Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1381e1388

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Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate

Classroom teachers and physical activity integration

Donetta J. Cothran a, *, Pamela Hodges Kulinna b, Alex C. Garn c
a
Indiana University, HPER 112, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
b
Arizona State University, AZ, USA
c
Louisiana State University, LA, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This project examined 23 teachers’ involvement in a curricular project to integrate physical activity into
Received 7 July 2009 the school day. The teachers represented all grade levels and worked in schools that served Native
Received in revised form American students in the United States. Interviews occurred twice during the year-long project. Data
15 April 2010
were analyzed via constant comparison. Teachers’ willingness to engage was influenced positively by
Accepted 19 April 2010
caring about students and their own personal wellness history. Their engagement was impeded by
institutional factors of scheduling and assessment pressures. The results provide insights into how
Keywords:
teachers might be persuaded to and prepared for the implementation of similar programs in new
Native American
Activity breaks
locations.
Healthy schools Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Student health

1. Introduction Stakeholders (e.g., parents, administrators, colleagues, and

students) can serve as presses on teaching practices. Several
The history of schools is filled with change attempts, some of studies have noted the importance of students in determining
which “worked” and many of which did not. Those change efforts teacher satisfaction and perceptions of their work (e.g., Cothran &
have not always focused solely on “pure” academic interventions, the Ennis, 2001; Hargreaves, 2000). In a review of the literature
most recent example of which is the call for schools to serve as related to the principal’s contribution to school effectiveness,
a primary intervention site in negative national health trends. Hallinger and Heck (1998), suggest that the role of the principal
Repeated research findings have documented that many children are in transformational leadership (or leadership related to making
physically inactive and become even less active as they age. This change) has a major impact. Although elsewhere Hallinger
investigation examined classroom teachers’ perspectives on (2003) cautions that the principal’s influence is more indirect
a curricular change project designed to increase student physical than direct and is influenced by the school context (Oplatka,
activity during the school day. 2004). Leadership can also influence teachers’ perceptions of
progress related to change and their perceptions of increases in
student outcomes (Leithwood, 1994). A lack of emotional
1.1. Curricular change and presses
connection to students, parents, school and community can
impede teachers’ ability to fully engage in a curricular change
Saxe, Gearhart, Franke, Howard, and Crockett (1990) suggest that
effort (McCaughtry, Martin, Kulinna, & Cothran, 2006). Supervi-
teachers work in complex environments with multiple presses on
sors, assistants and parents can all play a positive or negative role
their work. For example, a district’s adoption of a new reading
in how teachers perceive their profession (Oplatka & Eizenberg,
curriculum is a press on teachers to change their reading instruction
2007).
methods. Presses can act as levers for change to the current system.
Presses also exist for teachers at a personal level as they work to
Saxe et al. (1990) suggest three levels (stakeholder, personal, and
integrate their current and potential new practices with their own
institutional) at which presses may be at work. Certainly the levels
values related to schools, teaching, learning, and students. This may
are inter-related, but it is useful to examine each separately for the
be the most critical level of press as teachers play a central role in
presses that may be at work in curricular change efforts.
determining the success or failure of any change effort (Fullan,
1991). Hardre and Sullivan (2008) report that teachers’ individual
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 812 855 6420; fax: þ1 812 855 3193. differences and perceptions influence the way they teach while
E-mail address: [email protected] (D.J. Cothran). Rushton, Morgan, and Richard (2007) suggest that teachers’

0742-051X/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tate.2010.04.003
1382 D.J. Cothran et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1381e1388

