Arbi - Unit 01 - LLB3
Arbi - Unit 01 - LLB3
Arbi - Unit 01 - LLB3
UNIT - I
ARBITRATION
Arbitration is not a new concept for the administration of justice without any delay. It is an age old
alternative dispute resolution method all over the world. It is an alternative way to resolve the dispute
without any access to the regular judicial system i.e. regular courts. Arbitration has been adopted from
time immemorial and it has been given the sanctity of law after its efficacy was tested by the
Governments.
Objectives : The main objectives of the Act are :
a) to comprehensively cover international commercial arbitration and conciliation as also domestic
arbitration and conciliation;
c) to provide that the Arbitral Tribunal gives reasons for its arbitral award;
d) to ensure that the Arbitral Tribunal remains within the limits of its jurisdiction.
e) to minimise the supervisory role of courts in the arbitral process;
f) to permit an Arbitral Tribunal to use medication, conciliation or other procedures during the
arbitral proceedings to encourage settlement of disputes;
g) to provide that every final arbitral award is enforced in the same manner as if it were decree of
the court;
h) to provide that a settlement agreement reached by the parties as a result of conciliation
proceedings will have the same status and effect as an arbitral award on agreed terms on the
substance of the dispute rendered by an Arbitral Tribunal; and
i) to provide that, for purposes of enforcement of foreign awards, every arbitral award made in a
country to which one of the two international Conventions relating to foreign arbitral awards to
which India is a party applies, will be treated as a foreign award.
Use of Objects and Reasons for Interpreting Provisions :
The Supreme Court observed in Narain Khamman vs. Parduman Kumar (1985) : It is now well‐settled
that though the Statement of Objects and Reasons accompanying legislative Billing cannot be used to
determine the true meaning and effect of the substantive provisions of a statute, it is permissible to
refer to the Statement of Objects and Reasons accompanying a Bill for the purpose of understanding the
background, the antecedent state of affairs, the surrounding circumstances in relation to the statute,
and the evil which the statute sought to remedy.
It is well‐settled that when the language of the statute is clear and admits of no ambiguity, recourse to
the statement of objects and reasons for the purpose of construing a statutory provision is not
permissible. The objects and reasons give an insight into the background why the provision was
introduced. Though objects and reasons cannot be the ultimate guide in interpretation of statutes, it
often‐times aids in finding out what really persuaded the legislature to enact a particular provision.
The objects and reasons of an Act should be taken into consideration in interpreting the provisions of
the statute in case of doubt. If the language of a provision is not clear, words have to be construed in the
light of the legislative scheme, the object and purpose of enacting the provision and the ultimate effect
of adopting one or the other construction.
Definitions : In this part, unless the context otherwise requires :
a) “arbitration” means any arbitration whether or not administered by permanent arbitral
institution;
b) “arbitration agreement” means an agreement referred to in Section 7;
c) “arbitral award” includes an interim award;
d) “arbitral tribunal” means a sole arbitrator or a panel of arbitrators.
Meaning, Nature and Scope of Arbitration : In the terms of sub‐section (1) (a) “arbitration means any
arbitration whether or not administered by permanent arbitral institution”.
When the parties agree to have their disputes decided with the meditation of a third person, he with all
the formality of a judicial adjudication, may be, speaking broadly, called an arbitration. An arbitration,
therefore, means the submission by two or more parties of their dispute to the judgment of a third
person, called the “arbitrator” and who is to decide the controversy in a judicial manner. “An arbitration
is the reference of a dispute or difference between not less than two parties for determination, after
hearing both sides in a judicial manner, by a person or persons other than a court of competent
jurisdiction.” “Arbitration” is thus defined by Romilly M.R. in the case of Collins vs. Collins (1858) :
“An arbitration is a reference to the decision of one or more persons, either with or without an umpire,
of a particular matter in difference between the parties.”
Dispute : What is meant by the term “dispute” for this purpose? The term has not been defined by the
Act nor there seems to be any judicial definition for the purposes of the Act.
Thus, the word “dispute” means the matter in dispute, and not the contention or disputation over it.
The expression shall include disputes of law as well as of fact. The dispute may relate to an act of
commission or omission, for example, withholding a certificate to which a person is entitled or refusal to
register a transfer of shares.
Where the liability is already clear, but the party liable is refusing to pay up, that is not a “dispute”. It is a
mere default. It is directly actionable.
