANALYSIS

I A task is a piece of (especially hard) work that has to be dbne. Before developing course
materials for training people to perform specific tasks, we must have a thorough understanding
I of the nature of the task. What are the component elements of the task, and how are they
I
related. Therefore, in order to accomplish a task, we must learn and perform a series of steps 39
I
Based Instruction or operatlions called procedure. In our daily life we use these procedures in baking a cake,
operating a sewing machine, determining whether a given number is prime or not, or to find
the sum of natural numbers. These examples show that'procedures are very common and
important in our lives. Figure 2.1 illustrates how the procedure will generate a task analysis
for a lesson in turning on the power to volt-ohmmeter in a computerized training simulator.
Student Action Result of ActionJCue
On Simulator of Next Action

Step I. I Pull out VTM power s w i q Switch pulled out

I
Step 2. Connect end of power cable
to large receptacle on VTM
/
Step 3. Connect red clip lead wire
to positive battery terminal

/,Black wire securely clipped to

negative battery terminal
/
r'
Step 5. Push in VTM power switch
w Display light illuminated
To turn on power

Fig. 2.1: Task analysis for connecting battery to volt-ohmmeter (VTM) and turning on VTM power

Adapted from Criswell, E.L. (1989) The Design of Computer - Based Instruction, Macmillan
Publishing Compnay, New York.
Activity; Try to develop task-analysis of any project or experiment of a topic of your choice
from the school context.
Many procedures involve both cognitive and psychomotor components. Procedures, which
are essedtially cognitive in nature, are classified as rules. The procedural part of a motor skill
has beeq referred as an executive routine. The term algorithm has been used to refer to
procedwes for learning and instruction.
The discrete steps of most procedures involve either operations or decisions or some times
both. Operations (steps) usually involve the manipulation of some apparatus or the
transformation of some information. For example, to find the sum of first natural numbers
by using formula, S = n (n+1)/2, we may perform the following operations.
Operation 1: obtain the value of n
Operatioh 2: compute S = n (n+1)/2
Operation 3: write the value of S
In contrast, decision steps involve the evaluation or testing of the results or outcomes of
earlier operations in order to determine whether certain conditions are satisfied or not. The
decision steps are also referred as branching points. If the specified condition is satisfied;
then one path is followed. If the condition is not satisfied, then alternate path is taken. For
example, to solve the equation ax + b = 0, we may perform the following operations and
decisions.
Operatian 1: obtain the values of a and b
Condition 1: if a = 0 then perform operation 2
if a # 0 then perform operation 3
Operation 2: write no solution exist and stop
Operation 3: calculate x = - b/a
Procedures vary greatly in complexity. Some procedures simply involve few operations (as
we have seen in finding the sum of first n natural numbers), which are performed in a linear
sequence and contain no decision. Other procedures (as we have .seen in solving an equation
ax + b ; I 0) consist both operations and decisions. As the decision steps result 'ih more

alternaw paths, the complexity of procedures depends upon the number of conditional decisions
and operations.
Therefore, we can define task analysis as 'the process of identifying the tasks and subtasks Design and Development
of CBI Courseware-I
that must be performed in order to complete a task'. A task analysis organises course content
and clarifies the relation of one topic to another. Different approaches are followed to the
analysis of tasks. We will briefly explain the following three approaches in this unit:
1. Hierarchical task analysis
2, Information processing task analysis
3. Structured task analysis

2.5.1 Hierarchical Task Analysis

This approach entails the identification of a hierarchy of sub-skills such that lower-ordered
skills or behaviours generate positive transfer to skills at a higher level. Therefore, the purpose
of hierarchical task analysis is to reveal prerequisite skills, and not to describe the steps of
a task or procedure. Such an analysis would be performed by starting with sepcific objective
and identifying subordinate skills by asking the question: What (skills) should the learner
already know, how to do, and be able to recall when faced with the task of learning the new
rule, the absence of which would make it impossible for hirnlher to learn the new rule? This
question is asked recursively of each sub-skill identified until the assumed student entry
behaviours are reached.

2.5.2 '~nformationProcessing Task Analysis

This approach includes the following steps:
a) Identify the operation and decision steps of the procedure.
b) Sequence the steps in the order in which they would be performed.
c) Prepare a flow-chart representation of the sequenced steps.
d) Validate the flow-chart, using several different initial inputs.
Before beginning to solve a problem, it is normally useful to do some preliminary planning.
A graphic representation of such a plan is called a flow-chart. The flow-chart helps to break
a big task down into many small pieces of tasks and to represent them pictorially, showing
the order of instructions. A flow-chart consists of some different shapes of boxes (for example,
the decision steps are represented by diamond-shaped boxes, while the operations are
represented by rectangular boxes), linked by arrows. In each box, certain action to be carried
out is mentioned. Arrows on the lines connecting the boxes indicate the direction in which
we should proceed. The figure 2.2 illustrates a flow'-chart to solve an equation ax + b = 0.

Obtain the
values of a and b

WI 'no solution'

Calculate
X = - b/a

Fig 2.2: A flow-chart representation of Information processing

41
Computer Bssed Instruction Unfortunately, information processing task analysis is involved with inherent weaknesses.
These weaknesses stem from the fact that an information processing analysis is basically a
sequehtial malysis. The sieps of the procedure are identified and organised according to
sequential relationships between steps 01procedure. Sequential relationships are obviously
critical in the performance of a procedure. However, recent research and evaluation of computer
programs have shown that complex programs organised according to sequential relationships
have several deficiencies. These deficiencies manifest themselves in:
a) Programs which will not work properly,
b) Difficulty in finding and correcting errors in program,
c) Difficulliy in modifying or expanding programs, and
d) Difficulty in reading or understanding programs.
In order to reduce these problems, computer scientists have proposed and validated a new
approach to the analysis and design of computer programs. This new approach, called structured
analysis has significantly reduced each of the problems listed above.

2.5.3 Structured Task Analysis

Structutcd task analysis gains its name from the principle that only a small set of sequential
structures of operation and decision steps should be used in the analysis and design of
procedures, and that these few structures can be organised according to part-task and whole-
task hierarchical rel~tionships.It was proved formally that any procedure could be written
using linear, alternate, and repetitive structures.
Structured flow-chart representation of tasks

Operation (s)

Llnear Alternate Repetitive

Fig.: 2 3 Flow-chart representations of three primitive sequential structures

The linear structure (Fig. 2.3) simply consists of a series of operations which are performed
one after anlother. For example, a linear structure can be used to represent the operations
involved in lopening a locked door: insert key, turn key, gasp knob, rotate knob, pull door
forward.
Alternate structure (Fig. 2.3) consists of a decision step with two alternate paths or operations.
Some condition must be analysed in order to decide whether to perform one operation or
another. For example, a student may decide to take a bus or ride a bicycle to reach the school
depending on weather conditions. If it is raining, the student may take a bus; otherwise, the
student may decide to ride a bicycle.
The repetitive structure (Fig. 2.3) consists of a series of one or more operations which may
be repeated several times. The number of operations is controlled by a decision step. For
example, when counting the number of apples in a basket, we repeat the process of counting
each apple until we decide that the last apple in the basket is counted.
 Design and Development
of CBI Courseware-I

Fig. 2.4: Flow-chart representations of case structure

Allowing variants to alternate and repetitive structures may eliminate the inefficiencies resulting
from the exclusive use of these basic structures. A variant to alternate structure called case
structure is shown in figure 2.4. This structureallows for several alternate paths at a decision
step. For example, depending on the room temperature we may opt for one of the following
choices. If the room temperature is above 35°C we may opt for Air Coolers; if it is between
20°C to 35°C we may use Fans; if it is below 10°C we may use Room Heaters; or if it is
between 10°C to 20°C we may not use any of the above electronic appliance.

Repetitive structure with decision

step following the operation
+
Repetitive structure with abnormal exit

Fig. 2.5: 'ho variants of repetitive structure: flow charts

There are two permissible variants to the repetitive structure as shown in figure 2.5. The
repetitive structure with decision step following the operation implies that the operation will
be performed at least once. For example, we repeat the process of mixing cake batter until
it is smooth. Here the assumption is that there would never be an occasion when thebatter
would be smooth without mixing.
The repetitive structure with abnormal exit allows for more than one exit path from the loop.
This variant serves considerable time in procedures where a search is being made for a
particular item. For example, suppose we want to search through a set of file folders, which
are not organized alphabetically, in order to find the folder with the house contract. The first
condition would specify that we continue to examine folders until there are no more in the
file. However, the second condition would allow an early exit from this loop if the desired
folder is found before reaching the end of the file. Without this variant it would be necessary
to continue searching, even after. the desired folder had been located. There may be many
other structures possible. However, it is desired to limit the design of task analysis to these
six structures because of the following reason. The complexity of procedure seems to be
proportional to the number of decision steps in the procedure. As the number of decision
steps increases, the number of different paths through the procedure increases geometrically.
It is difficult to find errors because of large number of paths which have to be traced. Also,
procedures with many branching paths are very difficult to follow.
The primitive structures described above significantly reduce the complexity caused by decision Design and Development
steps, since each structure can be treated as a single entity or whole. By treating each of CBI Courseware-I
structure as a whole it is possible to design a part-task and/or whole-task hierarchical
organization of a procedure in linear fashion. This reduction in complexity is shown in figure
2.6. The complex flow-chart on the left contains several decision steps, but it is composed
of only primitive sequence structures. In the successive flow-charts to the right, the primitive
structures within the dotted lines are reduced to a single, rectangular box, which represents
the whole, until a linear sequence is obtained.
Structured Outline Representation of Tasks
The part-task and whole-task relationships and underlying sequence of a procedure are not
apparent in flow-chart representation without the dotted lines around the primitive structures.
However, these characteristics of a procedure become very clear if we use a different
representation, called structured outlines. A structured outline representation is an extension
of the common, indented outline which normally used to show the structure and content of
a written manuscript. Structured outlines use a limited vocabulary and syntax of normal
English to represent the primitive sequence structures and use indentation to show part-task
and whole-task hierarchical relationships among the primitive structures. The general format
for a structured outline representation of the alternate structure is shown below:
IF<CONDITION>
THEN
<OPERATION I>
OTHERWISE
<OPERATION 2>
This representation indicates that if the condition is m e , then operation 1 is to be performed,
otherwise operation 2 is performed. This structure outline representation is directly analogous
to the flow-chart representation shown in figure 2.3 For example:
IF Weather condition is good
THEN
Reach the School by riding bicycle
OTHERWISE
Reach the school by bus
The following is the general format for a structured outline representation of a repetitive
structure:
REPEAT IF < CONDITION>
<OPERATION 1>
<OPERATION2>
' This representation indicates that the indented operations are to be repeated as long as the
condition is true.
The following is the general format for a structured outline representation of a variant
repetitive structure with decision step following operation:
<OPERATION 1>
<OPERATION 2,
REPEAT IF <CONDITION>
This representation indicates that the indented operations are done before verifying whether
the condition is true or not.
The general format of structured outline representations of the case variant of the alkrtfate
structure is shown below
Computer Based Instruction The general format of structured outline for the abnormal exit variant of the repetitive structure
is shown below
REPEAT IF <CONDITION 1>
<OPERATION 1>
IF <CONDITION 2>
TFfEN EXIT REPEAT
COPERATION 2>
The structured task analysis approach is analogous to the procedure taught in English classes
called outlining. First a thesis is broken down into major topics, which are then divided into
subtopics and so on. In structured task analysis, we break the task on hand into a few major
compodent steps. These major steps are in turn broken down into sub-steps. Each sub-step is
then divided and so on until sub-steps assumed to be within the repertoire of the target
audienae are identified. If any steps involve decision points or repetitive loops they should be
identified and represented using the structured outline version of the primitive structures. This
task walysis procedure is similar to the 'divide-and-conquer' strategy of problem solving.
When (he whole is too complex, divide it into its major parts. Each part is then divided into
subpa1-4~ until we reach simple components with which we are able to cope. In computer
scienca a similar process is referred to as successive refinement.
Let us revise the structured task analysis procedure described above with an example of
changihg a car tyre as a task.
First! identify the major steps required to accomplish the task as shown below:
Secure car
Get tools and spare tyre
Jack up car
Replace tyre
Jack down car
Put away tools and flat tyre
Tbese steps should be quite general but exhaustive. At least three and not more than ten
steps should be identified as major steps. If more than ten steps identified, then some of
the steps should be combined into a more general step.
Second, each of these major steps should be further refined by breaking them into substeps,
as indicated by capital letters in the following outline. step VI is not broken into substeps
since it is assumed it is within the repertoire of the target group of learners.
Secure car.
Place transmission in park
Block wheels
I. Get tools and spare tyre
A. Open trunk
B. Remove spare
6. Remove jack
D. Remove lug wrench
II. JBck up car
A. Set up jack
0. Operate jack
111. Replace tyre
A. Remove lug nuts
b. Remove flat tyre
C. Put on spare tyre -
D. Put on lug nuts
IV. Jack down car Deslgn and Development
of CBI Courseware-I
A. Set jack lever to down
B. Operate jack
V. Put away tools and flat tyre
Third, the substeps are examined for accuracy and completeness, and any errors are rectified.
If individuals perform all of these steps in the order shown, would they be able to accomplish
the task? The procedure as outlined above contains a couple of problems. Step I. A would
not work if the car had manual transmission. The step should be stated in more general terms
and further analysis should allow for alternate operations, depending on the type of transmission.
If we attempt to remove the lug nuts, as indicated in step IV. A, after the car has been jacked
up, as indicated in step 111, we would find that we are unable to accomplish the step since
the wheel is free to turn. This problem can be resolved by adding an additional step to loosen
the lug nuts prior to jacking up the car. A similar problem exists with step IV.D, 'put on lug
nuts'. The lug nuts can be put on at this point, but they cannot be tightened while the tyre
is off the ground. Therefore, another substep needs to be added to tighten the lug after the
car is jacked down.
Fourth, the substeps are divided into further smaller steps, and decision points and repetitive
loops are presented, using appropriate outline structures:
I. Secure car
A. Place transmission in park
. If automatic transmission .

then
Place transmission in park
else
Place transmission in reverse
B. Block wheels
[I. Get tools and spare tyre
A. Open trunk
B. Remove spare
I C. Remove jack
D. Remove lug wrench
111. Jack up car
A. Loosen lug nuts
Repeat for each lug nut
Repeat until hand loose
Turn nut with wrench
B. Set up jack
1. Assemble jack
I
I 2. Place jack under car

3. Set jack lever to up

C. Operate jack
Repeat until tyre clears ground
push jack handle
IV. Replace tyre
I A. Remove lug nuts
Computer Based Instruction
B. Remove flat tyre
C. Put on spare tyre
D. Put on lug nuts
Repeat for each nut
Repeat until hand tight
turn nut with hand
V. Jack down car
A. Set jack lever to down
B. Operate jack
C. Tighten lug nuts with wrench
VI. Put away tools and flat tyre
Fifth, the corqpleted analysis would now be validated by actually having an individual attempt
to accomplish the task following the outlined procedure.
The structured outline serves as an analysis tool and final representation of the results of the
analysis. It is a very powerful representation, since it shows both the sequential and hierarchical
relationships between the steps of the procedure. The sequence in which the steps are to be
)
performed is shown by reading the outline from top to bottom. The hierarchical relationships
between the steps are revealed by noting the substeps indented to the right.

2.5.4 Sequencing Tasks

n o factors should be considered in sequencing steps in a procedural CBI lesson. One concern
is how much of the sequence should be presented in one lesson; a designer should select
between whole-task and part-task sequence plans. A second consideration is whether the steps
should be presented in forward or backward sequence. A forward sequence, from first to last
step, is usually used. However, there are some instances where it may be useful to present
steps in a procedure in a backward manner, last step first, then second to last step, and so on.
These considerations are described below.

Whole-'Ilask and Part-Task Training

Using whole-task plan, individual parts of a skill are practised in sequence, and the entire
sequence may be practised before any component is mastered. For whole-task CBI lessons,
it is usually desirable to select a task that can be performed completely during each instructional
session. The procedure should have enough steps that going through the procedure will not
exceed the expected length of the instruction session.
A whole-task plan might be used in a lesson to teach a job procedure such as filling in an
order form that contains only 15 blanks. The student could practise filling in the form completely
in one session. The student would continue through the form even if errors were made on
certain blanks, Mastery in completing blank 1 is not prerequisite to attempting to fill in blank
2, and so on. A whole-task plan increases the student's sense of context and provides
reinforcement for completion even at the first lesson.
Using a part-task plan, individual parts of the task are mastered before the total task is
attempted. This method is appropriate where the task is complex, easily broken down into
discrete components, with each component containing a few steps that the component may be
completely parformed in one session. Use of a part-task plan prevents the student from
quickly performing the entire task, but probably reduces errors that would be made in performing
a complicated task all at once from the beginning.

Forward Chaining
Most CBI les~onsthat teach tasks or procedures are conducted using a forward-chaining
procedure. Forward-chaining procedures should be used:
1. When the steps must be performed in a forward fashion because later stages depend on
the completion of earlier steps, and
 2. For certain sequences which are arbitrary but accepted by convention. Design and Development
of CBI Courseware-I
Teaching an employee to fill in an order blank that leads to the calculation of a grand total
for amount due illustrates the first case in which forward sequencing should be used. Customer
identification and shipping information usually goes at the top of the form, then the items /

ordered, unit cost per item, quantity per item ordered, subtotal price, tax, shipping, and grand
total are calculated. Each step in the calculation must be completed before the grand total is
calculated. The sequence of steps is not arbitrary in this case; the g r a n h t a l must be calculated
in a specific way. Backward chaining could not be used because the blank for.the grand total
cannot be filled in first.
An example of the second case is the way we learn the alphabet. We learn a, then a-b, then
a-b-c, n o t z , y-z, then x-y-z. The sequence of letters in the alphabet is arbitrary, although
accepted by convention, This type of sequence is taught in a forwardmanner.

Backward Chaining
In backward chaining, the last link or component skill in the chain is taught first because the
last step produces the terminal reinforcement. That reinforcement is task completion. Once
that step is mastered, the next-to-the-last step is added so that now two steps must be performed
before the task is completed. Those two steps are practised in sequence until mastery is
reached, then the next step back is added, and so on, until the entire chain is mastered.
A common example of a backward chaining procedure is the way many of us were taught to
tie our shoes. Oue early attempts to complete the entire sequence in a forward manner
produced groans and frustration. So the parent or sibling would complete most of the tie; then
all we had to do was pull through the final loop. As we mastered each step, more and more
steps were added backward until we mastered it all,

1 C ~ C B Your
C ~

I ~ o t e s :i)
Progress
Write your answers in the \pace given below.

I' 5 . ti) Compare your ar,swers with th17se given at the end of the unit.
chve an example oi' structured outline represrniatlon of a case structure.

6. Givl: an example each of: (a) repetitive structure. (b) variant repetitive structuie with
tlecision step following operation. and (c) variant repetiiive structure with abnormal exit.

...........................................................................................................................................
17 (:n you name SIX different primitive structures introduced in this Unit'?
I

Enabling Objectives are specific statements that lead to learning outcomes. The enabling
I objectives are developed to support the specific objectives discussed above. The enabling
I
objectives shall conform to the following requirements.
Computer Based Instruction a) The enabling objectives shall be derived from the subtasks which support each task
selected for training in the task analysis.
b) Each enabling objective shall have three, parts: condition(s), performance, and
standards.
c) The enabling objectives shall be sequenced in the best order for learning and shall
be labelled with lower case letters, beginning with "a".
d) The type of learning represented by each enabling objective associated with a
cognitive terminal objective shall be indicated in the appropriate place using the
following labels:
1. An enabling objective requiring the student to recall specific and general
information, recall a pattern, sequence, or condition, or require the process of
remembering, shall be labelled "K", for "Knowledge."
2. An enabling objective requiring the student to know how and why a procedure
or action should be performed (i.e., describing function and fact), shall be
labelled "C," for "Comprehension."
3. An enabling objective requiring the use of ideas, rules, procedures, methods,
theories, and concepts in appropriate situations shall be labelled "AP," for
"Application."
4. An enabling objective requiring the separating of a unit, such as a problem,
policy, directive, technical material, schematic, or flow diagram, into its parts
qnd showing the relationship between the parts, shall be labelled "AN," for
"Analysis."
5. An enabling objective requiring putting elements together to form a whole,
make a pattern, or form an approach, shall be labelled "S," for "Synthesis."
6. An enabling objective requiring a judgzment or appraisal as to the value, or
extent, to which materials or methods satisfy recognized criteria, shall be labelled
"E," for "Evaluation."
e) In the case of enabling objectives supporting a performance specific objective, at
least one of the enabling objectives shall also reflect a performance requirement.
We will illustrate how enabling objectives can be derived from specific objectives. For this
purpose let US assume that a course is offered to students in word processing using the
software MS-word-97. The Course goals/objectives, prerequisite qualifications, and content
are as follows.
Course goalslrobjectives: Learning word processing skills using MS-word-97 and increasing
the speed of antering words. Accuracy and editing skills are emphasized in the preparation
of business correspondence, reports, tables and employment documents.
Prerequisite for the course: Basic competency in entering words using MS-Word-97.
Course Outlihe:
A. Skill Drive
1. Accunacy Development
2. Speed Development
3. Timcd Writings
4. Skills Refinement
5. MS-Word-97 Software
B. Business Correspondence
1. Multipage Letters
2. Special Letter Parts
3. Letters with Tables
4. Multivage Memos with Tables
 5. Memo Reports Design and Development
of CBI Courseware-I
C. Reports
1. Format Report Projects
D. Tables
1. Inserting and Deleting Rows and Columns
2. Joining and Splitting Cells
3. Calculations
4. Formatting Options
5. Revising Tables
E. Specialized Applications
t 1. Legal
2. Insurance
3. Hospitality
4. Government
5. Employment Document
F. Rough-Draft Material
G. Handwritten Material
H. Employment Document
I. Language Arts
J. Tests
1. Production Tests
2. Progress Test
Based on the above course outlineltasks,we can derive course specific objectives. The following
are the course specific objectives.
1. The student will enter words on a eomputer using MS-Word-97 for Windows software
at a rate of 40 words a minute for five minutes with no more than four errors at least five
times.
2. . The student will utilise touch keying and word processing skills in the preparation of
documents.
3. The student will compose and key original documents on the computer.
4. The student will display office standards in quality of work, demeanor, work habits,
business ethics, and attendance.
For each course specific objective indicated above, we can derive enabling objectives:
I
Enabling Objectives of Course Objective-1
1. The student will key accurately using the alphabetic, number, symbol and function keys
on the keyboard.
2. The student will complete accuracy drills as directed by the instructor.
3. The student will keyboard speed-building drills according to criteria set by the instructor.
4. The student will key straight-copy material at a rate of 40 words a minute for three
minutes with no more than five errors at least five times.
5. Enabling Objectives 1 and 4 will be evaluated by the instructor when timed wriungs are
submitted for grading beginning with the second week of class and continuing at least
once a week thereafter.
6. The instructor will evaluate enabling Objectives 2-3 when the student submits the drills
for grading as directed by the instructor. 51
Computer Based Instruction Enabling Objectives of Course Objective-2
1. The student will use MS-Word-97 software to input, revise, and output documents.
0

2. The stydent will produce mailable copy from statistical, rough draft, and handwritten
material.
3. The student will proofread and use Proofreaders' marks to revise each document for
accuracy.
4. Enabling Objectives 1-3 will be evaluated by the instructor when assignments are submitted
to be graded as directed by the instructor.
Enablidg Objectives of Course Objective3
1. Given 8 topic, the student will compose and output original documents on the computer
within 30 minutes, as directed by the instructor.
2. The student will use acceptable Language, Art ski.lls>and keying techniques according to
criteria indicated by the instructor.
3. Enabling Objectives will be evaluated by the instructor when the original documents are
submitted for grading as directed by the instructor.
Enabling Objectives of Course Objective4
1. The student will output documents with no more than three errors.
2. The student will demonstrate a professional demeanor that would be acceptable in an
office setting as indicated by the instructor.
3. The student will work efficiently in production of documents.
4. The student will exhibit ethics that would be acceptable to an employer in an office
situatian.
5. The student will work independently, follow directions, and employ problem-solving
abilities to complete assignments.
6 . The student is expected to attend scheduled classes on time.
7. nab lid^ Objective 1 will be evaluated by the instructor as indicated in Course Objectives
4-5.
8. Enabling Objectives 2-6 will be evaluated by personal observation of the instructor during
the student's scheduled class periods. 1
I ..
_.______.._i--._________l-----.-I ..... ~ . ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ _ .I I ~ ~ ~ . ~ . ~ --.
! !
1 b 'heck Y q r Progress
i
/ Noftrs: i , \ii:.i1c your ;~!~.;wci.,<
111 the ,\pni'c given i~c!o\v

! 31) Compare your answer5 with t h o ~ cglvrn ;I[ the end of th:. LIIII~

What Bre the labels uscd in writing enabling ol~ectivri;'.'

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I
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........................................................................................................................................
What are the requirements in writing enabling ob.ject~ves'?
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 Design and Development
2.7 LET US SUM UP of CBI courseware-I

This unit provides a brief account of the philosophy of instructional objectives in designing
CBI courseware. We have introduced to you various levels of domains of instructional
objectives. Before developing course materials for training people to perfon I specific tasks
we must have a complete understanding of the nature of the tasks and their sequencing
procedure. For this purpose we have given you a comprehensive framework of task analysis.
Deriving specific objectives and enabling objectives from tasks is also explained with examples
where necessary.

2.8 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1. How can domains of instructional objectives help in defining specific instructional
objectives?
P
2. What is task analysis? ,
3. What are the different approaches to task acalysis?
,- 4. Explain briefly hierarchical task analysis and information processing task analysis?
5.. What are the different primitive structures used in structured task analysis?
6. What is the difference between whole-task and part-task lesson planning? When should
each be used?
7. What is the difference between backward and forward chaining? When should each be
used?
8. How does a CBI designer determine the sequence of tasks?
9. Select any one concept or course and write course specific objectives and enabling
objectives.

2.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Condition: The setting in which the demonstration of learning will take place, including
environment and materials, where appropriate.
Behaviour: A description of an overt (observable) behaviour that may be measured (and
from which one can infer that the learner has learned).
Performance: Measurement criteria for achievement of the objective.
2. We write. instructional objectives so that:
better instruction occurs
more efficient learning results
better evaluation occurs
students become better self-evaluators

p 3. The labeling of instructional objectives are necessary to indicate the type of learning.
4. The specific objectives should confirm the following requirements.
a) At least one specific objective shall be written for each task selected for training.
b) Each specific objective shall have three parts: condition(s), performance, and
standards.
c) The specific objectives shall be sequenced in the best order for learning and shall
*be numbered consecutively, beginning with "1." etc.
d) The time for reaching each specific objective shall be estimated and indicated at an
appropriate place.
I
Computer Based Instruction e) The type of learning represented by each specific objective shall be indicated at an
appropriate place using suitable labels.
5. Consider the example given in this Unit of using, room coolers, fans, room heaters, and
not to use any of the above electric appliances depending on room temperature.
SELECT APPROPRIATE CASE
IF Room Temperature above 35°C
Use room coolers
IF Room Temperature between 20°C to 35°C
Use fans
IF Room Temperature below 10°C
Use room heaters
IF Room Temperature between 10°C to 20°C
Do not use any of the above electric appliance
6 a)Consider the example of entering roll numbers and marks obtained in Mathematics and
Science subjects by 40 students of class X in their progress reports.
REPEAT IF a student roll number is less than or equal to 40
8 Enter roll number in the progress report
Enter marks in Mathematics subject
Enter marks in Science subject
6 b)For the example given above the roll numbers and marks can be entered in the following
way:
Enter roll number in the progress report
Enter marks in Mathematics subject
Enter marks in Science subject
REPEAT *a student roll number is less than 40
6 c)Consider the example of identifying a folder containing information on house contract
from a set of file folders which are not arranged in alphabetically.
REPEAT IF More file folders
Pull folder
Read label on folder
IF label is one House Contract
THEN EXIT REPEAT
Refile folder
7. The primitive structures are:
a) Linear structure
b) Alternate structure
c) Case structure
d) Repetitive structure
e) Repetitive structure with decision step following the operation
f) Repetitive structure with abnormal exit
8. The labels used in writing enabling objectives are:
i) Knowledge - K
ii) Comprehension - C
 iii) Application - A Design and Development
of CBI Courseware-I
iv) Analysis - AN
V) Synthesis - S
vi) Evaluation - E
9 The enabling objectives shall conform to the following requirements.
The enabling objectives shall be derived from the subtasks which support each
task selected for training in the task analysis.
Each enabling objective shall have three parts: condition (s), performance, and
standards.
The enabling objectives shall be sequenced in the best order for learning and shall
be labelled with lower case letters, beginning with "a".
The type of learning represented by each enabling objective associated with a
cognitive terminal objective shall be indicated in the appropriate place using the
suitable labels.

2.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Gagne, R. M. (1987): Instructional Technology: Foundations, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Inc.
Marland, P.W. and R.E. Store (1982): Some Instructional Strategies for Improved Learning
from Distance Teaching Materials, Distance Education, Vol. 3, No. 1.
Criswell, E. L. (1989): The Design of Computer-Based Instruction, Macmillian Publishing
Company. New York.
Bloom, B.S. (Ed.), (1956): Taxonomy of Instructional Objectives: The Classification of
instructional Goals. Handbook 1. Cognitive Domain. New York: McKay.
 3.4 ~ e " e l o ~ m e nStyles
t and Screen Design
3.4.1 Goal

3.4.4 Screen Design Planning

3.4.6 Utilities of Screen Designing
,3.4.6 Environment Utilising in the Developmental Process

1
3.5 Prototype Generation
3.5.1 Concept
I
3.5.2 lmpoAance
3.5.3 Application
3.6 Test Items
3.6.1 Concept
3.6.2 Type
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 Unit-end Exercises
3.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

I 3.10 Suggested Readings

1
II 3.1 INTRODUCTION
Now-a-days computers and computer based communication system have a major role in
1f
I
1 education field. It is neither the increased scale of use nor their immediacy of response, it is
simply that micro-computers have made us all into computer managers as well as users. The
revolution is thus not in micro-eleckonics but in personal computer system also. One decade

I
administrative activities in our country. The situation may not be same in schools located in
rural and remote areas but todav access is not difficult. i
potentialities can be manipulated by the experts who use it the best possible way. The courseware
developed adapts the principles we use in the course development in any medium i.e. printed
SIM, audio-video SiM, etc. In this unit, the focus is mainly on the issues involved with the
selection of media in CBI design and development. The other aspects are developlment styles
and screen design, prototype generatjgn and test items.
. /
The field of educational media and technology is of interest to educational reformers as well
as educational planners. This is due to the radical change which can bring about in educational
curricula gnd techniques by their potential to produce and distribute quality materials.
 Design and Development
3.2 OBJECTIVES o f CBI Courseware-I1

After going through the unit, you will be able to:

understand the relevance of media in design and development of CBI;
list the issues related to media selection in CBI design and development;
understand the various points involved in development styles and screen design in CBI;
and
describe the prototype generation and test items in the context of design and development
of CBI.