personality profiles play a role in teaching. These individual teacher integrating physical activity into the routine of the school day. In
differences may be at least partially influenced by the country in the most common scenario, classroom teachers, rather than
which they teach (Lingbiao & Watkins, 2002). a content area expert, provide physical education for their class.
Finally, at the institutional level, policy makers most often Given the frequency with which that happens, surprisingly little
attempt to influence change via the adoption of “.standards set data is available on the effectiveness of those teachers. Sallis et al.
forth by professional and state organizations, curricular materials, (1997) reported that on a variety of measures content experts
district testing, and professional development programs” (Saxe trained in a physical activity curriculum perform better than
et al., 1990, p. 86). Institutional presses often include modifica- classroom teachers trained in the same curriculum and both groups
tions or adoptions of curricula at the national (e.g., Pyle, Jones, perform better than classroom teachers who receive no curricular
Williams, & Morrison, 2009) or district level (e.g., Cothran, training. Classroom teachers may also have negative attitudes, at
McCaughtry, Kulinna, & Martin, 2006; Spillane, 2000). Those least initially, toward teaching physical education (Faucette,
curricular reforms are frequently accompanied by mandated Nugent, Sallis, & McKenzie, 2002; Faucette & Patterson, 1989).
assessment systems (e.g., Barksdale-Ladd & Thomas, 2000). Insti- Even given the support of an extensive continuing professional
tutional presses can also involve institutional characteristics that development program like the government funded National PE and
may enhance or impede change efforts. For example, Sweetland School Sport Professional Development Programme for Teachers in
and Hoy (2000) noted the relationship between school climate, England, at least some classroom teachers still struggle to provide
teacher empowerment, and student academic success. These quality physical education (Armour & Duncombe, 2009).
presses hold very real consequences as schools who fail to comply Although a promising option, the above described research also
and/or meet mandated levels can be sanctioned. Institutional makes clear that classroom teachers teaching physical activity is
presses may, however, have unintended effects of teacher resig- also a problematic option. Classroom teachers are generally not
nation and activism (Hayes & Butterworth, 2001). trained to teach physical activity so adoption of such a proposal
means that individuals are asked to teach a topic in which they have
1.2. Public health needs and curricular change limited content and/or pedagogical knowledge. A second critical
challenge to this change model is that the class day is already full of
Certainly a current and powerful institutional press on schools is a variety of curricular responsibilities and the pressures that go
the public health needs of the nation. A general trend in most along with standardized academic achievement tests. Although
developed countries is that children are physically inactive and significant challenges do currently exist, children’s needs and
become even less active as they age (Dollman, Norton, & Norton, potentially significant rewards are also present if classroom
2005). Concurrently children’s diets have changed resulting in teachers can be recruited as allies in the interventions to increase
a troubling obesity trend beginning in childhood and extending on student physical activity.
through the adult years. These negative physical activity and diet It was the purpose of this investigation to examine a change
trends have resulted in significant numbers of children being at risk effort focused on classroom teachers who volunteered to be part of
for serious medical conditions such as high blood pressure, heart a program to increase physical activity during the school day.