In Cleobulos Shipping Co. Ltd. vs. Intertanker Ltd., (1982) 132 New LJ 557, a ship was chartered to carry a
cargo of naphtha under a voyage charter‐party containing an arbitration clause. The charterers refused
to pay the full freight on the ground that the vessel had to be taken to a second unloading port owing to
defects in the vessel’s pumping facilities.
The owner brought an action for the freight. The charterers wanted the action to be stayed because of
the arbitration clause. The court refused to agree that a failure to pay the full form freight was capable
of constituting a “dispute”. The court said that the rule is well established in Aries Tanker Corporation
vs. Total Transport Ltd., (1977) 1 All ER 398 HL, that freight had to be paid in full without any set‐off; the
good conduct of business so required. All cross‐claims can be adjusted in legal proceedings.
In Damodar Valley Corporation v. K.K. Kar, AIR 1974 SC 158; (1974) 1 SCC 141 : (1974) SCR 240, where, in
a case before the Supreme Court, the liability to pay for coal supplied by a party under a contract was
first repudiated, but finally payments were made and accepted by the other party, the latter than
claiming compensation for repudiation, it was held that this was a dispute and the defendant’s
contention that the matter had been settled was not sufficient to bar arbitration.
In State of Orissa v. Damodar Das, (1996) 2 SCC 216 : AIR 1996 SC 942; (1996) 82 Cut LT 110, the
agreement to refer disputes and differences to arbitration must be expressly or impliedly spelt out from
the clause. A clause in a contract empowered the public health engineer to decide questions relating to
the meaning of specifications, drawings, quality of work etc. and provided that the decision shall be final
and effect of being an arbitration clause.
it is not permissible for the complainant to raise new disputes in relation to damages claimed to have
been sustained by him after the disputes have been referred to arbitration. The scope of arbitration has
to be confined to the disputes which were the subject‐matter of arbitration before the first arbitrator.
Dispute of Civil Nature : Whatever be the type of dispute, the matter in dispute must be of civil nature.
Matters of criminal nature cannot be referred to arbitration. In most cases reference to arbitration shuts
out the jurisdiction of the courts, except as provided in the Act and since criminal courts cannot be
deprived of their jurisdiction to try criminals, no criminal matter can be referred to arbitration. Thus, if
the reference of any case to arbitration would mean stifling prosecution of a criminal, the reference is
not proper. Where, however, a criminal prosecution is only incidentally affected by reason of a
reference, the reference is not improper.
Similarly, where a single act involves civil as well as criminal consequences and the injured party has
either remedy at his disposal, he may agree to refer the matter to arbitration even if it has the effect of
wiping out the crime.
If it is an implied term of the arbitration agreement or of the reference to arbitration that a complaint
for non‐compoundable offence will not be further proceeded with, the arbitration agreement is illegal
and an award, if any, is invalid and it is immaterial whether a prosecution has been actually started or
not. (Kamini Kumar Basu v. Birendra Nath Bose, AIR 1930 PC 100; 57/A117; ILR (1930) 57 Cal 1302 : AIR
1930 PC 100)
Generally matters of a criminal nature which cannot be compromised cannot be referred to arbitration.
But in cases where the injured party has a remedy by civil action as well as by criminal prosecution, a
reference to arbitration can be made. Thus compoundable cases may be referred to arbitration.
Disputes under Section 145, Cr.P.C. (disputes to possession) are mostly of a civil nature and may be
referred to arbitration.
Subject to this restriction, any matter of civil nature can be referred to arbitration. Disputes relating to
property, ownership or tenancy, claims for damages howsoever arising, partnership matters, disputes
between an institution, like a company, and its members, can all be referred to arbitration. But some
matters involving a special type of jurisdiction cannot be so referred. For example, matters involving
insolvency or probate jurisdiction or those involving breach of a trust created for a public purpose under
Section 82 of the Code of Civil Procedure cannot be referred, for they involve public consequences and
not mererly adjudication of rights between private individuals. Matters under the Electricity Supply Act,
1948 which contains its own statutory provision are not arbitrable except as provided. In Punjab S.E.B. v.
Guru Nanak Cold Storage and Ice Factory Manufacturers, (1996) 5 SCC 411 : AIR 1996 SC 284, before the
Supreme Court, a defaulter in payment of bills was sued by the Electricity Board and decree for payment
was obtained. The consumer, instead of satisfying the decree, claimed compensation for losses caused
because of the sudden disruption of supply and demanded arbitration. The court said that the matter
was not arbitrable because of the special provisions of the Electricity Supply Act.