3.3 MEDIA SELECTION ISSUES

3.3.1 Concept
The communication media used in education to date are Radio and Television. This was
followed by the use of computers based materials such as Computer-Based Tutors. These are
passive media and does not involve the learner while teaching. The selection of an appropriate
communication media to impart mass education'by using the CBI is very critical. The use of
a computer in delivering CBI provides an interactive environment for the learners. They can
proceed with the learning material any number of times and at their own pace of learning.
This has become more serious in developing countsies where problems are enormous and
resources relatively scarce. The communication media should be apt to be relied upon to be
useful in the years ahead.
In keeping with an expanded concept of education and the variety of activities now subsumed
under such a concept, the role and expectations surrounding the users of communication
media have broadened considerably in last years. The trend is towards systematic educational
planning. Planning involving a wide variety of resources, prevails in most countries as well
as to numerous international organizations workihg to different educational innovation of all
kinds.

3.3.2 Purpose
The computerization trend consists of a purposeful and integrated approach to the use of
communication media. So many interesting projects and experiments involving communication
media have taken place in area where the educational needs appear most pressing and where
traditional educational resources such as schools, trained teachers and learning materials of
all kinds are in the shortest supply.

3.3.3 Need
Although the performance of the media to date in various educational reform and development
projects has not been uniformly successful. Several projects have been initiated but few have
survived long enough to demonstrate the scale or quality of impact that their originators and
administrators had initially anticipated. So far the vision of what the media could accomplish
in education has not been proceeded by adequate analysis of the specific educational problems
that were to be addressed.

3.3.4 Role of Media Selectio -

1 Now-a-days communication media have been spread throughout the world and created a
network of interconnectedness among almost all nations. Radio spread rapidly during the
years after 1960 as transistors made cheap portable radios a possibility for many people even
1 in poor rural area, televisions is now spreading throughout many area of the world. After that
television lies with both schools and the families as a socialising force. Today computer has
I taken a place at every where.
I
3.3.5 Kind
Each and every field of education has been effected with the impact of computer and networking.
The following are issues which are needed for media selection:
Computer Basedl Instruction
a
Step-I : It is devoted to examining a suitable theoretical base for the production of the Design and Development
computer video disc Software to teach the concept of weather forecasting. This step of the of CBI Courseware-II
developmental project was to derive design dimension based upon a review of the existing
literature especially that applying to :
i) Learning problems in geography;
ii) Translation of these dimensions for video disc materials.
Step-11 : This step involved that recording of visual materials on 16 mm film as part of a
larger video disc material project. This step had distinct but integrated stages:
i) Selection and preparation of presentation chart and diagrams;
ii) Selection of satellite images to match the synoptic charts and diagrams;
iii) Selection and preparation of diagrams and illustrations using graphic design technique.
Step III : This involved in computer assisted learning courseware preparation. It has two

i) Deliberation about selection of an appropriate programming language system to generate

the initial coding for CAL Program;
ii) Adoption and refinement of Apple Super PILOT in the computer assisted interactive
video instruction designing.
Step IV : This is involved in evaluation of computer-assisted interactive video materials.

3.4.3 Screen Design Objectives.

The concept 'Screen Design' to the development of computer assisted learning has emerged
as a result of closely related two issues. First current micro-computer technology with the
dynamic visual display rather than the older, typed scrolled output from a teletype printer
terminal, has opened up opportunities which are greatly affected the way in where the user
can actually interact with the program. Second, h e problems of handling images requires
methods of defining very clearly particular areas of the screen and the drawing of graphs on
them. This is emerging aspects of screen design and the control of a program linked with a
style of designing and code, and related to the option decoder. In the sequence of development
it has been apparent that the screens not just a dynamic replacement of the scrolling paper line
by line output of the teletype it is now a key part of the way the user perceives the program
and interacts with it.

3.4.4 Screen Design Planning

From its starting, computer is an effective learning aid is being influenced by the design of
the screen, far more attention needed to be given to the planning, designing and execution of
screen displays. Primary units were very much a reflection of the structure of the code and
its associated roles, this, in some cases actually observed the educational purpose of the unit
itself. The collection of expertise suggested the new general insights into the issues:
i) The graphics should be associated with pictorial image.
ii) Picture must be used to replace words.
iii) Appropriate and excessive use of colour combination
iv) Various strategies to be used by artists over the countries could be used to provide a sense
of depth and related importance being the screen two-dimensional.
v) Because space is an important component of any picture so that use of space should be
effectively done by considering its positive benefits.
vi) Messages to drive the program do not need to be separated from the graphics areas, but
can be incorporated within.

3.4.5 Utilities of Screen Designing

It is important to try to give the screens, particularly when they change some visual
continuity, without linking disparate elements in a spurious way.
Computer Based Instruction Generally, people read fro
headings or titles at the to
at the bottom.
Always clear existing information before replacing it with new. This root only attracts
attention to the cleared part in anticipation of the new, but it prevents the new f&m being
mudded with the old.
Create an impression of depth by using shadow, colour or perspective.
Animation can direct the eye towards the area of the screen that is currently most significant.

3.4.6 Environment Utilising in the Developmental Process , ,

The most important consideration of screen deisgn can make a significant difference to the
impact of a CAL with. It is important to link the design with the accompanying notes this
creates a server of the unity of identity for the whole package. This can be achieved by
choosing particular pictorial image and a title that are not only used on the front page of the
software and the title cover of the booklets, but which can be readily associated in the user's
mind with the unique contents o f t
the need of user.

T~heci-iGr Progress
Notes: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
5. What is the goal of developmental process?
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I 6. What i s the objective of screen design?

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7. What are the three utilities of screen designing?
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8. What are the environments may be adopted for developmental process?
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 Design and Development
3.5 PROTOTYPE GENERATION of CBI Courseware-I1

3.5.1 Concept
Prototype generation is a process through which we perform two jobs simultaneously i.e.
development as well as online data testing. Generally at the time of development a developer
faces the problem that how to test the software. Dummy data use for testing the software in
precise but at the epoch of implement the same software it gives the problems. So that the
concepts of prototype has taken a place. The live data is to be tested at the time of developmental
process.

3.5.2 Importance
Now-a-days prototype techrlique is very important technique in IT technology. To develop a
package for Import Export Trade Licensing, Custom, Central Excise and passport, etc. This
technique proved a very dynamic role. A developer can sort out the problem which helshe
faced at the developing stage immediately. Some advantages are below:
i) It is time saving process during the developmental stage.
ii) Software implies the accuracy and perfectness by least efforts.
iii) User-friendly and interactive media for development.

3.5.3 Application
In the field of development so many applications of prototype are involved. All trunky
projects in industry, agriculture, space, defense, food and civil supply are handled through this
technique. Perfect software maintenance is possible.through prototype generation.

3:6- TEST ITEM

3.6.1 Concept
Test item is an essential part of education system. It is involved uniformly in education at the
different stages. Test item depends upon the nature of educational structure. Without testing
system the education system is incomplete. Test item may be structured as per the requirement
of educational pattern. It is a matter of fact to assume that computerized test system can be
implemented into educational setting with automatic success. Using information technology
in education management, selection of test items irrespective of scope is an innovative process
which needs managing. Test item has a broad scope encompassing management activities in
exam planning and assessment in education field.

3.6.2 'Qpe
I
I
I There are following types of test item:
I
d
i) Personality Test (oral test)
ii) Academic test
F iii) Computer Aided performance test
I
i) Personality Test
This test is conducted for individual student. In the classroom the teacher asks the
question and examines the performance of individual student during the lecture'. Teacher
may judge that the particular student is grasping the concept or not in the class.
Demonstration on computer is the best media for such test because at the screen of
computer, teacher may ask the question.
ii) Academic Test
Academic test is a regular basis test through which a ce&n course covered by the
teacher at the fixed time interval. There are various kind of academic test as following:
Computer Based Instruction a) Weekly test
b) Monthly Test
c) Half Yearly Test
d) Annually Test
(a) Weekly Test: In this item the test covers the course which has been taught during a week.
The question paper prepared on a computer and student solve it on computer also.
(b) Moathly Test: The course of one month taken for monthly test on computer. This is
cumulative test of four weeks on computer.
(c) Half Yearly Test: This is mid session test and included the course of last six month.
There is also a valuation programme at computer which valuate the questions' answer.
(d) Annually Test: This is conducted once in a year and covers thi course of whole year.
(iii) Compute~AidedPerformance Test
This is an advance technique for taking the exam as well as valuation. In the procedure there
are a question bank of various questions covering the whole course under different topics.
There is also mentioned a time frame which effects course. For example, if we want to take
the weekly test the computer ask the period of exam. We may cover the course of one ~ e e k
as we have given the period for one week. In the same way monthly test, half yearly and
annual test may be conducted by computer feeding the assigned time period. A package is
also available on computer for assessing the answer. So that teacher can examine the
performance of students. Presently this technique has been adopted in civil service exam and
in many other departments also.

3.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have covered the four major content points: media selection issues, development
of styles and screen, design, prototype generation and test items. The major issues discussed,
with respect to media selection, are concept, purpose, need, role and kinds. Goals of
development process, steps of development, scre'en tlesign.'objectives and planning, utilities
of screen designing and environments utilizing in developmental process are discussed under
the theme developmental styles and screen design. Concept, importance and application of
prototype generation are discussed under prototype generation. The test items discussed in
two aspects i.e. concept and type of test items.
62
/. , ,
 Design and Development
3.8 UNIT-END EXERCISES of CBI Conmeware-I1

1. Select a few CBI coursewares and analyse them with respect to the issues discussed in
this unit. Discuss about them with your peers at the study centre and write a report.
. Select any topic of your choice from secondaryhigher secondary school syllabus. Write
a report highlighting the media selection issues you would like to consider in design and
development of CBI courseware in this topic. Write a report.

3.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Media selection issues is a tool by which we manage the learning process.
2. i) Teaching with computer
ii) Administration with computer
3. To Spread the knowledge throughout the world.
4. i) Improvement of instruction and learning quality
ii) Impact of communication media on rural aiea
iii) Participation of people in their own education
5. Test Item is a media to examine the performance of the student.
6. Computer based examination is called the computer-aided performance test.
7. i) Personality test I

I
ii) Academic test
, iii) Computer-aided performance test
I

3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Watson, D. (1987): Developing CAL: Computers in the Curriculum, Harper & Row Publishers,
London.
McAnany, E.G. and Mayo, John K. (1980): Commuication Media in Education for Low-
Income Countries: Implications for Planning, International Institute for Educational Planning,
UNESCO.
 UNIT 4 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF
CBI COURSEWARE - I11
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Testing and Evaluation '

4.3.1 Testing
4.3.2 Evaluation
4.3.3 Qpes of Evaluation
4.3.4 Revising CBI
4.4 Integrated Unitized Package
4.4.1 Role of Unitized Package
4.4.2 Methods of Integration
4.5 Implementation of Software Packages
4.5.1 Implementation Concepts
4.5.2 Courseware Implementation
4.6 Let Uri Sum Up
4.7 Unit-end Exercises
4.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The process of testing, evaluating and integrating software packages is very essential for
producing an effective software. Any software developed for a purpose need to be tested for
its error free operation. The sofware has to be evaluated for its operational effectiveness and
changes required, if any, are incorporated. In view of the complex nature of software for
instructional usage, the development is done on unit basis and they are then integrated together
so as to form a complete CBI courseware in specific problem solving area. This is followed
by implementation of the software at the users place. The project manager has to ensure that
the courseware should not be developed as unsound and useless since it may damage the
designer's reputation.

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

understand the importance of evaluation and testing in designing CBI;
discuss the significance of integrated unitized package in CBI; and
describe the implementation of aftware packages in CBI.

4.3 TESTING AND EVALUATION

The development cycle of software involves various stages. Some of these are need analysis,
conception or initiation, feasibility study, detailed system study, design, development, testing
and implementation. These tasks are perf0rmed.b~various personnel having their expertise
in the specific area. Once the system is designed, a blueprint of the same is provided to the
development team consisting of programmers. The programmers are responsible for developing
I programs (codes) according to the design specifications. Once this is done, the designers and
I 64
developers together test the system. The objective of the testing is to ensure that the programs Design and Development
of CBI Courseware-111
are errorfree and there is no logical error in the programs. Once the testing is over the
software is evaluated for its usefulness for the catkgoty of users for whom it has been
developed.

4.3.1 Testing
You all have been familiar with this term. Generally, it means - to examine an element of data,
program or any other indicator to ascertain whether some pre-determined condition is satisfied.
Testing is a process of carrying out the test on some element of data or program.
The testing can be done for hardware or the software. When a computer is switched on, a
testing program is executed which is designed to check the correct functioning of the hardware
units of a computer such as memory, hard disk, floppy disk, keyboard, etc. The testing of a
software is the process of checking the correctness of the programs and their integration in
terms of dataflow, results, etc. The operational functioning of the programs is checked in this
stage. When a courseware is developed, it also needs to be tested by the designers to check
whether the courseware software is working according to the logic specified, is able to handle
the abnormal situations and doesn't stop working abruptly giving some error. For example -
incorrect typing errors, when numerical input is required, alphabetic information is keyed in;
when zero or a negative number is input; the switchover from one frame to next frame
without Bypassing the intermediate frames, etc. It is therefore essential to perform a test run
of the system. Test run is a test performed on the software system so as to check that the same
is operating correctly. This testing process has to be performed before the software is released
to the users or to the market.
The testing of programs is generally carried out by using the test data. Test data is the sample
input data, covering as many likely and unlikely combinations as reasonable, as to test programs.
While using the test data, expected results are a&o prepared and compred with the
results produced by the computer based system. In case of any variation in the two, the
program has to be corrected and the process is repeated until the expected-and the actual
results match.
Sometimes it is difficult to identify the fault or bug in the program. A bug is the fault in a
program that forces a program not to function in accordance with the purpose for which it is
developed. The process of identifying faults in a program is called debugging. For this
purpose generally use is made of certain tools referred to as diagnostic procedures such as
Trace, Monitor, etc. These diagnostic routines include programs for producing printouts of
memory at various stages of a program and also various forms of analysis of the step by step
progress of a program.
In case of computer-based instruction (CBI) courseware, before it is released for the first time,
an in-house review is conducted. This is called CBI testing. The'designer, programmer and
other consultants are involved in the testing of the courseware. They check various conditions,
generates test data, produces a schedule of expected results and compares the computerized
results with the usual manual results. Some of the important factors tested are: smooth flow
of the lesson, the correctness of the feedback given to both wrong and right answers, pleasant
looking frames with no typographical errors, ability of the program to provide assistance to
the students if extra help is required, etc. Although testing goes alongwith the development
process i.e. testing of each program individually, but the testing of the complete ready
courseware is also essential so as to test the linkage of all the programs i.e. overall functioning.
Although the development, it should be kept in mind that testing is very crucial. It needs to
be handled very carefully as an improper software testing may result in complete rejection of
the software. If it is not done properly the software may not be acceptable to the users as the
possible errors or incorrect results and their inept handling may discourage the users from
using the same.

4.3.2 Evaluation
The last step in the design of a system is its evaluation in comparison with the system it is
going to replace. The objective of evaluation is to determine the adequacy of CBI software
for the target group users thereby improving the effectiveness of the software. It is determined
whether the courseware is achieving the objective of imparting,learning in the subject area
Computer Based F t m c t i o n for which it was conceived, designed and developed. For this purpose, sometimes, users are
also approached to get their views and suggestions (feedback) on the new system. On the
basis of this feedback and other.gvaluation results, the courseware is revised or modified so
as to improve the weak areas of CBI.
The evaluation of the courseware is carried out after the testing process is over. In most of
the cases, evaluation is performed by the person other then analyst and is generally carried
out by the subject-matter expert and the users.

4.3.3 Qpes of Evaluation

A thorough courseware evaluation includes four components:
Structbral Evaluation - It is an assessment of the structure and appearance of the
lesson. It is useful in predicting how well the courseware will teach without actually
having students test it. This evaluation identifies weaknesses for the lack of effectiveness.
Functional Evaluation - It tests how well the courseware teaches. In this a student's
skill level is measured before and after completing the course to determine how effective
was the courseware. This component in itself is not adequate but is very important in the
evaluation process.
Cost-Effective Evaluation - This aims at evaluating the worth of the courseware i.e.
if a courseware is worth the money it requires to acquire. Weighing costs against training
effectiveness lgads to wise decision making.
User-Opinion- Students and teacher opinions about the courseware needs to be assessed.
If the users do not like the courseware and find it boring for some reason, the courseware
will never succeed, no mater how effective it may be.
Courseware evaluation should be conducted atleast twice. These are known as formative and
summative tvaluations. You have read about formative and summative evaluations in details
in the cour$e ES-333 Educational Evaluation. The first evaluation should be conducted to
guide courseware revisions before the courseware is released. These are formative
evaluations", conducted during product formation. User opinions are also obtained apart
from structural evaluation. The designer then corrects the weaknesses of the courseware
before releasing the product. The second evaluation called summative evaluation is conducted
with potential courseware purchasers, potential users and courseware researchers. The data
from this evaluation guide purchase and use decisions. It aims at identifying if the product
i.e. courseware is acceptable, or is better than other products.

4.3.4 Reiising CBI

By conducting various evaluations of the CBI courseware, as much evaluation data as possible
is collected! On the basis of this data, the designer determines what type of revision of
courseware is required. The various types of revisions are:
To improve function - to make it teach.
To Improve Opinions - to be acceptable to users.
, To improve cost-effectiveness - to be affordabIe.
. -. . .___- .
.I.
.-_
._ . . . _ .. _~ ^I__-_.. ...........................

h i,.c....5;. ;'<;81@-
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2 F'~&?~TCSS
 Design and Development
4.4 INTEGRATED UNITIZED PACKAGE of CBI Courseware-In

A package is a software developed so as to serve a specific purpose(s) e.g. word processing

package, spreadsheet package, database package, accounting package, invento~ypackage, etc.
A package in the earlier time used to be developed as a single module ke. all the functions
provided by developing only a single program. This approach was difficult to develop: modify,
upgrade in future, and document and even a single fault could make the entire package
inoperative. These were required to be developed by a single individual and hence more time
required for development. As a result of this, this problem vas improved by adopting the
modular approach in which the entire task was divided into separable units for independent
development and testing by programmers. Once all the modules are developed, they were
integrated together so as to form a complete software or package. This approach overcomes
majority of the shortcomings of the earlier approach to software development. For example,
word processing package is a collection of programs linked togetherso as'to perform the word
procesiing activities like text entry, formatting, editing, spell check, thesaurus, forming tables
and printing of nice looking documents or reports. For each of these functions, a separa'te
program is developed. These programs are linked or integrated together so as to provide
smooth data exchange between various programs giving rise to a single package through
which all these functions can be performed.
The term Unitized package refers to a package which is developed using the modular approach
by dividing the subject knowledge into self contained independent learning units. These units
are then taken up for development of CBI units. Each unit is provided with its development
specifications. These specifications help the designer to easily integrate these units into a
workable CBI for a subject area. For example, solution of linear equations could be one unit,
, solution of quadratic equations could be another unit, rrnder the subject of algebra. This
concept is treated as a unit in CBI development process. Some of the information provided
in the specifications are: the topic of unit, curriculum ~ e a , ' w h a aspkcts
t the topic will cover,
sample questions which can be answered after studying this unit, comparison with traditional
mode, program description, sample dialogue, student model, etc. The word 'integration"
means combining of two or more parts into a sihgle one. When this term integration' is used
in reference of software package then it means that two or more applications are combined
into a single package.
I
4.4.1 Role of Unitized Package
In order to ensure that learning occurs in a ~pecific~subject qea, it is eHsential that the
material should be presented in such a way that bhe students can navigate within the CBI
lesson according to their needs. This will need availability of a smooth flow betwee., various
independent units in terms qf frames, screens, and tbpics within fie CBI. The independent
CBI units can be integrated in various ways. It could be either on the basis of subject
relationship, ease of use, order of complexity, etc. This flexible integration facility makes the
user feel as if the CBI lesson is some sort of a package tailored to their needs.

4.4.2 Methods of Integration

Methods for integrating software package are given below:
All-in-One Package: This is a commonly used method for integrating the software meant for
mass utilization.The all-in-one package combines the common applications into a single
program, for example-Frameworks by Ashton Tate, Symphony by Lotus Development and
MS-Office by Microsoft. These packages are having the facility of using the spreadsheet with
graphics, word processing and the database functions and vice versa. The user can conveniently
move from one application to another as all are components of single package. Most of the
all-in-one packages share the common user-interface.
Integrated Series: These are separate applications which can be installed individually but
share common instructions and storage patterns. There is a quick and easy transfer of data
from one application to another. The integrated series software offer the varied functions and
data tkansfer capabilities of stand-alone programs unlike the high RAM requirement of all-in-
,one packages. Smart Software by Innovative Software is example of this method.
~ a c k ~ r o u nUtility
d Programs: This provides limited integration capabilities. Desk accessories
 Computer Based Instruction Desk accessories may be loaded into RAM e.g. accessories like calculator, calendar, telephone
dialer and notepads, etc. are loaded alongwith the main program. Once the utility software is
loaded then a stand-alone program can be loaded into RAM. Due to extra usage of memory
for the accessories, it may not be possible to load some of the applications due to insufficient
primary memory.

4.5 IMPLEMENTATION OF SOFTM7AIWPACKAGES

Implementation of software is a very crucial stage in the development cycle of a CBI courseware.
A carefully planned and executed implementation result in success of the courseware and its
acceptance by the users.

4.5.1 Implementation Concepts

Implementation is the stage of the system when the theoretical design is turned into a working
system. Implementation is concerned with those tasks leading immediately to fully operational
system i.e. placing the completed and tested system of hardware and software into the actual
work environment of the users. Although, it involves system designers, programmer, users and
operatins management (teachers) but the sole responsibility lies with the system (courseware)
designer. This is a very complex and time consuming task and need to be properly planned.
If not controlled properly, it Illay lead to chaos as the successful completion of this stage
determines the acceptance or rejection of a system.
The actual tasks performed during the in~plementationphase varies from project to project and
there is no general consrnsus on this. Sometimes the system testing is also considered a part
of implementation process. Even acquisition of hardware, software, site preparation, setting up
of files, etc. is considered under the umbrella of implementation. The implementation stage
involves the following tasks:
Education and Training
System and File Setup
Changeover
Review and Amendments
An implementation plan is required to be prepared before beginning this exercise. .To achieve
the objectives and benefits of the designed system, it is essential for the users to be confident
in using the system. This is achieved by educating and training them on various aspects of the
68
i

i i
 system such as objectives of the system, design logic, operation, error correction, etc. All the Design and Development
of CBI Courseware-111
system documentation consisting user manuals, procedure manuals, computer operating
instruction and security procedure should be made available to them. System setup is the
process of installing the software package (courseware) on the available hardware at the user's
site. The installation will create appropriate directories, icons and make necessary changes in
the system software so as to enable the courseware to run smoothly on the computer. This will
also setup files required for running the courseware software. The changeover from existing
system to new computer-based system may take place when:
a) the computer-based system has been proved to the satisfaction of the users (students and
teachers) and the necessary setup has been completed.
b) users (teachers) are satisfied with the results of the system test, training and documentation.
The changeover may be achieved in a number of ways: The commonly used methods are:
Direct changeover - complete replacement of the old system with the new. It is bold,
risky and needs well supervised implementation.
Parallel changeover - simultaneous running of old and the new system for some time to
cross check the results. It is safe but more expensive as two systems have to operate.
Pilot changeover - similar to parallel running. The data for the previous periods from the
existing system is used in the new system and the results are compared. The new system
results are acceptable, the system is accepted for installation.
Stage of phased changeover - series of limited size direct changeover, i.e. new system
is inducted piece by piece. A logical part is implemented on the new system and the other
parts continue on the old system. Only when the logical part is acceptable, the next
logical part is taken up by the new system. ;
The implemented system needs to be reviewed (for performance) periodically for changes in
the environment, technology, user needs, etc. This may provide changes to be incorporated
into the system either to correct the errors or improvements. The review is generally performed
by a process called System Audit. The audit leads to appropriate amendments or modifications
I in the operational system so as to take care of the changes desired.

4.5.2 Courseware Implementation

Courseware implementation means making the courseware operational at the user site which
may be as school or any other training institution or may be a home. It should makk sure that
the courseware has been installed and is running on the hardware. It also involves the training
of the user or instructing personnel for operating the same. The designerldeveloper has to
initially sit with the users to make the software fully operational. Either developer may add1
delete or modify certain things on the request of user at the initial stage or the suggestions1
feedback given by the user may be considered to incorporate in the next version of software.
It is desirable that a CBI designer should follow up the courseware so as to see if her users
continue to be satisfied, i.e. study the user satisfaction. In practice this rarely happens for
various ieasons. However, the users should be encouraged to provide the feedback to courseware
I
producers for future modifications or revisions. For example, many textbooks contain a feedback
form for the readers. - -"- - -
-- - - -
, < i?%
ik 1*3t,f
f c'.\
tP5-,tg1
Computer Based Instruction

"4.6 LET US $uM UP

Testing is1Ge process of executing a software package to find out the errors or bugs, if any,
gefore relsaking it t&the users, Testing at&mpts to make the courseware software free of any
prograhrm$&efiors. coursewPee evaluhti6n"follbws the testing process in order to make the
coursewar&more effetive. This i s done twice. First in the form of formative evaluation and
secondly as a summathi evaluatio~.The evaluation helps in revising the CBI courseware to
increase it$ utility and effectiveness.'The CBI courseware is developed as small units covering
individual concepts and b e called CBI units. These units are then integrated together so as
to provide integrated CBI software in a specific subject area. Implementation is the last stage
in the CBt development process. It involves various tasks which actually varies from project
to project. The commonly performed tasks are: Education and Training, System Setup, %

Changeover and finally Review and Amendments to the courseware to ensure that the objective
is continued to be met.

1, Select any two software packages available in your school or you have come to know.
domphre both of them with respect to the four major components of evaluation. Discuss
your observations froin your peer colleagues in the school or at the study centre. Write
a report.
2. Organise a brain-storming session in your study centre on the "Integrated Unitized Package"
and discuss available software package related to the school subjects, you have been
teaching. Write a report highlighting the software and its detailed description on its role
and methods of integration.

4.8 ANSWERS TO'CHEGK YOUR PROGRESS

1.. Testing is done before releasing the software while evaluation is done after the
implementation. Testing is done by the designer and programmers while evaluation is
done mainly by the users. Evaluation results in revision of CBI.
2. Four types of evaluations are: Structural Evaluation, Functional Evaluation, Cost-Effective
Evaluation, User-Opinion.
3. Purpose of evaluation is to make it more useful, effective in terms of functions and cost
by revising the CBI courseware.
4. A unitized package is an independent CBI courseware unit (CBI unit) which can be used
to teach a concept.
5. Integration helps in bringing together various CBI units so as to;provide learning in a
broader subject area as compared to smaller independent cdncepts.
70 \
,
6. Education and Training, System and File Setup, Changeover and Review and Amendments. Deslgn and Development
of CBI Courseware-111
7. The implementation of the system is the sole responsibility of the designerldeveloper.
8. Parallel changeover is safest, but more time consuming and more expensive. Direct
changeover is highly risky, least time delay but less expensive as compared to parallel.
Pilot changeover is safe, less time consuming as compared to parallel changeover. The
phased changeover is less expensive and safe but most time consuming. The designers
draw advantage from each stage which helps in better and successful implementation of
the subsequent stages.

4.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Criswell, E.L. (1989): The Design of Computer Based Instruction, Macmillan Publishing
Company, New York.
Blease, D. (1986): Evaluating Educational Software, Croom Helm, London.
 Student's Feedback Form
Dear Students
Welcome to opting this course in your B.Ed. programme. This course has been identified
considering the potentialities of computer in teaching-learning and other administrative
situations. This course has been developed in an interactive and self-learning manner. As this
is the first version, you have been requested to give your constructive and valuable comments
towards improvement of this course. Your comments on each unit and block are sought.

Thanking you,

(DR.V ~ HJOSHI)
A
Course Coordinator

Address for Communication

Dr. Vibha Joshi
(Course Coordinator)
School of Education
IGNOU
Maidan Garhi
New Delhi - 110 068
 UNIT 5 THE TEACHING AND STUDENT
MODELS
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Types of Teaching Models
5.3.1 Advanced Organizer Model (Ausubel's Model)
5.3.2 Inquiry Training Model (Suchmann's Model, 1962)
5.3.3 Mastery Leaming Model (Bloom's Model)
5.4 Teaching Methods
I 5.4.1 Discovery Learning
!
5.5 Programmed Learning
5.5.1 What is Programmed Leaming ?
I 5.5.2 Principles of Programmed Learning
5.5.3 Types of Programming
5.6 Let Us Sum Up
5.7 Unit-end Exercises
5.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
5.9 Suggested Readings

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Teaching well means helping students learn well. Powerful learners have expanded repertories
of strategies for acquiring education. Models of teaching are designed to impart those strategies
which will help students to develop their personality as a whole. Models of teaching are really
models of learning. As we help students acquire information, ideas, skills, values, ways of
thinking and means of expressing themselves, we are also teaching them how to learn. In this
unit some models are introduced with their purposes and relevance to teaching-learning.
These models capitalize on our nature as social creatures to further learning and to expand
our ability to relate productively to one another. The simplest forms of cooperative learning
organize students to help one another respond to the cognitive and social tasks presented to
them through the information-processing models of teaching. The work of teaching may be
planned, performed and assessed in several ways. Method can not be universal, they change
in the hands of every teacher according to hisher own interest, capacity or attitude. Among
many, discovery learning and programmed learning are more prominent and amendable for
implementation in the computer based learning.

5.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
describe the teaching models;
describe each model in terms of its underlying theory for real leaming situations;
describe teaching models, means and concept of discovery learning;
meaning and concept of programmed learning;
difference between programmed instruction and programmed learning.
 -
Design, Issues and Strategies
5.3 TYPES OF TEACHING MODELS
The core of the process of teaching is the arrangement of environments within which the
sttidents can interxt. A inodel of teaching is a plan or pattern that we can use to design face-
to-face teaching in classroom. Each model guides us as we design instruction to help students
achieve various objectives. Israel Shaffer has told three philosophical models :
Inipression Model
Insight Model
e Rule Model
Another contribution was of John P-Pecesces, who gave the following classification:
Basic Teaching Model
Con!tputer Based Teaching Model
e Teaching Model for School Learning
Inleraction Model of Teaching.
B.R. Joyce has divided all the learning models in these groups:
e Social Interaction Model
e Personal Source and
Behaviours Modification Source
For inclusion in this course, we have selected only three models, which come under information
processing source. We have selected these hecause they constitute a basic repertoire for
schooling. Let's sec them, one by one.