disease and diabetes. The statistics are even more alarming for Specifically we explored: (1) What presses operate to encourage
minority populations with perhaps the most at risk group in the a classroom teacher to voluntarily engage in a change program that
United States being Native Americans (Salbe, Weyer, Lindsay, & involves physical activity? and (2) What presses acted as inhibitors
Tatranni, 2002). to those efforts?
Given the history of school programs as solutions for national This report is part of a larger investigation (e.g., Johnson,
concerns (Cuban, 1992), it is not surprising that schools have been Kulinna, Darst, & Pangrazi, 2007) related to school efforts aimed
identified as an important intervention site to reverse the nation’s at positively influencing students’ wellness needs. Within this
negative health trends. For example, Sport England (2004) and the component of that larger study is a focus on teachers’ perceptions
USDHHS (2000) have suggested that a comprehensive approach to of the change effort and their personal attempts to integrate
increasing youth physical activity and decreasing obesity should be physical activity into their classroom. Our focus on the teachers’
multi-faceted with schools as an important component of physical reactions is grounded in a long line of in-service professional
activity promotion. Some countries have addressed negative health development theory that consistently demonstrates that it is the
trends with new health and physical education curricula. The individual teacher who plays a central role in determining the
Health and Physical Education in the New Zealand Curriculum success or failure of any change as well as Saxe et al.’s (1990) ideas
(Ministry of Education, 1998) and England’s National Curriculum of the multiple presses teachers face. By better understanding these
for Physical Education (Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Education volunteer teachers it is hoped that insights may be gained into the
(2001)) both emphasize the importance of school based healthy motivations and challenges classroom teachers face when
living interventions and changes to physical education offerings. attempting to integrate physical activity into their day. These
One component of a health focused school intervention is insights will help in the development of future school based
improving and increasing physical education. Story (1999) provides physical activity programs that can best meet the needs of other
a review of elementary and secondary physical education inter- teachers and students.
ventions. This option has great merit, but the reality of current
scheduling, budgeting, and personnel means that even the highest 2. Methods
quality physical education program may only be offered once or
twice a week to most elementary age children while many high 2.1. Participants and setting
school students may have only one to two semesters of physical
education in their four years of high school. Twenty-three (14 female, 9 male) classroom teachers from ten
Increased physical education is a much needed and desirable schools participated in the study. Teachers’ self-reported their
option, but the reality of the funding changes required to achieve ethnicity as Caucasian (58%), American Indian (27%), African-
such a goal, combined with students’ immediate needs suggests American (11%) or Hispanic (4%). Their experience level ranged
that schools should also explore other options. One alternative is to from 0 to 27 years teaching (M ¼ 10.19, SD ¼ 8.51). Teachers
have the classroom teacher assume some responsibility for received a stipend for their participation. None of the teachers were
 D.J. Cothran et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1381e1388 1383

licensed specifically to teach physical education. Their prior Table 1

training in the subject varied from no coursework in their teacher Academic Integration lesson topics used by teachers.

