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Introduction to Data Structures

What is Data Structure?
Whenever we want to work with large amount of data, then organizing
that data is very important. If that data is not organized effectively, it is
very difficult to perform any task on that data. If it is organized
effectively then any operation can be performed easily on that data.

A data structure can be defined as follows...

Data structure is a method of organizing large amount of data more

efficiently so that any operation on that data becomes easy

Note:

☀ Every data structure is used to organize the large amount of data

☀ Every data structure follows a particular principle
☀ The operations in a data structure should not violate the basic
principle of that data structure.

Based on the organizing method of a data structure, data structures are

divided into two types.

1. Linear Data Structures

2. Non - Linear Data Structures

Linear Data Structures

If a data structure is organizing the data in sequential order, then

that data structure is called as Linear Data Structure.

Example
1. Arrays
2. List (Linked List)
3. Stack
4. Queue

Non - Linear Data Structures

If a data structure is organizing the data in random order, then that
data structure is called as Non-Linear Data Structure.

Example
1. Tree
2. Graph
3. Dictionaries
4. Heaps
5. Tries, Etc.,

Single Linked List

What is Linked List?
When we want to work with unknown number of data values, we use a
linked list data structure to organize that data. Linked list is a linear data
structure that contains sequence of elements such that each element
links to its next element in the sequence. Each element in a linked list is
called as "Node".

What is Single Linked List?

Simply a list is a sequence of data, and linked list is a sequence of data
linked with each other.

The formal definition of a single linked list is as follows...

Single linked list is a sequence of elements in which every element

has link to its next element in the sequence.

In any single linked list, the individual element is called as "Node".

Every "Node" contains two fields, data and next. The data field is used to
store actual value of that node and next field is used to store the address
of the next node in the sequence.

The graphical representation of a node in a single linked list is as

follows...
Note:
☀ In a single linked list, the address of the first node is always stored in a
reference node known as "front" (Some times it is also known as "head").
☀ Always next part (reference part) of the last node must be NULL.

Example

Operations
In a single linked list we perform the following operations...

1. Insertion
2. Deletion
3. Display

Before we implement actual operations, first we need to setup empty

list. First perform the following steps before implementing actual
operations.

 Step 1: Include all the header files which are used in the program.
 Step 2: Declare all the user defined functions.
 Step 3: Define a Node structure with two members data and next
 Step 4: Define a Node pointer 'head' and set it to NULL.
 Step 4: Implement the main method by displaying operations menu
and make suitable function calls in the main method to perform
user selected operation.

Insertion
In a single linked list, the insertion operation can be performed in three
ways. They are as follows...
 1. Inserting At Beginning of the list
2. Inserting At End of the list
3. Inserting At Specific location in the list

Inserting At Beginning of the list

We can use the following steps to insert a new node at beginning of the
single linked list...

 Step 1: Create a newNode with given value.

 Step 2: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)
 Step3: If it is Empty then,
set newNode→next = NULL and head = newNode.
 Step 4: If it is Not Empty then,
set newNode→next = head and head = newNode.

Inserting At End of the list

We can use the following steps to insert a new node at end of the single
linked list...

 Step 1: Create a newNode with given value and newNode →

next as NULL.
 Step 2: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL).
 Step 3: If it is Empty then, set head = newNode.
 Step 4: If it is Not Empty then, define a node pointer temp and
initialize with head.
 Step 5: Keep moving the temp to its next node until it reaches to
the last node in the list (until temp → next is equal to NULL).
 Step 6: Set temp → next = newNode.

Inserting At Specific location in the list (After a Node)

We can use the following steps to insert a new node after a node in the
single linked list...

 Step 1: Create a newNode with given value.

  Step 2: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)
 Step 3: If it is Empty then, set newNode →
next = NULL and head = newNode.
 Step 4: If it is Not Empty then, define a node pointer temp and
initialize with head.
 Step 5: Keep moving the temp to its next node until it reaches to
the node after which we want to insert the newNode (until temp1
→ data is equal to location, here location is the node value after
which we want to insert the newNode).
 Step 6: Every time check whether temp is reached to last node or
not. If it is reached to last node then display 'Given node is not
found in the list!!! Insertion not possible!!!' and terminate the
function. Otherwise move the temp to next node.
 Step 7: Finally, Set 'newNode → next = temp → next' and 'temp →
next = newNode'

Deletion
In a single linked list, the deletion operation can be performed in three
ways. They are as follows...

1. Deleting from Beginning of the list

2. Deleting from End of the list
3. Deleting a Specific Node

Deleting from Beginning of the list

We can use the following steps to delete a node from beginning of the
single linked list...

 Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)

 Step 2: If it is Empty then, display 'List is Empty!!! Deletion is not
possible' and terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is Not Empty then, define a Node pointer 'temp' and
initialize with head.
  Step 4: Check whether list is having only one node (temp →
next == NULL)
 Step 5: If it is TRUE then set head = NULL and
delete temp (Setting Empty list conditions)
 Step 6: If it is FALSE then set head = temp → next, and
delete temp.

Deleting from End of the list

We can use the following steps to delete a node from end of the single
linked list...

 Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)

 Step 2: If it is Empty then, display 'List is Empty!!! Deletion is not
possible' and terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is Not Empty then, define two Node
pointers 'temp1' and 'temp2' and initialize 'temp1' with head.
 Step 4: Check whether list has only one Node (temp1 →
next == NULL)
 Step 5: If it is TRUE. Then, set head = NULL and delete temp1.
And terminate the function. (Setting Empty list condition)
 Step 6: If it is FALSE. Then, set 'temp2 = temp1 ' and
move temp1 to its next node. Repeat the same until it reaches to
the last node in the list. (until temp1 → next == NULL)
 Step 7: Finally, Set temp2 → next = NULL and delete temp1.

Deleting a Specific Node from the list

We can use the following steps to delete a specific node from the single
linked list...

 Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)

 Step 2: If it is Empty then, display 'List is Empty!!! Deletion is not
possible' and terminate the function.
  Step 3: If it is Not Empty then, define two Node
pointers 'temp1' and 'temp2' and initialize 'temp1' with head.
 Step 4: Keep moving the temp1 until it reaches to the exact node
to be deleted or to the last node. And every time set 'temp2 =
temp1' before moving the 'temp1' to its next node.
 Step 5: If it is reached to the last node then display 'Given node
not found in the list! Deletion not possible!!!'. And terminate the
function.
 Step 6: If it is reached to the exact node which we want to delete,
then check whether list is having only one node or not
 Step 7: If list has only one node and that is the node to be deleted,
then set head = NULL and delete temp1 (free(temp1)).
 Step 8: If list contains multiple nodes, then check
whether temp1 is the first node in the list (temp1 == head).
 Step 9: If temp1 is the first node then move the head to the next
node (head = head → next) and delete temp1.
 Step 10: If temp1 is not first node then check whether it is last
node in the list (temp1 → next == NULL).
 Step 11: If temp1 is last node then set temp2 → next = NULL and
delete temp1 (free(temp1)).
 Step 12: If temp1 is not first node and not last node then
set temp2 → next = temp1 → next and
delete temp1 (free(temp1)).

Displaying a Single Linked List

We can use the following steps to display the elements of a single linked
list...

 Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)

 Step 2: If it is Empty then, display 'List is Empty!!!' and terminate
the function.
  Step 3: If it is Not Empty then, define a Node pointer 'temp' and
initialize with head.
 Step 4: Keep displaying temp → data with an arrow (--->)
until temp reaches to the last node
 Step 5: Finally display temp → data with arrow pointing
to NULL (temp → data ---> NULL).

Complete Program in C Programming

Language
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>

void insertAtBeginning(int);
void insertAtEnd(int);
void insertBetween(int,int,int);
void display();
void removeBeginning();
void removeEnd();
void removeSpecific(int);

struct Node
{
int data;
struct Node *next;
}*head = NULL;

void main()
{
int choice,value,choice1,loc1,loc2;
clrscr();
while(1){
mainMenu: printf("\n\n********* MENU ************\n1. Insert\n2. Display\n3.
Delete\n4. Exit\nEnter your choice: ");
scanf("%d",&choice);
switch(choice)
{
case 1: printf("Enter the value to be insert: ");
scanf("%d",&value);
while(1){
printf("Where you want to insert: \n1. At Beginning\n2. At End\n3.
Between\nEnter your choice: ");
scanf("%d",&choice1);
switch(choice1)
{
case 1: insertAtBeginning(value);
break;
case 2: insertAtEnd(value);
break;
case 3: printf("Enter the two values where you wanto
insert: ");
scanf("%d%d",&loc1,&loc2);
insertBetween(value,loc1,loc2);
break;
default: printf("\nWrong Input!! Try again!!!\n\n");
goto mainMenu;
 }
goto subMenuEnd;
}
subMenuEnd:
break;
case 2: display();
break;
case 3: printf("How do you want to Delete: \n1. From Beginning\n2. From
End\n3. Spesific\nEnter your choice: ");
scanf("%d",&choice1);
switch(choice1)
{
case 1: removeBeginning();
break;
case 2: removeEnd(value);
break;
case 3: printf("Enter the value which you wanto delete:
");
scanf("%d",&loc2);
removeSpecific(loc2);
break;
default: printf("\nWrong Input!! Try again!!!\n\n");
goto mainMenu;
}
break;
case 4: exit(0);
default: printf("\nWrong input!!! Try again!!\n\n");
}
}
}

void insertAtBeginning(int value)