Tort Matters : The arbitrator can decide matters connected with the contract. Where a charterer
arrested the ship because it refused to deliver the whole of the cargo, the ship owner’s claim for
damages for the arrest was held by the court to be one in tort, but because the claim had arisen out of
the breach of the charter party, the arbitrator was competent to adjudicate upon the connected matter.
Winding up of Companies : In Astro Vencedor Comapnia Naviera v. Mobanaft, (1971) 2 QB 588, the
matter of the winding up of a company cannot be referred to arbitration. The court explained the
position as follows :
Section 8(1) of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 provides that the judicial authority before
whom an action is brought in a matter will refer the parties to arbitration the said matter in accordance
with the arbitration agreement. This, however, postulates that what can be referred to the arbitrator is
only that dispute or matter, which the arbitrator is competent or empowered to decide. The claim in a
petition for winding up is not for money. The petition filed under the Companies Act would be to the
effect, in a matter like this, that the company has become commercially insolvent and, therefore, should
be wound up. The power to order winding up of a company is contained in the Companies Act and is
conferred on the court. An arbitration notwithstanding any agreement between the parties, would have
no jurisdiction to order winding up of a company.
Contracts of Apprenticeship : Contracts of apprenticeship being for the benefit of minors, if they
contain an arbitration clause it will also be binding upon the minors.
Assignment : “When a contract is assignable, the benefit of an arbitration clause contained in it is
assignable as part of the contract”.
Powers under Agreement : Specific Enforcement : Where a reference was made by the court under a
consent order which provided that the arbitrator would have summary powers and would not have to
give reasons, it was held that the consenting party was precluded from challenging the validity of the
non‐speaking award.
Arbitration and Litigation : “One of the principal advantages of arbitration over litigation is commonly
stated to be that where the dispute concerns a technical matter such as a building contract, the person
chosen to arbitrate will normally be an expert in the subject‐matter of the dispute, whereas a judge will
seldom have any practical experience of the technicalities of the trade in question.”
“The court does not have the power which the arbitrator had to open up and review the exercise of the
architect’s discretion since the court’s jurisdiction was limited to determining the enforcing the
contractual rights of the parties. The arbitrator, on the other hand because the parties’ agreement
expressly gave him such power, was entitled to modify the parties contractual rights by substituting his
own discretion for that of the architect if he disagreed with the architect’s certificates and opinions.
Accordingly, if the parties choose to litigate rather than arbitrate the court would not have the same
powers.”
The Supreme Court has also passed the following observation in State of J&K v. Dev Dutt Pandit, (1999)
7 SCC 339 : AIR 1999 SC 3196; “Arbitration is considered to be an important alternative dispute redressal
process which is to be encouraged because of high pendency of cases in the courts and cost of litigation.
Arbitration has to be looked up to with all earnestness so that the litigant has faith in the speedy process
of resolving their disputes.”
Reference under Arbitration Agreement : The second important feature of an arbitration is the
agreement between the parties to the dispute to refer the matter to arbitration. The word “reference”
was defined in Section 2 (e) of the Arbitration Act, 1940 (now repealed) this way : “reference” means a
reference to arbitration.
ARBITRATION AGREEMENT
According to Section 7of Arbitration Conciliation Act, 1996 the Essentials and Kinds of Arbitration
Agreement are :
1) “Arbitration agreement” means an agreement by the parties to submit to arbitration all or
certain disputes which have arisen or which may arise between them in respect of a defined
legal relationship, whether contractual or not.
2) An arbitration agreement may be in the form of an arbitration clause in a contract or in the form
of a separate agreement.
3) An arbitration agreement shall be in writing.
4) An arbitration agreement is in writing if it is contained in :
a) a document signed by the parties;
b) an exchange of letters, telex, telegrams or other means of telecommunication
which provide a record of the agreement; or
c) An exchange of statements of claim and defense in which the existence of the
agreement is alleged by one party and not denied by the other.
5) The reference in a contract to a document containing an arbitration clause constitutes an
arbitration agreement if the contract is in writing and the reference is such as to make that
arbitration clause part of the contract.
Agreement to be in Writing : One of the points of some formal importance emphasised by these
provisions is that the reference should be by means of a written agreement. Section 7(3) most
emphatically prescribes that “an arbitration agreement shall be in writing”. An oral agreement to submit
a dispute to arbitration is not binding. If the agreement is in writing it will bind, even if some of its
details are filled in by oral understanding. It is not necessary that the agreement should be on a formal
document nor it is necessary that the agreement should be signed by both or either party. It is sufficient
that the written agreement has been orally accepted by the parties or that one has signed and the other
has accepted.