preparation program to a single class. Of those with a specific Lesson Title Arizona State Standards Met
course experience, all were at the undergraduate level and focused Number
on teaching traditional physical education, not physical activity or 1 Recording Pedometer Data Physical Education Standard 5
healthy living behaviors. There were 12 elementary teachers and 11 Technology Standard 3
2 Establishing a Baseline Mathematics Standards 3 & 6
secondary teachers, with 10 of the teachers indicating that they
3 Goal Setting Self-Regulation Standard 1
held a Master’s Degree. Mathematics Standard 3
All schools were located in a Native American community in the 4 Establishing a Pedometer/ Language Arts Standard 1
Southwest United States and served Native American students from Activity Word Wall
the same tribe. Of the ten schools, two were public, one Catholic 5 Walking versus Jogging Mathematics Standard 1
6 Fitness Concepts Physical Education Standard 3
and the rest governed by the Native American community via the 7 Incorporating Math Mathematics Standards 2 & 8
Bureau of Indian Affairs. Of those schools, five were elementary, and Graphing Skills
three were middle and two were high school. The schools were 8 Incorporating Writing Activities Language Arts Standard 1
located on the same reservation and had relatively small enroll- Language Arts Standard 2
9 The Scientific Process Science Standard 12
ments (varying from 14 to 107 students). All shared similar
Life Skills Standard 4
circumstances including low student attendance and retention, as 10 Integrating Social Studies Geography Standard 2
well as poor student performance on standardized academic tests. Mathematics Standard 4
Teacher and administrator turnover was high. The students in the
district were also at great health risk with high levels of obesity,
diabetes, and drug and alcohol addictions in their community.
reinforce their math critical thinking skills and computation skills
Before the initiation of the project, approval was gained at all
by using pedometer data to solve math problems”, and then sample
levels including: (a) University IRB Committee, (b) Tribal Council,
activities were provided for elementary and secondary lessons.
(c) Educational Division of Tribal Council, and (d) Principal/
Teachers were asked to find logical places/ways to integrate the
Administrators at the schools. After receiving approval at all levels,
information into their own lesson plans/content.
teachers were recruited from each of the reservation schools. All
participant teachers provided informed consent.
2.3. Data collection and analysis
2.2. Physical activity integration curriculum
All teachers were interviewed near the beginning and end of the
The teachers volunteered to participate in a year-long curricular project. Interviews occurred at the teacher’s school at a convenient
change initiative designed to integrate physical activity and time and place. Most teachers were interviewed in teams of two as
academic content during the school day. Teachers were aware of teachers were encouraged to have a teaching partner participate in
the general goals of the program which were to increase student the intervention with them. The teaching partner role was an
physical activity and knowledge about healthy living via academic informal one. Participating teachers were merely encouraged to talk
integration lessons. Teachers received training in a series of work- with another teacher at their school participating in the project about
shops throughout the year and also received some basic equipment their efforts. No specific guidelines were given nor records kept about
including a pedometer set for their class. The workshops were the partner. It was merely suggested for on-site encouragement and
based on adult learning theory and involved a mix of information potential lesson ideas, but there was no requirement to have
given via lecture/discussion, modeled lessons, as well as time to a partner nor were there specific partner duties. An interview guide
share successes and questions with other teachers and the mentors. structured the conversations which lasted from 45 to 60 min. Topics
Teachers also participated in hands on sample activity breaks and investigated included teacher’s response to various components of
lessons and talked with other teachers about how the physical the intervention (e.g., specific lessons, pedometers, mentors, work-
activities/healthy behavior content could be integrated into exist- shop and materials effectiveness) as well as how teachers modified
ing curricular plans by grade level. As the year progressed some the lessons to meet their students’ needs. In addition specific ques-
teachers volunteered to share their lesson ideas and the other tions were included that addressed student health, motivation, and
teachers would participate as students in the academic integration reaction to teachers’ efforts as well as more general topics like the
lessons taught by their peers. context of the school.
Classroom teachers were also assigned to work with one of two During one interview teachers were asked to comment specifi-
mentor teachers with experience in classroom-based physical cally on their motivation to participate in the study. After the
activity integration. The mentors were award winning physical teachers answered a general question to that effect they were
educators who had experience in teaching Native American provided a list of ten possible motivations to engage and were asked
students as well as working with classroom teachers in designing to comment on how important the individual items were to them as
a cross-curricular program. The mentors came into the classes and well as how they thought the item might influence other teachers.
model-taught, co-taught, or observed depending on the participant Teachers were also asked to select the three most important reasons
teacher’s needs and comfort level. Teachers were encouraged to for their personal involvement in the study. A list of the prompts and
incorporate as much or as little physical activity into their classes as teacher rankings are provided in Table 2. The conversations were
they desired, although all teachers were expected to complete recorded and later transcribed.
(as a minimum) a ten lesson series that incorporated pedometers Additional data collection occurred via mentor teacher and
with traditional academic content areas like math and social classroom teacher reflective journals. Mentor teachers visited each
studies. Outlines of the standards based lessons were developed for teacher at least four times and either observed, co-taught or
the teachers and they were free to modify the basic outline and modeled a lesson at the teacher’s request. They were available to
order of lessons or lesson ideas to best fit their students’ needs. See teacher participants for consultation via phone or email throughout
Table 1 for lesson ideas used by the teachers. Lesson outlines gave the project. Additional visits beyond the required minimum were
the basic information of the lesson, for example, “students will also provided if requested. Mentor teachers kept a journal in which
1384 D.J. Cothran et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1381e1388