{
struct Node *newNode;
newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
newNode->data = value;
if(head == NULL)
{
newNode->next = NULL;
head = newNode;
}
else
{
newNode->next = head;
head = newNode;
}
printf("\nOne node inserted!!!\n");
}
void insertAtEnd(int value)
{
struct Node *newNode;
newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
newNode->data = value;
newNode->next = NULL;
if(head == NULL)
head = newNode;
else
{
struct Node *temp = head;
while(temp->next != NULL)
temp = temp->next;
temp->next = newNode;
}
printf("\nOne node inserted!!!\n");
}
void insertBetween(int value, int loc1, int loc2)
{
struct Node *newNode;
 newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
newNode->data = value;
if(head == NULL)
{
newNode->next = NULL;
head = newNode;
}
else
{
struct Node *temp = head;
while(temp->data != loc1 && temp->data != loc2)
temp = temp->next;
newNode->next = temp->next;
temp->next = newNode;
}
printf("\nOne node inserted!!!\n");
}

void removeBeginning()
{
if(head == NULL)
printf("\n\nList is Empty!!!");
else
{
struct Node *temp = head;
if(head->next == NULL)
{
head = NULL;
free(temp);
}
else
{
head = temp->next;
free(temp);
printf("\nOne node deleted!!!\n\n");
}
}
}
void removeEnd()
{
if(head == NULL)
{
printf("\nList is Empty!!!\n");
}
else
{
struct Node *temp1 = head,*temp2;
if(head->next == NULL)
head = NULL;
else
{
while(temp1->next != NULL)
{
temp2 = temp1;
temp1 = temp1->next;
}
temp2->next = NULL;
}
free(temp1);
printf("\nOne node deleted!!!\n\n");
}
}
void removeSpecific(int delValue)
{
struct Node *temp1 = head, *temp2;
while(temp1->data != delValue)
{
if(temp1 -> next == NULL){
 printf("\nGiven node not found in the list!!!");
goto functionEnd;
}
temp2 = temp1;
temp1 = temp1 -> next;
}
temp2 -> next = temp1 -> next;
free(temp1);
printf("\nOne node deleted!!!\n\n");
functionEnd:
}
void display()
{
if(head == NULL)
{
printf("\nList is Empty\n");
}
else
{
struct Node *temp = head;
printf("\n\nList elements are - \n");
while(temp->next != NULL)
{
printf("%d --->",temp->data);
temp = temp->next;
}
printf("%d --->NULL",temp->data);
}
}

Output
Circular Linked List
What is Circular Linked List?
In single linked list, every node points to its next node in the sequence
and the last node points NULL. But in circular linked list, every node
points to its next node in the sequence but the last node points to the
first node in the list.

Circular linked list is a sequence of elements in which every element

has link to its next element in the sequence and the last element has
a link to the first element in the sequence.

That means circular linked list is similar to the single linked list except
that the last node points to the first node in the list

Example

Operations
In a circular linked list, we perform the following operations...

1. Insertion
2. Deletion
3. Display

Before we implement actual operations, first we need to setup empty

list. First perform the following steps before implementing actual
operations.

 Step 1: Include all the header files which are used in the program.
  Step 2: Declare all the user defined functions.
 Step 3: Define a Node structure with two members data and next
 Step 4: Define a Node pointer 'head' and set it to NULL.
 Step 4: Implement the main method by displaying operations menu
and make suitable function calls in the main method to perform
user selected operation.

Insertion
In a circular linked list, the insertion operation can be performed in three
ways. They are as follows...

1. Inserting At Beginning of the list

2. Inserting At End of the list
3. Inserting At Specific location in the list

Inserting At Beginning of the list

We can use the following steps to insert a new node at beginning of the
circular linked list...

 Step 1: Create a newNode with given value.

 Step 2: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)
 Step 3: If it is Empty then,
set head = newNode and newNode→next = head .
 Step 4: If it is Not Empty then, define a Node pointer 'temp' and
initialize with 'head'.
 Step 5: Keep moving the 'temp' to its next node until it reaches to
the last node (until 'temp → next == head').
 Step 6: Set 'newNode → next =head', 'head = newNode' and 'temp
→ next = head'.

Inserting At End of the list

We can use the following steps to insert a new node at end of the circular
linked list...
  Step 1: Create a newNode with given value.
 Step 2: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL).
 Step 3: If it is Empty then, set head = newNode and newNode →
next = head.
 Step 4: If it is Not Empty then, define a node pointer temp and
initialize with head.
 Step 5: Keep moving the temp to its next node until it reaches to
the last node in the list (until temp → next == head).
 Step 6: Set temp → next = newNode and newNode →
next = head.

Inserting At Specific location in the list (After a Node)

We can use the following steps to insert a new node after a node in the
circular linked list...

 Step 1: Create a newNode with given value.

 Step 2: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)
 Step 3: If it is Empty then, set head = newNode and newNode →
next = head.
 Step 4: If it is Not Empty then, define a node pointer temp and
initialize with head.
 Step 5: Keep moving the temp to its next node until it reaches to
the node after which we want to insert the newNode (until temp1
→ data is equal to location, here location is the node value after
which we want to insert the newNode).
 Step 6: Every time check whether temp is reached to the last node
or not. If it is reached to last node then display 'Given node is not
found in the list!!! Insertion not possible!!!' and terminate the
function. Otherwise move the temp to next node.
  Step 7: If temp is reached to the exact node after which we want
to insert the newNode then check whether it is last node (temp →
next == head).
 Step 8: If temp is last node then set temp →
next = newNode and newNode → next = head.
 Step 8: If temp is not last node then set newNode → next = temp
→ next and temp → next = newNode.

Deletion
In a circular linked list, the deletion operation can be performed in three
ways those are as follows...

1. Deleting from Beginning of the list

2. Deleting from End of the list
3. Deleting a Specific Node

Deleting from Beginning of the list

We can use the following steps to delete a node from beginning of the
circular linked list...

 Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)

 Step 2: If it is Empty then, display 'List is Empty!!! Deletion is not
possible' and terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is Not Empty then, define two Node
pointers 'temp1' and 'temp2' and initialize both 'temp1' and 'temp2'
with head.
 Step 4: Check whether list is having only one node (temp1 →
next == head)
 Step 5: If it is TRUE then set head = NULL and
delete temp1 (Setting Empty list conditions)
 Step 6: If it is FALSE move the temp1 until it reaches to the last
node. (until temp1 → next == head )
  Step 7: Then set head = temp2 → next, temp1 → next = head and
delete temp2.

Deleting from End of the list

We can use the following steps to delete a node from end of the circular
linked list...

 Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)

 Step 2: If it is Empty then, display 'List is Empty!!! Deletion is not
possible' and terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is Not Empty then, define two Node
pointers 'temp1' and 'temp2' and initialize 'temp1' with head.
 Step 4: Check whether list has only one Node (temp1 →
next == head)
 Step 5: If it is TRUE. Then, set head = NULL and delete temp1.
And terminate from the function. (Setting Empty list condition)
 Step 6: If it is FALSE. Then, set 'temp2 = temp1 ' and
move temp1 to its next node. Repeat the same until temp1 reaches
to the last node in the list. (until temp1 → next == head)
 Step 7: Set temp2 → next = head and delete temp1.

Deleting a Specific Node from the list

We can use the following steps to delete a specific node from the circular
linked list...

 Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)

 Step 2: If it is Empty then, display 'List is Empty!!! Deletion is not
possible' and terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is Not Empty then, define two Node
pointers 'temp1' and 'temp2' and initialize 'temp1' with head.
  Step 4: Keep moving the temp1 until it reaches to the exact node
to be deleted or to the last node. And every time set 'temp2 =
temp1' before moving the 'temp1' to its next node.
 Step 5: If it is reached to the last node then display 'Given node
not found in the list! Deletion not possible!!!'. And terminate the
function.
 Step 6: If it is reached to the exact node which we want to delete,
then check whether list is having only one node (temp1 →
next == head)
 Step 7: If list has only one node and that is the node to be deleted
then set head = NULL and delete temp1 (free(temp1)).
 Step 8: If list contains multiple nodes then check whether temp1 is
the first node in the list (temp1 == head).
 Step 9: If temp1 is the first node then set temp2 = head and keep
moving temp2 to its next node until temp2 reaches to the last
node. Then set head = head → next, temp2 → next = head and
delete temp1.
 Step 10: If temp1 is not first node then check whether it is last
node in the list (temp1 → next == head).
 Step 11: If temp1 is last node then set temp2 → next = head and
delete temp1 (free(temp1)).
 Step 12: If temp1 is not first node and not last node then
set temp2 → next = temp1 → next and
delete temp1 (free(temp1)).

Displaying a circular Linked List

We can use the following steps to display the elements of a circular
linked list...

 Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)

  Step 2: If it is Empty, then display 'List is Empty!!!' and terminate
the function.
 Step 3: If it is Not Empty then, define a Node pointer 'temp' and
initialize with head.
 Step 4: Keep displaying temp → data with an arrow (--->)
until temp reaches to the last node
 Step 5: Finally display temp → data with arrow pointing to head →
data.

Complete Program in C Programming

Language
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

void insertAtBeginning(int);
void insertAtEnd(int);
void insertAtAfter(int,int);
void deleteBeginning();
void deleteEnd();
void deleteSpecific(int);
void display();

struct Node
{
int data;
struct Node *next;
}*head = NULL;

void main()
{
int choice1, choice2, value, location;
clrscr();
while(1)
{
printf("\n*********** MENU *************\n");
printf("1. Insert\n2. Delete\n3. Display\n4. Exit\nEnter your choice: ");
scanf("%d",&choice1);
switch()
{
case 1: printf("Enter the value to be inserted: ");
scanf("%d",&value);
while(1)
{
printf("\nSelect from the following Inserting options\n");
printf("1. At Beginning\n2. At End\n3. After a Node\n4.
Cancel\nEnter your choice: ");
scanf("%d",&choice2);
switch(choice2)
{
case 1: insertAtBeginning(value);
break;
case 2: insertAtEnd(value);
break;
 case 3: printf("Enter the location after which you want
to insert: ");
scanf("%d",&location);
insertAfter(value,location);
break;
case 4: goto EndSwitch;
default: printf("\nPlease select correct Inserting
option!!!\n");
}
}
case 2: while(1)
{
printf("\nSelect from the following Deleting options\n");
printf("1. At Beginning\n2. At End\n3. Specific Node\n4.
Cancel\nEnter your choice: ");
scanf("%d",&choice2);
switch(choice2)
{
case 1: deleteBeginning();
break;
case 2: deleteEnd();
break;
case 3: printf("Enter the Node value to be deleted: ");
scanf("%d",&location);
deleteSpecic(location);
break;
case 4: goto EndSwitch;
default: printf("\nPlease select correct Deleting
option!!!\n");
}
}
EndSwitch: break;
case 3: display();
break;
case 4: exit(0);
default: printf("\nPlease select correct option!!!");
}
}
}

void insertAtBeginning(int value)