Act recognises in Section 7(4) some three methods of arriving at a written agreement. One of them is an
exchange of letters or raising a claim under an alleged arbitration agreement which is not denied by the
other party. The Act provides in Section 7 (4) that an arbitration agreement is in writing if it is contained
in an exchange of letters, telex, telegrams, or other means of telecommunication which provide a record
of the agreement or in an exchange of statements of claim and defense in which the existence of the
agreement is alleged by one party and not denied by the other.
Whatever be the form or contents of the agreement, it is necessary for the Act to apply that there
should be a mandatory requirement for settlement of disputes by means of arbitration. An agreement
that the parties may go in for a suit or may also go in for arbitration is not an arbitration agreement.
No prescribed form of agreement : In Rukmanibai Gupta v. Collector, Jabalpur (1980) 4 SCC 556 : AIR
1981 SC 479, the Supreme Court laid down that an arbitration clause is not required to be stated in any
particular form. If the intention of the parties to refer the dispute to arbitration can be clearly
ascertained from the term of the agreement, it is immaterial whether or not the expression
“arbitration” or “arbitrator” has been used. Nor it is necessary that it should be contained in the same
contract document. An arbitration clause may be incorporated into an existing contract by specific
reference to it. Section 7 (5) clearly provides that the reference in a contract to a document containint
an arbitration clause constitutes an arbitration agreement if the contract is in writing and the reference
is such as to make the arbitration clause a part of the contract. Hence, the whole thing turns upon the
intention of the parties. Where the party showed that the arbitration clause in the signed agreement
crept in mistake, it was held that the civil court was in error in acting upon a clause which the parties did
no intend to be there and appointing an arbitrator on that basis.
Tenders Containing Arbitration Clauses : The acceptance of a tender or a work order which carries an
arbitration clause, or the membership of an institution the constitution of which provides for arbitration
or a contract which contains a provision for arbitration, is sufficient. Acceptance of such a tender by an
authorised functionary of the Government would be a sufficient compliance of the formal requirements
of Article 299 of the Constitution of India so as to bind the Government by the arbitration clause.
“Arbitration Agreement” and “Reference” : The expressions “arbitration agreement” and “reference”
have been separately defined. Explaining the purpose and effect of this scheme, the Supreme Court
observed in Banwari Lal Kotiya v. P.C. Aggarwal, (1985) 3 SCC 255, 260 : AIR 1985 SC 1003 : 1985 Arb. LR
1003. (The term “reference” has not been defined in the new 1996 Act, but the statement continue to
be valid as emphasising the distinction between an agreement for arbitration and a reference under it) :
“The expression (reference) obviously refers to an actual reference made jointly by the parties after
disputes have arisen between them for adjudication to named arbitrator or arbitrators, while the
expression “arbitration agreement” is wider as it combines two concepts, (a) a bare agreement between
the parties that disputes arising between them should be decided or resolved through arbitration and
(b) an actual reference of a particular dispute for adjudication to named arbitrator.
The facts of Banwari Lal Case, (1985) 3 SCC 255, were that there was a dealing about shares between a
Stock Exchange member and an outsider under which a sum of money had become due to the member.
The parties signed the contract‐notes on a prescribed form. The transaction was subject to the rules,
regulations and bye‐laws of the Stock Exchange one of which provided for arbitration in such matters.
The member appointed his arbitrator. The other refused to reciprocate. In such cases, the rules provided
for appointment by the Exchange. The latter accordingly appointed one. The other party participated in
the proceedings under protest that he had not given his consent and, therefore, the award would not be
binding on him. The Supreme Court came to the conclusion that a fresh consent was necessary on his
part. He had consented to the rules and regulation which contained an elaborate machinery for
submission. No fresh consent was necessary.
“Admittedly the clause does not contain any express arbitration agreement. Nor can such an agreement
be spelled out from its terms by implication, there being no mention in it of any disputes much less of a
reference thereof. The purpose of the clause clearly appears to be to vest the superintending engineer
with supervision of the execution of the work and administrative control over it from time to time.”
The court distinguished the case from some earlier rulings in which the clause in question provided that
“in any dispute between the contractor and the department the decision of the chief engineer shall be
final”. The court said that this clause was correctly interpreted as amounting to an arbitration
agreement.