Table 2 was largely the result of a mix of stakeholder and personal presses.
Interview prompts on teacher motivation. At the stakeholder level, the press was related to a desire to meet
Interview prompt Frequency of the needs of the whole student, not just their academic needs. At
teacher responses the personal level, the program’s inclusion of physical activity was
Meet students wellness needs 14 a strong match for the teachers’ pre-existing personal wellness
Personal interest in wellness 12 interests. Presses that worked to inhibit the change were largely
Motivate students to engage academically 8
institutional factors of scheduling and academic test pressures. An
Sounds like fun 7
New professional challenge 5 additional significant influence on teacher engagement in the
My friend(s) talked me into it 4 project was their perception of the program lessons as either
Teacher pay 4 additional work or in support of their current work. To provide
My principal encouraged me 1 more context to the quotes, the teachers’ grade level is indicated in
Free equipment 0
Other 0
parentheses (E ¼ elementary, M ¼ middle school and H ¼ high
school).

they noted and reflected on specific teacher issues and lesson 3.1. Positive presses
implementations. Similarly, the classroom teachers were asked to
keep a journal. They were encouraged to write anything they 3.1.1. The whole student
considered important, but to specifically record their thoughts Perhaps not surprisingly, teachers who engaged in this volun-
about the lesson and student reactions after implementing the tary program described a real commitment to their children
required lessons. In addition, field notes were kept by the research beyond the classroom. The number one reason for teacher
team as they visited schools for various components of the overall engagement in the classroom intervention was a desire to posi-
project design. tively impact student wellness needs. They were concerned about
The original research design was to use the journals as a data and their children’s health and wanted to help students lead healthier
triangulation source. The journal entries by both the mentors and the lives. Ryan (M) explained his motivation to be involved, “Diabetes is
teachers were so brief to be of minimal value in the data analysis so prevalent out here and the school doesn’t do enough to push
stage. The journal entries, however, did provide some insights into physical activity. I have a real bone with that, a real issue because
lesson use and reactions and those journal entries served as prompts it’s like enabling them to just wait for the worst to happen and not
for interview questions at the end of study interview. do anything about it so I saw this program as a chance to do
Teachers’ responses to the reasons for engagement were taken something about it.” Bob (E) shared similar sentiments:
from the transcripts and that data were recorded in a spreadsheet.
Occasional unexpected interview interruptions or interviewer error The kids and their families are so, well diabetes is so prevailing
meant that a small number of teachers did not supply 3 responses. out there and the lifestyles they live is, it’s crucial for me to put
Out of the possible 69 responses (23 teachers  3 possible that point across to them as kids and may be even take it home.
responses), 58 actual rankings were recorded. Frequency counts If you make a little dent then may be it will carry over and some
were computed and the data were also examined for possible day teach their own children. You have to start somewhere and I
trends with regard to school or grade setting as well as teacher decided to start right here.
factors. Barbara (E) shared her frustration that the community and school
The interview data were analyzed via analytic induction were not addressing the students’ health issues early enough:
methods to identify and extract common themes (LeCompte &
Preissle, 1993). The analysis began with repeated and general They said that they’re trying to reach those young teen-agers to
scanning of the interview data as a familiarization process and prevent diabetes. Well, our high school kids already have it, and
attempt to identify some initial ideas and questions. The data were so do our middle school kids. And like I was telling you, most of
then again reviewed with a more specific focus looking for specific our kids are probably border diabetic right now. And they’re,
examples of shared experiences across teachers, schools, teaching you know, what, seven, eight, nine years old. And so, this is what
level, and data sources; and negative cases that might best express we’ve been trying to get them to understand, that in the envi-
the views of the participants. The data were systematically reviewed ronment where we are, it’s already here. And we can’t wait till
one more time looking for trends unique to specific schools, grade they get to high school to try to do some preventative things. We
levels, or teacher factors (e.g., subject matter area, gender, experi- need to be doing it down here. So that’s why, I’ve just been kinda
ence). A final examination of the data occurred with a specific like, “People! You don’t understand where we’re at!” You know,
examination of the data with regard to the ten prompts provided as juvenile diabetes is here.
reasons for teacher engagement. Confirming or disconfirming The teachers’ commitment to the whole child additionally
examples were sought with regard to all reasons for engagement. meant that they were interested in academic success too as many of
In addition to the search for negative cases, a variety of other the children were also at risk academically. Teachers ranked
trustworthiness measures were used. Data triangulation occurred “motivate students to engage academically” as the third most
between interview and journal entries. The use of multiple sites and popular reason for participating in the study. For most of the
teachers at different grade levels also served as a means of triangu- teachers, the academic focus was directed at student engagement
lating data, context, and teacher perspectives. Finally, a peer debriefer and readiness to learn rather than enhanced content area learning
was used in all stages of the data collection and analysis as a sounding through academic integration. Teachers saw the program as a way
board and reflection prompt for emerging ideas and themes. to get students excited about a school day for which many students
typically did not feel much excitement. Haley (M) described her
3. Results desire to get her students excited about learning, “The kids were
excited about it. The kids were, hey are we gonna walk today? And
This year-long project resulted in a number of important find- they don’t get excited about a lot of stuff.” Lisa (E) described how
ings. The first is that teachers’ willingness to engage in the project students in her class reacted to the project:
 D.J. Cothran et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1381e1388 1385