5.3.1 Advanced Organizer Model (Ausubel's Model)

Ausubel's primary concern is to help teachers organize and convey large amounts of information
as meadingfully and efficiently as possible. This model is designed to strengthen student's
cognitive structures, a term Ausubel uses for a person's knowledge of a particular subject
matter at any glven time and how well organized, clear and stable it is. This model is taken
from verbal learning principle, in which the main aim is to give the most possible to students.
According to Ausubel, any subject is a chain of concepts and in our mind also, when we
accept these facts, that is also settled as a chain in our mind, if new concept is presented as
related with the old one.
In this rhodel, teacher first recalls the previous knowledge, then gives the new knowledge on
the basis of previous one. It systemizes the subject in an order, and presents the topic in such
a way that the student will grasp it easily. It is also called as expository model. Here teacher
exposes the whole concepts among students. Teacher gives verbal instruction and students
grasp it as a whole and a chain is made in student's mind.
It is based on the following principles:
1. Principle of Progressive Differentiation : In it, the most progressive idea about the
subject is presented first, then are progressively differentiated in terms of detail and
specifically,
2. Principle of Integrated Reconciliation : It simply means how the ideas should be
consciously reconciled and integrated, with previous knowledge. Thus, the model is
called Advance Organizer Model.
Any model could be described on the basis of following points:
Focus or Aim
9 Smcture
Sacial System and Support System
A h s of Ausubel's Model The Teaching and
Student Models
To give the knowledge of concepts and facts of subject
To develop cognitive structure
To enable the students to arrange the knowledge in a social order
To present the pre-knowledge, explain facts and then present new knowledge so that
the new concepts are correlated to pre-knowledge.

Structure (Syntax)
There are three phases in this model. Phase one is the presentation of the advance organizer,
phase two is the presentation of the learning task and phase three is the strengthening of
cognitive organization. The activities are designed to increase the clarity and stability of the
new learning material. Phase and their corresponding activities have been presented in
Table 5.1

Table 5.1 : Syntax of the Advance Organizer Model

Phase Activities
Phase-1 : Presentation of advance organizer 1. Clarify aims of the lesson
2. Present organizer
Identify defining attributes
- Give examples
- Provide context
- Report
3. Prompt awareness o f learner's relevant
knowledge arid experience.

I Phase-11 : Presenting the learning task. I I. Present material

I
I I 2. Maintain attention
I
1 ( 3. Make organization explicit I
I 1 4. Mnke logical order of learning ~natcrialexplicit 1
Phase-111 : Strengthening the cognitive organization.
I 1.
2.
Use principles of integrative reconciliation
Promote active reception learning
I
3. Elicit critid approach to subject matter

L 4. Clarity

The actual organizer, however is built around the major concepts or propositions of a discipline
or area of study. Following the presentation of the advance organizer in phase one, in phase
two the learning inaterial is presented in the form of lectures, discussions, films, experiments
or reading.
The purpose of phase three is to anchor &c new learning material in the student's existing
cognitive structure that is, to strengthen it. Ideally. the initiation of phase three is shared by
teachers and students. At first, however, the teacher will have to respond to the student's need
for clarification. Essentially, Ausubel has provided us with a method for improving act only
presentations but also student's abilities to learn from them.

Social System
In this model, the teacher is more active. Auslrbel believed that only teacher can represent the
systematic order of knowledge.
Teacher is enable to make effective concepts of knowledge. student's can't class-atnosphere
is autocratic. Student's role is very less, they are only listeners. But in phase two and phase
three, interaction of teacher and student is also done. The successful acquisition of the
material will depend on the learner's desire to integrate it with hisfher prior knowledge, on
their critical faculties, and on the teacher's presentatiors and orga~izationof the material.
Design, k u e s and Strategies Support Spstem
Well organized material is the critical support requirement of this model. The effectiveness
of the advance organizer depends on an integral and appropriate relationship between the
conceptual organizer and the content. Oral and written question-answers could be used for the
presentation of knowledge.

Applicatiop of Model
The model is especially useful to structure extended curriculum sequences or courses and to
guide students systematically in the key ideas. Following are the main application of this
model:
1. Abstract subjects which can't be seen or presented, can be easily taught by this model.
2. Cognitive aims can be achieved by this model. Selection, organization, presentation and
expression can be achieved.
3. We would expect on increase, too in the learner's grasps of factual information which
could be linked to and explained by the key ideas, the concept of ideas. The concept of
socialization can be drawn in the study of socialization patterns in different cultures. This
advande organizer thus aids in expanding students knowledge about cultures.
4. It can also be shaped to teach the skill of effective reception learning. Critical thinking
and cognitive reorganization can be explained to the learners, who receive direct instruction
in orderly thinking and in the notion of knowledge hierarchies.
5 . This model is considered good and used widely in school. When we present the subject
in organized way, student gets all matter in systematic order. In less time, more knowledge
can bg given.
6. The idstructional effect of this model is that the ability to learn from reading, lectures,
and other media is used. Presentation is another effect, as an interest in inquiry and
precise habits of thing.

5.3.2 Inquiry Training Model (Schumann's Model, 1962)

It was developed by Richard Schumann to teach students a process for investigating and
explaining unusual phenomena. His mode takes students through miniature versions of the
kinds of ptocedures that scholars use to organize knowledge and generate principles. Based
on a conception of scientific method, it attempts to teach students some of the skills and
language of scholarly inquiry.
Inquiry trdining originated with the belief in the development of independent learners; its
method requires active participation in scientific inquiry, Children are curious and eager to
grow, and inquiry training capitalizes on their natural energetic explorations, giving them

Advance
Organizer
Model -------------- Interest in Inquiry
I

Habits of W i s e
- Instructional

8 Fig. 5.1 :Inatruetlonnl and N u r t u r ~ tEffects: Advance Organizer Model

specific directions so that they explore new areas more forcefully. The general goal of inquiry The lkacblng m d
Student Mod&
training is to help students develop the intellectual discipline and skills necessary to raise
questions and search out answers stemming from the curiosity. Thus, Schumann is interested
in helping students inquire independently, but in a disciplined way. He wants students to
question why events happen as they do and to acquire and process data logically, and he wants
them to develop general intellectual strategies that they can use to find out why things are as
they are.
Inquiry training begins by presenting students with a puzzling event. Schumann believes that
individuals faced with such a situation are naturally motivated to solve the puzzle.
Schumann believes, further, it is important to convey to students the attitude that all knowledge
is tentative. Students should recognize and be comfortable with the ambiguity that genuine
inquiry entails. The development of knowledge is facilitated by help and ideas from colleagues
if we can learn to tolerate alternative points of view. Thus, Schumann's theory is that:
Students inquire naturally when they are puzzled.
They can become conscious of and learn to analyze their thinking strategies.
New strategies can be taught directly and added to the students existing frame of references.
Cooperative inquiry enriches thinking and helps students to learn about the tentative,
emergent nature of knowledge and to appreciate alternative explanations.

-
B b l e 5.2 : Syntax of the Inquiry 'kaining Model

Phases Activities
Phase-1 : Confrontat~onwith problem. - Explain inquiry procedures.
- Present discrepant event.

Phase-I1 : Data gathering and verification. - Verify the nature of objects and conditions.
- Verify the occurrence of the problem situation.
Phase-I11 Data gathering experimentations. - Isolate relevant
Variables, Hypothesis (and test) casual relationships.

Phase-IV: Organization and formulating an - Formulate rules or explanations.

explanation.-

Phase-V: Analyze inquiry strategy and

develop more effectiveness.

Scientific

Strategies for Creative Inquiry

'kaining
..........................
........ .................
......
.........
........
... ............
.....-....
... -"..Autonomy in Lesfillag
...-... .*...,
-...
lblerance of Ambiguity

Tentative Nature of
Knowledge I
Fig.S.2 : Instructional and Nurtur~ntEffects of Inquiry Waining Model
Design, Issues and Strategies Syntax
Inquiry training has five phases. The first phase is the student's confrontations with the
puzzling situation. Phase two and three are the data-gathering operations, verifications and
expetimentation. In these two phases, students ask a series of questions to which the teacher
replies yes or no, and they conduct a series of experiments on the environment of the problem
situation. In the fourth phase, students organize the information they obtained during the data
gathering and try to explain the discrepancy. Finally, in phase five, students analyze the
problem-solving strategies they used during the inquiry. In Table 5.2, phases and corresponding
activities related to the syntax of the inquiry training model has been given.

5.3.3 Mastery Learning Model (Bloom's Model)

Mastery learning is a term, formulated by John B.Carrol1 (1971) and Benjamin Bloom (1971).
Mastery learning provides a compact and interesting way of increasing the likelihood that
more students will attain a satisfactory level of performance in school subjects.
They transformed their views into a system with the following characteristics:
1. Mastery of any subject is defined in terms of sets of major objectives which represent the
purpose of the course or unit.
2. The substance is then divided into a larger set of relatively small learning units, each one
accompanied by its own objectives, which are parts of the larger ones or thought essential
to their mastery.
3. Learhing material are then identified and the instructional strategy selected.
4. Each unit is accompanied by brief diagnostic tests which measure the student's developing
progress (the formative evaluation) and identify the particular problem each student is
having.
5. The data obtained from administering the test is used to provide supplementary instruction
to the students to help them overcome their problems.
If instmation is managed in this way, Bloom believes, then time to learn can be adjusted to
fit aptitude. Students of lesser aptitude can be given more time and more feedback while the
progress o f all is monitored with the assistance of tests.
This model is called so, because it believes in achieving mastery on a particular subject.
Every class suffer from 'under-achievers' (performance of the students lacked from normal
students), these students suffer from inferiority complex, which affects their progress. This
inferiority complex affects self-concept. These students have low self-concept, which affects
teaching. Ultimately it is an enormous wastage of expenditure on education.
Thus, Bloom presented this model to achieve mastery on a particular subject to a certain limit,
to every student, called it 'Mastery Learning Model', based on two assumptions.
1. Except physically, mentally and emotionally handicapped students (ninety five percent)
all students can master a certain subject, if they have given choice to learn by their own
speed, and by proper teaching methods.
2. A subject can be mastered from 90 to 95%, if proper teaching methods are adopted.
Focus (Aim) of the Model
Followi~gare the main aims of this model:
1. To qlevelop in each pupil, a demonstrable degree of mastery over subject.
2. To provide facilities to students to develop their own skills.
3. To enable each pupil to learn at hisher own pace.
,I1
4.
5.
To develop better self-concept in students.
To develop self-initiating and self-directing learning in students.
1
Syntax
I
It is divbded into three phases. It proceeds in the following way: 1
 First, all students are taught together in same way. The Tesching and
Student Modelo
Then a mastery test is given to check, if students have mastered the subject.
We separate those students, who could not master the subject, and diagnose their difficulty
and divide them in various groups according to their problems.
They are given mastery learning according to their difficulty requirements and then again
they are checked by mastery test.

Table 53: Phases in Mastery Learning Model

Phases Activities
Phase-I: Core Teaching Session I. lnfodng the students about instructional objects.
2. Making the expected mastery level explicit to student.

I I 3
Presenting the learning task m the class as a whole.
I
1 ( 4. Administering mastery test and diagnosing pupil difficulty. I
I. Clarify the pupil according to mastery level.
2. Provide alternative learning material to different group.
3. Organizing small groups instructor with teachers.
4. Organizing tutoring pairs with the pea group.
5. Diagnosing individual study.
6. Administering diagnosing test and pupils evaluation.

I
Phase-111: Intensive Teaching Session 1. Tutoring by the peers and the teachers.
2. Providing further material for practice.
3. Consolidation of the gains in differential teaching session.

4. Administering mastery test.

Phase one requires that the teacher present the problem situation and explain the inquiry
procedures to the students ( h e objectives and the procedures of the YesINo question). The
formulation of a discrepant event requires some thought, although the strategy can be based
on relatively simple problem - a puzzle, riddle, or magic trick - that doesn't requite much
background knowledge of course, the ultimate goal is to have students, especially older
students, experience the creation of new knowledge, much as scholars do. However, beginning
inquiries can be based on very simple ideas.
Phase two, verification, is the process whereby students gather information about an event
they see or experience. In experimentation,phase three, students introduce new elements into
the situation to see if the event happen differently. Although verification and experimentation
are described as separate phases of the model, the students thinking and the types of questions
they generate usually alternate between these two aspects of data gathering.
In phase four, the teacher calls on the students to organize the data and to formulate an
explanation. Some students have difficulty making the intellectual leap between comprehending
the information they have gathered and constructing a clear explanation of it. They may give
inadequate explanations, omitting essential details. Together the group can shape the explanation
that fully responds to the problem situation. Finally, in phase five, the students are asked to
analyze their pattern of inquiry.
They may determine the questions that were most effective, the lines of questioning that were
productive and those that were not, or the type of information they needed and didn't obtain.
This phase is essential if we are to make the inquiry process, a'conscious one and systematically
try to improve it.

Social System
Schumann's intention is that the social system be cooperative and rigorous. Although the
inquiry training model can be quite highly structured, with the social system controlled
largely by the teacher, the intellectual environment is open to all relevant ideas; teachers and
students participate as equals where ideas are concerned. Moreover the teacher should
encourage students to initiate inquiry as much as possible. As the student learn the principles
Design,Issug and Strategies of inquiry, the structure can expand to include the use of resource material, dialogue with
other students, experimentation, and discussion with teachers. The utilization of the inquiry
training model is especially suited to the open-classroom setting, where the teachers role is
that of instructional manager and monitor.

Support System
The optimal support is a set of confronting materials, a teacher who understands the intellectual
processes and strategies of inquiry and resource materials bearing on the problem.
Therefore, practical exam is adopted, not written.

Applicatfon of Model
Although inquiry training was originally developed for the natural sciences, its procedures are
usable in all subject areas; any topic that can be formulated as a puzzling situation is a
candidate for inquiry training. In literature, murder mysteries and science fiction stories or
plots make excellent puzzling situations. Following are the major applications of this model:
1. Develop scientific aptitude in students.
2. Self-confidence and selfdependency is developed by this model.
3. This model prepares the student for life, i.e. to solve the daily problems of life.
4. This model is very useful for scientific subjects.
5. Knowledge retains in the mind of student for a longer period because they learn by their
own efforts.
6. It develops a critical attitude and decision power in students.
7. The instructional effects of this model are process skills, active autonomous learning,
verbal expressiveness, tolerance of ambiguity, logical thinking.
Thus, it is possible for nearly all students to master any given set of objectives, if sufficient
time (the opportunity to learn) is provided along with appropriate materials and instruction.
Thus viewed through these phases, they become primarily a guide to how much time a learner
will need. It also suggests how to instruct, because learners of different aptitudes will learn
mori: efficiently if the style of instruction is suited to their requirements.

Social System
In mastery learning model, teachers role is like a manager because teachers, arrange the
education for students, assessing the students, classify them, solve their problems, prepare
different lesson plans for different groups. Interaction of students and teacher is found in all
the three phases. In all activities teachers role is highly important.

Evaluation (Support) System

Evaluation is not done for the whole class, but for every individual student, emphasis is laid
on achievements and weak points of each and every student.
Criterion test is conducted. It provides a compact and interesting way of increasing the
likelihood that more students will attain a satisfactory level of performance in school subjects.

Application
Bloom's mastery learning model is aptly used in attaining mastery over a subject. Following
are the main applications:
1. This model is highly useful to make mastery (ninety percent) over the subject matter.
2. There are certain concepts in a subject, which the students must know. This model is
useful to master these basic concepts.
. 3. This model develops self-concept in the right direction.
Ryburn had aptly remarked, "To teach, we must use experience already gained as a starting
point of o r work." Teaching is'not a mechanical activity as it is generally understood and
practised. We can't thrust some facts in the mind of an individual with any teaching device
12 mdchanically. Selection of a suitable teaching method model, a blending of a suitable model,
f
reflects the technical points of a teacher and will surely gain an insight into the actual teaching
learning process.

5.4 TEACHING METHODS

Meaning of Method
The word 'method' in Latin means 'mode' or 'way'. It means the mode by which the
material is communicated from the teacher to the student. Method of teaching may be
redefined as the methods by which the teacher impart knowledge and skills while teaching
and the students comprehend knowledge and acquire the skills in the process of learning.
This definition clarifies that method includes both teaching (teachers activity) and learning
(learners activity).
Rage defined, 'Teaching method are patterns of the teacher behaviours that are recurrent,
applicable to various subject matters, characteristic of more than one teacher, and relevant to
learning.'
It means methods are a part of the behaviour of teacher which heishe uses as a strategy or
tactics of teaching. The method is also related to content and is helpful in generating learning.

History of Teaching Methods

A careful study of history of teaching methods has indicated that method of teaching has been
an evolutionary process. Most of the significant changes in teaching methods have usually
been associated with wider social and cultural changes. Historically speaking, J.A.Comenius
was the person who laid emphasis on teaching methods.
Comenius laid emphasis on the importance of sense experience and also suggested that nature
itself could provide such experiences. Comenius, in Jean Piaget's view, "may undoubtedly be
considered as one of the precursory of the genetic idea in developmental psychology". He has
further advocated that thinking was related to action as the sense impression, and out of the
Design, Issues and Strategla internlationship of the three came learning. Action should come prior to skill and training
theory.
Pestalozzi laid emphasis on "psychologizing education" :
1. To develop methods in line with the developmental pattern of children's growth, and
2. To make the process of perception as the central element in his teaching method.
Froebel methods laid emphasis on the study of child taking account of emotional as well as
intellectual development.
Herbert devised a series of instructional steps which is known as Herbertian Teaching Method.
The most popular form of 5 steps is as follows:

2. Presentation
3. Association
4. Assimilation
5. Application
Similarly the supporters of Progressive Education and John Dewey have^ observed that the
essential element in all methods is activity.
It will be relevant to say that teaching methods have been influenced over the years, by many
factors, Such as:
1. Educational goals
2. Cultural and political factors
3, Study of learner's intellectual growth
4. Educational psychology
5. Analysis bf learning and teaching
6. Technology

Grouping of Teaching Methods

These are numerous methods of teaching with common characteristics. These common
characteristics h e related to classroom interactions and also indicate the behaviour of teacher.
These are also \related to different modes of learning.
LD. Zerve andlN. Vaidya have tried to arrange different methods into different groups.
I. Oral Method
1. Narration
2. Recitation
3. Lecture
4. Discussion
Common Characteristics
1. Teacher-centred method
2. The teacher communicates information or gives knowledge through verbal means.
Learner is a passive listener
II. Activity Method
1. Demonstratidn
2. Activity
3. Project
4. Laboratory
14
 5. Heuristic The Teaching and
Student Models
6. Discovery learningnnquiry approval
7. Problem-solving
8. Supervised method
Common Character
1. Learner-centered
2. Learning takes place due to active involvement of learner
3. Teacher functions as a facilitator of learning or as a stage setter for learning.
1 111. Special Method
I 1. Programmed learning

iI
2. Team teaching

- 3. Computer assisted learning

4. Personalized system of instruction
1 These fulfil a specific requirement which is based on psychological theories or technological
facilities. These methods seek participation of learner.
Selection of suitable teaching method is based on the objective of the lesson, needs of the
learner and nature of the content. Some of the commonly used teaching method are:
- Lecture Method
- Discussion Method
- Demonstration Method
- Project Method
- Inquiry Approach
These methods have already been discussed in details in courses ES-331 and ES-332. However,
we shall discuss about Discovery Method in detail as it is mainly used in the computer based
education programs.

5.4.1 Discovery Learning

It can be described as process of teaching and learning with the hefp of which learners try
to find out something which was unknown to them earlier.
Discovery refers to a process of self-learning where by learners generate concepts and ideas
with very little teacher intervention.
Inquiry refers to stages beyond discovery where learners are systematically acquainted with
scientific and logical rules used to verify those ideas.
The discovery method is used to discover new knowledge (it is at least new for the learner)
. through experimentation, problem solving or project work.
The BSCS Biology Teachers Handbook (1970) presents "Invitation to Inquiry", in which
student tries to do an experiment or any activity where hetshe learns through active participation
I and systematic, continuous, work done in laboratory.
The study of science as inquiry necessitates the utilization of a variety of human resources.
It is based on student's active participation. He is engaged in laboratory work, searching new
ideas in books, reading, journals, identifying problems, developing hypothesis, planning
experiments, conducting experiments and gathering data. It needs creative productive thinking.
It also needs sufficient background in the subject. It requires the student to work with on
open mind.

Background
Historically speaking, discovery method or inquiry approach emerged not only to minimize
lecture method or memorization, but also to use the approach which is practiced by scientists.
Design, Issues and Stmtegim Kuslon and Stone have mentioned that inquiry teaching is that teaching where teachers and
students study scientific phenomenon with the approach and the spirit of the scientist.
Since the publication of "how we think" by Dewey. problem solving approach has been
accepted as an alternative to passive. In the 20th century John Dewey was the exponent of
discovery leaming and reflective thinking to remove the passivity of lecture method. According
to Dewey, knowledge is "an outcome of inquiry and a resource in further inquiry". The recent
resurgence of activity in science cumculum revision in visa has encouraged the development
of those instructional processes which are inquiry or discovery based.

What is Discovery or Inquiry ?

The art of good teaching is assisting the students to learn themselves, to discover or to find
out themselves. Discovery learning demands learners active participation and require hisher
own initiative to plan and conduct experiments. Engaging in discovery means (a) students try
to enter in the field of work which is unknown to them (b) students projedt and speculate
intelligently on the basis of uses, the underlying principles and generalization of the physical
phenomena, (c) draw conclusions, inferences after conducting the experiment or investigation.
It is true that discovery learning has its roots in Socratic method, or 'Reflective Thinking' by
John Dewey or Heuristic method or experimentation. Discovery-based activities focus on
powerful classroom environments that prompt students to participate in learning. A highly
motivated learner engages himherself in meaningful learning.
Inquiry involves these processes which are known as identifying a problem, experiment, data
and drawing conclusions. Schwab has correctly said that inquiry approach helps students to
see science in operation. Otherwise, in traditional course students simply talk about science.
Inquiry approach seeks participation of learner for solving some problems.

Organization of Discovery or Inquiry Based Activities

A teacher should organize students in small groups and assign roles to them in specific tasks.
This will seek involvement of students in learning. Each group can be assigned task such as:
- to outline s procedure to answer the questions
- to conduct the investigation
- to collect data
- to write and report
J. Richard Srichman has advocated self-directedlinquiry where a learner directs and controls
hidher own learning. Inquiry approach or discovery, the following conditions are most
significant:
1. Freedom to learner
2. Providing a responsive environment
3. Guidance of teacher (if needed)
4. Encouragement to continue learning through discovery
It is the responsibility of teacher to establish those conditions which will sustain inquiry,
Schwab has used two modes of inquiry. He uses the term stable inquiry which is concerned
in determiningthe renown concepts, while the fluid inquiry invests new concepts and tests
them for adequacy and feasibility. The goal of fluid inquiry is development of new principles
which will re-define the subject matter and guide a new course of effective, stable inquiry.

Advantage (BCuner)
1. Increase intellectual potency of the learner. Individual learns and develops hidher mind
by using it. Since the leamer is trying to leam himherself by using hislher mental
process, he/she will grow intellectually.
2. Is based on internal motivator rather than external motivator. Learner is searching an
answer to a problem, he/she is trying to discover something.

16
Heuristic m e t . contains Project, Demonstration and Discussion.
1. These develop the ability to sense the relevance of variable, make intuitive leaps and cast
problems into forms with which they know how to work. This they learn to organize and
conduct investigation.
2. Helps in conservation of memory, aids in retention.
3. Increase achievement level of learner.
4. Instruction student-centered rather than teacher-centered
5. Minimizes verbal learning and gives time to student to assimilate and accumulate
information.

Limitation
1. Teachers are not properly trained, to guide.
2. It is evident that school environment believes in achievement through verbalization,
hence discovery is not encouraged.
3. Examination is recall type. Thus, a teacher prepares students for the next grade level.
Consequently information is stressed and inquiry skills are de-emphasized.
4. Teacher feels difficulty in getting equipment and materials. Students need apparatus and
material to explore and test ideas. Non-availability of material makes it difficult to work
for most students.
5. Takes more time than recapture learning. Therefore, it is avoided. (Role of teacher in
discovery or inquiry learning.)
HeIShe is the person to generate proper environment where students feel encouraged and
motivated to learn through inquiry.
1. A science teacher should try as a motivator and facilitator.
2. SheMe should provide responsive environment for inquiry learning.
3. ShelHe should work as a 'stage-setter' by providing required materials and facilities.
4. SheIHe is not simply an 'initiator' of inquiry learning but also provides continuous
support to s t u d w t i l l they become self-learners.
Richard Suchmann developed the inquiry development programme, and suggested that it:
1. Encourages students to ask questions.
2. Allows students to ask as many question as they wish.
3. Allows students to test an idea any time.
4. Encourages interaction and discussion among students.
5. Allows students to 'mess around' with materials connected with a given inquiry session,
gives them the freedom to explore their ideas in laboratory, book, resource-if they
desire this exploration.

Facilities for Inquiry Approach

When a teacher thinks of inquiry method, the first question which arises in hislher mind is
how can I effectively organize my classroom space a laboratory and materials for inquiry
learning?
A teacher can use hislher classroom by organizing small group activities. But in hidher
laboratory helshe can organize project area, individual study area, and organizing small group
experimentation.
In Indian condition as a teacher one has to deal with shortage of space as well as material.
This short coming can be overlooked if we realize the importance of inquiry learning in
comparison to verbal learning of expository learning.

Summary and Conclusions

1. Discovery or 'inquiry processes' can be described as methods of teaching and learning
17
Design, Issues and Strategies which help the students to learn themselves with minimum help from teacher.
2. It is a self-learning process.
3. Discovery approach has its roots.
4. The essedtial conditions for discovery learning are as follows:
@ F r d o m to the learner
@ holiding a responsive environment
@ Guidance of teacher (if needed)
Encouragement to continue learning through discovery.
5. A teacher has to play a significant role in using discovery method, for example
@ He@& should work as a stage setter
@ H e h e will act as a facilitator of learning
@ He&& should help and guide students in undertaking learning by discovery.
6. There are some advantages of learning by discovery such as :
@ Inqqiry learning improves the intellectual ability of the learner
@ Encourages intrinsic motivator
Helbs the learner to use process of science
A better understanding and much longer retention.
In our schools in India, generally there are certain limitations in using this method
1. Teachers are not adequately trained to use discovery method
2. Shortage of apparatus and equipment
3. Limitation of 'syllabus and examination'
4.-.
..Students are not encouraged or motivated
.
. to learn- by inquiry
.-.-.........
approach.
a - -- .~ . .- ....... .
.-
..
.
~.
..
..
..
.

Check Pk)urr t9rogress

1
;Notes: a ) Write vour answers tn !he YT? LC? g ~ v c nhe!!"&.

5.5 PROGRAMMED LEARNING

5.5.1 What is Programmed Learning ?

Programmed liearning is an arrangement of sequential experiences leading to proficiencpin
terms of stimulus-response (SR) relations.
According to Dulxice, it is a teaching method, and Response Stimulus theory is its basis.
According to Prof. Gagne, it consists of making 'Teaching models' which take into account
the initial and terminal response of the learner which are graded in accordance with a detailed
schedule and pennit intermediate assessment of the strategies employed.
Ake Bjerstedt (1972) has said that the term programmed learning can be used in two ways.
In a narrow sense, it involves the composing of a series of tasks and their arrangement in what
one believes to be an instructionally appropriate series following certain special principles. In
18
 the broad sense programming comprises, in addition to the above, comprehensive preparatory The Tcachlng and
work aimed at, among other things the analysis of goals, students, and subject matter Studcat Mod&
characteristics as well as comprehensive follow up with successive testing and revision of the
first version.
Programmed learning has arrived on the educational scene mainly due to the laboratory
experiments of Prof. B.F. Skinner. Skinner's theory of 'operant conditioning' became the
basis for programmed learning technology. There are three specific elements in this process:
- a stimulus which is initially present and which becomes the occasion for a response.
- a response which is entitled rather than elicited.
- a stimulus which follows the response and which increases the probability that the response
b
will reach in future. This is known as SR and pronounced as reinforcing stimulus.
Programmed learning has adopted this procedure of operant conditioning and today established
a form of technology of teaching.

5.5.2 Principles of Programmed Learning

1. Objective specification
You have gone through the objectives in each unit of the course materials. They are a
good example of it. It means identifying the terminal behaviours that the learning will
be able to perform when he had completed the program. It is described in the intended
outcome rather than the substantive content.
2. Small step size
Here the information is divided into small steps or units to do such requiring activity
sanctioned by reinforces.
3. Overt responding
It means that students or learners must act on each 'unit of information' by means of
exercises provided to assimilate it.
4. Success of minimal error
This means that error and failure must be avoided at all costs because they are considered
as barriers or hinderance to learning.
5. Immediate feedback
In order to ensure success and satisfaction the learners must know that the action as
correct or wrong.
6. Logical and graded progress
It implies two things - relevance of content and its graded presentation.
7. Self pacing
Each learner moves at his or her own pace thus, allowing for individualizationof insuuction.
8. Empirical testing
It is used for program development and validation.

5.5.3 v p e s of Programming
These are mainly of three types: linear, branching and mathematical, which are included in
software. The other form is hardware, which is represented by Learner Controlled Instruction
(LCI), Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) and Teaching Machines.
Linear Programming
Here every learning follows the identical sequence, that is the frames or modules are encountered
in a single, prearranged order. The proponent of this type of program is B.F. Skinner
(1958).
Design, Issues and Strategies
Branching Pmgramming
Here the pqrticular response omitted on a frame or mudule determines the alternative frame1
frames the learner proceeds to next. The proponent of this program type is Norman Crowder
(1960).
. . .. .
-
^
.
I
-
_ ....-.... _ _ .
! Check Your Progress
I

i Notes: ;I) Write your a!iswvrs i n lhtr space: y v c n h c l ~ \ \ ~

5.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit teaching methods and principles of programmed learning are discussed. Ausubel
Model is primarily concerned to help you as a teacher to organize and convey large amount
of information meaningfully and effectively. This model is designed to strengthen student's
cognitive fltructure. Inquiry training model is developed to teach a process for investigating
and explaining unusual phenomena.
Teaching methods are the methods by which the teacher impart knowledge, skills while
teaching, students acquire the skills in the process of learning. Discovery method, Inquiry
method, and problem solving method are considered relevant in the present context.
In programmed learning the emphasis is on the learning process while in programmed instruction
the users llay emphasis on the instruction process. Two types of programmed learning are
discussed these are linear programming and branching programming. In linear program every
learner follows the identical sequence. The learner proceeds as if a linear track or path for
reaching the terminal behaviour.
In branchihg programming multiple choice question is asked to find out whether the student
has learned. The amount of information given is much larger than that of a linear program
and is followed by multiple choice answer.