In another case i.e., Rukmani Gupta v. Collector, Jabalpur (1980) 4 SCC 556, a mining lease granted by
the State carried a clause that disputes, if any, shall be decided by the lessor (in this case the Governor
in whose name the lease was executed) and his decision shall be final. The Supreme Court held that this
amounted to an arbitration agreement. DESAI. J., said :
“Arbitration agreement is not required to be in any particular form. What is required to be ascertained is
whether the parties have agreed that if disputes arise they would be referred to arbitration, then such
an arrangement would spell out an arbitration agreement.”
Reference of time‐barred claim : An arbitration agreement may even contemplate reference of a time‐
barred claim. A policy of insurance required the assured to refer the matter to arbitration within twelve
months of the company’s disclaimer. The assured referred it after twelve months and yet the reference
was held to be binding. (Ruby General Insurance Co. Ltd. v. Peare Lal Kumar, AIR 1951 Punjab 440)
The significance of Section 25(3) of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 has also to be kept in view. A time‐
barred claim can, therefore, validly form the subject‐matter of reference. A distinction, however, is to be
made between an arbitration agreement entered into about a time‐barred claim and a reference made
on the basis of an arbitration clause after the expiry of the period of limitation. In the latter case no
reference can be made as the right to claim ceases to subsist and the relief with respect to the dispute
has become time‐barred.
Adoption of arbitration clause from main contract by sub‐contract : Where an arbitration clause
contained in the main contract is adopted in a sub‐contract also by a clause declaring that this sub‐
contract is being granted on the terms and conditions applicable to the main contract, it will not
necessarily follow that the parties to the sub‐contract would also be bound by the arbitration clause. For
one thing, the parties are different and for another, the purpose of the contract being different,
different kinds of disputes are likely to arise than those contemplated by the main contract.
Position of Non‐Parties : An arbitration is a private procedure. It is an implied term that stingers to the
agreement are excluded from hearing and conduct of proceedings. Accordingly, an arbitrator cannot,
unless all parties consent, order that the arbitration of a dispute between a ship owner and a charterer
arising out of a charter party and the arbitration of a separate but closely‐related dispute between the
charterer and a sub‐charterer arising out of a sub‐charterer be heard together even though the two
disputes are closely related and a consolidated hearing would be convenient.
Validity of Arbitration Agreement
There was a contract to purchase palm‐oil by a Karachi firm from a Singapore seller. The contract
included a London arbitration clause. The Karachi firm contended that the agent who purported to
contract on their behalf had no actual or apparent authority to do so . the seller commenced arbitration
proceedings in London. The Karachi party‐applied for a stay.
In K.K. Modi v. K.N. Modi, (1998) 3 SCC 573 : AIR 1998 SC 1297, in a family matter before the Supreme
Court, a memorandum of understanding was signed between the two branches of the family for
bringing about division of property between them. Experts were appointed for valuation and
preparation of scheme for division between the two groups the corporate undertakings of the family.
The agreement also provided that any dispute, clarification, etc. in the matters of implementation would
be referred to the Chairman of the Industrial Finance Corporation of India. It was held that this did not
constitute an arbitration agreement. It only amounted to a reference of issues to an expert for decision.
Nature of Dispute : Disputes which can be referred to arbitration are :
1) present or future disputes which are,
2) In respect of a defined legal relationship, whether contractual or not.
Present or Future Disputes : All matters of a civil nature with a few exceptions, whether they relate to
present or future disputes may form the subject of reference but not a dispute arising from and founded
on an illegal transaction.
Though the existence of a dispute is essential to the validity of a reference to arbitration, an arbitration
agreement may provide for a present or a future dispute. If the agreement relates to a present dispute it
will generally amount to a reference, but if it has been entered into merely to provide for any future
dispute, it is an arbitration clause.
Cases of Special Jurisdiction : Where the law has given jurisdiction to determine, certain matters to
specified tribunals only, such matters cannot be referred to arbitrations, e.g.,
a) Insolvency proceedings
b) Probate proceedings
c) Suit under Section 92, CPC
d) Proceedings for appointment of guardian
e) Matrimonial causes – except settlement of terms of separation or divorce
f) Industrial disputes
g) Title to immovable property in a foreign country
h) Claim for recovery of octroi duty.
Not necessary to specify dispute : It is not necessary to specify the dispute either in the arbitration
agreement or in the reference to the arbitrator. Such specification can also be made in the proceedings
before the arbitrator.