The kids are excited. The students are real excited. They love I’m not a natural athlete that gets out there and wins, you know,
coming in and getting their pedometers, and they’re pretty good I’m never up front of the pack, but I love that kind of stuff. It is
about putting them back. They’re assigned a number so I can keep something that I really enjoy. So, yeah, when they said, “PE,
track of them, and they know their numbers, and I skipped a kid relate it to math,” you know, I’m like, sign me up.
today just to see his reaction. He’s like, “Hey! You missed me!” So,
Many of the teachers were already active in their own lives and
that was neat because he’s actually not a kid that would usually
often shared that with their students prior to the formal inter-
show a lot of involvement in things.Alison (E) enjoyed having new
vention. Bob (E) talked about his decision to join the project:
ways to engage students, “It was kind of neat because it gave me
a different viewpoint to bring in with the lesson, and the kids I know, just from my own lifestyle, I eat healthy, work out, and
would get excited. But they’re just really excited about trying stay fit, and I preach that in my class anyway, and teach my kids,
something new instead of the same old thing every day.” so the project didn’t actually change anything for me; it just
gave me another tool to use to help them.
Some teachers also appreciated the increased attentiveness that
the physical activity in the school day brought to the academic Alison (M) talked about her past “teachable moments” when she
lessons. Lisa (E) reported: was able to pass along wellness information as an informal part of
the day:
I still find better results with my kids if I keep them more active
and going and a little more likely to learn. You know, at that time They are always commenting about my lunch and they think I
they know that we’re only going to be in the classroom so long eat the weirdest things. It’s not weird. It’s fruit and yogurt and
and then we’re going to be up doing something else. So, they’re a sandwich or something. But, they ask “How do you eat just
more into academics and paying attention. I just get better that? Why don’t you get yourself some pizza?” I think you can
results if I mix the day up.Barbara (E) shared similar sentiments: have an influence. You know, they ask questions, and I try to get
out a little information about healthy living.
One of the things that I’ve seen in my class, especially when
they’re groggy and they come to school and they’re like, they’re
3.2. Negative presses
sitting there like this, you know [makes face] and I’ll say alright
we’re going to go out and run, and then I can take them out and
3.2.1. Scheduling
run, come back, and then they can focus on what they need to be
Teachers’ daily schedules and how often and long they saw their
doing. I see the difference in.so that’s when I’ll make them go
students were key factors in teachers’ ability to implement the
out and run. And I’ve seen like, “What are you doing with those
program. With one exception, the secondary teachers faced greater
kids? You’re making them run; it’s not running time, it’s reading
struggles with finding time for the program. The one exception was
time.” But I say I gotta get them woke up. I’ve gotta wake them
Ryan (M), a special education teacher at the middle school, who had
up so that they’ll be ready to listen and they’ll be ready to do the
the same students all day. He discussed how the program worked
reading activities.
for him, “It’s not as much of a problem for me to tie it in. You can
Although teachers were aware of the students’ needs to be incorporate the math, as well as reading this and going through the
engaged and alert in class, they were rarely able to articulate a direct process I was happy with it.” In contrast, Carol (M) taught at the
connection between physical activity and learning and rarely spoke same middle school as Ryan but struggled to find time to incor-
about the specifics of academic integration. The few teachers who porate the lessons with her class:
did discuss activity and brain based connections to learning spoke in
They’re in my class for 45 min, and then they change classes, and
general terms. For example, Michelle (M) said, “You know there’s
I don’t see them until the next day. So, that’s kind of iffy for me
relationships in activity and probably learning. The more active you
sometimes because I don’t know. I don’t have the time and I
are it gets the chemicals and whatever enzymes and all this stuff
don’t have that strong trust like he [Ryan] does with his kids.The
going on in your body to help you think better.” Alison (M) explained
high school teachers reported similar challenges to Carol, chal-
the link between activity and learning:
lenges compounded by the high student attrition rate at the
It’s just like the research they’ve done on if you copy notes it’s high school. Gene (H) reported:
better than if you just read the notes. Because then you have
more parts involved with and what is they call it? Muscle At the first of the year were getting an attendance of about
memory or something like that? seventy five. We are down to about fifty five now. So we have
lost, over the year, we lost about twenty kids to different things. I
have had a real difficult time with it. All of the kids that I had
3.1.2. Personal interest
assigned to start with [in the pedometer portion of the project],
The second most popular reason for teacher engagement in the
every one of them has dropped out of school. I have lost every
project was a personal interest in wellness. Ryan (M), a self-
one of my students. I had seven or eight kids, and for different
described athlete and fitness participant, described his own
reasons have dropped out.
motivation:
Although the elementary schools also had attendance chal-
I’m a former athlete who has been playing sports all my life and
lenges, they were not as great as the high school teachers’ atten-
being active all my life is something that just was kind of like
dance and attrition challenges. Elementary teachers, because they
there as a given. You know, I’m going to go run, play, do whatever.
had their children for the nearly the whole day, also had more
I was never really one to sit and play on some computer game or
flexibility. Cheryl (E) described her strategies for fitting in the
. I0 d just be so docile. It’s like, well, what are you going to do?
additional content and physical activity:
Erin (M) was similarly active:
Well I got a little bit irritated sometimes because it takes away,
But as far as physical activity, I mean I love to be active. I exercise of course, from our time to teach in the classroom. Mostly
regularly. And I love hiking and biking and doing various things. though I was able to fit it in. Sometimes we only have ten or
1386 D.J. Cothran et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1381e1388