5.7 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1. In your study center, have a session as a discussion forum on the topic 'relevance of
different teaching methods and use of computer in teaching'. Write a report highlighting
the major issues emerged in it.
2. Go though all the teaching models. Describe the relevance of each of these m ~ d e l sin
the real classroom teaching situations. Discuss your answers with your colleagues.

5.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Phasds of the organizer model are:
- Presentation of advance organizer
 - Presentation of learning task
- Strengthening the cognitive organization
2. Important application of inquiry training model are like:
- To develop scientific aptitude in students
- To develop skills to solve the daily problems of life
- To develop critical attitude and decision power in students
- To develop self-confidence
3. In advance organizer model teacher is more active. Teacher plays the role of presenter
while students are listeners. In the inquiry training model teachers and students participate
' ,.,,, as equals. Moreover the teacher should encourage the students to initiate inquiry as much
as possible. Inquiry training model is especially suitable for classroom discussions where
teacher's role is that of instructional manager and monitor. In all these activities teacher's
role is highly important.
4. Steps in problem solving method are:
1. Selection of problem
2. Statement of problem
3. Selection of material
4. Preparation for the solution
5. Discussions and deliberations
6. Statement of conclusion
7. Evaluation
5. Features of linear programming:
i) A line& program is composed of small steps.
ii) The arrangement of stimulus'response is linear. Every learner follows the same
path.
iii) The programmer controls the responses of the learner.
iv) The error of the response is reduced to minimum.
V) The emphasis is upon the responses. The learner must respond before proceeding
to next step.
vi) The learner is prompted in the beginning of the programme etc.
6. Assumptions of branching programme are:
- The basic learning takes place during the student's exposure to the material on each
page.
- The technique is based on the possibility of detecting and correcting errors.
- The learner controls the exact sequence that helshe will take.
- Through presentation of branch discrimination occurs in the power of learning
almost in the natural way.

5.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bruche Joyce & Marsha Weil; Models of Teaching, Printice Hall of India Private Limited,
New Delhi - 110 001.
Bruner, J. The Process of Education, Cambride, Mass; Harvard University Press.
Weil. M.; Deriving Teaching Skills from Models of Teaching, Paper presented at the Annual
Meeting of the American Education Research Association, New Oreleans.
 UNIT 6 DOCUMENTATION AND
TECHNICAL SUPPORT

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Documentation and its Objectives
6.4 Understanding Audience/Students
6.5 bevelopment Schedule
Request
Documentation Drafting
Alpha Phase
Beta Phase
Final Draft
Edit and Print
Implementation
Maintenance
6.6 Organizing Your Document
16.6.1 lbble of Contents
6.6.2 l'htorial
6.6.3 Reference Section
6.6.4 Reference Table
6.6.5 Glossary
6.6.6 Appendix
6.6.7 Index
I

6.7 On Line Documentation

6.8 Editing of Document
I

6.9 Let Us Sum Up

I

6.10 Unit-end Exercises

6.11 Answers to Check Your Progress
6.12 Suggested Readings

6.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit explores the technique df documentation of software and its management to overcome
old-fdhioned style of documentation. We will explain the scheduling of documentation, writing
process and different components of documentation and its features. You need not be a
software developer for workihg with this unit. You do not have to own a computer. You
should have a creative mind and ready to work as a team member. We have explained here
a number of checklists to improve your document. Here. we have restricted ourselves to the
docuwentation of software part only.

After going through this unit, you will be able to understand:

ddcumentation of the software in an effective way;
sdheduling and managing of documentation writing;
the different components of documentation, its features and their logical sequence within
the document.
 Documeatatioa and
6.3 DOCUMENTATION AND ITS OBJECTIVES Technical Support

Documentation of software is a written material supplied along with software to assist and
guide the user in operating the software. Documentation is helpful for students, instructors
and programmers.
I
I
In earlier tlmes computer was used only by experts as the computer commands were very
rigid and complex in nature and there was a lack of standard for defining commands and
functional keys. For example, in word processing software, Word Star, used F1 key for help

i but Word Prefect preferred F3 key for the same job. Every software had its own format and
syntax. Documentation of software was needed very badly in such situation.

I
Now software developers realize the suffering of users. They are now designing Graphical
User Interface (GUI) based software on the standard established in the market, for example
F1 key is universally accepted for help and Esc key for abandoning an operation. Now a user
can operate new software very easily. Software developer has termed such software as 'user
friendly software'. The GUI is explained in the next block.
Jf you feel that your software is very user friendly and there is no need of documentation, you
are wrong, documentation provides moral support to user that there is some one to assist and
guide him. The idea, that there is no manual, scares beginners. Even though they may not
need any documentation. You cannot deny the importance of good documentation. Good
documentation is beneficial not only for user but also for manufacturer. The writers should
pay atteniion to the quality of supporting documents as the user is going to use these documents
from the first day even before going to lab. It helps people to use software without suffering
too much. Thus good documentation plays vital role in making software commercially
successful. It also saves precious time and money on after sale support service. If the quality
of the document is poor and not designed according to particular need of the laboratory and
users, such manual acts like a bully. User gets puzzled after reading the manual and tries to
avoid the use of the software how so ever good it may be. Documents are broadly classified
into two categories based on the functional activities covered by them. (i) System document:
This document has the technical detail of the system. This is very helpful for computer
professionals in understanding the system. (ii) User document: This document is meant for
explaining the system from user point of view. After going through this document people
understand the input necessary for the program, the types of processing it performs, the output
it produces and the way in which the computer must be operated. In this unit, we will discuss
only the end user documentation.
The documentation writing requires a good coordination of software developer, document
writer and teacher. Though the documentation writer can not be considered solely responsible
for a bad document, still the writer should keep the following points in mind to avoid a bad
documentation.
Should not use highly technical terminology.
Should not leave out key idea.
Should not fill the page with solid text.
'Use of cross-reference should be minimum.

6.4 UNDERSTANDING AUDIENCEISTUDENTS

'User friendly' term is very frequently used in computer industry particularly for software.
Making educational software 'user friendly' is not an easy job. In order to make your
documentation user friendly you should know who is going to read it, nature of audience, the
way you will satisfy their need. The more you know about you1 user, the better you can shape
the document. Your document should be according to the taste of the user. If you fail to
understand your audience hefshe may get frustrated, puzzled and angry at the complexity,
over simplification or your pre assumption about the previous knowledge, interest and learning
skill of the user.
As a documentation writer you have to work as a teacher. Before you start writing
documentation you should know for which standard (class) you are writing, their previous
h l g n , hua and strstegicr computer knowledge, if any, how long have they worked on computer and what are their
expectation from the computer. How much time students are expected to devote to computer?
What is the pace of learning of a normal student? Keep in mind what your expectation was
from your teacher when you entered computer class as a student. After knowing the taste and
interest of the user you know the main objectives to be covered by the document. From the
objectives of the document you can find out the contents. Broadly your document should
cover what tasks are to be performed, what steps involve and what would be next step. Next
you face the problem of how to arrange the contents in the document. Imagine that you are
tutoring an individual learner and try to arrange the contents of the document in the way the
user wantsb.in a way the user feels easy to go through the contents. Avoid orgolnising the
manual in traditional way that is input, output and error as explained to you by software
developer. User is not interested in these technical tenns. HelShe is eager to know how this
software i$ useful for hidher work. You should organise document around their need, that is,
what is thew requirement, problem and sdution-for it.

After knowing the contents and its logical sequence, next main important task is to identify
the person whom we want to assign the job of documentation writing. If we assign this job
to a programming professional who is educational expert, Wshe would produce an efficient
software package but with little instructional volume. Such professionals think that this work
is not up to their standard. They give this work the least priority and at last they try to find
a way to avoid it. Asking a programmer to write a document is wastage of time.
A teacher who is a programming amateur, produces good instruction textbooks or work book
but docs not exploit the computer medium effectively as his knowledge may not be up to date.
For writing documentation of softwar6 you must have good writing skill. You do not have to
be a computer expert but should be aware of computer-based education. Technical writers
have the Bkill needed to write good documentation. They know grammar and style and are
trained to produce competent document. They am very close to user skill level than software
developer. Tbchnical writeas am more sympathetic to novics usem than a programmer. A
technical writer may be expert in hidher skill but may not be a good academician and hid
her knowfledge in computer field is also limited. You may ask a software developer to assist
and explain to himher the working of the software. As technical writer is not academician
the documents produced by himher is still full of technical detail in which most audiences
am not interested. In such situations editing plays a vital role. You should persuade the
technical writer to allow you to use hidher written material the way you like, instead of
'editorial fnedom' or 'author's right, we have to think more about the learner interest. You
can employ educational tbchnologist or instructional designer to restructure the text produced
by a techical writer. You can remould the text by introducing necessary structural and access
device such as brief but good introduction, a clear statement on objectives in behavioural
term, self- assessment questions, exercises, feedback, etc. as we have used in this course
material. Now you would have excellent contents with sound academic stnrcture.
-- . - -
i Ctsrch Your Progrras
i %{sle.:. B I ' Writ? your answer?; 171 the space given he!ow.

: t. W h y documellta:~on of sotiwai;: i s necessary fix tltc soi'iwase.:'

6.5 DEVELOPMENT SCHEDULE
There are seven steps in creating documentation. They are as follows:
Learning the software.
Identifying user need.
Developing and organising the topic.
Writing the text.
Evaluating and testing the documentation.
Revising the document.
Formatting and printing.
Sometimes when software development and documentation work are done simultaneously, the
first two phases get mixed with each other. After defining the steps broadly, next step is to
schedule the activities undertaken during writing process.
Every documentation starts with scheduling. In scheduling we outline the usual stages
documentation-writing project goes through. Before you start writing a document you need
a detailed description of activities performed by the software for the user, thus documentation
is closely associated with software. In order to understand documentation scheduling first we
discuss in brief different stages of software development procedure along with the activities
performed for writing the document. A software development project goes through following

6.5.1 Request
People feel the need of computerization of their activities. A team of experts goes through
their requirements and existing system and tries to find out in what manner computer may

6.5.2 Documentation Drafting

A team of programmers and documentation writers analyze the requirements and then comes
up with a plan specifying the needs of the user in detail and then write the computer programme
and document for it. This phase is further divided.

6.5.3 Alpha Phase

In this phase, first time programming solution (Courseware) for all the requirements of the
user is handed over to the user. By this time your first draft of the documentation is also
completed. This draft is called alpha draft. This is the first time when user uses and evaluates
the courseware. User may ask to add or remove some of the functions. You should make
corresponding changes in your document accordingly.
Your alpha draft must have:
described the courseware accurately coveting all the functional activities performed.
added a table of contents, annexwe, glossary and index without page number since it is
in the initial stage.
met current standards for usage and format as established in the market.
included drawing, graph, and illustration to elaborate the topics.

6.5.4 Beta Phase

After completion of Alpha phase testing, user may find a few errors here and there in the
courseware. Probably there may be no more designing change. Programmers have to rectify
these errors during this phase. As there can be no designing change so nothing is added or
removed from the document during this phase. But at this stage you can edit and rearrange
the contents according to recommendations of the user. The draft produced at this stage is
called beta draft. It is very close to final draft.
Design, Issues and Beta draft does the following:
document all the changes in the courseware since the alpha draft.
incorporates all changes suggested by reviewers of the alpha draft.
corrects all problems you have noticed in usage, design, grammar and spelling.
Timing for beta draft depends on how voluminous your alpha draft is, how much the product
change, and how many comments you get. More about time allocation is discussed later in
the unit.

6.5.5 Final Draft

Beta draft is reviewed by experts who can verify its accuracy and typical use. You need
comments about the Beta draft at least two weeks before the final draft due, to incorporate
all changes. Before sending the finai draft to experts, you need to confirm that the document
is reflecting the latest changes.
Final draft does the following:
incorporates all changes suggested by the members of the review committee of the beta
draft.
corrects grammar, spelling, usage, and formatting.
This stage takes almost similar time as taken by Beta draft.

6.5.6 Edit and Print

Main role of editor is to reorganize the final draft in such a manner that user can understand
it without any problem; second there are some standard format for documentation designing,
which may be over looked by a wnter. Editor has to ensure that the document should fit
within the standard format. For example, there are certain guidelines in I S 0 9002 about the
nature, logical sequence and quality of document. Once the document is drafted and edited
it is time to get it produced in a form suitable for distribution. Document goes for mass
production. At this stage you do not have to do much. The average time taken during this
phase is a month or two.

6.5.7 Implementation
Your software is ready along with proper documentation of installation at user site. You may
send trainer to train the user for effective implementation of the courseware.

6.5.8 Maintenance
After implementation a periodical review of courseware is done from time to time. A team
of programmers make small adjustment or modification to tune it with the requirement of the
'
user. We haqe to rewrite all the affected part of the document or we can add changes in the
form of added annexure etc. separately in case of minor changes.
Now we will discuss ahout time scheduling of the writing process. It is very difficult to
schedule without knowing much about the software. By going through any old document of
similar nature you can make an estimate of the requirement of time and complexity involved
in writing the document. Old manual can give you an idea about contents and number of
pages required to elaborate the topics. You are not always lucky, a number of time you cannot
find old document for estimating the time requirement. In such situation you may estimate
the time requirement on the basis of volume of the activities covered by the courseware.
Documentation writing is closely associated with courseware development. The time component
at different stages of courseware development is the main constraints in allocation of time.
You cannot finish your Alpha draft phase until alpha phase of software development is not
completed.
After getting 0 rough idea of time required at different stages of documentation you can write
down the schedule with brief summary of the contents, activities and responsibilities assigned
to each member of the team at each stage. You can circulate it to other members of the team
and insisting them to submit their respective reports in time. You should explain the whole
 process to them and show the critical path of the project to stress that the schedule depends Documentation and
Technical Support
on them and if they fail to meet the schedule then it will dissolve. Delay at their end not only
delays scheduling of documentation but creates a rippling effect and causes delay in other
activities. We cannot launch a programme without proper documentation.

Alpha Software Beta

1/5/99 Beta
Software -
1/6/99

v
Draft Final
Illustrations - Manual
Complete Complete
2 1/7/99 15/8/99

Final
Reviews of Beta Manual
Manual Complete Complete
15/8/99

Fig. 6.1: Development Schedule

! 6.6 ORGANIZING YOUR DOCUMENT

As you move from alpha draft to final draft you may come to know more about courseware
and user's requirement. Probably you have to revise your contents to their satisfaction and
arrange your contents in the way a reader looks at the subject so that they can find out the
information they are looking for quickly.
Your organization pattern would be totally different from the way the programme is developed
or a programmer thinks. For example, a programmer explains software in terms of input.
51 output and error but novice user may not be interested in it. They are interested in knowing
what they can do with the program and how they can get started. It does not mean that you
27
Design, Issues and Strategies discard the programmer's point of view. Main idea is the same as explained by the programmer
but your way of representation should be such that even a novice user can understand the
things easily.
If your document has more than 50 pages than you may divide your document in many
sections. Gqnerally a document consists of the following sections:
i) 'htorid consists of step by step instructions to explain the activities of software.
ii) User guide provides an overview of the software and explains functions in-group organized
for purpose.
iii) Reference guide includes all the commands and their features arranged in an alphabetical
order by the name of the functions.
iv) Quick deference tables for important information and commands.
v) Keyboard template for the user who is not familiar with keyboard to locate the keys.
vi) Installation guide to specify the requirement of the programme in terms of hardware,
software and also have important information necessary for installation.

Function Print Scroll Numerical

Escape Key
Kev Screen Lock Pad

conti01 h y space Bar ~ r r o wKey

Fig. 6.2: Keyboard d a Computer

All documents do not have classification in same order, sometimes you can merge two or
more sectiobs in a single section particularly the sections, which have less than 10 pages.
What is the need to divide the document in sections?
Document bas to satisfy the needs of different categories of users. Novice user is likely to
read document carefully page by page. Power user needs document only as a last resort just
looking for key words and advance featurgs of software. Your document must be concise
enough for experienced user and detail enough for novice user. lbtorial gives the detail
information about the software for novice user and experienced user immediately jumps to
installation guide or reference table and start working. Different sections are created to
satisfy the need of different categories of users.
The detail hnd coverage covered in each section depend upon what types of user use it
frequently. h the starting of a document gives a brief summary of the contents of each
section, so that a user can select the topic without going through it. Each section should have . Doeummtatloaand
'lkdullalSupport
an independent entity. A section should start at a point, which all the learner can understand.
At the start of each section you may write what is the pre-requisite of the section if any.
4

6.6.1 Table of Contents

Few people start your manual from the beginning, some flip through the whole book looking
at heading, others start from the table of contents. Still other read the first paragraph in a
chapter to get an idea about the topic. You have to satisfy all the users in the beginning. Your
table of contents gives reader an idea what is there in the chapter. A table of contents gives
an overview of a guide's organization. No matter how short your manual is, your table of
contents acts as a mirror image of your manual. This section provides a road map to the user
to locate the desired information. It should focus only on the major point and minor one is
left for the index. The index structure is explained later in this unit. But the table offers .
enough information so that a user can locate the minor section without the major one. You
should put restriction on major points otherwise adding more major points makes the point
less distinct. At a minimum your table of contents should include chapters title and the first
level of heading with their corresponding page number. You can use different margin to
segregate the major points with minor one or you may use bold face or upper case letters for
major points and normal letters for minor one.

Chapter 3 Empowering Your Users'

Report with Visual Basic 5
Report issue 86
User Requirement 89 * Application Complexity andTraining 90*
Technology 90 * Development Schedule 93.
Identify the need for Advanced Report 94
Selecting the Right Approach 95
,Data Encapsulation 95 * Methods of Data Retrieval 95
* Report Format Storage 100

Do not use bunch of nouns, which look like a list of topic to study
Title Page Nq.
The add function 05
The copy function 09
The search Tunction 11

Instead use verbs where you can. It indicates a user is going to perform some activities with
this unit.
Title Page No.
Adding text to a paragraph 05
Copying an external objective 09
Searching a word or figure 11
Even sometime questions make interesting heading, as long as you do not ask too many. They
do not have to end with a question mark. Always group similar type of question on the basis
of activities performed by the function so that the user can correlates the question with main
heading.

Title Page No.

System Configuration
Why multi-user system? 15
How to decide which Drive to use? 45
Why is it called a Real Time System? 50
Avoid heading with keyword, for example, for delete operation use 'Deleting a word' instead
of DEL in heading. You may argue that a user may search the keyword in the content table.
Index at the end of manual will take care such user or you may write keyword in bracket after
the main title. 29
Design, Issues and Strategies
Tijle Page No.
Wleting a word (DEL). 12
Change directory (CD) 18

I
In general, keep the title short enough to scan. Short title and heading look better on :
a page.
If your chqpter has too many details, you can provide a table of contents at the start
of the sectilon. At the end of the table of contents you can write a summary of the
contents inqicating how you are going to satisfy the need of different users so that
users are qonfident enough that they are going through the right section. After
reading this section users need not go through chapter to chapter in the table of
contents.

To do this Read this section Page No.

Quick overview of the programme Introduction 15
Learn the Basic Tutorial 45
Learn the advance feature Reference Guide 55

A tutorial offers a series of exercises that put the programme to work. Tutorial helps users feel
comfortable with the product. In a tutorial you take the reader through the fundamental to
advance feature of the programme step by step. Without tutoriil readers may never use the
program or they may only use it partially.
Do not statt spoon-feeding to explain function action but create an interactive tutorial by
creating a blot or imaginary story. Sue Espinosa who has supervised the development of
dozens of Wtorial, stresses 'things to do, not function to memorize if a single story line can
cany through the entire tutorial so much the better'. Your story should have real life context
so people have an aim before starting a tutorial. It is found that in order to explain the function
in d e t d wtiters wrote a number of tutorials without any interlink between them. Espinosa
says, "Do not present six ways of doing the same thing. The new user remembers part of one,
part of another and then flub up with the live software. Save alternatives for asides or the
reference rnbual. From a family of function teach just one function".
Covering af all the functions may be a mistake "your motive may be golden" says Espinosa
"But the result will be leading into 250 pages that is too lengthy to use. People do not usually
have the tiine or the energy to sit through more than an hour of material. They want to use
software fsist".
 If your tutorial has more than 40 pages divide the tutorial into sections based on the nature Documentation and
and complexity of the functions and at the starting of each section explain the following Technical Support
things.
What does the user learn from the tutorial?
What is the objective of tutorial?
Overviews of the tutorial to facilitate user to know what is there in the unit.
What are the accessories and other document required during the tutorial?
What is the level of complexity in tutorial?
Is there any function, which is non-recoverable, indicating it so that the user will be
careful at the time of working with the function?
If your exercise has some instructions, which you have already discussed in earlier
I
exercises, indicate them by writing down all the keywords used in the exercise.
Is there any pre-requisite to start this section or the user can directly start from this
section.
At the end of the exercise also indicate where they will go to get further information.
Add a table of content at the starting to pick the suitable section by the user or you may use
a picture to show how to use your tutorial. For instance Writer Peggy Miller wanted to show
that a user could enter one tutorial (on some system utilities) at several places: the introduction,
the description of the main menu or the explanation of one of the options on the main menu.
In addition a reader could use the book of exercise and disk of sample data or work on their
own. Peggy Millar made up the sketch shown in figure 6.3.

.I Main Menu 1 Re- volume

I Introduction
Terms
Definitions
II Inslructions Use exexcises
in this book
copy Volume
-Formal Volume

1
Instruction

Do:
Instructions And use
Your own
example
Read:
Introduction to
Syslem
Configuration
-r
F. File Handling
List Files
Protect Files
Delete Files
COPYFdes

files
Emise
Instruction

II New System I

,
Your position is just like a teacher in the classroom. Assuming it you should keep in mind
the possible confusions students may suffer at different stages. Anticipate every move of the
readers. What happens if a user press CTRL or ESC key or enter a wrong expression? How
can a user recover? Try to avoid things you think might puzzle the users. Do not catch a high
speed in the beginning. Start with step-by-step instruction otherwise the user may feel
harassed.
In the starting of each exercise of the tutorial you show t'le user how to\escape from tangles
and how to go back to hisher work. But it is very difficult for the user to understand the'
problem without facing it and they may forget how to recover from the error as they turn the
page. So, explain only the frequently occurring errors at the starting and for rest of the errors 31
Design, Issues and Strategies prepare an appendix at the end of the tutorial book so whenever the student face any problem
heishe immediately jumps to the appendix explaining the errors and after recovering from the
errors can resume the main task.
1 On ERROR 425 go to appendix I1 I
After every step the user wants to confirm whether helshe is going right or not. HelShe
compares hidher screen with your illustration. If a section has more than ten steps, number
each step so whenever the reader returns back from computer to tutorial helshe can trace
hidher location faster. Here is an example to save file in MS Office.

1I Objective: Save a new, unnamed document

steps
1. Click Save on the File option of Main Menu.
2. To save the document in a different folder, click a different drive in the Save in box,
I
or double-click a different folder in the folder list.

11 To save the document in a new folder, click Create New Folder.

I
1
3. In the File name box, type a name for the omument.
You can use long, descriptive file names if you want.
II
Some writers use two-column format to write tutorial. In two-column format put what reader
should do on the left and the anticipated result on right side. General information and warning
should spread across the two-columns. Right hand side provides a quick idea to user what
result they get after going through the exercise without going through the tutorial. This
format al$o encourages the user that helshe can now compare the anticipated result with the
result helshe is getting on the screen.
In tutorial we can not discuss all the possible options in a single tutorial, even advanced
features of the function are left for reference section. In reference section we can give full
explanation in single slot. Your purpose at Reference Section is different and your presentation
is more qomplicated, advanced and compact.
Along with exercises you may provide some files and data sources so that the user can
practise with them. At the end of the tutorial make a table of summary of the commands the
user learnt through the tutorial for quick revision.

6.6.3 Reference Section

After going once through the document people use it only for reference. Whenever they face
any problem, they want to clear their confusion as early as possible and jump back to their
work. T h ~ ydo not want to read pages of tutorial just to find one code. Reference section
comes for rescue for such users. The content of reference section unit are not interlinked as
in tutorial. User does not read reference section from cover to cover. Then you may face
problem in what way these units should be organized. Topic should be arranged in such a way
that the user can find out histher requirement very easily.
You should keep the following points in mind.
Put the standard keyword first and for non-standard term you can write with reference
to standard term.
-
Organize. around the things people might want to do action, jobs, procedure, and task.
Put these in an order most people expecting.
As each unit is independent write down the context before revealing the details.
Sometime contents may be arranged on alphabetical order by the name of functions.
The distinction between tutorial and reference is not significant. If you try to comprise both
the sections in a single unit, you would confuse and irritate your user. Tutorial is used to
explain the functiontactivities performed by the software step by step manner but in reference
section each topic is explained as an independent unit. You can not meet both the objectives
the same unit.
One question would rise in your mind that what is the need of repeating the contents that you Documentation and
have already explained in tutorial. Tutorials are meant for novice users using software first Technical Support
time. But experienced users do not want to waste hislher time in reading what helshe already
knows. Such categories of user jump directly to reference section without going through
tutorial. Reference section is meant for the people who has once gone through the tutorial or
for experienced user.
There is no definite format or procedure to write down the functions or activities of the
courseware. Try to arrange in the way the user expects. Once you have decided the
procedure for explanation of function, it should be consistent throughout the document.
After going through a few functions1 activities users feel easy in reading the contents in
existing format. Try to start each function1 activities with separate page for the convenience
of the user.
A simple list of functionslactivities leaves reader confused. After going through the
documentation they remember only parts of functions and each function mixed up with similar
other functions. Better to create a worksheet for user and then explain the working of functions.
Your document should have a copy of actual display of data entry screen with explanation of
the entry fields. If your software has too many entries on the same screen, you can assign
distinct number for each entry for reference in future, when you describe these entries in your
document.
You should explain the following information for the entries on the screen.
What is validity range of the data along with the format, if any?
Due to space limit of screen sometime you show abbreviate title for the entry. Write down
the full name with detail explanation of the entry, for example, you put DT for date.
' If two or more titles are very close to each other, either in name or in nature, differentiate
them by giving a brief introduction for each title.
If there is any interlink between different fields, explain it.
Your program would have different report for different level of users. On the basis of
information revealed by the reports and its uses you can classify your reports and put similar
type of reports in a group. In the starting of report section give a summary of each group so
that the user can jump directly to interested group. Show the user at least one example of
each report filed with sample data, as blank report with heading only is very dull. In a
complicated report perform numbering of the fields. Your report always shows the final result
without giving detail of intermediate calculations. You can explain the intermediate calculation
in the document so that the user knows how helshe can reach at the final result.
If your programme generates some administrative data on every report (Number of copy, run
time, run number), explain all the terms in your documentation with their respective position
on the report.
Error Handling: Suddenly the programme stop working and a message appears on the screen
"Error No. 45" the user wonder what is going wrong with the programme. This type of
message is called error message. User feels nervous, frustrated and a little bit angry then
helshe starts turning up the pages of documents in a hurry. HeIShe wants to solve this problem
as early as possible and move back to hislher work. In the document we can provide solutions
to these problems in a separate section called Errors Handling Section. Try to arrange all
these error messages in such a way so that they can be accessed very early. Error messages
are classified into two categories.
Along with the error message the user is provided with a number of option to come out
of the error, for example, when there is some problem in reading a data from the disk.
Message 'Data reading error "Abort, Retry, Ignore", promptly appears on the screen. A
user has to select only one of the options. In your documentation explain the cause of this
error and what is the action of each option.
In second type of error messages a plane text error message either in alphabetical or
numerical way promptly appear on the screen. In error handling section explain the entire
message in alphanumeric order. What is the cause of this message and possible solution
for it? If your programme spits out error message by numbers "Error #12", you should
include every number with full explanation. Sometime in a very early stage of programme 33
Issues and Strategies development or old version of your programme had an error and you assign a number
to it. But in updated version you rectify this problem. Still write this number in your
document and admit that there is no corresponding error message and it is reserved for
future use, so that people do not think that you are hiding some information. If you think
reading of a particular section is essential for proper understanding of an error make a
reference to the section with error explanation. Sometime there may be more than one
reason for a particular problem. Indicate what they are and how to solve them all. For
example, if your report is not being printed then your printer may not be ready or there
is cable fault, or printer has no paper or paper has jumped in the printer. Ask a series
of questions that imply the solution. For the above problem, asks the user to 'turn on
the printer and try again'. If it is still not printing, give the message 'check the paper
in the printer and try again' and so on.
Next question is where you should place the error handling explanation, along with the
documentation of function or in a separate sheet. Always use a separate sheet to write down
the error message because it is very easy to locate the explanation without going through
pages and pages of explanation.

6.6.4 Reference Table

At the end of reference section make a table containing the brief of keystrokes, syntax, code
and explanation in a few words for main functions called the reference table. Arrange all the
functions in alphabetical order so that the user can easily access the information. If your
documents consist of more than one table then try to arrange similar type of tables together
so that the user can link them. For example, your documents have two tables ASCII Code
table and EBCDI Code table facing each other so that the user can compare both the tables.

6.6.5 Glossary
Sometime your application may have new or non standard terms. These terms are fully
explained in the text of the document at the time of first reference. But it is very difficult for
the user to search the term in future in voluminous document whenever helshe has ambiguity
or confusion in mind. The glossary is the place where you can explain these terms briefly and
collectively. With every entry add more detail with illustrated example so that your glossary
should be more than ordinary dictionary.
For example, OS once explained in detail in manual can be defined in glossary as operating
system along with more detail and for further information the user may consult the index.
The pattern of arrangement of terms in glossary is similar to pattern used in index which you
will learn later in this unit.

6.6.6 Appendix
Appendix is the ideal place for important information that would clutter in regular text. It
also allows you to segregate special material. It might contain error messages, a trouble
shooting guide, ASCII Code table etc. An appendix is also excellent place where information
for powerful user can be written for quick reference.