Statutory Arbitrations : The disputes which may be the subject of an arbitration agreement need not
necessarily arise out of a contract. They may also arise out of statutory provisions.
Who can make reference : Reference to arbitration may occur in any of the following ways :
Under Statutory Provisions : A reference can be made under the provisions of an Act. There are many
Acts of Parliament which provide that any dispute about their provisions shall be settled by arbitration.
The electricity Supply Act, 1948, for example, provides for disposal by arbitration the disputes that may
arise about its provisions.
By Consent of Parties : The parties to a dispute may agree to have their differences resolved by
arbitration.
The method of having arbitration though the intervention of the court has been dropped by the 1996
Act. The policy of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 is to minimise the intervention of the court.
The new Act minces no words in declaring in Section 5 that notwithstanding anything contained in any
other law for the time being in force, in matters governed by part I of the Act no judicial authority can
intervene except where permitted by the provisions of Part I. Accordingly, an arbitration can now by
only parties’ agreement and not through court or through intervention of court. On this point, Section 8
of the 1996 Act carries this provision that where a party to an arbitration agreement nevertheless files a
suit the other party may apply to the court and the letter may order reference to ‘arbitration’.
Effect of Arbitration Agreement : Stay of Suits (Section 8)
Power to refer parties to arbitration where there is an arbitration agreement :
1) A judicial authority before which an action is brought in a matter which is the subject of an
arbitration agreement shall, if a party so applies not later than when submitting his first
statement on the substance of the dispute, refer the parties to arbitration.
2) The application referred to in sub‐section (1) shall not be entertained unless it is accompanied
by the original arbitration agreement or a duly certified copy thereof.
3) Notwithstanding that an application has been made under sub‐section (1) and that the issue is
pending before the judicial authority, an arbitration may be commenced or continued and an
arbitral award made.
Power of court to order parties to arbitration : The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 is intended to
help the parties to settle their differences privately by conciliation or by arbitration and thereby to spare
themselves of wasteful and vexatious litigation. If the matter covered by an arbitration agreement could
still be litigated upon, the arbitration, instead of being a cheaper and less time‐consuming alternative to
litigation, would involve duplicity of expenditure and effort and would in essence be self‐defeating. It is,
therefore, necessary to provide, to make arbitration meaningful and a real alternative to litigation, that
the matter covered by an arbitration agreement shall not be litigated upon in any court of law
whatsoever, except for the purposes of making the arbitration really effective.
In recognition of this principle Section 8(1) of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 provides that if
any party to an arbitration agreement brings before a judicial authority the matter covered by the
agreement, the other party may apply for stay of the suit and for order of reference to arbitration.
The question whether the dispute in question is arbitrable or not has to be decided by the court. It has
also to decide whether the dispute brought before it is the subject‐matter of the arbitration agreement.
In satisfying itself whether the dispute is arbitrable or not the court has to go into the aspects of validity,
existence etc. of the agreement.
Under the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 (Section 8), the word used is “shall”. The effect is that
the court has no choice or discretion in the matter and is bound to refer the parties to arbitration.
The Supreme Court in Anderson Wright Ltd. v. Moran & Co. AIR 1955 SC 53, stated the requirements of
stay as they applied under the 1940 Act;
In order that a stay may be granted it is necessary that the following conditions should be fulfilled :
1) The proceedings must have been commenced by a party to an arbitration agreement against
any other party to the agreement;
2) The legal proceeding which is sought to be stayed must be in respect of a matter agreed to be
referred. The subject‐matter of the action should be the same as the subject‐matter of the
arbitration agreement.
3) The applicant for stay must be a party to the legal proceedings and he must have taken no step
in the proceedings after appearance. [Under the 1996 Act, the requirement is before ‘submitting
first statement on the substance of the dispute’] It is also necessary that he should satisfy the
court not only that he is but also was at the commencement of the proceedings ready and
willing to do everything necessary for the proper conduct of the arbitration; and
4) The court must be satisfied that there is no sufficient reason why the matter should not be
referred to an arbitration in accordance with the arbitration agreement.
The discretionary element in the power of the court is not applicable under the 1996 Act. Under the new
provision (Section 8 of 1996 Act) the requirements of stay application and of an order for reference to
arbitration were stated by the Supreme Court in P. Anand Gajapathi Raju v. P.V.G. Raju AIR 2000 SC
1886 as follows :
1) There must be an arbitration agreement;
2) A party to the agreement brings an action in the court against the other party;
3) The subject‐matter of the action is the same as the subject‐matter of the arbitration agreement;
4) The other party moves the court for referring the parties to arbitration before submitting the
first statement on the substance of the dispute.”