15 min here and there before they have to go from like, say, one I don’t know how, like our school is really under the gun this
special subject to another, so we could fit it in there. year as far as attendance and test scores go, so we’re going to
have to figure out a time to do it before school or something or
they are going to have to increase their time on their walk where
3.2.2. Integration or addition
it takes us seven or 8 min instead of ten so that we can back into
At least some of the teachers’ reactions to the scheduling chal-
the room to do our academics.
lenges were if the individual teacher saw the required lessons as
support of what they already did or in addition to what they did in
their classes. Bob (E) represented the “in support of” group and 3.2.3. Standardized testing
admitted that he had to think about how to use his time, but that As Michelle highlighted, perhaps the most serious press
the lessons were a good addition to his class: working against teachers’ attempts to implement the program was
standardized testing pressures. A majority of the students in the
It was cross-curriculum for me, so it wasn’t that hard, it was easy
schools performed below grade level and the poor attendance
to apply the math, the science, and some of the terminology, and
patterns made the teachers’ accountability requirements even
the nutritional information that we used in the class and the
more difficult to attain. As a result, some of the teachers who were
Word Wall increased the vocabulary. Like when we were
initially excited about the project slowly withdrew their support as
graphing, it was easy to, you know, I pre-looked at the lessons,
the year progressed.Lisa (E) explained:
and I said, well, I’m just going to do this one ahead of that other
one. So I just went out there, and we did the graphing. It’s just we’re under-performing for the umpteenth year, and we
had to improve so many percentiles this year. So, it just feels like
Barbara (E) explained how academic “multi-tasking” was
I didn’t even teach science and social studies, it’s just a lot of
already a part of her classroom and she treated the project
math and reading. What I perceived from my principal, whether
requirements the same way:
it was right or wrong, was that she wanted most of our time on
Well, I know that I try to hit twenty things with whatever math and reading. And anytime we were doing something extra,
activity I’m doing. Like this lesson today on the pumpkin I threw it just, you know, didn’t matter and you just try to stay on
in there today when we were talking about it, the fact that, like a schedule with your state testing stuff so you cover all the
harvesting, they didn’t know that harvesting. And then we information.
talked about eating good foods What food do you get from
The pressures at the high school level were just as great as Gene
pumpkins? So we try to, I try to throw as much as I can into one
(H) reported:
lesson. I try to throw in my other science things, under language
and so I’m putting, I’m shoving science sentences at them so that Our kids are coming here without some of the critical founda-
they can fill in the sentence with a word, but it’s a science lesson tions of math and reading and writing. We are having to take
with these words missing in a sentence, and things like that. I more time out of our regular class situation to try and get the
don’t know how else to do it, cause I run out of time. kids up to par. And we have kids that come here from other
schools that are seventeen and eighteen years old and they are
A few teachers reflected on how they might do a better job of
reading at a fourth grade level. And yet they are expected to pass
integration with their curriculum rather than addition to it with one
the state test. So you know we’ve got a window of opportunity
year of experience to draw upon. Dan (E) talked about the next year,
there of a month or two trying to get them where they can pass
“I think that’s what I would focus on more, of how to, um, how to
the reading, writing or math. And so we are having to setup
intertwine the academics and also the training and the numbers and
special classrooms situations to deal with that. And it has
the writing and, then, everything focused around the activity and
certainly interfered with staying on track with some of the other
less, well, instead of keeping it separate.” Janet (E) had similar goals:
academic requirements. It really has.
I kind of took away from some of the science lesson in a lot of
cases. But, like the math, we have a set program that we have to
4. Promoting physical activity integration
follow, and, then, it’s like, oh, no, more to do as well? We do
graphing and everything in our math program already, but I
The experiences of these teachers provide insights into a change
guess we could incorporate graphing of this taking steps and
experience and the presses that promoted or impeded teacher
this sort of thing into when we do the graphs.
involvement in a physical activity academic integration program.
Other teachers seemed to start and continue with the idea that Although change is ultimately a personal, individual decision, the
the lessons were in addition to, rather than in support of their other experiences of these teachers perhaps offer some insights into
academic requirements. Gail (M) commented: other similar programs.
The first possible generalization is that, at least for these
What’s hard about this too, is that my schedule is really tight.
teachers, the decision to engage in a change project was largely
And it’s really hard for me to be able to squeeze in extra things
the result of the personal press of caring about their students’ life
into my daily schedule and into the curriculum. It would be nice
outside of school and student lifelong wellness needs. Certainly
if I had a definite set time, may be two or three times out of the
teacher caring has moved into mainstream discussion of teaching
week, to be able to really focus on, you know, to be able to carry
behaviors for its influence on student learning and studenteteacher
out lessons that might go along with the pedometers. Yeah, I try
relations (e.g., Cothran, Kulinna, & Garrahy, 2003; Larson, 2006).
to squeeze it in like if I have some extra time in a certain lesson
Vogt’s (2002) exploration of caring in English and Swiss elementary
or if I feel that the importance of what I have to do regarding the
schools revealed a spectrum of caring behaviors exhibited by both
grant is kind of outweighs another lesson. But yeah, it is kind of
male and female elementary teacher. That study, like much of the
tough to be able to manage that in addition to you know what I
discussion in education is focused on in-class caring and how it is
am expected to do.
exhibited. The involvement of these teachers in a curricular inter-
At the end of the year Michelle (M) brainstormed ways to fit vention suggests that caring for students extends beyond the
physical activity into the school year next academic year: academic year and classroom.and also influences curricular choice.
 D.J. Cothran et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1381e1388 1387