6.6.7 Index
Index is similar to a table of contents which provides a number of ways a user can go through
your document. With the help of an index the user can get exact location where helshe can
get the particular keyword. Index is always'situated at the end of the document.
Writing of index goes along with writing of document but completed with the completion of
document. As you write an alpha draft, note down the keywords on a separate page with their
position in' the document. You may face problem in writing down the position (page number)
of the keyword, as after each stage something is added or deleted, it would change page
number. In order to avoid this problem you should underline the keyword in your document
and note the relative position in your index. After finalization of document you can find the
underlined keyword very easily and note down their exact position.
Your index should have following features:
1. Help readers to find out a particular topic.
2. Reveals what is connected with what. Documentation and
Technical Support
3. Give a general idea of the subject matter of the manual.
4. Indicate which term you consider standard or non standard.
5. It should be easy to search.
It is an intelligent selection, a psychic anticipation of what a reader is looking for. He/She may
start from the objective of document to elementary sub-unit. Sometime there may be more
than one keyword referring to same detail. Instead of repeating detail with each entry write
down the detail only with standard term and for rest of the terms you may indicate cross-
reference to the standard terminology ("see save as" where save as is the standard term). But
it is a difficult job to select one term as standard term, for example, a user is looking for
'Delete an entry'. He searches it first under 'Delete' then under 'Data entry' but at last he
finds it under 'Data'. Here writer considers 'Data' as the standard term.
Sometime a single keyword is discussed in a number of units, for example, you are looking
for 'Save file '. After going through the index of the document, you may find a number of
entries with title 'file' such as open file, close file, delete a file and format a file. It will create
confusion whether to show "Save file" keyword under 'Open file ' or ' Close file' or 'Format
file'.
You should write the detail at one position against which you consider it standard but add the
cross-reference under other entries also. In the above example if you explain 'Save' under
'Close file' then,

Save See Close file

Save as See Close file

There are some phrases, which are used in different ways by different users. Try to include
every possible way for writing the same thing. For example 'left margin' is also used as
'margin left'. Decide which is your main entry and make a cross-reference to the main entry
for the rest. Same ambiguity is there with the use of singular or plural use. Provide detail
with singular entry and for plural entry add the cross-reference to the main entry.
If your contents spread on more than one page dont include every page in index, use only
start page number and last page number separated by slash -.

But if the text is not on continuous pages then write down each page:

All entries should be alphabetically arranged and the first alphabet should be written in bold
letter to make it distinct. But before sorting, capitalize the first letter of each entry otherwise
you create two lists one with capital letter and one with small letter.
. . . . . . . . . . . ...-.... ................... ... ....

,$ .$:*.., :< 1,< ; * > I , [T<~:,;:,-e..k:,

Design, Issues and Strategies i
, A -

6.7 ON LINE DOCUMENTATION

It is a part of documentation that is designed to be presented on computer in order to make
interaction between courseware and user easy. Online documentation goes beyond the limits
of traditional paper manual because online documentation integrates a number of media for
representation. Day by day the online documentation is covering more and more portion of
the documentation. Online documentation has some advantage over printed documentation.
First, the advent of large-scale digital storage will eventually mean that data are stored and
distributed more easily, cheaply, electronically than on paper. Second, now technology is
changing at a very fast speed, updation operation is economical and easy with on line
documentation as compared with printed manual. The organization of printed manual is static
no matter how well planned and produced. It is very difficult to satisfy the need of all the
users with different level of skill. Online documentation structure is very flexible it can
changa its structure according to level of skill of the users. The physical size of the manual
has phbsiological effect on the user. If a printed manual has to describe every aspect of a
courseware application, chances are great that it will be a physically imposing volume. The
physical size make the manual look hard to read. The role of user in printed manual is passive.
HeIShe reads solid text from the manual, but in online manual instruction is interactive in
nature.
There are some shortcomings also with online documentation. In online documentation only
24 lines with 80 characters in each line can come on the screen. A printed-paper may
accommodate more information. In online documentation you have to explain everything
within 24 line, for example, if you ask for help at any point of time it may overlap existing
contents of the screen, mean physically only one item can exist at a time on the screen. On
the other hand in printed document material it is still physically present to your eyes even if
you are not currently reading them. You can place a number of paper face up on your table
making them simultaneously available for reading. The new feature of the medium (colour,
blinking, reverse video and so on) can cause problems because users may not be familiar with
such effect and format. In printed documentation you can write your comments at the corner
of the paper along with the printed material.
None of these shortcomings mean that the medium of the screen should not be used to
communicate to the user. At the time of writing the online documents special care and
attention should be given to take benefits of the medium. The use of on line documentation
increasies due to its convenience.
'Our Survey ... has made it absolutely clear that even if effective documentation is provided,
it will not be read by the majority of users. They will naturally expect all the information to
be in one place and that place to be the intevace with the computer' (James, 1988)

EDITING OF DOCUMENT
Editing work is classified into three categories.
Cdntent Editing: Contents of the document should be of the user level. Content editing
is done by the subject expert who is very well familiar with the level of the user. Editing
is done with the help of writer of the document.
Fqrmat Editing: There are certain well-defined formats for writing a document. User
expects particular information at a particular location and format. For example, for index,
. appendix, user turns to the end of the document.
Langvage Editing: Language editing is done by the person who has sound command on
the language and also has elementary knowledge about the subject. The writer of the
36 document assists the work.
 UNIT 9 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM:
HARDWARE FOR EDUCATIONAL
COMPUTING
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 What is Multimedia?
9.4 Hardware Requirements
9.4.1 Central Processing Unit
9.4.2 Monitor
f 9.4.3 Sound Card
9.4.4 CD-ROM Drive
9.4.5 Laser Disc
r
9.5 Other Input/Output Devices
9.5.1 Keyboard and Mouse
9.5.2 Scanner
9.5.3 Touch Screens
9.5.4 Graphics Tablets
9.5.5 Camera
9.5.6 Speaker and Microphone

9.6 Audio Impact in Multimedia

9.6.1 Digitized Sound
9.6.2 Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)

9.7 Video Impact in Multimedia

9.8 Networked Multimedia
9.9 Let Us Sum Up
9.10 Unit-end Exercises
9.1 1 Answers to Check Your Progress
9.11 Suggested Readings

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Multimedia is a very important tool of information technology. We keep on hearing this term
not only from computer professionals, but also from the people associated with advertisemeht,
training, cinema and business. In this unit we will look into the utilities of multimedia in the
field of educational technology.
Traditionally computers have been put to use with text only. Computer uses binary digits
(0 and 1) to read a character. Every alphabet or number is converted into a series of binary
digits (0 and 1) so that computer can read it without ambiguity. In this manner computer could
process words or numbers so as to generate reports, solve equations and produce graphics
much faster than best of human brains. But whole computer technology changed drastic~lly
when the images and sound were introduced into the computer. The problem, which looks so
simple today, was to convert sound and images into binary digits. Whehthis could be solved
the next problem was storage space in a computer. Huge amount of storage space (memory)
was required to store the sound and images converted into binary digits. The arrival of
compact disk (CD) solved the space problem.
Introduction to Computers
in Education 9.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
explain the term 'multimedia';
identify different hardware components required to run a multimedia;
appreciate the impact of audio in educational presentation;
describe how visual images, graphics and audio can be added to a presentation; and
enhance the capability of multimedia through interactive video impact.

9.3 WHAT IS MULTIMEDIA?

Multimedia is nothing but the processing and presentation of information in two or more
media. Thus multimedia can be an academic presentation, game or business application where
different media have been combined.A computer capable of handling text, sound, and animation
is called knultimedia computer. Thus multimedia refers to any combination of text, graphic art,
sound, animation and video elements delivered through a computer. Let us look at multimedia
from the user's point of view. If the user of a multimedia product can control the sequence
and timiag of these elements it is called interactive multimedia.
Multimedia has changed the entire information industry. It has replaced the professional video
production through high priced equipment and professional staff. Now you can produce audio-
visual material sitting at home through a multimedia Personal Computer (PC) at a much lower
cost. Technological advancement has been to such an extent that now a PC can control
external devices such as video recorder, videodisc player, compact disks, video camera and
musical instruments. There are computer softwares which facilitate generation of a sequence
of sound, video and images. Multimedia has become very helpful in the field of educational
research telated to information technology like sound, animation and text.

Fig. 9.1: Multimedia Computer

6
 The Computer System:
Clearly Multimedia has a far-reaching impact in business education and entertainment. The Hardware For Educational
importance of multimedia is partly due to increased efficiency of the PC. The present day PCs Computing
are much faster in processing speed and much smaller in size than the old generation computers.
Another aspect is the decline in computer prices. PC prices have been going down at such
a rapid rate that it is well within the affordability of a household. Thus in coming days more
and more individuals will have PCs as just another household effect.

9.4 HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

For producing multimedia you need hardware, software and creativity. In this unit we will
discuss the hardware requirements in a personal computer (PC) so that multimedia can
be developed. There are many components which are similar in an ordinary PC and a
multimedia PC. Hence we will focus on the additional parts that are special to a multimedia.
These are:
I. Central Processing Unit with MMX
2. Monitor with SVGA Card
3. Sound Card (-0 speakers withJwithout mike)
4. CD-ROM Drive
5. Camera
6. Sound is necessary if computer is not MMX features
7. Laser Disc
Some of the commonly found components have been described here.

9.4.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A Central Processing Unit (CPU) is a necessary component in a computer. It can be
called the brain of the computer as it synchronizes all the activities of a computer such
as inputting of data, processing of data and memory management. The efficiency (in
common language, the speed of data processing) of a computer is judged by the efficiency
of the CPU. For a multimedia computer a Pentium processor is preferred because of higher
efficiency. The multimedia features can be supplied with 486 computers and onwards with
Introduction to Computers math coprocessor. You will need a minimum 8 MB RAM to run WINDOWS to edit large
in Education
images or video clips. But a 16 MB RAM is preferred as it enhances the capacity of multimedia
computer. Now the Pentium processor with MMX technology is available in the market.
which is designed particularly for multimedia. Tbe latest in the market is the Pentium 111
processors.

__C --

Fig. 93: Central Processing Unit

9.4.2 Monitor
Monitor looks like a television screen where you can see the outcome of your work. Generally
it displays 25 rows of text. The text or graphics in a monitor is just an arrangement of tiny
dots (called eels) . when you see a picture on the monitor you can visualise a combination
So
of pixels. To display any image or video clip the PC needs a graphic adapter. This controls
the individual pixels or tiny points on a screen that make up image. For multimedia PC the
monitor shodd have Super Video Graphics Arrays (SVGA) c d . The advantage of having a
SVGA aard is that the quality of graphics and pictures is better.

J3g. 93: M*
 Now the PCs, which are coming to the market, are fitted with graphics card. That allows The Computer System:
images of upto 640 x 480 pixels to be displayed in upto 64,000colours. But SVGA card Hardware For Educational
Computing
increases the resolution to 800 x 600 pixels which is useful to display multimedia
presentations.

Ii 9.4.3 Sound Card

In the beginning we had mentioned that a computer reads only digits. Hence, sound is
converted into digits so that a computer can read and store it. At the time of playing it back
I
the digits are converted back to the same sound. In a computer any sound from a microphone
is converted into data that can be stored in the hard disk. This stored digital data can be
i converted back into sound. The part of the computer, which enables this, is called a sound
/I card. Sound card is fitted inside the PC. The most popular sound card is Sound Blaster. This
card enables the system to generate high quality of music and sound effect. It controls the
music played by the CD-ROM player. It supports Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)
4 as explained later, but does not display audio waveform for editing.

9.4.4 CD-ROM Drive

Before defining a CD-ROM drive let us discuss what a CD-ROM is. It is a magnetic disk
of 4.7inches diameter containing data recorded in it. It has a much bigger capacity in terms
of memory. It can contain upto 680 megabytes (MB) (1 MB = l(r bytes) of data. You require
a CD-ROM drive to run the CD-ROM. Let us look into the term ROM that stands for 'Read
Only Memory'. It simply means that you can read the material contained in it (as many times
as you like) but you cannot change its contents or in technical language 'write' on it. You
cannot save your own file onto CD-ROM. As CD-ROM disks are very small in size they are
portable. CD-ROMs have become an integral part of multimedia because they contain many
developer utilities like graphics, images and sounds, games and educational application
softwares. A CD-ROM can be read using different PCs controlled by different operating
systems. The necessary hardware component you require to read is a CD-ROM drive. Working

Ffg. 9.4: CD-ROM Drlve

Introductim toI Computers with CD-ROM disks is relatively easy compared to other information technology systems.
in Education Now-a-days CD-ROMs are being increasingly used because of its huge space and high speed
accessing data.
Recently computer technology has made tremendous progress. You can now have CDs which
can 'write once, redd many'. This means you can write your files in to a blank CD one time
through a laser beam. The written material can be read many times.
The device into which you place your CD-ROM disc is called a CD-ROM drive. It is an
essential component of multimedia Because it can run a CD which offers a huge storage
capacity.

9.4.5 LaSer Disc

It is popular as well as important source of video program. It works much like the CD-ROM.
It can playback any high quality of digital files. The difference between CD-ROM and laser
disc is that CD-ROM stores digital data on only one side whereas laser discs player is much
larger and doubled sided. Information on a laser disc is quicker and easier to find than
information on the videotape. But the big disadvantage of a laser disc is that. like CD, it is
a read-only source. You cannot record information on a laser disc .The laser disc can hold two
types of a d o information one is analog and other is digital. The analog audio is used for voice
commentary where as digital sound tracks is mostly used for the program's sound tracks.

9.5 OTHER INPUTIOUTPUT DEVICES

Now we w i l discuss some important inputtoutput devices attached to a multimedia computer.

95.1 Keyboard and Mouse

The standard input devices are keyboard and mouse. The keyboard is the most important input
device attached to all computers. The layout of keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter
of the type QWERTY.It contains some extra command keys and function keys thereby taking
the total number of keys to 101 or 104. Since multimedia uses a graphical user interface
(GUI) m o w is an essential input device. The mouse rolls on a small ball and has two or three
buttons on the top. When you roll the mouse across a flat surface the screen senses the mouse
in the direction of mouse movement. The cursor moves very fast with mouse giving you more
freedom to work in any direction. It is easier and faster to move across the screen through
a mouse. A standard mouse will do for multimedia The computer can recognise the electrical
signals corresponding to the correct key combination from a keyboard or clicking of a mouse
and promsing is done accordingly.

Fig. 9.5 Key- and M-

9.5.2 Scanner The Computer System:
Hardware For Educational
The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we want to input a picture Computing
the keyboard cannot do that. Scanner is an optical device that can input any graphical matter
and display it back. The common optical scanner devices are Magnetic Ink Character
Recognition (MICR), Optical Mark Reader (OMR) and Optical Character Reader (OCR).

9.5.3 Touch Screens

Touch screen is not used in day-to-day work in a multimedia. But it is very useful for
multimedia applications in kiosks or in a trade show. In it the monitor has a rough coating
across the glass surface. This coating is sensitive to pressure and movement of the user's
finger when it touches the screen. Here monitor works as an input device from where you can
give instructions to the multimedia PC. The computer recognises the finger location and takes
accordingly. For example, touching the screen twice in quick succession works as double
clicking of the mouse. Imagine how useful this will be for visually handicapped people who
can identify things by touching a surface.

9.5.4 Graphics Tablets

This is an ~nputdevice specially designed for graphic artists. It comprises a flat-surface, which is
pressure-sensitive, and a special pen used for drawing. In this device the user draws on the flat
surface with the specialized pen. The user can design finer details of a graphic through graphics
tablets. It provides such facilities that you can design a graphic on the computer, take a pnntout,
place it on the input surface and design it further by the pen.

9.5.5 Camera
Multimedia PC can support a digital camera. Many digital cameras such as Apple's Quick
Take, Dycam 10C, Kodak's DC40, Logitech Fotoman, etc. are available in the market. Most
of these cameras store (may be in a floppy disk) the photograph taken. These photographs can
be replayed directly from the camera into the PC. Once the image is saved in a computer
environment it can be easily transferred to other applications.

Fig. 9.6: Camera

11
Introduction to Computers 9.5.6 Speaker and Microphone
in Education
There is another important input device, namely, microphone. You can speak directly into a
microphone and the voice is incorporated into the multimedia. The sound speakers produce
sound output whereas microphone is used for on-line recording of sound.
". 2 .

9.6 AUDIO IMPACT IN MULTIMEDIA

In this section we will discuss how sound can be imported into the computer for use in the
development of multimedia. Also the PC should be capable of playing back the audio
information contained in a multimedia presentation. Incorporation of audio is one of the most
important features of multimedia. This feature is used frequently in academic presentations.
In the previous section we discussed the hardware components from which the computer can
receive sounds. There are two types of sound, which can be used in a multimedia. They are
dialogue in the form of human voice (dialogue, shrieks, etc.), instrumental notes (piano, drum
beats, etc.) and natural sound (clapping, movement of a train, etc.). While introducing audio
impact into multimedia one may use any combination of these three, e.g., soft background
music while the narration goes on or high notes of a guitar alongwith the roaring of the sea.
There are many ways in which these sounds can be incorporated into the computer. One,
human voice can be introduced into a computer directly through a microphone. Two, human
voice c@nbe introduced through replay of a pre-recorded cassette. Three, instrumental sound
can similarly be played directly from a musical instrument or replay of pre-recorded materials.
Thus, there are mainly two methods of introducing sound. One, directly from the source and
two, pre-recorded medium like cassettes. The sound transmitted from these sources is of
analog nature. As mentioned in the introduction to this unit, this sound has to be digitized
so that the computer can read it.
 9.6.1 Digitized Sound The Computer System:
Hardware For Educational
You might have known that sound travels in a waveform. In the upper panel of Figure 9.7 Computing
we have given such a sound wave. This waveform is analog, as it is continuous. Suppose we
want to digitize it. So what we do is, we take sample sounds at a particular interval, the
interval being fraction of a second. Thus, for each second we take the sound at a number of
points. The location of the sample points varies according to the original sound wave. The
middle panel of Figure 9.7 shows the sample points taken from the original sound wave.
Computer saves these sample points in a digital form is a file. While playing it back the
computer regenerates a sound waveform from these sample points saved in the file. The lower
panel of Figure 9.7 gives the reconstructed sound wave from the sample data. Note that the
reconstructed sound is not exactly equal to the original sound. How far the reconstructed
sound matches the original sound c'epends upon the frequency at which the sample data is
taken. However, the higher the sampling frequency higher is the memory space required.

. . .. . .. . . . . .'

. . . • Sampled Data

.,'
. ...' .;
,.a,..,
r
.... ..
0..
.: .....
. ...
:
......
.. . ... .
..
+
.,.
2 :
i '

...a "0.
,, f '*. $ "t
. .. .. . . . ./' Reconstructed Waveform
. . . . ...*
/
.i ....
"q..
:
'.
........<.,
".....O..' .....,/

Fig. 9.7: Digitised Sound Waveform

9.6.2 Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)

The pre-recorded digital sound consumes a lot of hard disk space. You can imagine how
much space is required for a multimedia presentation by the fact that 1-minute of standard
quality digital recording can occupy up to 10.5 MB of memory. Thus using an audio file
will be quite expensive in terms of memory space. Secondly, pre-recorded sound available
! in cassettes may not be of good quality. Thirdly, very often creativity requires some originality
and you may need to record your own sound from the instruments. Because of these we
require to connect an electronic musical instrument (through a cable) to the PC. This is
possible through the musical instrument digital interface (MIDI) which is an interface
attached to the sound card.
MIDI provides a protocol (a set of rules) so that details of a musical note from an instrument
can be communicated to the computer. But remember that MIDI data is not digitized sound.
Quality recording of digital audio depends upon the sound system. The quality of MIDI data
depends upon the quality of musical instrument and the sound system. A MIDI file can be
considered as a list commands. For example, pressing of a piano key can be represented as
a computer command. When this command is sent to the MIDI device it will result in a sound
from the piano. Thus MIDI can be considered as a short hand representation of musical notes
which are translated in to actual sound from the musical instrument. No doubt, MIDI file will
I
occupy a much smaller space compared to digitized sound. Another advantage of MIDI data
is that it is completely editable. You can manipulate MIDI composition of music, which is
Introduction to Computers impossible with digitized sound. The major disadvantage of MIDI is that it cannot handle
in Education
.
spoken
. . . . .
dialogue.
.-..- -- ........
. .iic;h 'r'rb:pn- :+cjgrl.:;s
.
................ .-.-
...
.- -

9.7 VIDEO IMPACT IN MULTIMEDIA

---

. - -

The finial thing in multimedia presentation is use of video images. These images may be
recordings from a video camera, shots from a film or a video clip. The video clips may also
contain some dialogues or sound effects. You combine these video images with the audio, text
and graphics. Incorporation of video is more important and complicated than other multimedia
technology. You can procure video clips from various sources or you can go for outdoor video
shooting. Thus it needs expensive equipment to record video clips. But once you have recorded
video clip, then you can play it back without needing any special equipment.
Now let us discuss how the computer uses a video clip. The computer reads a particular video
clip as a series of still pictures called frames. Thus video clip is made of a series of separate
frames where each frake is slightly different from the previous frame. The computer reads
each frame as a bitmap image. Generally there are 15 to 25 frames per second so that the
movement is smooth. If we take less frames than this the movement of the images will not
be smooth.
You know that bitmap images generally take more memory space in a disk. Generally, a high-
resolution video image occupies 1 MB of memory. Thus having 30 images per second will
occupy 30 MB of memory space. If we calculate at this rate, 108 gigabytes of memory space
will be required to save 1 hour of video. Another problem is that the PC should be capable
of transferring data at a rate of 30 MB .per second, which is impossible. Typical h ~ disk
d
drives transfer data of about 1 MB per second only. The data transfer from a CD-ROM is
much less than this. Thus the major problem of including video in a multimedia presentation
is finding some way out to manage memory space and data transfer.
To cut down the space there are several modem technology in windows environment. Essentially
these technologies compress the video image so that less space is required. Video compression
technologies such as JPEG, MPEG, P*64, etc., compress digital video information at the
range of 50: 1 to 200: 1. Compression at the rate of 50: 1 means that 50 MB of video memory
will require only 1 MB of memory. '
Now we will discuss what are the hardware requirements for video in Multimedia. For
digitizing images the computer is fitted with a video card. This card is generally fitted into The Computer System:
an expansion slot inside the PC. A normal video camera or a VCR is connected to the video Hardware For Educational
Computing
card. With the help of this card you can watch the picture. Beside the hardware you need
software also, which we will discuss in the next unit. The video card with the help of
graphics adapter displays the video images. Now it is possible to display television picture
on the computer through a video digitizing board. This serves as an addition source of video
clips.
Video for w~ndowsstores the video frames in a file format called audio-video interleaved
(AVI). Once you have recorded a video clip as a standard AVI file, you can play it back or
include it in your multimedia presentation. Video clips are normally stored in the AVI file
format. These can be played back on any PC and do not need special hardware. Once you
have the raw'or initial recording on to your PC, you can edit it to make necessary changes
through appropriate software.
As you know computer captures images as still frames. If the PC displays around 30 frames
in a second, it creates animation effect. Another technique that is similar to animation is called
morphing. This is rather like generating in-between images between the start image and the
end image. If the two images are different the software works out a sequence of steps so that
the first image appears to change gradually into the second image. You will learn more about
this in the next unit.

9.8 NETWORKED MULTIMEDIA

Very often, a multimedia project is a joint effort of writers, graphics artist, programmer and
musician. The wark group members located at different places. It is possible to collaborate
them through computers, if they are connected on a computer network.
It may be noted that compultrs can communicate with one another in a network. There are
two types of network depending upon the distance at which the computers are located. If
computers are placed at a short distance, say in the same building, it is called local area
network (LAN). LAN transmits data with a speed of several megabits per second. But normally
the transmission medium is coaxial cables. Generally LAN is used for text processing, electronic
message handling, personal computing and digital voice transmission.

teacher's microcomputer
with w m , disk storage andprinter

\
-
student microcmputen
with screens and
keyboards

Fig. 9.8: A Local Area Network (LAN)

The term wide area netowork (WAN) is used to describe a computer network spanning a
regional, national or global area. The distance between computers connected to WAN is
larger. The common examples of WAN are computerised railway ticket reservation system
while LAN examples are seen in many institutions using computerised systems..Therefore the
transmission medium used are normally telephone lines, satellite links and microwaves.
Generally, WAN is used for centralized information system, remote data entry and
communication facility.
Introduction to Computers
in Education Subnet Host N
f

Host 1 -

Transm~ssion
lines

Routers
L
1 J
Host 2

Fig. 9.9: A Wide Area Network (WAN)

For efficient communication between members of the workgroup, the members rely upon a
computer network. This saves time and facilitates instant interaction among the numbers. For
the multimedia PC to be connected to a network you require a hardware component called
modem, As multimedia file contains graphics, audio resources and video samples the modem
speed should be comparatively higher. Getting an Internet connection to the PC provides a lot
of multimedia resources at your disposal.

, I

I I

9.9 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we explained the concept of multimedia. Multimedia PC is nothing but a computer
capablp of working in more than two media. Sound, images, graphics and texts are the
importsnt media that a computer can process. In this unit we discussed various hardware
requirements for a multimedia PC. By now you must have known that a PC can receive
picturas directly from a camera or can scan a photograph through a scanner. Also it can
generate a sequence of sound of desired notes through the MIDI.
 The Computer System:
9.10 UNIT-END EXERCISES Hardware For Educational
---- -

Computing
1. Select a topic from the subject(s) you have been teaching in the school. Plan a multimedia
presentation on this topic. Discuss your plan with your peers at school or in the study
center. Write a report in about 1500 words of the plan, your experiences with respect to
this activity.
Some of the points you could include are:
use of multimedia and selection of topic
number of content points
duration of the presentation
selection of media like audio-visual aspects
other method you like
2. Organise a discussion on the topic 'Use of multimedia in classroom teaching'. Write the
major points evolved in the discussion.

9.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Computer uses binary digits (0 and 1) to read a character or number. Every alphabet or
number is converted into a series of binary digits. Each of these values (that is 0 and 1)
is called a bit. Each of the alphabets (a, b, c, .....) and numbers (1,2, 3, .....) is represented
by a 8-bit character (called byte). Thus the computer reads the message in the form of
110101 .....
2. Multimedia refers to a combination of text, graphics, sound, animation and video elements
delivered through a computer. It is a very important tool for presentation. It is not only
essential for computer professionals, but also useful for the people associated with
advertisement, training, cinema and business.
3. i) Scanner is an optical device that can input any graphical matter and display it back.
The common optical scanner devices are Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR),
Optical Mark Reader (OMR) and Optical Character Reader (OCR).
ii) Photographs can be replayed directly from the camera into the PC. Once the image
is saved in a computer it can be easily transferred to other applications. Many digital
cameras such as Apple's Quick Take, Dycam 10C, Kodak's DC40, Logitech Fotoman
are useful for multimedia PC.
iv) In touch screen the monitor has a rough coating across the glass surface. This
coating is sensitive to pressure and movement of the user's finger when it touches
the screen. Here monitor works as an input device from where you can give
instructions to the multimedia PC.
V) It comprises a flat surface, which is pressure-sensitive, and a special pen used for
drawing. In this device the user draws on the flat surface with the specialized pen.
The user can design finer details of a graphic through Graphics Tablets. This is an
input device specially designed for graphic artists.
4. Sound travels in the form of waves. These waves are in analog, as it is continuous. For
transmission of these waves through first we need to digitize it. For this purpose we take
sample sounds at a particular interval, the interval being fraction of a second. Thus, for
each second we take the sound at a number of points. The location of the sample points
varies according to the original sound wave. Computer saves these sample points in a
digital form in a file. While playing it back the computer regenerates a sound waveform
from these sample points saved in the file. Thus original sound is reconstructed from the
sample data.
5. MIDI file occupies a much smallei space compared to digitized sound. Another advantage
of MIDI data is that it is completely editable. One can manipulate MIDI composition of
music, which is impossible with digitized sound.
6 . For including video in multimedia we require the following hardware components:
i) normal video camera or VCR, ii) video card, iii) graphic adapter.
Introduction to Computers 7. If computers are placed at a short distance it is called local area network (LAN). LAN
in Education
transmits data with a speed of several megabits per second. But normally the transmission
medium is coaxial cables. Generally LAN is used for text processing, electronic message
handling, personal computing and digital voice transmission. The distance between
computers connected to WAN is larger. Therefore the transmission medium used are
normally telephone lines, satellite links and microwaves. Generally, WAN is used for
centralized information, remote data entry and communication.

9.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Cawkell. Tony. (1996): The Multimedia Handbook, Routledge, London.
Collin, Simon. (1995): Multimedia Made Simple, Asian Books, New Delhi.
Vaughan, Tay. (1996): Multimedia: Making it Work, McGraw-Hill.

,
 UNIT 13 ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Structure
13.1 Introduction
132 Objectives
13.3 Educational Planning: Types and Process
13.3.1 Types of Educational Planning
13.3.2 Process of Educational Planning
13.4 Advantages of Use of Computers in Educational Planning
13.5 Management Information System (MIS) and Educational Planning
13.5.1 Understanding MIS
13.5.2 MIS Structure
13.5.3 Levels of Information Handling
13.5.4 Factors for Successful Implementation of MIS
13.6 Role of MIS in Educational Planning
f 3.6.1 Information Needs for Planning in School Education
13.6.2. Information Flow and Planning in Schools
13.7 Information Network and Educational Planning
13.8 Let Us Sum Up
13.9 Unit-end Exercises
13.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
13.11 Suggested Readings
I
Webster's International Dictionary (1981) defines planning as an act or process of making
or carrying out plans. A plan is conceptualised as a predetermined strategy, detailed scheme,
or programme of action related to the accomplisbment of an objective. Educational planning
refers to the process of decision-making in education for future action in order to achieve
predetermined objectives with optimum use of resources. Planning is also concerned with the
improvement of educational management and accountability practices. Therefore, the essence
of educational planning is the appraisal of as many operational alternatives as possible, and
then, selecting the best for action. In order to enumerate the operational alternatives we need
information or data. In modern days each alternative is determined by a number of factors
and the educational planner is required to collect voluminous informationldata manually.
Apart from other problems the analysis of large informationldata is tedious, expensive, and
time consuming. Computers are well suited for informationldata processing tasks because of
their speed, accuracy, and ability to store large quantities of informationldata in an accessible
6 form. Therefore, with its large information-handling capabilities, the computer has the potential
for making significant contributions to the educational process. Wbether teachers are attempting
to transmit information or help students learn to manage and organise infonnabon, the potential

i
of computer can provide a valuable tool. Computers are very useful in handling the management
information system for the purpose of decision-making in the areas of educational planning.

( 13.2 OBJECTIVES
I After going through this Unit, you will be able to:

( identify the various types of educational planning;

computers in E d r r ~ t i o n d @ analyse the process of educational planning;
Admllristrat3on
@ explain the advantages of computers in educational planning; and
@ lmderstqmd Be significance of management information system in educational planning.
Let us begin ow discussicn by trying to understand the concepts and process of educational
planning is brief.