{
struct Node *newNode;
newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
newNode -> data = value;
if(head == NULL)
{
head = newNode;
newNode -> next = head;
}
else
{
struct Node *temp = head;
while(temp -> next != head)
temp = temp -> next;
newNode -> next = head;
head = newNode;
temp -> next = head;
}
printf("\nInsertion success!!!");
}
void insertAtEnd(int value)
{
struct Node *newNode;
newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
newNode -> data = value;
if(head == NULL)
{
 head = newNode;
newNode -> next = head;
}
else
{
struct Node *temp = head;
while(temp -> next != head)
temp = temp -> next;
temp -> next = newNode;
newNode -> next = head;
}
printf("\nInsertion success!!!");
}
void insertAfter(int value, int location)
{
struct Node *newNode;
newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
newNode -> data = value;
if(head == NULL)
{
head = newNode;
newNode -> next = head;
}
else
{
struct Node *temp = head;
while(temp -> data != location)
{
if(temp -> next == head)
{
printf("Given node is not found in the list!!!");
goto EndFunction;
}
else
{
temp = temp -> next;
}
}
newNode -> next = temp -> next;
temp -> next = newNode;
printf("\nInsertion success!!!");
}
EndFunction:
}
void deleteBeginning()
{
if(head == NULL)
printf("List is Empty!!! Deletion not possible!!!");
else
{
struct Node *temp = head;
if(temp -> next == head)
{
head = NULL;
free(temp);
}
else{
head = head -> next;
free(temp);
}
printf("\nDeletion success!!!");
}
}
void deleteEnd()
{
if(head == NULL)
printf("List is Empty!!! Deletion not possible!!!");
else
 {
struct Node *temp1 = head, temp2;
if(temp1 -> next == head)
{
head = NULL;
free(temp1);
}
else{
while(temp1 -> next != head){
temp2 = temp1;
temp1 = temp1 -> next;
}
temp2 -> next = head;
free(temp1);
}
printf("\nDeletion success!!!");
}
}
void deleteSpecific(int delValue)
{
if(head == NULL)
printf("List is Empty!!! Deletion not possible!!!");
else
{
struct Node *temp1 = head, temp2;
while(temp1 -> data != delValue)
{
if(temp1 -> next == head)
{
printf("\nGiven node is not found in the list!!!");
goto FuctionEnd;
}
else
{
temp2 = temp1;
temp1 = temp1 -> next;
}
}
if(temp1 -> next == head){
head = NULL;
free(temp1);
}
else{
if(temp1 == head)
{
temp2 = head;
while(temp2 -> next != head)
temp2 = temp2 -> next;
head = head -> next;
temp2 -> next = head;
free(temp1);
}
else
{
if(temp1 -> next == head)
{
temp2 -> next = head;
}
else
{
temp2 -> next = temp1 -> next;
}
free(temp1);
}
}
printf("\nDeletion success!!!");
}
FuctionEnd:
}
void display()
{
if(head == NULL)
printf("\nList is Empty!!!");
else
{
struct Node *temp = head;
printf("\nList elements are: \n");
while(temp -> next != head)
{
printf("%d ---> ",temp -> data);
}
printf("%d ---> %d", temp -> data, head -> data);
}
}

Double Linked List

What is Double Linked List?
In a single linked list, every node has link to its next node in the
sequence. So, we can traverse from one node to other node only in one
direction and we can not traverse back. We can solve this kind of problem
by using double linked list. Double linked list can be defined as follows...

Double linked list is a sequence of elements in which every element

has links to its previous element and next element in the sequence.

In double linked list, every node has link to its previous node and next
node. So, we can traverse forward by using next field and can traverse
backward by using previous field. Every node in a double linked list
contains three fields and they are shown in the following figure...

Here, 'link1' field is used to store the address of the previous node in the
sequence, 'link2' field is used to store the address of the next node in the
sequence and 'data' field is used to store the actual value of that node.
Example

Note:

☀ In double linked list, the first node must be always pointed by head.
☀ Always the previous field of the first node must be NULL.
☀ Always the next field of the last node must be NULL.

Operations
In a double linked list, we perform the following operations...

1. Insertion
2. Deletion
3. Display

Insertion
In a double linked list, the insertion operation can be performed in three
ways as follows...

1. Inserting At Beginning of the list

2. Inserting At End of the list
3. Inserting At Specific location in the list

Inserting At Beginning of the list

We can use the following steps to insert a new node at beginning of the
double linked list...

 Step 1: Create a newNode with given value and newNode →

previous as NULL.
 Step 2: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)
 Step 3: If it is Empty then, assign NULL to newNode →
next and newNode to head.
  Step 4: If it is not Empty then, assign head to newNode →
next and newNode to head.

Inserting At End of the list

We can use the following steps to insert a new node at end of the double
linked list...