Matter of stay should be within arbitration agreement : Firstly, the matter about which a suit has been
filed should be within the scope of the arbitration agreement. The words used in the section are : “In a
matter which is the subject of an arbitration agreement”.
Impartiality of Nominated Arbitrator : The impartiality of the arbitrator or lack of independence on his
part is under the 1996 Act a ground for having him substituted and not for staying legal proceedings
because Section 8 is couched in mandatory form. The court has no choice in the matter but to order the
parties to reference.
The Supreme Court pointed out in U.P. Cooperative Federation vs. Sunder Bros., Delhi (1966) that a stay
will not be granted if there is a good reason for apprehending that the selected arbitrator is likely to
show bias or that he will not act fairly or that he has been guilty of unreasonable conduct or that for
some reason it is improper that he should arbitrate in the dispute. Bias may arise, for example, from the
fact that the arbitrator is related to one of the parties. Similarly, where the arbitrator has to play the role
of a witness also, it is improper that he should arbitrate, and, therefore, an action would be allowed to
proceed. Thus, where a contractor worked for a corporation and the disputes, if any, were to be
referred to the corporation’s engineer, a dispute which arose involved conflict of evidence between the
contractor and the engineer, it was held that the engineer was not the proper person to arbitrate and so
the suit should be allowed.
These rulings would be applicable under the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 only when the
circumstances are such and the arbitration agreement is such that the substitution of the arbitrator is
not possible under the challenge procedure permitted by Section 12 and 13 of the Act.
Fraud by one party to arbitration : The court may refuse a stay where the question is whether one of the
parties to the arbitrator, agreement has been guilty of fraud. In such cases a special issue for setting
aside the agreement on the ground of fraud under Sections 17 and 19 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872
would have to be raised.
Agreement to exclude courts altogether : An arbitration agreement which seeks to exclude altogether
the jurisdiction of the courts would be void, being contrary to the arbitration and conciliation Act, 1996
itself. For example, the court’s power to ask the arbitrator to submit a question of law for determination
by the court under the earlier 1940 Act could not be ousted. But it is open to the parties to stipulate that
the award of the arbitrator shall be a condition precedent to the maintainability of any suit. In such
cases no action may be allowed until an award has been obtained. This was laid down in Scott v. Avery
(1856) HCL 811 and such a clause is also known by the name of that case.
A policy of insurance on a ship provided that in the event of loss the amount of loss would be
determined by arbitration and that the award of the arbitrator would be a condition precedent to the
maintainability of any suit. The House of Lords accordingly held that no action was maintainable until
the award was obtained.
The validity of Scott v. Avery clause was approved by the Supreme Court in Vulcan Insurance Co. v.
Maharaj Singh(1976) 1 SCC 945 : AIR 1976 SC 287.
A factory was insured against fire. It was lost in a fire, but the insurance company repudiated all liability
under the policy. The policy provided that if any dispute arose as to the amount of any loss or damage,
the same would be decided by arbitration. The assured attempted to appoint an arbitrator by filing the
agreement in the court.
UNTWALIA, J., held that the repudiation of liability was not a dispute as to the amount of “an loss or
damage” and, therefore, it was outside the arbitration agreement. The proper course for the assured
was to commence a suit to determine the question and once a court had decided that the company
could have been held liable, the matter could have been referred to arbitration as to the amount of
liability. Such a suit was not barred by the policy. A suit of this kind is not barred unless there is the Scott
v. Avery clause.
Effect of Legal proceedings upon Arbitration (Section 8, 1996 Act) : Sub‐section (3) of Section 8, 1996
Act deals with this point :
“Notwithstanding that an application has been made under sub‐section (1) and that the issue is pending
before the judicial authority, an arbitration may be commenced or continued and an arbitral award
made.”
Under Section 8 of the new Act unless a party objects to the legal proceedings, they are valid. The
arbitration agreement does not oust the jurisdiction of the courts by itself. Where no party comes
forward to object to the suit, the arbitration agreement becomes ousted. A suit would have no effect on
the arbitration proceeding if it is pending, or even commenced. Such proceedings can be continued and
an award made.