13.3 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING: TYPES AND PROCESS

13.3.1 Qpes of Educational Planning

mere are several types of educational planning depending upon the point of reference used
in taking decisions. Some of these are:
(i) Centralised Planning: A centralised plan is one where the whole process of planning
takes place at the centrdnational level and may provide aggregate plan proposals. It
might as well provide disaggegated plans of states, districts, blocks, villages or institutions.
For example, the plan approval of the Planning Commission of India is a centralised
planning.
(ii) Decentralised Planning: A decentralised plan can be defined as one where the process
of planning is decentralised and different units of planning take part in the process.
Under such a system the state governments, district authorities, and/or institutes receive
only guidelines and objectives of planning from the central agency, but the actual planning
process takes place at the state, district, or institutional level.
(iii) Micro Planning: The essential characteristic of a micro plan is that the unit of planning
represents a level below which no unit forms a viable unit for planning. If a block forms
a viable unit for planning, then district level planning may not constitute micro level
planning. Similarly, if village becomes a viable unit for planning, block level planning
does not constitute micro level planning. Therefore, micro level planning involves
identification of the smallest viable unit for planning. It also requires knowledge of the
constituents of the unit and all details regarding these constituents. For example, block
kvel. @ w i n g . of secondary schools requirt%detailed knowledge of the resources and
requirements of each secondary school in that block.
(iv) ~ a u Pph d n g : The planning above micro level is called macro level. If a block
constihtes a viable unit for micro level planning in order to achieve an objective then
the planning at disUict or state or centre bec~mesmacro h e 1 planning with refaence to
the same objective.
(v) Strategic Planning: This concerns with the long-term prospects of an educational
institution or system. It spreads over ten to twenty years and is based on large perspective.
For sample, Dep-nt of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development,
Govqnment d India orgaaised a Conference of tbe Vice Chancellors of Central Universities
on the theme 'Setting tbe Agenda for the 21st Century far Central Universities' at Visva-
B h a r i , Santiniketan in August, 1999. On the basis of its recommendations, Indira
Gandhi National @n University is currently (year 2000) developing a strategic papa
On 'Vision 202SA.D'. Strategic planning takes intD consideration the totality of acfivities
of an organigation. IIIother w a d s it ref= to the planning fbr the total organisation over
a longer period. Planning for a period of fifteen, twenty or more yeam is also known as
perspective planning. '
(vij Dpemtfonal Planning: n i s is also called short-term planning concerns with working
witbiln the short to medium term time scales ranging kom 2 to 5 years within which
educbtional managers are required to plan. It focuses on solving immediate and pressing
problems. For specific and narrow purposes, operational planning is more appropriate.
For example, Planning Commission, Government of India prepares five year plans
dedicating h e pziority areas of& government in thenext five years. Similarly, education
institutkx prepare five-year plans indicating priority areas and estimated expenditure for
the clearance of concerned authorities and funding agencies. These plans are directly
concerned with operations and deal with the various functional areas.
 (vii)Annual Plan (Budget): This refers to a detailed activity and component-wise financial h a t d C ~ m p . r f ~ha
plan of an institution or system for the inmediately forth-corning period-normally one - e d ~ c d f l l r s npb-*urdnl
l
year. For example, each secondary school prepares a statement of estimated expenditure
for the next one year on various items like salary of principal, teachers, support staff,
building, equipment, lab. and other consumables so that necessary action can be taken to
rnake financial resources available.
(viii)Institutional Planning: Educational planning may be done at various levels, namely
national, state, district, block, or institutional. National level planning is important because
it is very comprehensive and takes into account all the factors that ensure integrated and
balanced development of all sectors of national life. However, within the parameters of
a national plan specific and detailed plans may be prepared at state, district, block,
village. or institctional levels. Planning at these levels is more realistic and appropriate
because of the involvement of local people who know the problems better. Since
institutional planning is one of these levels and is the lowest level at which planning is
required to be undertaken, this is considered as the most important level of planning.
Education at this level thrives on a quadrangular base of intimate relationship comprising
management, teachers, students, and parents. Therefore, institutional planning involves
building up an educational institution with definite goals in such a manner so that the
desired goals can be achieved smoothly and continuously.
It may not be appropriate to use above discussed terms synonymously with e i k of them.
For example, an educational plan at a district level can be a decentralised and as well be an
aggregate (centralised) plan. The objectives of institutional planning cannot be different from.
those of educational planning at national level. Similarly, you should remembex that strategic
plans, operational plans, and annual plans are not mutually exclusive. They overlap and, in
fact, annual plan is a part of operational plan and operational plan is a part of strategic plan
in the sense that each contains the activities of the other and it contributes to the achievement
of the objectives or goals laid down in the strategic plan. The objectives and specific purposes
of the programme of action at institutional level may d i f a in order of pority and degree
of importance with the nation, state, and district programme. B e c a w of the importance
attached to the institutional educational planning and most of you are working or aspiring to
work in the schools as teachers, this unit will give more emphasis to school planning.

13.3.2 Process of Educational Planning

A good plan is always an outcome of scientific and comprehensive process involved in its
preparation. There are two elements that every plan should have: (1) it must be systematic
and (2) it must be comprehensive. A systematic approach to problem-solving combined with
comprehensive planning process provides a comprehensive systematic planning process. No
good plan can be prepared carelessly and arbitrarily. It requires creation of new ideas, collection
and analysis of data, designing solution and its implementation and evaluation. In fact, the
improvement and the q~alityof a plan depend on the quality of the process that produces a
plan. Plans based on inadequate information and data inadequate interpretations or questionable
procedure do not represent much improvement over those rpoted in unrealistic gods. T k
relevance and the potentid effcchvenes of a plan should be examined and evaluated prior to
its implementation by amlysing the valdity of its assumptions, relevance of data used, quality
of procedures, soundness of interpretations etc.
The link between various planning processes of a systematic piancing is s h m in Figure
13.1. Goals are derived from Lhe objectives and are timebound targets far the acbevexkent
of objectives. Goals are expressed in specific quanbtative or qualitative tern. Once the
, goals are identified, a clear definition and malysis of problem on hand is necesszy as pm
I of plarrning process. At this stage all ths parmeters that influence ex.goals are i c k a t i f i .
r The next stage irr the planning process is collection of data on the parureters identified.
Analysis of dzta helps us in identifying a set of dternative solutions to the problem, You may
I
also develop a cnterion for evaluation s ~ feasibility
d of alternative sduthae. In the next
stage you may choose the best alternative keeping the goals ir! -d. Fhally you would We
I
to trmsform the plan into action. Iiowevcr, if ~o,wof Fbe alternative soluiisns is feasibk
or cannot be implemented for some reason, depending on the nature of the %b-problem you
may collect more datalinforrnation and redo tL.2 planning process as explained above in sear&
of better alternative solutions to the poti:em under comideration.
Cornputem in Educational
Administration

Understanding
objectives/goals

Q
Problem definition

DatatInformation
collection
I

Collect new
of alternative
informationldata
solutions .-

Evaluation of
solutions

7 Identify sub-problem

Implementation

fig. 13.1: Flow Chart of a Systematic Educational Planuing Process

 Modern educational planning has attained the status of logical, systematic and scientific Role of Computers in
Educational Planning
process in bringing about changes in the system of education. Earlier ad-hoc decisions were
taken by the administration to solve immediate problems faced by them. But gradually it is
being realised more and more that decisions regarding changes in the field of education
should be well planned.
. ........... . .-. .. - --
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t : . ; ! ~ . . ~ : . : t i ~ ~ ~ i ~ Ilo . wit!, :!;is xta!i.r~:~~;~'lS~::rcyes i,r 110. 1
I

13.4 ADVANTAGES OF USE OF COMPUTERS IN

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
The advantages associated with computer-based educational planning are as follows:
(i) Very large data can be stored in the computer for processing and getting useful
information for a good planning and decision-making.
(ii) The processing time of the data is greatly reduced.
(iii) Accuracy of information processing is significantly improved for better planning, thereby
improving the quality of decision.
(iv) Often statistical and operations research techniques like regression analysis for
forecasting, linear programming for maximisation of the objectiveslgoals or minimisation
of cost etc. are used in planning and decision-making. It is very difficult to build these
models manually or even using calculators.
(v) Use of computers will help you to make these tasks much easier reducing a lot of
valuable manpower and time.
(vi) More confidential information can be maintained through use of computers than the
usual manual file system thereby reducing the chances of leakage of classified
information.
Computers in Educational (vii) As the information retrieval time and data processing time is greatly reduced, the
Administration
ability of manager to take quick decisions improves significantly.
(viii) Also, the tasks like preparation of a set of alternative solutions and the assessment of
their feasibility through simulation techniques becomes more easier with greater
accuracy.
(ix) The time spent on various decision-making activities is reduced to a minimum.
(x) Lot of data and information collected and processed can be stored in computer for
future use, data manipulations, forecasting, and preparation of comparative statements
for better planning and decision-making.
From the list of the above advantages of the use of computers, the following benefits can be
attributed to the area of educational planning:
(a) Planning for adequate number of schools, school facilities, finances, personnel (teaching
and non-teaching staff), and curricula are continuous process involving thorough
information. Forecasting student population for the coming years for say secondary
education in a particular school, district, state or at national level will help the planners
of education to prepare better plans in establishing new schools, appointing teachers
and other supported staff, mobilising resources etc.
(b) Based on the past data and new information and goals of an educational institution,
one can easily prepare short term and long term projections for operational and strategic
planning.
(c) Annual plans (Budget) incorporating detailed activity-wise anticipated expenditure of
a secondary school or all the secondary schools in a district or a state can be prepared.
(d) If the progress of a plan is not according to the anticipation the forecasts can be
revised with new information as shown in Figure 13.1 and plan can be revised
accordingly without looking much time and manpower.
(e) The variance analysis of budget estimates and actual results (in terms of activities,
expenditure, and cost) will throw more light on preparation of future plans.
(f) The data about resources and its utilisation can be processed through computers and
useful information can be obtained for taking-wise decision on management of
classrooms, buildings, and other activities of a school.
(g) Monitoring of various educational programmes based upon cost and benefit analysis
will help the planners in planning for increases in educational productivity.

13.5 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS)

AND EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

13.5.1 Understanding MIS

Information processing is a societal activity. A significant part of an individual's working and
personal time is spent on searching, recording, and absorbing information. According to
Davis and Olson as much as 80% of a typical executive's time is spent in the processing and
communication of information. Now computers are widely used in information processing
for not only in planning and decision-making activities of an organisation but also in day-
today administration because of their potential in handling large data in minimum possible
time. Davis and Olsop defined MIS as 'an integrated, user-machine system for providing
information to support operations, management, and decision-making functions in an
organisation'. The MIS can also be defined as computer based information process where
datatinformation is recorded, stored, processed, and 'retrieved fur decisions regarding the
managerial process of planning, organising and controlling.

13.5.2 MIS Structure

The structure of MIS can be classified as:
1. Operating Elements
10
2. Decision Support Role of Computers in
Educational Planning
3. Management Activity
4. Orgaisational Function
1. Operating Elements for a MIS includes: (a) the physical components such as hardware
(computer equipment), software (system software as well as application software), database,
computer operating procedures, and computer operations personnel, and (b) processing
functions such as datatinformation inputs, maintenance of master files, generating of
reports etc.
2. Decision Support: The manager's decisions can be classified into programmed decisions,
non-programmed decisions, and semi-programmed decisions. Programmed decisions are
those in which the decision processes involve a pre-set well-defined procedure. These
decisions are repetitive and routine which arise often and are capable of being modeled
mathematically in their entirety. The decision procedure will also specify the information
to be acquired before the &cision rules as applied. One area of application of programmed
decisions is inventory management decisions. Non-programmed decisions are those, which ,
do not occur frequently and cannot be handled with well defined, pre-specified procedure.
The support requirements for non-programmed decisions are: access to data and a variety
of data analyses for planning and decisions procedures that can be applied to the solution
of the problem. Examples of this kind of decisions are marketing a new product,
establishing a new school, introducing additional sections in a class or new subjects in
a class etc.
Semi-programmed decisions are those in which the decision process can be programmed
and non-programmed. For example, the annual budget of a school can be prepared using
a programmed decision process. When a comparison of the budget is made with the
performance and significant deviations are observed then it may lead to non-programmed
decisions.
3. Management Activity: MIS supports management activity. This means that the structure '

of an information system can be classified in terms of a hierarchy of management planning

and control activities. Anthony G1965) has provided a framework, which distinguishes
between different typesof planning and control process that typically occur in organisations.
Anthony defined the following categories of management planning and control:
a) Strategic planning is the process of defining objectives of an organisation, resources
used to achieve these objectives, and policies to acquire, use, and disposition.
b) Management control is the process by which managers acquire resources and use
them effectively in achieving the objectives of an organisation.
c) Operational control is the process by which specific tasks are carried out effectively
and efficiently.
4. Organisational Function: The structure of MIS can also be expressed in terms of the
organisational functions which are informative. There is no standard classification of
organisational functions, but a typical set of functions in a manufacturing organisation
includes production, sales and marketing, finance and accounting, logistics, personnel,
and information systems. Top management can also be considered as a separate function.
In a school some of the typical organisational functions could be teaching, student admission
and examination, student information, finance and accounts etc.

13.5.3 Levels of Information Handling

In a modern complex organisation, the levels of information handling can be divided as
decision support system (DSS), management informagon system (MIS), transaction processing
system (TPS), and office automation system (OM). These levels of information handling are
shown in Figure 13.2 as a pyramid structure. In some organisations there may be only three
levels, namely DSS, MIS and TPS (where O M is merged with TPS)instead of four. At the
top level managers may need DSS. Inputs for DSS can be some processed data, and mostly
management-originated data. The DSS would involve queries and responses, operations research
models, and simulation. The output from DSS would be special reports to resolve difficult
questions and replies to management queries. At the middle management level MIS would
&al with an organised set 6f procedures to provide information for middle level managers to
Computers in Educational support their operations and decision-making within the organisation. At this level, inputs for
Administration MIS would be both processed and raw data and some management-originated data along with
programmed models. The MIS process would involve report generation, data management,
simple models and statistical analysis. The outputs from MIS would be filtered for serni-
programmed decisions and replied to simple management queries. TPS is a computer-based
system that would capture, classify, store, maintain, update, and retrieve simple transaction
d a b for record keeping and for feeding MIS and DSS. The TPS is normally used at shop-
floor mahagement level. The inputs for TPS are the transaction data and the processing
involves codification, and updating data. Outputs for TE'S are the processed data and reports
for programmed decisions.

/ \ Decision
Support System
needed by top level
Managers

/ \ Management
Information System
needed by middle level
n.e.rs

Transaction
Processing System
needed by shop-floor level
Managers

Office
Automation System
used at clerical level

Fig. 13.2: Levels of information hanclling

The OAS is used at the clerical level and it is a simple automated office having multiple
functions. Inputs for OAS are appointments, documents, addresses etc. Here the processing
involve word processing, data storage and retrieval. Outputs are schedules, memoranda, bulk
mail, and administration reports. You will learn more about automated office in the next unit
of this Block.

13.5.4 Factors for Successful Implementation of MIS

In one organisation a well designed MIS fails; while a similar but poorly designed MIS in
another organisation succeeds. The reason can usually be traced to human rather than technical.
A few factors that increase the chances of a successful implementation of MIS are:
(i) Involvement of top management in the computerisation effort while defining the purpose
and goals of computers with the organisation.
(ii) Selection of an electronic data processing manager who has the skills to involve managers
in choosing application areas, identifying information needs, and designing reports.
(iii) A computer staff which has interdisciplinary skills in computers, management, and
operations research.
(iv) A balanced expenditure in hardware and software.
 Role of Computere in
Educational P h d n g

I
I 13.6 ROLE OF M I S ~ NEDUCATIONALPLANNING

13.6.1 Information Needs for Planning in School Education

MIS has been widely used in business organisations to a&omplish a variety of tasks. However,
the application of MIS in education particularly in developing countries like India is not
popular. As seen in the earlier section, the computer based management information system
can be used at different levels of management for planning and decision-making. The vertical
relationship of information requirements to the different user levels of a school managementi
administration is shown in Figure 13.3. Although MIS could be used both in planning and
administration of an educational organisation, but this section covers here the role of MIS in
educational planning only. You will learn more about the application of MIS in educational
administration in separate unit of this Block.

Planning
(historical data and trends) -1 Top Administrators
(Directors of Schools etc.) I
?).pes of
Information
Direction h d Control
(monitoring and regulating) -1 Middle Administrators
(Principals and Department Heads) I
I

L
I
Oper tional
(day-today activities)
Operations Personnel
(Clerical Staff )
-
ETg. 133: The "eltical relationship of i n l o n n k h nee& to asom on ditlcwt school ddnbtmtion lev&
(Adapted from H m c h , KM.(1973),Devclapmmt of kdonnatioapl Syrtan for Edocatjun, Prmtke
HaIl, Eaglewood CU&, N. J.)
Operational information is the factual reporting of the current operations of the schools. The
period of these reporting could be daily, weekly, monthly andlor annually. For example, data
could be collected on student progress, attendance, grades, classroom usage etc. Though the
operational persons (clerical staff) process the data at this level, middle level managers like
principal and department heads use these processed data in the form of reports for planning,
decision-making, and control of the school. The middle level managers use the operational
information to compare &sired performance with actual performance for better planning and 13
Computers in Educational decision-making. When exceptions are noted, remedial or corrective steps can be taken. For
Administration
example, expenditure may exceed the budget and student grades may be different from
expected. Analysis of data on these activities enables principals to have the facts necessary
to plan and make necessary decisions.
\
Top administration of a school like, hairman1Directors need information to study objectives,
A! ( bhiy3,ivities of school, and prepare plans. Planning of
make projections, assess the differe
information is required to define objectivesand establish strategies to achieve these objectives.
Operational information and direction and control information are used to accomplish planning
purposes. In addition it is necessary to collect information at district, state, and national level,
for better planning, and attaining the objectives.

13.6.2 Information Flow and Planning in Schools

The interrelationship of the three information levels to the administration hierarchy and
internal and external sources of information is shown in Figure 13.4.
Social and Politicdl Economic
Community Legislative Conditions
Forces Forces

External 1 Environment

Top Administration
I and 1
Planning Information
& I

Projections,
Historical, I and
Summary and C o n ~ t s
Exceptions Reports

Direction and Control

Infonnation

Operational Instructions
and Requests

Internal ( , Environment
I

Students Teachers Staff Curriculum Fiscal

EFg. 13A: The Intenatationship of the Three Levels of en Infonnation System to Administration H i e r d y
and Envimmnent Sources. [Adapted Irom Hwein, K. M. (1973), Development of Informational
System for Education, Prentice Hall, Englewood C l i , N. J.1

It should be recognised that dependency exists between users and their information needs and
the forces that impinge on school or organisations. Externally, social and community forces,
politicaVlegislative forces and economic conditions operate to influence school policy and
planning. Social and community forces may be represented by pressure groups and concerned
citizens who want either special concessions or changes in the school. Politicalllegislative
forces operate to affect policy issues, budgets, and appropriations. Economic conditions such
as recession and inflation erode budgets, with a resultant effect on the salary and funds for
 equipment and buildings. Internally, the information system compiles and processes data on Role of Computers in
Educational Planning
students, teachers, staff, curriculum and sources of revenue. The decisions of school management
depend on the effectiveness of information system that produces quality data. If successful,
internal organisation needs can be met and effectiveness achieved in coping with external
forces or conditions.
The computer based information system in schools can be further divided into: (a) student
information data processing system and (b) management information system. The information
on student attendance, academic performance, course schedule, etc. would be entered into the
computer. Data files on grades, attendance, scheduling, and testing would subsequently be
established. The review of the data by the management on historical day-to-day operations of
the school would help in better planning and taking corrective decisions. The management
may periodically compare actual performance with projected ones. When exceptions occur or
things are out of line, the management would be better prepared to make needed decisions
regarding corrective action. A functioning of MIS provides them with the information necessary
to determine which of several alternative courses of action is best. It also may assist the
school management in determining which factors need to be controlled to facilitate better
I management or increase the productivity.

Data

. Data

Fig. 135: Components of a Managemat Information System

The components of a school management information system are shown in Figure 13.5.
Decision support system (DSS) utilises projection and simulation procedures to predict trends
and simulate the future state of school based upon the assumptions and conditions furnished
by management. To accomplish this, the DSS utilises not only the output generated from the
data processing systems and MIS, but relevant outside information. An effective DSS assists
management in determining strategic plans and operational plans of the schools in the future.
To facilitaie planning in the DSS, computer planning models might be developed. One type
of such planning model could be forecasting model of student number based on historical
data. A computer-planning model may not be either feasible or practical. It is for the school
management to decide whether such model would be useful.
Table 13.1 illustrates how, at each information level, each of the three information systems
would focus on sample problems of a school. The data processing system generates the raw
data that is fed into the MIS. In turn the MIS focuses on relationships, among the data,
between expected and actual outcomes, or where discrepancies occur. The data generated by
both the data-processing system and MIS are used to make planning decisions based on
pojections and simulations.
t-h
OI if
g: 1
g3
%I
Table 13.1
Examples of Educational Problems by Level of Information and Q p e of Computer Information System. (Adapted from Blum, Harry P. (1987)
Administrative Uses of Computers in the Schools, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
I!
LEVEL O F INE"ORMAT1ON AND APPLICABLE COMPUTER IIWORMATION SYSTEM

Information LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3

Arras OPERATIONAL DATA: DATA DIRECTION AND CONTROLDATA: PLANNING DATA: DATA SUPPORT SYSTEM
PROCESSING SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT INFORMATION

Faculty, Staaff;and Comprehensive statistics of teacher anct Rdationships among factors strch as nature of Decisions mede pertaining to ins&uting ttexher reterttioio~praxdwgs,withpredictions
Students. student background. training, age, assignment, class load, etc. and teacher made to plan future staffing using the retention outcome data and census data.
retention in the system.

Longitudinal data on student Relationship between factors in school achievement Prediction of students' success in school using longitudinal data, followed by
achievement, dropout, health, etc. and factors in student health or environmental experimental interventions with an analysis of the outcomes.
background.

Curriculum Number of students enrolled in various Relationship between students' high schoolcurricula Decisions made pertaining to revamping the guidance programme to better issist
and cumculum tracks. and later academic and work careers. students who choose curricular courses that would enhance educational and career
Znstiuction goals.

Storage and retrieval of data on student Relationship between student performance and Determination of which instructionalenvironmentsshould be supported in the schools.
performance in different instructional instructional settings.
settings, e.g., individualized instruction,
open classroom, large groups, small
groups etc.

Budget and Statistics on school costs and budgeted Determination of overruns in any of the categories. Projections made on budget allocations based on overrun figures and revenue
Financial Support categories. forecasting.
Longitudinal data of assessed evaluation Relationship between financial support and various Determination of how the educational rupee can best facilitates school productivity.
and data pertaining to the proportion of evidences of school productivity.
the district's income going to education.

Facilities, Cost statistics on all aspect2 of school Relationship between costs expended to maintain Determinationmade as to whether district funds should continue to maintain or replace
Equipment, and maintenance and construction. old buildings versus construction of new facilities. old facilities.
Supplies Relationship between equipment and supply Determination of equipment and supply allocation based on projected school
Longitudinal data on equipment and
supply dlocations by school inventories by size of school enrollment enrollments.
enrollments.
 Role of Camputas in
13.7 INFORMATION NETWORK AND EDUCATIONAL E d a d w a l Planning
PLANNING
An information network is two or more computers linked together for the purpose of sharing
data and information. As we have seen in earlier sections, data and information are vital
components of any planning activity. Educational planning is no exception 10this. Also, the
MIS for planning requires not only datdinformation from within a school but also from
i outside. Collecting, compiling, and processing outside school data is tedious, time consuming
and involves lot of expenditure. Therefore, information network help us to collect and process
the data in quickest possible time with minimum cost which can be used in projections and
I simulations for better and effective planning.

1
1
Currently, several versions of information networks, namely Local Area Network (LAN),
Wide Area Network (WAN), Internet, e-mail, and teleconferencing are widely used for
information sharing. A LAN is so named because it usually consists of two or more computers
I linked in a network and housed in a building or in a small area. For example, in Indira Gandhi
National Open University all the computers in the university headquarter are linked through
LAN and the information available on one computer can be shared by the other except that
if it is classified information. A WAN also consists of several computers linked to each other
like LAN hut the major difference is the geographicalhnstitutional spread of the network For
I example, the library information of several universities and other educational institutions in
Delhi are networked through a network called DELNET and this facilitates the planners to
optimise the scarce resources and buy only those expensive books that are not available in the
sister libraries in the network. The internet is a network of networks. The evolution of internet
transformed the entire information world into a global village. This has facilitated the planners
to easy access to the datdinformation available outside hidher school, district, state, or nation
for developing more accurate forecasting models and better planning in attaining educational
objectives. Similarly, the datdinformation can be shared using e-mail cutting the time and
cost constraints. Some times it may be necessary to discuss and deliberate online with experts
and people involved in decision-making process who are away from the site of the decision-
making. Teleconferencing will be very helpful in such situations.

LET US SUM UP
This unit provides a brief account of the role of computers in educational planning with
special reference to school planning. We have introduced to you various types of educational
planning concepts and the process of educational planning to familiarise them for application
in your school environment. We have also tried to list out various advantages of the use of
computers for educational planning.
Establishment of information system is the key for any educational system for better planning
,and efficient decision-m6king to run the system efficiently. Therefore, we have provided to
you a brief account of the MIS structure, levels and factors for its successful implementation.
The structure and flow of computer processed information and its utility in educationalplanning
and decision-making is also explained. The role of information networks in educational planning
is also described in an effective way.
Educational planners and school administrators need to be computer literate to promote the
establishment of computer information system in the schooLs for better planning and decision-
making.

UNIT-END EXERCISES
1. Define programmed, non-programmed, and semi-programmed decisions.
2. Explain the meaning of decision support system, management support system, transaction
support system, and office automation system.
3. Explain the interrelationship between three information levels of school administration
for planning.
Computers in Educational 4. Explain the purpose of management information system. Give some of its applications
Administration
in educational planning.
5. Computer processed informationldata provides the basic ingredient in planning and
decision-making? Explain.
6. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of computers in educational planning.
7. In what way information networks improve educational planning? Explain briefly.

13.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. School level - Decentralised planning, Micro planning, Strategic planning, Operational
planning, Annual plan, Institutional planning.
District level - Decentralised planning, Micro planning, Strategic planning, Operational
planning, Annual plan, Institutional planning.
Central level - Centralised planning, Macro planning, Strategic planning, Operational
planning, Annual plan.
2. frame
10-20 or more years for strategic plans
2-5 years for operational plan
one year for annual plan
3. Yes
4. Yes
5. a) Programmed decision
b) Non-programmed decision
c) Semi-programmed decision
6. a) Top level management
b) Middle level management
c) Shop-floor level management
d) Clerical staff

13.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Anthony, R. N. (1965) : Planning and Conlrol Systems: A Framework for Analysis, Harvard
University Press and Cambridge.
Ben-Zion Barta, Moshe Telam and Yaffa Gev (ed.) (1995) : Informution Technology in
Educclrional Management, Chapman and Hall, London.
Bhatnagar, R.P. and Vidya Agarwal (1986) : Educational Administration (Planning and
Supervision), International Publishing House, Meerut.
Bitter, Gray G. (1989) : Micro Computers in Education Today, Mitchel Publishing Inc.
California.
Blum, Hurry P. (1987) :Administrative Uses of Computers in the Schools, Rentice-Hall, New
Jersey.
Davis B. Gordon and Margrethe H. Olson (1984) : Management Informution Systems:
Conceptual Foundations, Structure, and Development, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Tanner, C. Kenneth. (1971) : Designs for Educational Planning: A Systems Approach, Heath
Lexington Books, Lexington.
Zani, W.S. (1973) : A Blue Print for MIS, Harward Business Review.
 UNIT 14 ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 Advantages of Use of Computers in Educational Administration
14.4 Computer Based General Administration
14.5 Computer Based Payroll and Financial Accounting
14.6 Computer Based Administration of Student Data
14.7 Computer Based Inventory Management
I
14.8 Computer Based Personnel Records Maintenance
14.9 Computer Based Library Systems
14.10 Let Us Sum Up
14.11 Unit-end Exercises
14.12 Answers to Check Your Progress
14.13 Suggested Readings

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Initially, the establishment of computers in schools, colleges, universities and research institutes
in India was for educational and research purposes. But gradually the management and policy
makers realised the potentiality of computers in the area of tklucational administration, namely,
admission, examination, accounting, inventory management, library materials management,
student record keeping, etc. Computers are well suited for information processing tasks
because of their speed, accuracy, and ability to store large data in an accessible form. As
school systems have grown in size and in the scope of their activities, computer technology
has provided mechanism for administrators to keep abreast of increasing demands for current
and documented information.

14.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
explain the advantages of computers in Educational Administration;
identify and analyse the activities and processes of Educational Administration; and
understand the significance of computer based information system in Educational
I Administration.