 Step 1: Create a newNode with given value and newNode →

next as NULL.
 Step 2: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)
 Step 3: If it is Empty, then assign NULL to newNode →
previous and newNode to head.
 Step 4: If it is not Empty, then, define a node pointer temp and
initialize with head.
 Step 5: Keep moving the temp to its next node until it reaches to
the last node in the list (until temp → next is equal to NULL).
 Step 6: Assign newNode to temp → next and temp to newNode →
previous.

Inserting At Specific location in the list (After a Node)

We can use the following steps to insert a new node after a node in the
double linked list...

 Step 1: Create a newNode with given value.

 Step 2: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)
 Step 3: If it is Empty then, assign NULL to newNode →
previous & newNode → next and newNode to head.
 Step 4: If it is not Empty then, define two node
pointers temp1 & temp2 and initialize temp1 with head.
 Step 5: Keep moving the temp1 to its next node until it reaches to
the node after which we want to insert the newNode (until temp1
 → data is equal to location, here location is the node value after
which we want to insert the newNode).
 Step 6: Every time check whether temp1 is reached to the last
node. If it is reached to the last node then display 'Given node is
not found in the list!!! Insertion not possible!!!' and terminate the
function. Otherwise move the temp1 to next node.
 Step 7: Assign temp1 → next to temp2, newNode to temp1 →
next, temp1 to newNode → previous, temp2 to newNode →
nextand newNode to temp2 → previous.

Deletion
In a double linked list, the deletion operation can be performed in three
ways as follows...

1. Deleting from Beginning of the list

2. Deleting from End of the list
3. Deleting a Specific Node

Deleting from Beginning of the list

We can use the following steps to delete a node from beginning of the
double linked list...

 Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)

 Step 2: If it is Empty then, display 'List is Empty!!! Deletion is not
possible' and terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is not Empty then, define a Node pointer 'temp' and
initialize with head.
 Step 4: Check whether list is having only one node (temp →
previous is equal to temp → next)
 Step 5: If it is TRUE, then set head to NULL and
delete temp (Setting Empty list conditions)
 Step 6: If it is FALSE, then assign temp →
next to head, NULL to head → previous and delete temp.
Deleting from End of the list
We can use the following steps to delete a node from end of the double
linked list...

 Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)

 Step 2: If it is Empty, then display 'List is Empty!!! Deletion is not
possible' and terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is not Empty then, define a Node pointer 'temp' and
initialize with head.
 Step 4: Check whether list has only one Node (temp →
previous and temp → next both are NULL)
 Step 5: If it is TRUE, then assign NULL to head and delete temp.
And terminate from the function. (Setting Empty list condition)
 Step 6: If it is FALSE, then keep moving temp until it reaches to
the last node in the list. (until temp → next is equal to NULL)
 Step 7: Assign NULL to temp → previous → next and delete temp.

Deleting a Specific Node from the list

We can use the following steps to delete a specific node from the double
linked list...

 Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)

 Step 2: If it is Empty then, display 'List is Empty!!! Deletion is not
possible' and terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is not Empty, then define a Node pointer 'temp' and
initialize with head.
 Step 4: Keep moving the temp until it reaches to the exact node to
be deleted or to the last node.
 Step 5: If it is reached to the last node, then display 'Given node
not found in the list! Deletion not possible!!!' and terminate the
fuction.
  Step 6: If it is reached to the exact node which we want to delete,
then check whether list is having only one node or not
 Step 7: If list has only one node and that is the node which is to be
deleted then set head to NULL and delete temp (free(temp)).
 Step 8: If list contains multiple nodes, then check whether temp is
the first node in the list (temp == head).
 Step 9: If temp is the first node, then move the head to the next
node (head = head → next), set head of previous to NULL (head
→ previous = NULL) and delete temp.
 Step 10: If temp is not the first node, then check whether it is the
last node in the list (temp → next == NULL).
 Step 11: If temp is the last node then
set temp of previous of next to NULL (temp → previous → next =
NULL) and delete temp(free(temp)).
 Step 12: If temp is not the first node and not the last node, then
set temp of previous of next to temp of next (temp → previous →
next = temp →
next), temp of next of previous to temp of previous (temp →
next → previous = temp → previous) and
delete temp (free(temp)).

Displaying a Double Linked List

We can use the following steps to display the elements of a double linked
list...

 Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)

 Step 2: If it is Empty, then display 'List is Empty!!!' and terminate
the function.
 Step 3: If it is not Empty, then define a Node pointer 'temp' and
initialize with head.
 Step 4: Display 'NULL <--- '.
  Step 5: Keep displaying temp → data with an arrow (<===>)
until temp reaches to the last node
 Step 6: Finally, display temp → data with arrow pointing
to NULL (temp → data ---> NULL).