Waiver of Rights
Waiver of Right to Object : A party who knows that :
1) Any provision of this Part from which the parties may derogate, or
2) Any requirement under the arbitration agreement, has not been complied with the yet proceeds
with the arbitration without stating his objection to such‐non‐compliance without undue delay
or, if a time limit is provided for stating that objection, within that period of time, shall be
deemed to have waived his right to so object.
Extent of Judicial Intervention : Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being
in force, in matters governed by this Part, no judicial authority shall intervene except where so provided
in this Part.
Judicial Intervention : This section bars the jurisdiction of courts to interfere or to intervene in
arbitration proceedings except to the extent provided in Part I. This Part provides for intervention of
Courts in the following cases :
1) Section 8 – making reference in a pending suit.
2) Section 9 – passing interim orders.
3) Section 11 – appointment of arbitrators.
4) Section 14(2) – terminating mandate of arbitrator.
5) Section 27 – Court assistance in taking evidence.
6) Section 34 – setting aside an award.
7) Section 37 – entertaining appeals against certain orders.
8) Section 39(2) – directing delivery of award.
Some of the cases where Courts exercised jurisdiction under the repealed Arbitration Act, 1940, and in
which the jurisdiction is barred under the present Act were :
1) Section 11 – removal of an arbitrator or umpire
2) Section 14 – filing of an award in court.
3) Section 15 – modification of award by court.
4) Section 16 – power of court to remit an award for reconsideration.
5) Section 17 – pronouncing judgment in terms of an award.
6) Section 19 – superseding an agreement.
7) Section 20 – filing of arbitration agreement in Court and seeking an order of reference
8) Section 28 – enlarging time for making an award.
Provision of Interim Relief by Courts
Interim Measures by Court : A party may, before or during arbitral proceedings or at any time after the
making of the arbitral award but before it is enforced in accordance with Section 36, apply to a Court –
1) For the appointment of a guardian for a minor or a person of unsound mind for the purposes of
arbitral proceedings; or
2) For an interim measure of protection in respect of any of the following matters, namely :
a. the preservation, interim custody or sale of any goods which are subject‐matter
of the arbitration agreement;
b. securing the amount in dispute in the arbitration;
c. the detention, preservation or inspection of any properly or thing which is the
subject matter of the dispute in arbitration, or as to which any question may arise
therein and authorising for any of the aforesaid purposes any person to enter upon any
land or building in the possession of any party, or authorising any samples to be taken or
any observation to be made, or experiment to be tried, which may be necessary or
expedient for the purpose of obtaining full information or evidence;
d. interim injunction or the appointment of a receiver;
e. such other interim measure of protection as may appear to the Court to be just
and convenient.
and the court shall have the same power for making orders as it has for the purpose of, and in relation
to, any proceedings before it.
Power of Court : The section provides for the making of orders for interim measures to provide interim
relief to the parties in respect of arbitration. Section 41 and Schedule II of repealed 1940 Act dealt with
this subject‐matter. Those provisions have been deleted. The powers of the court include an order in
respect of the following matters :
1) the preservation, interim custody or sale of any goods which are the subject‐matter of the
reference.
2) Securing the amount in difference in the reference.
3) The detention, preservation of inspection of any property or thing which is the subject of the
reference or as to which any question may arise therein and authorising for any of the aforesaid
purposes any person to enter upon or into any land or building in the possession of any party to
the reference, or authorising any samples to be taken, or any observation to be made, or
experiment to be tried, which may be necessary or expedient for the purpose of obtaining full
information or evidence.
4) Interim injunctions or the appointment of a receiver.
5) The appointment of a guardian for a minor or person of unsound mind for the purposes of
arbitration proceedings.
Effect of Interim Measures : An interim measure does not put to rest the rights of the parties. The rights
of the parties are required to be adjudicated finally when a reference is made. The court has the
authority and jurisdiction to pass interim orders for protection and preservation of rights of the parties
during the arbitration proceedings but that does not necessarily mean that if a party has availed of a
benefit under this jurisdiction, the other party cannot put his claim in the main proceedings which is
before the arbitrator. The interim arrangement made by the court has to be given the interim status.
Where an arbitration clause exists in a contract and an order relating to the contract is passed and the
parties do not abdicate the arbitration clause and, on the contrary, take a recourse to the same, at the
disputes inclusive of benefits arising or having already arisen, have to be decided by the arbitrator.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Q.1. What are the salient features of Arbitration and Counciliation Act, 1996? Discuss.
Q.2. Explain the requirements of a valid arbitration agreement.
Q.3. “An arbitration agreement cannot be revoked due to the death of either of the party to
dispute.” Comment.