14.3 ADVANTAGES OF USE OF COMPUTERS IN

EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
Computers can be used extensively for educational administration. The following are some
of the areas where computers can be used for effective educational administration:
General Administration
Pay Roll and Financial Accounting
Administration of Student Data
Computers in Educational Inventory Management
Administration
~ersopnelRecords Maintenance
Library Systems
Gradeslma~ksassigned to students must be recorded in some fashion, and these records must
be easily and readily accessible to appropriate individuals. Currently, a number of educational
institutions and boards are using computers to process the examination results. The volume
of such operations is often massive involving thousands and even lakhs of students. With the
introduction of computers now these organisations are able to process the examination data
and announce the results in quickest possible time. With the advent of internet a student is
able to access the result at hislher home. For example, in March 2000 the Central Board of
Secondary Education conducted examination for 10th and 12th class students. About 4.67
lakh studelnts for 10th class and 2.76 lakh students for 12th class appeared in CBSE examinations
across the country. The results were announced within a span of about 60 days and made
available on the internet, therefore, accessible to students and schools through out the world
affiliated to it eliminating distance and time factors. The results were also e-mailed to schools
on on-line request for their use.
Pecords showing the costs involved in running a school must be kept upto date in a thoroughly
accurate manner. Computers can be tremendously helpful in maintaining financial records.
The electronic spreadsheet software is very useful for administrators in recording and analysing
the financial data of the educational institutions. It has been found that a computer system
compared to a manual system produces more accurate student, personnel, and financial records.
The use of computer in educational administration reduce time expended on clerical or paper
work tasks, produce accurate information, ensure generation of reports when needed, and
facilitate decision-making process. In educational institutions computers can be used in
preparation of time-tables of different classes so that the classes can be run without time and
room conflicts.
A computer has the capability to access student, teacher, and financial information. It may
also be used to keep track of appointments and obligations; record notes on conferences and
meetings held; produce inter office memos; and execute selective or mass mailings to students,
parents, management members, and authorities at district, state or central level. It was
postulated that the judicious use of a computer by a school principal could save up to 200
hours or equivalent to 25 eight-hour days in a school year. The time gained can help
principals be more accessible to dtudents, teachers, and parents in maintaining the standard
of the school. It is also strongly believed that the use of computer by managers has increased
thek productivity, increased the number and variety of responsibilities they can handle. This
observation implies that information power and those who master its acquisitions have an
edge.
Computers are very useful in the management of a library. It will be herculean task for a
librariarl to keep the records of periodicals, books, and other library materials manually. The
library automation will help in maintaining accurate records, monitoring borrower's due-dates
of books borrowed, and reservation of bookslperiodicals that are in great demand. The
computb can also generate overdue notices automatically. Computers in library can give
students at all levels access to an unlimited range of library materials. Using library databases
and networks, stude~tscan locate and order materials from libraries in other schools within
a townlcity, district, state, or across the country.
However, not much empirical data is available on the extent of application of computers in
school administration in India. An empirical study conducted by Gujarat University (1992)
covering 3 states ( Bharatiar University region, Tamil Nadu; Gujarat University region, Gujarat;
and Aligarh Muslim University region, Uttar Pradesh) indicates the major areas of computer
application in administration of colleges and research institutes as presented in Table 14.1 As
seen from the Table payroll is the single application which has found its place in almost 65%
institutes in Gujarat, 55% in Tamil Nadu, and 50% in Uttar Pradesh. The survey results show
that t h other
~ areas of applications of computers in administration include examinations and
evaluation, financial accounting, admissions, inventory management, personnel information,
and library system.
 'I

Table 14.1 Rde d Computers in

Activity-wise Application of Computers in Educational Administration in Indla. Educational AdmMstadon

S1. . Activity-wise application of

No. Computers in Colleges/
Research Institutes No. of % No. of % No. of %
Colleges Colleges Colleges
1. Student registration and 17 37 .O 8 19.0 3 37.5
record
2. Students admission 16 34.8 11 26.2 4 50.0
3. Students examination 17 37.0 10 23.8 4 50.0
& evaluation

4. Accounting 16 34.8 6 14.3 3 37.5

5. Payroll 30 65.2 23 54.8 4 50.0
6. Inventory record 7 15.2 2 4.8 1 12.5
(MateriaUStores)
7. Cost analysis 3 6.5 1 2.4 - -
8. Personnel 14 30.4 7 16.7 5 62.5
9. Scheduling 8 17.4 7 16.7 1 12.5
10. Integrated information system 5 10.9 1 2.4 1 12.5
11. Office automation 17 37.0 13 31.0 4 50.0
12. Library cataloging 11 23.9 11 26.2 3 37.5
13. Library requisition/circulation 4 8.7 7 16.7 1 12.5
Total sample Colleges1 46 100.0 42 100.0 8 100.0
Research Institutes

Source: Gujarat University (1992) : Computer Scenario of Higher Education in India -

Selected Case Studies, Gujarat University.

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i Computers in Enueational
Administration 14.4 COMPUTER BASED GENERAL ADMINISTRATION
1
I
General Administration
Office automation, the electronic office, and the office of the future have become buzz words
in the 1980s. Office automation facilitates the basic functions of an office as an information
processing centre. As discussed in previous unit, the functions of office personnel at the
lowest information handling level (clerical level) namely Office Automotion System (OAS),
involve:
(a) Collection of information
(b) Information processing
(c) Information storing
(d) Information retrieval
The application areas of automated office in general administration of an educational institution
is shown in Figure 14.1. These include: (a) word processing, (b) e-mail, (c) computer tiling,
(d) computer calendars, and (e) computer networks. Word processing has been widely used
and perceived as the driving force of the automated offtce. Word processing be linked to a
computer network permitting documents to be shared within and between school offices. For
example, the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) places all the circulars meant for
schools on its web page. The individual schools can get access to these letters using internet.
Using spell check the documents can be checked for typing and spelling errors. With the use
of mail-merge, personalised letters can be prepared for students and parents on school opening
and closure, student progress, and other information. The basic functions of word processor
'are text editing, formatting, storing, and retrieving documents. The editing capability is the
most powerful function of the word processor. It is this feature that makes it so attractive,
specially documents, which require revision of textual materials. Word processors can alter
or manipulate text with ease.

T
Computer
processing

[ Computer
filing ]
Fig. 14.1: Typical Automated Schod General Administratioa OdBce
Electronic mail or e-mail refers to the procedure of sending messages from one person to
another person using internet facilities. Apmonal computer can be connected to the network
through internet to send and receive messages and other bulk mail electronically. Some of the
advantages of using e-mail are : (a) speed, resulting in instantaneous delivery, (b) low-cost,
(c) fteedom of access, which permits user to send and receive messages as they wish,
(d) increased productivity obtained by decreasing the number of times a sender wishes to
contact a receiver. Some of the disadvantages associated with email are : h e fear that
undelivered messages may be lost and, junk mail can proliferate.
 Electronic filing of information is an important aspect of the automated office. Instead of Rde of Computers in
filing hard copies of documents, electronic systems such as word processor, data base Educational Administration
management systems, and spread sheets can store large account of datalinformation on a
floppy or disk. Some of the benefits of electronic filing in a school are: reduction in storage
space, faster access to information, reduction in misfiling, portability of files, and limited
dependence on filing systems developed by office personnel.
Appointment calendars help busy administrators to manage their time. Meetings with principals
and other management officials of schools account for a major proportion of time. Electronic
calendars have been touted as useful time management tools for managers. The electronic
calendar has the capability as does the desk calendar, to setup an appointment schedule
maintaining dates, times, expected participants, and space for comments. A school calendar
can also be created which would record the date and time of plays, athletic events, field jobs,
guest speakers, social events, reporting periods etc.
Electronic network offers users the ability to communicate and share information. As discussed
in previous unit, the networks could be local area networks (LAN), wide area networks
(WAN), e-mail, teleconferencing, or internet. The electronic networks are also very useful in
I; giving access to the results of entrance tests, board examinations, admission announcements,
circulars, and other useful information. The networks can also be used for sharing the
information, computer conferencing, and publicity of schools.

14.5 COMPUTER BASED PAYROLL AND FINANCIAL

ACCOUNTING
Payroll: Computers are used widely for preparation and maintenance of payrolls system.
Initially, large business establishments were using payroll system. It has the potential in terms
of time saving, accuracy, legibility, data storage, record check, and amenable for fhrther data
analysis, comparative statements, task calculations, and preparation of summary reports. These
activities influenced even smaller establishments like secondary schools to use the computer
for maintenance of payroll system. Currently, the salary payments to teachers, and other staff
of the schools are paid through banks. Through computer payroll system the school can
prepare the summary statements of the net pay of its staff and the same can be shared with
the banks electronically or hard copy to facilitate the bankers to pay the salary due. The
objectives of payroll system are:
(a) payment of periodical salary and other payments to the employees;
(b) maintenance of salary payment records of ewlbyees;
(c) accounting for gross salary on basic pay, additional pay, house rent allowance (HRA).
dearness allowance (DA), city compensatory allowance (CCA), special allowances etc.;
Campatem in Educationad (d) deductions on advances made, tax payable, insurance premiums, provident fund, etc.;
Administrcrtim
(e) preparation of net salary (gross salary - deductions) statements; and
(f) Preparation of statements required within the school and outside the school by patrons,
funding agencies, income tax departments, and audit personnel etc.
To meet these objectives, the school must prepare and maintain payroll system. The computer
payroll system should be flexible enough to allow the schools to generate pay reports not only
month-wise but also bimonthly, quarterly, or annually and handle school payroll schedules
simultaneously without creating serious or difficult problems for the staff preparing payrolls.
The typical reports produced by payroll systems are:
(i) Preparation of pay slips to employees indicating gross salary on basic pay, special pay,
HRA, DG CCA, etc.; deductions of PF, insurance premiums, loans and advances taken
etc.: and net salary payable.
(ii) Summary statements indicating employee with net salary payable.
(iii) Pension payment reports for the retired employees.
(iv) Summary statements on payroll totals, deductions etc.
(v) Preparation of income tax reports of employees for onward transmission to income tax
departments and employees.
(vii) Payroll deduction reports.
(viii) Statements on loans and advances to employees and their recovery.
Financial Accounting: Schools maintain financial records regularly on the following activities:
(a) income from student fee and other internal resources;
(b) building donations from public;
(c) grants from funding agencies;
(d) expenditure on building, equipment materials and consumables;
(e) salary to employees, administration staff etc.;
(f) debts or liabilities to banks and other lending agencies; and
(g) maintenance of records of employees provident fund etc.
The records of all these accounts are to be maintained systematically. The computerisation
of accounts system helps in maintaining the records accurately, systematically, and timely.
Budget: Annually the schools are required to prepare budget. The item-wise estimated
expenditure is given in the budget. For the preparation of budget a lot of formulae and
calculations are required. For example, to estimate the expenditure on purchase of equipment
like tables and chairs for the students it is required to know how many tables and chairs are
required and what is the likely unit cost of each table and chair. Similarly, the salary of the
teachers and administrative staff can be estimated on the basis of average basic pay for each
category of staff. The use of electronic spreadsheet facilitates the task of preparation of budget
of a scbool easy and time saving. Figwe 14.2 provides how the budget on some items of
school is calculated using electronic spreadsheet.
In recent years many electronic spreadsheet software packages are available in the market.
Microsoft Excel is one of the most popular software packages for financial accounting offered
by Mictosoft. All developments of electronic spreadsheet extend the simple concept of
column analysis papa consisting of rows and columns to the limits of available micro-
computer capacity with facilities to edit and calculate rapidly. For example, Microsoft excel-
97 spreadsheet size is 256 cohmns and 256 rows. Certainly, you will enjoy and experience
the speed accuracy, flexibility, and legibility of analysis of financial data of your school when
you u$e i t Lotus 1-2-3 and Quattro Pro are two such other popular software packages
available in the market.
 Rde d CompPtuo iu
EduCaiiod-A

-
Figure 14.2 : Electronic Spreadsheet For Preparation Of budget An Example
Computers in Educational
Administration 14.6 COMPUTER BASED ADMINISTRATION OF

The major applications of computers which have direct impact on the students are course
schedules, attendance, and academic performance. Figure 14.3 explains the types and flow
of student data. From the figure it can be observed that three types of student datalinformation

Schedules

f i g . 14.3 :Flow of Student Datannformation of a Typical Sehod

(Adapted from B l m , Harry P. (1987): Adnrinttrdve Uses of CornpuCers in tlw Schook,
Prentice-Hall, New Jersey)
are input through computer to monitor and control the course schedules, attendance reports,
and gadedmarks reports. The historical datalinformation obtained through these reports are
also used for reviewing the performance of the school. You will learn more about these
applications in the following p&agraphs.
Course sahedules: The process of a course schedule of a school starts with announcement
of student registration and ends with the announcement of examination results. The academic
session of a school may start in the month of April or June of a year and may end in February
or March of the,following year. At the time of admission the students andlor parents may look
for information on courses offered by schools, the historical record/performance of the school,
the fee structure, the entry qualifications etc. The school should be able to provide this
informatian to the studentslparents on request. Maintenance of data through computers will
facilitate these tasks easier for the school administration.
Once the student admission process is completed, the school administration needs to maintain
time-tables on completion schedules of syllabus; conducting unit tests, term-end examinations,
and final examinations; and announcement of results. Similarly, the teachers have to be
assigned the individual classes and subjects that they should cover. This also helps the
administration to assess the teacher load. Generation of course schedules and their
implementation through computers will certainly improve the control and management of
academic calendar.
Attendanae of students is a major concern to school administrators and teachers. The rules
of schools also stipulate minimum attendance as a prerequisite for appearing examination and
clearing a course. This has resulted in the establishment of elaborate attendance systems that
have sought to monitor accurately the daily attendance of students. This helps the administrators
to take appropriate measures like calling the parents, issuing warnings to students' etc. Also,
chronic absenteeism serves an indicator to administrators and teachers that students are
experiencing personal, home, andlor school problems. Computerisation of student attendance
data will help: (a) school administrators and teachers to monitor attendance periodically and .
take appropriate measures; (b) report the attendance data to higher officers and examination
boards as required; (c) identify students who are not attending the school periodically and
encourage them to attend the school regularly; (d) reduce the clerical time required to check
absence of students; (e) communicate the absence to the parents; (0 enable attendance data
to be entered on gradelmarks reports. As compared to manual attendance maintenance system,
a computerised system will be able to meet the above objectives in a better and more effective .
way.
 Academic performance is another area where computers have been used in educational R ~ dG Ctmtputers in

administration widely. The reasons for the success of computerisation of examination process EducationalAduhistration
are:
(a) The whole process of conducting examinations and declaration of results has become
more manageable even if the students numbers are very large.
(b) It is more cost-effective and time saving than the manual system.
(c) The accuracy of recorded information is greatiy improved
(d) The computers can speed-up the generation of report cards for school personnel, students,
and parents and analysis of examination results for school administrators and public.
(e) Confidentiality can be maintained to a great extent.
As explained earlier, computers are being used widely in the process of examination results.
In addition, currently, there is a lot of competition for certain courses like engineering,
medical, mansgement, computer science etc. Similarly a number of reputed schools/colleges
are also facing the problem of admission process, due to large number of students seeking
admission and the seat availability is limited. These schools or colleges are conducting
entrance examinations to screen the applications for admission to competitive courses.
Computerisation of entrance examination process facilitates greatly to announce the ranks
obtained by students and final admission of students to various courses in shortest possible
time. This also helps the students to workout their own alternative career choices depending
on the ranks obtained by students, course-wise and collegewise seats available, and the
demand for individual courses and colleges.

COMPUTER BASED INVENTORY MANAGEMENT

Schools are required to maintain all supplies and equipment. The physical inventory should
I be taken by school periodically in agreement of accounts with records. The inventory list
I
I should identify each item by date of purchase, cost, location, item control number, and date
of last inventory. The inventory system should facilitate adding new equipment and furniture
to the master file, removing old or obsolete equipment, and recording the transfer of items.
By having an effective inventory system, a school can (a) enhance the functioning of school,
(b) aid cost accounting and development of budget, and (c) avoidance of excessive stocks and
shortage of stocks. Also, the effective control of inventory is achieved by maintaining
appropriate levels of inventory and minimising the inventory losses.
A prerequisite for computerised inventory system application is an item-coding that can be
used for all sub-systems of inventory, bills of materials and purchasing records. Computer
inventory system requires the use of several data files. The master file keeps track of the
quantity of each item presently in stock, location of each item in the store, the list of the
items, the reorder point, the quantity currently in order, and the name and address of the
vendor from whom the item is purchased. This allows the user of the system to locate an
item quickly, get a listing of items that need to be ordered, create and $nt new orders
automatically and perform other similar stock-control tasks. Information on individual
transactions is usually maintained in separate data files called transaction files.
Computers in Educational The transaction file might maintain records on item number, quantity received, purchase
Admiakbatlon
price, dam received, and senders name and address. The transaction file maintain a history
of all individual transactions and the master file maintains the current status of goods in stock
at any given moment. In a sense, the master file is an up-to-date summary of all activities
in the transaction file. A number of inventory control software packages are available in the
market which are aimed at primarily business. However, schools may have to make
modifications to meet their needs.

14.8 COMPUTER BASED PERSONNEL RECORDS

MAINTENANCE
Every school has to develop a personnel information system for the following purposes:
(a) to store personnel details (like name, address, telephone number, date of birth, educational
qualifications and experience, salary, health data etc.) of individual employees for reference.
(b) To provide a basis for decision-making in every area of personnel work like recruitment
and selection, termination and redundancy, education and training, pay, administration,
health etc.
Personnel records can be maintained manually. However, the advent of micro-computers has
increased the process of computerisation even in personnel records maintenance. The
maintenance of personnel records on each employees of a school should include information
on:
The application form giving personal particulars
Interview and test record
Job history including transfers, promotions, and changes in occupation
Pay details
Education and training record
Details of performance assessment and appraisal
Absence, accident, medical and disciplinary records with details of formal warnings and
suspensions.
The main advantages of computerisation of personnel records maintenance in schools are:
(a) Quickly providing information on the employees grade, pay, length of service, age, sex,
qualifications, training details etc.
(b) PrMucing standard letters and forms for recruitment, promotion, transfer, upgrading,
appraisal, pay review, career promotions etc.
(c) Information can be drawn from both personnel and payroll systems to analyse payroll
= costs and assess the impact of various pay increase options on the pay structure and on
total payroll costs.
(d) Absence and sickness can be recorded by employee with reasors and analysis can be Role of Computers in
done on absenteeism and sickness. Educational Administration

14.9 COMPUTER BASED LIBRARY SYSTEMS

Applications of computers in school libraries can be classified into: (a) library automation,
(b) information storage and retrieval, and (c) library networks.
Library automation: The term 'library automation' refers to computerisation of manual
library activities. Library automation functions include book ordering system, cataloguing,
circulation control, and periodicals control systems. The typical functions of an automated
book ordering system are:
Pre-order searching, especially to avoid duplicate orders
Creating purchasing orders
Providing information on orders outstanding and work-in-progress (that is, books received
but not yet catalogued)
Preparing vouchers to pay for the books
Maintaining book fund accounts and printing book fund reports
The main activity of cataloguing systems is the production of catalogue cards.
The process of a computer aided cataloguing system include:
Preparing spreadsheet
Preparing input for cataloguing (from the spreadsheet)
Generating bibliographical records
Printing the bibliographical records
Circulation control is an operation mainly concerned with the clerical function of keeping
track of document issued to the user. A typical automated circulation system is usually
expected to perform the following functions:
Identifying the location of the books
Identification of books on loan to a particular borrower
Printing the recall notices
Renewal of loans
Notification to the library staff of overdue books and printing of overdue notices
The main functions of an automated periodical control system are ordering, renewing, sending
reminders to the vendor, and reader services. Asystematic implementation of library automation
will induce the efficiency of library management. For example, if one automates a book
ordering system, it helps in automating cataloguing function, circulation control, and information
retrieval.
Information storage and retrieval: The developments in the information technology
particularly in the area of on-line storage and retrieval of large database has made great
impact on libraries (on-line storage and retrieval of bibliographical and other database
information). A bibliographical database must be non-redundant and multiusable.
Computerisation of the library database has these special features. Also, library database
enables the users to have a centralised control of data. The main advantages of having a
computerised library database are:
(i) The amount of redundancy in the stored data can be reduced and in effect problems of
inconsistency in the stored data can be avoided.
(ii) Different users can share the stored data.
(iii) Standards can be enforced.
(iv) Security restrictions can be applied.
(v) Data accuracy can be maintained.
Computers in Educational Library Networks
Administration
The promotion of databases in India especially by National Informatics Centre (NIC) has
influenced libraries to establish a computer network to share bibliographic information. The
advent of internet has further strengthened the library information network in India. A
number of networks are started functioning and many more are in the pipeline. For example,
DELNET, a Delhi based network connects major libraries located in universities and research
institutes in belhi. Each participating institute prepares computerised bibliographic information
and connects it to the network. The user can find out the books available of his interest and
their location. They can also get the books on loan through participating institutes. This
avoids the dvplication of buying expensive books by institutions and saves a lot of money.

14.10 LET US SUM CTP

This unit provides a brief account of the identification of the activities in school administration
where the computers can be of much help. The identified areas include office automation in
general administration, payroll and accounting, administration of student data, inventory
management, personnel records maintenance, and library system. The application of computers
in educational administration is becoming more and more endemic in India and the proliferation
can only be beneficial to educational administrators in the long run.

14.11 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1. How does school administration facilitated by computers improve its efficiency?
2. Prepare a budget for your school using spreadsheet features.
3. What are the typical functions of an automated school library system?
4. What are the main features of computerised inventory system?
5. How does computerisation of personnel record maintenance in your school help in
managing Human Resources more efficiently?
6. What is the role of computers in improving the efficiency of admission and examination
process of Schools?
7. What are the advantages of using computers in school administration?
8. What is an automated office? Analyse its features and advantages in school administration?

14.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. (a) payroll, (b) examinations, (cJ financial accounting, (d) admissions, (e) inventory
management, (f) student information system, (g) library system, and (h) general
administration.
2. Word processing, email, computer filing, computer calendars, and computer networks.
3. Speed leading to instantaneous delivery across the globe, low-cost, freedom of access,
and increased productivity.
4. Fear of undelivered messages may be lost and junk mail can proliferate.
5. Yes. The financial accoiunting is the area through which control can be exercised in the
management of funds and particularly the system of payment can be effectively controlled
to generate confidence amongst the suppliers of goods and services to the school.
 Computerisation of the financial accounting improves the control and management of Role of Computers in
funds and speedy transactions of services and goods. Educational Administration

6. Attendance, Academic Performance, and Course Schedules.

7. Manageability of time and process even for very large data, cost-effectiveness, accuracy
of results, legibility of reports, and confidentiality of results.
8. Enhance the functioning of school, aid cost-accounting and development of budget, and
avoidance of excessive stocks and shortage of stocks.
9. Book ordering, cataloguing, circulation control, and periodicals control.

14.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Adriailne Bank and Richard C. Williams (ed.) (1987): Information Systems and School
Improvement: Inventing the Future, Teachers College Press, Columbia University, New York.
Ben-Zion Barta, Moshe Telem and Yaffa Gev (ed.) (1995): Information Technology in
Educational Management, Chapman and Hall, London.
Bluin, Harry P. (1987): Administrative Uses of Computers in the Schools, Prentice-Hall, New

Clifton, H.D. (1986): Business Data Systems, Prentice-Hall: Englewood-Cliffs.

Gujarat University (1992): Cornputer Scenario of Higher Education in India - Selected Case
Studies. Gujarat University.
Kaul, H.K. (1992): Library Networks: An Indian Experience, Virgo Publications,
New Delhi.
Michael R. Simonson and Ann Thompson (1990): Educational Computing, Merrill Publishing
Company, Columbus.
Nagarajan, S. (ed.) (1986): Use of Micro-processors in Information Analysis and Library
Applicarions, Society for Information Science, New Delhi.
Pocock, M.A. and A.H. Taylor (1984): Handbook of Financial Planning and Control, Gower
Publishing Co., London.
Wille, E. (1981): The Computer in Personnel Work, IPM, London.

31
UNIT 15 QUESTION BANKING, ANSWER
SCORING AND ITEM ANALYSIS
Structure
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Objectives
15.3 Test Administration and Answer Scoring
15.3.1 Test Administration
15.3.2 Test Scoring Procedures
15.4 Question Banking
15.4.1 Advantages and Di~advantages
15.4 2 manning a Question Bank
15.4.3 Item Review
15.4.4 Question Bank in Action
15.5 Item Analysis
15.5.1 Process of Item Analysis
15.5.2 Item Selection
15.53 Interpretation of Item Analysis
15.6 Let Us Sum Up
15.7 Unit-end Exercises
15.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

15.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit will address to issues and practices that are contributing to major changes in
educational measurement. The advances made in educational measurement are mainly attributed
to computers. The impact of this has really changed our role as teachers, student or a
measurement specialist. The advances in the field of computers in testing are enormous.
There is a continuous update in both hardware and software and hence there is an emergence
of many newer applications. However, one must adrmt that the use of computers in testing
is much less than its use in instructional activities. The use of computers in evaluation is
probably due to need that has arisen due to the enhanced time, money and efforts spent. It
has encouraged interest into how technology can assist in this area. Technology can be used
for assessmefit purposes at multi-stage, from the management of the assessment information
to a fully automated assessment system. Management of student information can be improved
by using technology for this purpose. Similarly, a fully automated assessment system comprises
of student assessment, processing and administration of the marks. In recent times, education
world has seen emergence of several areas in computer based assessment. There has been a
growing interest and increasing practical experience in the use of computer to deliver objective
tests. Objective testing is often taken to imply the use of multiple choice questions. Many
packages are available which are designed for the electronic delivery of objective tests, all of
which support the delivery of a variety of question types. Electronic delivery of tests need
not be restricted to multiple choice questions (MCQs), and the results recorded need not only
be whether a response is right or wrong. Most computer based assessment can operate in the
choice of modes, perhaps described as tutorial or exam mode.
In addition to using electronic packages to create unique tests, it is possible to use the
computer to generate different tests automatically. People are now working on electronic
selection of questions from a bank. An alternative method of generating questions electronically
is the use of parameters. The format of the question will be identical on every occasion, but
one or more variables in the question are selected from a list of permitted values. These
values may be entered when the question is created, or they may be generated by the computer,
either randomly or according to some formula. Computerised delivery from a bank of questions
or of randomly generated ,problems, supported by automated marking and feedback to the
 student is a flexible and efficient method of providing formative assessment, particularly Question Banking,Aaswer
when factual knowledge is an important component of the course. Another obvious and Scering and Item Analysis
accessible use of technology to assist the assessment process is in the recording, analysis,
II general storage and management of results. A wide range of spreadsheets, statistical packages
and database packages are available into which it is easy to enter data manually if results are
not already in electronic form. Results from several assessments, courses or modules can
be collated quickly, easily and accurately. The use of electronic methods to store and manipulate
data is aided by the emergence of Optical Mark Reader (OMR) and Intelligent Character
Reader (ICR), connected to a computer which can effectively and accurately capture data,
thus reducing the error, time and cost involved in manual entry of data. There are many other
ways in which computer can assist in the assessment process. There are a number of examples
of Integrated Learning System (ILS) , where management of assessment schedules is just one
small part of an ILS.
In a nutshell we can say that computers are useful in most of the broad assessment functions.
They can be briefly classified as:
Processing of text, data and figures ; managing assessment (storing results, storing learner
profiles, analysing assessment results, presenting results); del~veringassessment (printing a
test, downloading a test) ; marking assessment (using an optical marktcharacter reader);
creating assessments; submitting assessments (learners reaching teachers for evaluation);
providing feedback (storing feedback comments and printing it for a particular error) and
finally for reporting assessment results (Individual profile for each learner). Thus it can be
seen that computers are very useful in assessment. They make assessment information more
accessible, reducing administration and enhancing the quality of reports. In this unit, we will
discuss three assessment functions viz. Answer Scoring Test and Item Analysis and Question
Banking in detail.

15.2 OBJECTIVES -

After going through this unit you would be able to:

administer and score a test using computer techniques;
plan and implement a Computerised Question Bank;
do a test and item analysis.

TEST ADMINISTRATION AND ANSWER SCORING

Computer technology has improved and has become more accessible in recent years. Today
computers are used for test administration purposes as well as for analysing answer scores.
It is especially popular for testing a large number of examinees with the same test items. The
computer offers enormous speed and accuracy in computing and storing. It can be programmed
to select items for each examinee according to content specifications and item difficulty. It
can analyse score on one question to decide the level of next question . It can score an item
immediately and store the result in any of several locations in its memory. It can monitor
the amount of time each examinee takes to respond to each question. It can store information
about test-item performance as well as examinee performance. It can provide examinees with
their test score as soon as they respond to the last test item. There is virtually no limit as
to what computer can do for test administration and answer scoring. However, for a
computerised test administration, there must be a large pool of test items in the Computer
bank (we will discuss it in detail in the coming units). This will eliminate the possibility that
every examinee does not receive exactly the same items that those previously test received.
The items different examinees receive must be relatively equivalent in content and difficulty,
otherwise their test scores will not be comparable.

15.3.1 Test Administration

The application of computer in test administration is enormous. It has cemented its place
right from preparing the questions to printing the final grade card. Take the case of IGNOU,
where all activities are computerised but computers are used as aids to the existing traditional
Computers in Educational methods. The activity for an exam begins with preparation of date-sheets almost six months
Adnunistration in advance. The question papers are set by faculty in schools and outside experts. The papers
are processed on computer and printed. Students fill an examination form indicating then
willingness to appear in a number of courses. Computer takes the charge from there. Exam
Centers are allotted to students and a computerised intimation slip is sent to them. Apart from
this, computer also compiles the dispatch memo of exam stationary and question papers
throughout the country. Markslscores obtained are again fed into computer and comprehensive
grade card is printed after each test.
This scheme in other parts of the world is quite variable. For some computer becomes a rich
depository of proven assessment materials, ready to be quickly revoked for new purposes.
In some systems, stored assessment may be downloaded by learners or by other tutors,
banishing the chore of printing, collating and circulating materials. Many internet based
courses have assessment o i this type. Computers are also used to help manage assessment
by storing data on learners, previous assessments and their results. More importantly , such
stored data is quickly analysed to give tutors information on the performance of their learners
and of their assessments. Computers are also used for administering take-away tests. These
tests are stored on computer and accessed by learners when they need them. The learners just
print a copy and take it away. This method of distribution makes great sense with widely
dispersed learner groups as in the case of IGNOU. Computers are used to mark assessments
that learners have completed elsewhere. In IGNOU's case, OMR (Optical Mark Readers)
form are used to mark the assessment of entrance exams for professional programs. Once the
data has been read, it is processed by the computer, using the answer previously entered by
the tutor. Specialised programs are now available to create computer assisted tests. In recent
times, people have also started computers to provide feedback. Tutors have started creating
a comment bank. And no wonder, with emergence of computerised essay evaluators like E-
Rater and Intelligent Easy Accessor (IEA), feedback becomes an essential job of computer.

15.3.2 Test Scoring Procedures

We have already discussed as how Data-Capture devices like OMR's sheets can be used to
convert score in objective type tests to a computerized database. However, majority of tests
still use the scoring done by the tutor. If the test is in essay form, the skill and judgement
of tutor or of someone equally competent are essential. Computers are then used to assist the
assessment process in the recording, analysis, general storage and management of results. A
wide range of spreadsheets, statistical packages and database packages are available. IGNOU,
presently uses the packages like MS-Excel, Database, SPSS, Minitab and MS-Access. It is
very easy to enter data manually or through some data capture device. Care has to be taken
to avoid transcriphon errors when generating the data files. In recent year, data capture
software's like Intelligent Character Readers (ICR) has emerged which claim an accuracy of
95% and above. 'These software's are capable of reading data from hand-written award
sheets submitted by evaluators. Isn't it a boom for mega-institutions like IGNOU, where
teachers/administrators to learner ratio is worsening geometrically. Most of these packages
readily accept the transfer of electronically stored data from other applications, aiding data
acquisition and increasing the potential data analysis that can be carried out. Results from
several assessments, courses or modules can be collated quickly, easily and accurately for
future use. Further any trend within data can be fully explored, which in term provides
valuable feedback for the management. It is sometimes useful to create frequency distributions,
test statistics and reliability estimates etc. Computers are effectively used for these. 'They
provide information that allows the faculty to evaluate the test and revise the items for future
use.
- - -
T-
C'ftecS: Pour Progress

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 Question Bankbg, Answer
Scoring and Itm Analysis

QUESTION BANKING (QB)

There is a persistent need to revise tests with some frequency to avoid giving the similar test
year after year. Creating new set of question papers is a very tedious and time consuming
job. This exercise when done manually requires the paper setter to compose questions for
the test, determine their difficulty level, determine course coverage etc. so as to ensure that
the test will neither be too hard nor too easy. By using computers for question banking the
steps for the above processes are by passed. Question banks are large database of suitable
questions that are coded by subject area, instructional level, instructional objectives measured,
and various other pertinent question characteristics (e.g. difficulty level and discriminating
powers). Questions in the question banks are often called 'items'.