Complete Program in C Programming

Language
#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void insertAtBeginning(int);
void insertAtEnd(int);
void insertAtAfter(int,int);
void deleteBeginning();
void deleteEnd();
void deleteSpecific(int);
void display();

struct Node
{
int data;
struct Node *previous, *next;
}*head = NULL;

void main()
{
int choice1, choice2, value, location;
clrscr();
while(1)
{
printf("\n*********** MENU *************\n");
printf("1. Insert\n2. Delete\n3. Display\n4. Exit\nEnter your choice: ");
scanf("%d",&choice1);
switch()
{
case 1: printf("Enter the value to be inserted: ");
scanf("%d",&value);
while(1)
{
printf("\nSelect from the following Inserting options\n");
printf("1. At Beginning\n2. At End\n3. After a Node\n4.
Cancel\nEnter your choice: ");
scanf("%d",&choice2);
switch(choice2)
{
case 1: insertAtBeginning(value);
break;
case 2: insertAtEnd(value);
break;
case 3: printf("Enter the location after which
you want to insert: ");
scanf("%d",&location);
insertAfter(value,location);
break;
case 4: goto EndSwitch;
default: printf("\nPlease select correct Inserting
option!!!\n");
 }
}
case 2: while(1)
{
printf("\nSelect from the following Deleting options\n");
printf("1. At Beginning\n2. At End\n3. Specific Node\n4.
Cancel\nEnter your choice: ");
scanf("%d",&choice2);
switch(choice2)
{
case 1: deleteBeginning();
break;
case 2: deleteEnd();
break;
case 3: printf("Enter the Node value to be
deleted: ");
scanf("%d",&location);
deleteSpecic(location);
break;
case 4: goto EndSwitch;
default: printf("\nPlease select correct Deleting
option!!!\n");
}
}
EndSwitch: break;
case 3: display();
break;
case 4: exit(0);
default: printf("\nPlease select correct option!!!");
}
}
}

Stack ADT
What is a Stack?
Stack is a linear data structure in which the insertion and deletion
operations are performed at only one end. In a stack, adding and
removing of elements are performed at single position which is known as
"top". That means, new element is added at top of the stack and an
element is removed from the top of the stack. In stack, the insertion and
deletion operations are performed based on LIFO (Last In First Out)
principle.
In a stack, the insertion operation is performed using a function
called "push" and deletion operation is performed using a function
called "pop".

In the figure, PUSH and POP operations are performed at top position in
the stack. That means, both the insertion and deletion operations are
performed at one end (i.e., at Top)

A stack data structure can be defined as follows...

Stack is a linear data structure in which the operations are

performed based on LIFO principle.

Stack can also be defined as

"A Collection of similar data items in which both insertion and

deletion operations are performed based on LIFO principle".

Example
If we want to create a stack by inserting 10,45,12,16,35 and 50. Then 10
becomes the bottom most element and 50 is the top most element. Top is
at 50 as shown in the image below...
Operations on a Stack
The following operations are performed on the stack...

1. Push (To insert an element on to the stack)

2. Pop (To delete an element from the stack)
3. Display (To display elements of the stack)

Stack data structure can be implement in two ways. They are as

follows...

1. Using Array
2. Using Linked List

When stack is implemented using array, that stack can organize only
limited number of elements. When stack is implemented using linked list,
that stack can organize unlimited number of elements.

Stack Using Array

A stack data structure can be implemented using one dimensional array.
But stack implemented using array, can store only fixed number of data
values. This implementation is very simple, just define a one dimensional
array of specific size and insert or delete the values into that array by
using LIFO principle with the help of a variable 'top'. Initially top is set
to -1. Whenever we want to insert a value into the stack, increment the
top value by one and then insert. Whenever we want to delete a value
from the stack, then delete the top value and decrement the top value
by one.

Stack Operations using Array

A stack can be implemented using array as follows...

Before implementing actual operations, first follow the below steps to

create an empty stack.

 Step 1: Include all the header files which are used in the program
and define a constant 'SIZE' with specific value.
 Step 2: Declare all the functions used in stack implementation.
 Step 3: Create a one dimensional array with fixed size (int
stack[SIZE])
 Step 4: Define a integer variable 'top' and initialize with '-1'. (int
top = -1)
 Step 5: In main method display menu with list of operations and
make suitable function calls to perform operation selected by the
user on the stack.

push(value) - Inserting value into the stack

In a stack, push() is a function used to insert an element into the stack. In
a stack, the new element is always inserted at top position. Push function
takes one integer value as parameter and inserts that value into the
stack. We can use the following steps to push an element on to the
stack...

 Step 1: Check whether stack is FULL. (top == SIZE-1)

 Step 2: If it is FULL, then display "Stack is FULL!!! Insertion is not
possible!!!" and terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is NOT FULL, then increment top value by one (top++)
and set stack[top] to value (stack[top] = value).

pop() - Delete a value from the Stack

In a stack, pop() is a function used to delete an element from the stack.
In a stack, the element is always deleted from top position. Pop function
does not take any value as parameter. We can use the following steps to
pop an element from the stack...
  Step 1: Check whether stack is EMPTY. (top == -1)
 Step 2: If it is EMPTY, then display "Stack is EMPTY!!! Deletion is
not possible!!!" and terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is NOT EMPTY, then delete stack[top] and
decrement top value by one (top--).

display() - Displays the elements of a Stack

We can use the following steps to display the elements of a stack...

 Step 1: Check whether stack is EMPTY. (top == -1)

 Step 2: If it is EMPTY, then display "Stack is EMPTY!!!" and
terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is NOT EMPTY, then define a variable 'i' and initialize
with top. Display stack[i] value and decrement i value by one (i--).
 Step 3: Repeat above step until i value becomes '0'.