To engage other teachers in similar programs it seems likely that provided descriptions of clearly articulated integration lessons they
teachers would need to be well informed about their students’ lives. already used, their systematic understanding of and planning for
Although the tribal group which these schools served has one of the integrated lessons was not well developed. Future interventions
highest rates of diabetes in the world, teachers received no systematic should consider ways to better present academic integration to
information on the health status of the community or programs teachers so that it fits within their beliefs about teaching traditional
available to students and their families outside of school. The content areas and physical activity.
participating teachers largely pieced together their students’ health The program was also theoretically grounded in the ideas of
risks by listening to the students’ family stories supplemented by brain based learning and experiential learning concepts..concepts
teachers’ personal research. Given that it is unlikely teachers would that were not a part of the teachers’ personal teaching and learning
care about an issue about which they were unaware, community theories or values. Although all teachers reported a general
awareness and education programs should be a systematic part of awareness of the need for alert, engaged learners, none were able to
teacher training and orientation in all districts, but particularly in clearly describe direct links between experiential learning, or
districts considering health based school interventions. academic integration and academic success. If we hope to recruit
A second positive press toward change at the personal level was classroom teachers to support programs to increase physical
the teachers’ own interest in wellness. The overlap of the teacher’s activity throughout the school day then we must educate ourselves
personal interests with the intervention’s topic made the project fit and teachers on the brain-body-learning links and how to use that
within the teachers’ belief systems, a key to teacher change. This knowledge to build better classroom physical activities. There are
personal-professional link is related to the larger body of work on several texts written for the classroom teacher that are good places
teacher beliefs and willingness to engage in change. Standard to begin the conversation (e.g. Jensen, 1998; Smilkstein, 2002;
professional development programs tend to present a project with Sprenger, 1999; Wolfe, 2001).
the goal that teachers will implement the proposed change, then Clearly the largest negative presses on the curricular intervention
positive changes occur and consequently the change is reinforced were at the institutional level and involved scheduling and stan-
and continues (Guskey, 1986). An alternate view espoused by dardized testing pressures. With regard to scheduling, elementary
Guskey is that teachers must first see change and then they will teachers had more control of their school day and were better able to
engage in the proposed intervention. It seems possible that these find time to teach the required lessons. Secondary teachers faced
teachers “saw” positive change in their own lives due to a physically more scheduling challenges although alternative schedules like block
active lifestyle and were therefore more willing to implement scheduling are available that might facilitate an academic integration
a similarly focused program in their classes. program focused on physical activity. Regardless of the grade level,
It may also be that these teachers’ willingness to engage was a key facet of a teacher’s perception of scheduling was if they saw the
a matter of efficacy based on their prior experiences. Those prior lessons as an addition to their day or in support of their academic
positive and largely positive experiences may have helped these mission that day. More research is needed to investigate teachers’
teachers feel more competent to implement the program and perceptions and experiences with academic integration.
therefore they volunteered to participate based on their perceived The high stakes testing program influence on these teachers
familiarity with and confidence in their ability to lead physical reflects similar trends across the country. Although the influence of
activity. That perception may or may not have been accurate as no high stakes testing on teachers varies internationally (Black &
measure of curricular quality was included in this study. Future William, 2005). Teachers often report a narrowing of their curric-
investigations should include such measures. ulum and more focus on preparing students for the specifics of
McKenzie, LaMaster, Sallis, and Marshall’s (1999) and Faulkner standardized tests (e.g., Abrams, Pedulla, & Madaus, 2003; Jones
and Reeves (2000) findings lend support to this personal-profes- et al., 1999). The pressures of testing are very real and simply
sional link as both investigations found a link between classroom asking teachers to add physical activity to their day is not fair or
teachers’ personal experiences and attitudes with teachers’ inten- realistic. What is likely to persuade teachers that physical activity
tions to teach active physical education lessons. Faulkner and integration is a good use of class time is if we can document and
Reeves (2000) also noted that with pre-service teachers training share with classroom colleagues how physical activity can enhance
to be classroom teachers, the students with the most positive student engagement and/or performance. Much more work is
attitude toward teaching physical activity were from students with needed in this area both in regard to research to document the
the strongest self-perceptions of their own sports competence. The brain-body link and in the development of lessons that can meet
authors make the intriguing suggestion that to influence classroom national standards across academic content areas.
teachers’ intentions to teach physical activity may mean that The presses at work in these teachers’ lives provide wonderful
the teachers should be targeted with appropriate exercise inter- insights into change efforts directed at physical activity interven-
ventions to promote their own wellness. One specific avenue by tions. Several avenues of positive presses were identified that can
which this personal-professional link might operate is via be used to design stronger and more effective intervention
a teacher’s self-identity as self-identity plays a role in intentions to programs. Designers of such programs must also be aware of and
act (Faulkner, Reeves, & Chedzoy, 2004). Morgan and Bourke (2008) account for the presses of scheduling and academic testing.
suggest helping nonspecialists and physical education pre-service Understanding these presses and their interplay should allow for
teachers to “unpack” their self-identity and reflect on it with the opportunity to recruit classroom colleagues to support the
a biographical analysis that includes reflection, group work, values academic and wellness needs of students and enhance student
clarification, and portfolios in their coursework. The intervention learning in both domains.
program was clearly designed to be an “in support of” model that
combined academics and physical activity to promote achievement
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