15.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages

Computerised question banks are very useful in test development. Items are classified accorhng
to relative difficulty. Once items are inserted in the question banks, new set of question
papers can be made with known or desired characteristics. The effect of including or excluding
particular items can also be predicted. A question bank can store as many questions as
possible so that generation of randomised tests is done without any difficulty. Question
banking thus provides substantial savings of time and energy over conventional test
development. In a conventional setup, questions can be described relative to the other items
within the test and between the students who took it, whereas question banks are not specific,
questions are described by their relative difficulty across grade levels and drawing them from
the question bank allows one to make fairly accurate predictions concerning composite test
characteristics. Question banks also helps in providing a platform for discussing curriculum
goals and objectives. The items put in the question banks can be made to inherit properties
like common mistakes made by the students, their capabilities and incapabilities etc. This
provides a way to discuss possible learning hierarchies and ways to better structure curriculum.
However, question banks are not sufficient for all measurement problems. Persistence and
good judgement must remain vital aspects in any test construction and test usage effort.
Every effort should be taken to include only quality questions in the question bank. The
same care and effort must go into item writing. Questions submitted by item-writers must
be evaluated carefully for matching with the course /curriculum as well as for technical
quality. Question banks equate various tests and items. Practically it becomes a little difficult
to equate tests that cover entirely different subject matter. In order to avoid this, item review
process must also include a careful evaluation of the skills assessed by each question and tests
must be carefully formulated. Any institution undertaking an item banking project should
have full understanding of the practical as well as mathematicaYtheoretica1 aspects of question
banking. In order to develop a question bank many tests are to be calibrated , equated and
organised. This requires a great deal of work in terms of preparation and planning and in
terms of computer time and expertise. Once the item bank is established test development
time, effort and loss are reduced substantially.

15.4.2 Planning a Question Bank

Planning for a question bank involves defining processes for preparation of individuals,
prepara~orywork for the question bank and identifying what has to be established with the
question bank. One should be prepared to answer technical questions that might arise.
Computer expertise is an essential requirement. One should be capable of modifjmg computer
programs, establishing a database system, and capable of running packaged programs. For
35
Computers in Educational planning a question bank, evaluation pattern of the program has to be specified e.g. details
Administration
about courses and their contents, objectives of assessment, weightage of internal and external
assessment, conflation and reporting procedure. Course-wise blue-print for the term-end
examination has to be defined on primarily three dimensions viz. question types, content
BlocksAJnibs and learner abilities. Preparations of question banks for courses of an educational
program requires a lot of cooperative efforts. Expertise has to be tapped from all the available
sources ( from within and outside the university) and pooled together. Writers and reviewers
of questions for the bank should have, besides their expertise in the subject content and
teaching experience, sufficient grounding in evaluation methodology. Even persons selected
to act as paper setters, moderators or evaluators should have, not only prescribed experience
of teaching the subject, but also adequate background of modern evaluation methods. Having
identified such personnel, subjectlcoursewise question bank task groups may be formulated.
Every task group will be guidedlheaded by one faculty from the school and consist of 4-6
persons selecteu from among course-writers, teacher counsellors and experienced item-writers
available from other institutions.

15.4.3 Item Review

Review, editing and revalidation of itemslquestions submitted by the item-writers should be
done in presence of.item writers under the guidance of content and evaluation specialists.
Generally the target of number of questionslitems per course at the optimum level is taken
as 10 times the total number of questionslitems to be taken in the question paper. There is
no upper limit to question bank size. Each question or item to be deposited in QB for a
particular course must be well characterised in terms of the following aspects:
The Block/Section/Chapter and unit number of the book
Type of item and sub-type falls under it
Estimated level of difficulty from the point of view of average learner
Maximum marks it should carry
Time (in Minutes) required for answers
The synoptic points of answer and marking scheme for supply type questions and 'key'
answers for selection type questions, and
The level of educational objectives it is intended to possibly test (in the Taxonomy hierarchy)
Item-writer should indicate on an item-sheet, all the points which would be finalised in the
editing process. Questionslitems available for different courses should essentially pass through
the revalidation process particularly content and evaluation-edition at the time of their being
used for paper setting. Post-validation of questionslitems used in evaluation involves
determining the descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, marks distribution,
standard error of measurement of marks secured by the students (populationlsample) in the
examination of each course and item analysis (you will read it in detail in next section). Item
analysis is the statistical study of the dformance in each question by the student group as
against the performance in question paper as a whole. This is a necessary feedback for the
future imprdvement of the question bank. This can be achieved with the help of a computer
and using standard method of analysis.
Descriptive statistics from the test analysis is extremely useful in making decisions such as
passlfail, grace marks for borderline cases, grading and so on. The results of item analysis
are essentially important for improvement of question banks, for deciding on the reuse of
'good' questions for future examination and improvement or rejection of poorly functioning
questions.

15.4.4 Question Bank in Action

A particular school wants to use a computerised question bank to generate its question paper
for the tern-end exam. It also wishes to have all types of questions in the paper. It wants to
have a mix of essay type questions, short answers type questions and objective type questions
in the question paper. Three sections are therefore incorporated in the paper each with two
questions. Also, the Principal is very conscious of the educational objectives. How would they
go about it ? A teacher who is a computer enthusiast has suggested the following method.
The procedure for establishment of such a system requires a few steps such as preparing Question ank king, Answer
Smring and Item Analysis
computerised question banks, doing test and item analysis while keeping taxonomy of
educational objectives in mind and lastly, devising methods to construct various sets of
question paper by simulation techniques using Random number generators. We hereby briefly
discuss them.

Taxonomy of educational objectives

A number of educators have divided the learning outcome into three non-overlapping domains
- cognitive (Bloom et. al., 1956), affective (Krathwohle et. al., 1964) and psychomotor.
Theses efforts were mainly done because of finding some kind of relevant test items. We will
concentrate on the first two domains.

Cognitive and affective domains

The cognitive taxonomy has received the most attention from test constructors because it has
been able to define the intellectual level at which instructional objectives and test items are
written. So while making computerised question banks efforts would have to be done to
translate these educational objectives into test items. This is essential because the educational
objectives may differ from program to program. We have intentionally left the discussion of
the third domain i.e. psychomotor. Psychomotor domains deals with behaviours like gross
bodily movements, finely co-ordinated bodily movements, .non-verbal communications and
speech behaviours which are more suited for the practical components of the exam.

Computerised question banks

One essential activity for the "On demand" examination system is the preparation of question
banks. For this, let us try to relate the type of questions with the educational objectives. The
table below shows the domains of learning outcomes and the question type, which will
measure them effectively.
Table 15.1 : Taxonomy of educational objectives vs. question types
Domains Question Q p e
A : Cognitive
1. Knowledge True-False type, Multiple Choice,
2. Comprehension Matching, Short Answer type
3. Application
4. Analysis Essay type
5. Evaluation
B : Affective
1. Interests
2. Values Essay type
3. Attitudes
- - -- - - - - - - - -

So, one can easily classify the question paper in thee sections i.e. very short answer types,
Computers in Educational
Administration
Very Short answer type -
short answer types and long answer types. These sections will comprise of the following.
True - False type

Short answer type

Long answer type
-
-
Multiple choice, Matching
Short questions
Essay type questions
So, while preparing question banks one has to take care of these three sections. An ideal
question bank will have all three types of questions and when one attempts to draw a set of
question paper from it, the only thing he has to decide is the number of questions to be taken
from each section.

Using simulation and random number generators

Parallel sets can be made very easily with the help of random number generators. Arithmetic
methods, particularly suited for computer operation are available for generating random
numbers. The most common method is with the help of Linear Congruence Generator.
Z, = (aZ,, + c) mod m, a,c,m,Zo are +ve integers and a,c,Zo I xm
The choice of numbers, depends upon the seed, which initialise the recursive computation. To
make the calculations simple and to maintain a uniformity we have a set of 20 random
numbers taken from Uniform (0,l) distribution on six columns.

Question Paper
Sets Section I Section I1 Section 111
Q.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Q.5 4.6

20. 0.898 0.306 0.576 0.655 0.656 0.974

Each column represent a question and depending on the seed, one can pick up the digits say
three digits after decimzl or two digits after the decimal.
These sets when constructed could be checked by doing appropriate test and item analysis on
pilot basis. The beauty of this kind of approach is that one can design as many parallel sets
38 as one wish to. The ideal method would be that the question banks are available on CD- KOM
 at every test center and when an exam is demanded, a set of random numbers is generated Question Banking,Answer
and parallel sets constructed. Scoring and Item Analysis

15.5 ITEM ANALYSIS

While dealing with test quite frequently a question arises in the teacher's mind as what makes
a test - a good test ? The answer surely has direct implications for instruction and for further
test development work. It, therefore, becomes imminent for the teacher to access the quality
of assessment. Tests should thus be evaluated to dekrmine if the scores they yield, have value
for the purpose for which they are intended. A teacher who knows about poor performing test
items and possible explanations for them stands a better chance of maintaining control of the
class. It's also a tool for teacher's professional development. The characteristics of a good test
are the same which one uses while constructing a test. For example test items should adhere
to test specifications and should contribute to achieving the purpose for testing. Sometimes
tests remain either too easy or too difficult, making it hard to identify reliable differences in
achievement levels. The difficulty of a test is determined by difficulty of the items that
comprise it. Item analysis is thus a good exercise to do. As long as differences in student
learning exists, and as long as the purpose for testing is to identify such differences, the
distribution of test scores should exhibit high variability. The larger the standard deviation of
the score, the more successful the test construct or has been in capturing the individual
differences in achievement. The reliability of the scores of a group is an important measure
of the quality of the scores. All these characteristics are important to consider in evaluating
the quality of a test and the evaluation of each can provide clues regarding the ways in which
t the test items might be revised and improved, for further use. Let us now study the process
of item analysis.

I 15.5.1 Process of Item Analysis

Item analysis indicates which items may be too easy or too difficult and which may fails to
discriminate between the better and poor examinees. Item analysis suggests why an item has
not functioned effectively and how it might be improved. A test is more reliable if item
analysis has been developed. We are outlining a few steps which you will find useful for test
improvements.
Step 1 : Airange answer sheet in score order in decreasing order.
Step 2 : Identify an upper group and a lower group. Upper groups is highest-scoring 27%
and lower group is lowest-scoring 27%.
Step 3 : For each item, count the number of examinees in the upper group that chose each
response alternative. Do similarly for the lower group.
Comlmters in Educational Step 4 : Record these counts at the end of the corresponding response alternatives.
Administration
Step 5 : Add the two counts for the keyed response and divide this sum by the total number
of students in the upper and lower groups. Multiply this decimal value by 100 to form a
percentage. The result is an estimate of the index of items difficulty (Called the p-value).
Steps 6 : Subtract the lower count from the upper group count for the keyed response. Divide
this difference by the number of examinees in one of the groups. The result is an index of
discrimination (D).
However, here we assume that the test of which item is a part, is a good test. The total score
on the test is used as the criterion rather than some external measure of achievement. You
might also be wondering that why we have chosen to take 27% in step 2. The fact is that 27%
provide us the best compromise between two desirable aims. This serves two purposes, firstly,
making extreme groups as large as possible, and, secondly making extreme groups as different
as possible. You can take 25% or 33% too as the size of the group, however intuitions like
33% is better as it covers large groups or 25% is better as it makes extremes further apart does
not make any sense. Optical scanners and computers are the most efficient tools available for
obtaining the item analysis counts and indices. Many schools have been using data-processing
and computing facilities to do such analysis.
The index of discrimination in step 6 was first described by Johnson. It is simpler than indices
of discrimination such as the point-biserial correlation, Flanagan's coefficient and Davis
coefficient. Other indices are often biased for items with middle difficulty. The biserial and
point-biserial correlation coefficient are presented as discrimination indices in some item
analysis reports generated by cpmputers. Their computation is too complex and time-consuming.
The biserial correlation coefficient describes the relationship between two variables viz. scores
on a test item and score on the total test for each examinee. High positive correlation is
obtained for items that high scoring students on the test tend to get right (item score = +1)
and low-scoring students on the test tend to get wrong (item score = 0). Such items are
interpreted to be high in discrimination. Negatively discriminating items show the opposite
relationship. Most students with high test scores have scores of zero on the test item and many
with low test scores have scores of +1 on the item. Point - biserial correlation coefficient
though different in computation, can be interpreted in essentially the same manner.

15.5.2 Item Selection

Discrimination index can be used in the selection of the best items (i.e. most highly
discriminating) for inclusion in an improved version of the test. Analysis of a wide variety
of classroom test suggests that the indices of item discrimination for most of them can be
evaluated in following manner. If index is greater than or equal to 0.40 then items are very
good items. If index is between 0.30 to 0.39, items are good but possibly needing improvement.
If index is between 0.20 to 0.29, items are marginal and need improvement. Below 0.19, the
items are poor and liable for rejection.
Hence it becomes clear that a test with higher average index of item discrimination will
always be m r e reliable and better. The sum of the indices of discrimination for the items of
a test and the variance of the scores on the test is expressed in the formula by Ebel.
s,' = (CD)V6
Where D is the discrimination index and sx is the standard deviation of scares.
Hence one can say that score variance is directly proportional to the square of the sum of
.
discrimination indices, (CD)2 The larger the score variance for a given mmber of items, the
higher is the reliability of the scores. The formula also indicates that the greater the average
value of the discrimination indices, the higher the test reliability is likely to be.

15.5.3 Interpretation of Item Analysis

It becomes very purposeful if school provides teachers with item analysis output for each
itemlquestion which occurs in a test. This output is an excellent source of information about
the item/que$tion and is useful in evaluating the quality of the item as well as evaluating the
accuracy of the answer key.
We will give you some sample results from four items. The students taking the test were
 divided into two groups as described in step 2 of section 15.5.1. The groups are named upper Question Banking, Answer
group and lower group. Typically, item analysis output indicates the percentage of students Scoring and Item Analysis
in each group who selected each option. Often, it also.includes some measures of item
difficulty (e.g. the p-values or the proportion of students who answered the itemlquestion
correctly) and some measure of discrimination (e.g., a biserial or a point biserial). Attention
should be focussed on the pattern of responses rather than on the difficulty level or
discrimination index.
For each of the items given in the example, the number of students selecting each option is
shown. For example, in item 1 , 4 7 from the upper group selected option A, 0 selected option
B, 0 selected option C and 1 selected option D. In the same item 24 of the lower group
selected option A, 10 selected option B, 5 selected option C and 7 selected option D. The
mark on the option A indicates that A is the purported correct answer. Two of the lower group
students failed to answer.
Item 1
Total number of students = 178
Students in each group = 48

Group . A B C D OMIT

,
upper 47 0 0 1 0
Lower 24 10 5 7 2

Interpretation : Items is reasonably good as discrimination index is more than 0.40. Each
of the distracters functioned well since each attracted some responses and these were largely
from students in the lower group.

Let us see another example. Keeping the number of the students same
Group A B C D

Upper 11 1 5 31
Lower 11 6 10 21

Interpretation : This is the typical case for an item which is miskeyed. If the answer is option
B, the answer is very difficult and the discrimination index is negative. With a key of B only
7% of the students answered correctly. The correct answer is almost certainly 'D',but a
content expert should review the item to make sure. If the correct answer is D, the p-value
becomes:

31-21
and the discrimination index becomes - 48
= 0.21

which puts this item as marginal item usually needing and being subject to improvement.
I
1 Let us see another example to feel item analysis
I
I Group A B C D
Upper 0 44 1 3
Lower 0 29 1 . 18
41
Computers in Eclucational
Administration 44 + 29 = 0.76 or 76%
,
48 + 48

Interpretation : Almost 92% of the upper group and 60% of the lower group selected the
correct answer. They are excellent overall statistics. You could rewrite A and C before you
reuse the item because few students selected these options.
These examples do not illustrate all the possible ways in which item analysis data may be
interpreted to aid in item revision. What they do indicate is the general nature of the process
and the fact i t may be highly useful.

15.6 LET US SUM UP

The overall balance of assessment in a course is of vital importance, and although computerised
testing facilities can provide a rapid means of assessing and providing feedback to a large
number of students it is essential to consider their use as part of the overall courselunit
strategy, especially as multiple choic /limited response type questions can lead to an emphasis
on "shallow" learning. Conventionally, still people believe in "Essay type questions" which
address well to cognitive and affective domains.
Use of computers and computing tools are unlikely to reduce significantly the burden of
assessment, but they can be used to promote deeper and more effective learning, by testing
a range of skills, knowledge and understanding. Using computers in assessment does not
mean more multiple choice testing to the exclusion of other assessment techniques. A wide
range of assessment methods lend themselves to computers based implementation.
Question banking is another wonderful area which is being governed by advances in IT. Once
developed, your question bank is ready to provide you immense advantages. To develop a new
test, you would only develop blue-print of specifications to outline what you want your new
test to be like. Computer would then help you to appropriate in terms of content and in terms
of relative difficulty. Not to talk about selection of making of a test computerised question
banks are capable to provide multiple parallel sets of question papers. Feedback bank is
another feather in the crown.
Computers can erase the difficulty in carrying out item analysis calculations. Thus making
item analysis simpler to use, which is an essential tool in the progressive improvement of
achievement tests. You have seen in the earlier sections how item analysis works as a tool for
42 improving the overall quality of the test.
You have thus covered an important area where computers play a major role. Does the above Question Banking, Answer
Scoring and Item Analysis
discussion stimulates you to impart these techniques in your classroom? Well, it must be the
case. The need is only to start-up. The utility and versatility of these concepts would take over
from there.

15.7 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1. Develop a question bank containing 20 questions of multiple choice type. Discuss them
with your fellow colleagues in the school or in the study centre. Write a report in 4-5
pages highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of question banking and difficulties
you faced in this exercise.
2. Take any acheivement test you developed. Write a report in the context of administration
and scoring procedures you have used. Discuss it with other colleagueslpeer trainees.

15.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Well some of them could be :
Generation of "equivalent tests".
"Differential Weighting" system for each question, in the assessment i.e. different
importance to be given to each question or a batch of questions.
Relational analyses of student performance " between" tests and "within" tests.
2. ICR is also an OMR but it reads handwriting also. It operates on the basis of an in-built
database of several million characters. It is basically an extension of optical character
reader (OCR) which can read only printed text.
3. Say in case of IGNOU there is about a staff of 70 in Student Registration and Evaluation
Division which cater to 6,50,000 students on rolls in 1999. The ratio is worsening
geometrically as the same 70 people were catering to about 3,00,000students in 1996.
4. Well, all these efforts are essentially "human intelligence". But it is the "artificial
-atelligence7'which computer uses for integrating the human intelligence in making the
question banks i.e. it collates the human intelligence for getting the desired goals.
5. Parameters essentially depend on the use of Statistics. However common parameters are:
mean, median, standard deviation, mean deviation, coefficient of variation and mean f
standard deviation limits.
6. Essay type questions cover both Cognitive and Affective domains. Application, Analysis,
Evaluation, Values and Attitudes are covered by such questions.
7. As item analysis discriminates between the better and poor learners. AIso it depicts why
an item has not functioned effectively. The projection of learning level, thus make the test
more reliable.
8. 27% proyides the best compromise between the two desirable aims i.e. making extreme
groups as large as possible and making them as different as possible.
9. We have to rewrite them because they are not worthy distracters.
UNIT 16 COMPUTERS IN OPEN LEARNING
SYSTEMS
Structure
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Objectives
16.3 Open Learning System
16.4 Benefits of Computers in Open Learning System
16.4.1 Student-Centric Approach
16.4.2 Teaching with Technology
16.4.3 Administering with a Difference

16.5 Key Problems

-
16.6 Some Successful Examples
16.7 Let Us Sum Up
16.8 Unit-end Exercises
16.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

16.1 INTRODUCTION
The computer is right now in the early throes of a new phase of communication. The
emergence, in the last few years, of the so-called 'cyber space' was a turning point no less
decisive than the advent of the computer itself. Home PC is now acting as a link to the
expanding cyber space (Internetiweb) - which they say, would be in everybody's school,
shopping center, movie hall and even in Pan Shop. There is a promise in technologies that
will t r a n s f m our roles, as it has never been before. The increasing capacity, flexibility, and
suitability of information and communication technologies to educational applications are a
driving force for the development of newer models of education. These technologies are
capable of performing many functions that were done by traditional methods till now. The
growth of knowledge has placed pressure on conventional models of education. People are
now seeking opportunities for life long learning and with the heterogeneity they have, they
require flexible access to learning opportunities and at venues such as home, the work places,
and the learning centres and at the traditional institutions. People have realised that applying
these technologies can enhance the quality of learning experience. In the conventional classroom
we find increasing use of Internet to access information, which enriches the learning experience.
Further in the open learning environment, we find the technologies being adopted to improve
the learning process through interactive and collaborative learning to reduce the learner's
sense of isolation. There is a demand from these learners for access and support service.
Technology has come to their rescue by enabling a remote education provider to address the
instructional resources available to everyone. This has made us to expect that development
of newer models of education based on these technologies will reduce costs, increase
productivity and enable expansion without cost increase.
Teachers must feel the power of electronic technology and the best way to master it is to use
those skills of curiosity, imagination, critical analysis, and judgement that have been their
primary resources. Open learning provides an appropriate environment for you to explore the
possi1,ility of using Computers. What shape the school of the future will take is amorphous,
but most of the people agree that the future schools will go electronic in a big way. Students
will see and hear teachers on computers, with 'remote learning' the trend of tomorrow.
Accessing "classrooms" on their home computer, students will learn at times, which are most
convenient to them. Yet some attendance at an actual school will be required to help students
develop appropriate social skills. You might be wondering whether we are talking about
future schools or open learning? The fact is, there is a striking similarity in the characteristics.
 Computers m Open
16.2 OBJECTIVES Learning Systems

After reading this unit, you would be able to:

understand what open learning is all about;
realise the benefits computer can offer to students, teachers and administrators in an open
learning setup; and
appreciate how computer and related technologies have enabled successful applications
to happen.

16.3 OPEN LEARNING SYSTEM

What is Open Learning System? Open Learning System can be defined as a system of
education that does not operate through the traditional conventions which are essentially
restrictive in nature - admission restrictions, attendance restrictions, restriction on the candidature
for examinations, restrictions on the period of time devoted to a course, restrictions on the
number of examination given and taken in a year, restrictions on subject combinations for a
particular degree, restriction on the modes of didactic communication and the didactic tasks
etc. The larger the number of such restrictions left unobserved, the higher the degree of the
'openness' of the type of education under consideration. Open learning thus refers to non-
conventional education, which defies constraints that characterise the traditional school/college/
university education. Also, it can be stressed that using technological advances can easily
affect learning. One can say that open learning is thus an extension of (not replacement of)
the traditional lecture type, of workshop and laboratory based training and education. Open
learning is essentially flexible and is essentially multimedia based. It enables learners to
extend and enhance their skills and knowledge working at a time, pace and places to suit them
as individuals and/or teams. In a nutshell, we can &fine open learning as a educational
system where:
(a) the student has a choice and the freedom to learn
(b) the student is supported by the multimedia based learning materials
(c) the tutors create an effective learning environment and infrastructure to enhance and
facilitate learning.
Thus, Open Learning have sub-systems which identifies the learner, conceptualise and create
multimedia learning material, distribute them at the learner's place, provide support in the
form of "human element" through a network of contact centres and finally, do a sort of
continuous evaluation to provide feedback to the student for completing his learning. It is
essentially unstructured and provides a lot of dialogue so that the learner does not feel
isolated.
Good open learning programs offer the best use of learning objectives; user friendly style,
environment and flexibility (with respect to time, place and pace); tutor marked assignments,
and/or self assessment and finally an education process that is designed and delivered to
satisfy the individual needs. Open learning includes those situations where the learning
occurs at a 'distance' as well as where learning occurs without this being the factor for the
learner and teacher (telepresence through teleconferencing).
Computers in Educational
Administration 16.4 BENEFITS OF COMPUTERS IN OPEN LEARNING '

SYSTEM
Computer offers major benefits in open learning. These benefits extend to learners, teachers
and of course to the institution. These benefits are to the extent that people are compelled
to believe that the "institutions they know will no longer exist". To make our point a little
stronger, we can list out the possible technologies in open learning where computers play an
important role. They are having lot of applications on Local Area Network (LAN)/Wide Area
Network (WAN), Electronic Mail (E-mail), Internet, multimedia, CD-ROM, Electronic
Conference and Electronic Bulletin Boards (BBS). If you see the international scene, teachers
have already started using those applications like text books recorded on CD-ROM interactive
media, conferences recorded on CD-ROM interactive media, case-studies and Test banks
recorded on CD-ROM interactive media, tutoring through E-mail, BBS and World-Wide-Web
(WWW) etc. The list is endless. The use of computer in open learning can be classified into
following three categories:
Virtual mode
Dual mode
Mixed mode
Virtual Mode : Those who are using computers for the complete cycle i.e. from
registration of students and educational delivery to evaluaticn and
certification. In effect, the student never needs to interact with any
entity, human or otherwise, through any other medium.
Dual Mode : Those who are using computer to complement one or more operations
of their instructional model. In this mode, it is necessary for the
learner to complete an instructional cycle through computer-assisted
methods.
Mixed Mode : Those who are using computer to supplement the operations of their
instructional model. In this mode, the learner can choose to learn
through any mode. Computer assisted methods are not compulsory.
In India, Net Varsity (www.niitnetvarsity.com) is the first attempt of its kind, which fits into
the first category. The Net Varsity offers short courses. It is a virtual institution of seven
people operating from New Delhi, with a Web server in the US and networking around 50,000
learners and teachers together in a commercially viable manner. In the second category
comes, the Virtual Campus Initiative (VCI) of IGNOU. It is possible to register for several
courses ranging from short-term diploma courses to bachelor's degree courses through the
web site (www.ignou.org.). Lessons can be downloaded and interaction is mainly through e-
mail. Another interesting feature of VCI is that the entire study material is given to the
students on CD-ROM at the time of registration. The third category comprises of a few
institutions that have put the resources on the web. However, there is very little representation
from schools. Interest from school administration and teachers is not lacking but there is a
great lack of where and how things should be done.

16.4.1 Student-CentricApproach
Computers in Open Learning provide a student-centric approach. Let's examine it from the
point of view of cost. Multimedia is inexpensive. Literally all new PCs are powerful
multimedia machines with CD-ROM, video, sound and networking capabilities. So any
learner having access to computer and educational resources would not bear any additional
cost. More importantly, students have a choice to pace their study according to their own will,
own time and own place. In the case of computer assisted learning, learning is done in a non-
linear mode as compared to traditional linear mode: The learners have direct access and they
learn by exploring rather than learn as told. Thus the entire learning process becomes more
student-centred. Multimedia is easy to use and interactive. Most programs enable learners
to move the cursor on the computer screen to explore new areas of information. This
exploration act satisfies the learner's appetite for learning at their own pace and sequence,
under their control. The most adorable part of this type of learning is that students can have
as many goes at solving a problem or understanding a concept, as many times they require
46
 doing so. In the process the concept is reinforced and learning is more powerful. Mistakes Computers m open
can be corrected without getting ashamed. More so, multimedia tools and a variety of media L e d n g Systems
are available during the learning process. The learner becomes more self-critical and participates
directly in his own learning process. This kind of approach also facilitates collaborative
learning needs and on the other hand permits collaboration between the peer-group. Interactive
multimedia supports the concept of "tele presence", meaning that despite the fact that the
learner(s) and the tutor(s) are physically apart, they are electronically linked by sharing the
same material. Since failures are not exposed in open learning situations, fear is not a part
of the learning and evaluation process. Multimedia supports student performance and any
learning process is most successful if the learners have the opportunity for success.

16.4.2 Teaching with Technology

In the best of the classrooms, technology should be used to support the curriculum. The
classroom objectives should be taken into consideration. As a teacher you must be able to
specify technical and practical issues of hardware, software, and technical support. Philosophical
issues of content, standard and evaluation should also be taken into account. Integration of
ccmputers and content is very important and believe it or not your content could re-emerge
enriched by the use of computers. The major characteristics of teaching with technology are
as follows:
Professional Growth: Teachers who have been using computers in their classroom, themselves
devote a lot of their time to keep up with all the new things that are happening in schools.
Anyone can succeed in some way with the new technology, but for uuly imaginative classroom
applications, there is a price to be paid, and that price is time. There is a wide variety of
approach that integrates teaching and computers at all levels of education. It has also proved
to be a good platform for teachers to grow professionally by sharing innovations and getting
ideas from fellows.
Digitised Archives: The advent of computer and web has enabled us to have information in
the form of digitized archives. An incredible amount of primary materials are now available
free and online on the web. While proprietary learning programs and CD-ROMs once
dominated teaching technology, the advent of the web has inspired a popular revolution. With
a little experimenting, teachers can find a wealth of electronic resources to enhance their
lessons and assignments.
Collaborative Efforts: Teaching with electronic technology is essentially collaborative in
nature. Teachers have already started to collaborate with students to create online resources
not only on content but also audio-video recordings. Now, this is a turning point, as this
enables teachers to have more time for face-to-face conversations and group discussions.
Often the 'expertise' of teacher is stretched by their student's work, Thus, the teacher's role
becomes of a facilitator who works with students to help them find and analyse resources.
All the above-mentioned points are a deviation from the teaching which we know of in the
yester years, the teaching where teacher used to be the only expert and authority. We can
summarise the benefits of computers in open learning to teachers as follows:
(i) Teacher's role changes towards a facilitator, consultant and guide, rather than the sole
information source and knowledge provider as in the past because students will teach
themselves and work on their own.
(ii) Learning does not become monotonous as the routine part of the material is grasped by
the learner themselves, by means of multimedia technology, and because the difficult part
is taught or explained by the tutor itself.
(iii) Interactive multimedia, when used as a combined CD-ROM based mass media and a real-
\
time, Internet supported learning environment, offers learners the opportunity to learn
about facts, to get ideas, discuss learning issues with their team members and tutors
locally, or on the Internet, following the "tele presence" principles, and-teachersto formulate
action plans.
(iv) The teaching component gets slighty shifted towards the self-assessed learning type and
teachers can devote more time to facilitate learning and developing contents etc.
(v) The courseware on CD-ROMs permits the tutors as well as students to gather information
using their own or third party resources.