Complete Program in C Programming

Language
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

#define SIZE 10

void push(int);
void pop();
void display();

int stack[SIZE], top = -1;

void main()
{
int value, choice;
clrscr();
while(1){
printf("\n\n***** MENU *****\n");
printf("1. Push\n2. Pop\n3. Display\n4. Exit");
printf("\nEnter your choice: ");
scanf("%d",&choice);
switch(choice){
case 1: printf("Enter the value to be insert: ");
scanf("%d",&value);
push(value);
break;
case 2: pop();
break;
case 3: display();
 break;
case 4: exit(0);
default: printf("\nWrong selection!!! Try again!!!");
}
}
}
void push(int value){
if(top == SIZE-1)
printf("\nStack is Full!!! Insertion is not possible!!!");
else{
top++;
stack[top] = value;
printf("\nInsertion success!!!");
}
}
void pop(){
if(top == -1)
printf("\nStack is Empty!!! Deletion is not possible!!!");
else{
printf("\nDeleted : %d", stack[top]);
top--;
}
}
void display(){
if(top == -1)
printf("\nStack is Empty!!!");
else{
int i;
printf("\nStack elements are:\n");
for(i=top; i>=0; i--)
printf("%d\n",stack[i]);
}
}

Output
Stack using Linked List
The major problem with the stack implemented using array is, it works
only for fixed number of data values. That means the amount of data
must be specified at the beginning of the implementation itself. Stack
implemented using array is not suitable, when we don't know the size of
data which we are going to use. A stack data structure can be
implemented by using linked list data structure. The stack implemented
using linked list can work for unlimited number of values. That means,
stack implemented using linked list works for variable size of data. So,
there is no need to fix the size at the beginning of the implementation.
The Stack implemented using linked list can organize as many data values
as we want.

In linked list implementation of a stack, every new element is inserted as

'top' element. That means every newly inserted element is pointed by
'top'. Whenever we want to remove an element from the stack, simply
remove the node which is pointed by 'top' by moving 'top' to its next node
in the list. The next field of the first element must be always NULL.

Example

In above example, the last inserted node is 99 and the first inserted node
is 25. The order of elements inserted is 25, 32,50 and 99.

Operations
To implement stack using linked list, we need to set the following things
before implementing actual operations.
  Step 1: Include all the header files which are used in the program.
And declare all the user defined functions.
 Step 2: Define a 'Node' structure with two members data and next.
 Step 3: Define a Node pointer 'top' and set it to NULL.
 Step 4: Implement the main method by displaying Menu with list of
operations and make suitable function calls in the main method.

push(value) - Inserting an element into the Stack

We can use the following steps to insert a new node into the stack...

 Step 1: Create a newNode with given value.

 Step 2: Check whether stack is Empty (top == NULL)
 Step 3: If it is Empty, then set newNode → next = NULL.
 Step 4: If it is Not Empty, then set newNode → next = top.
 Step 5: Finally, set top = newNode.

pop() - Deleting an Element from a Stack

We can use the following steps to delete a node from the stack...

 Step 1: Check whether stack is Empty (top == NULL).

 Step 2: If it is Empty, then display "Stack is Empty!!! Deletion is
not possible!!!" and terminate the function
 Step 3: If it is Not Empty, then define a Node pointer 'temp' and
set it to 'top'.
 Step 4: Then set 'top = top → next'.
 Step 7: Finally, delete 'temp' (free(temp)).

display() - Displaying stack of elements

We can use the following steps to display the elements (nodes) of a
stack...

 Step 1: Check whether stack is Empty (top == NULL).

  Step 2: If it is Empty, then display 'Stack is Empty!!!' and
terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is Not Empty, then define a Node pointer 'temp' and
initialize with top.
 Step 4: Display 'temp → data --->' and move it to the next node.
Repeat the same until temp reaches to the first node in the stack
(temp → next != NULL).
 Step 4: Finally! Display 'temp → data ---> NULL'.

Program for Stack Using Linked List

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

struct Node
{
int data;
struct Node *next;
}*top = NULL;

void push(int);
void pop();
void display();

void main()
{
int choice, value;
clrscr();
printf("\n:: Stack using Linked List ::\n");
while(1){
printf("\n****** MENU ******\n");
printf("1. Push\n2. Pop\n3. Display\n4. Exit\n");
printf("Enter your choice: ");
scanf("%d",&choice);
switch(choice){
case 1: printf("Enter the value to be insert: ");
scanf("%d", &value);
push(value);
break;
case 2: pop(); break;
case 3: display(); break;
case 4: exit(0);
default: printf("\nWrong selection!!! Please try again!!!\n");
}
}
}
void push(int value)
{
struct Node *newNode;
newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
newNode->data = value;
if(top == NULL)
newNode->next = NULL;
else
newNode->next = top;
top = newNode;
 printf("\nInsertion is Success!!!\n");
}
void pop()
{
if(top == NULL)
printf("\nStack is Empty!!!\n");
else{
struct Node *temp = top;
printf("\nDeleted element: %d", temp->data);
top = temp->next;
free(temp);
}
}
void display()
{
if(top == NULL)
printf("\nStack is Empty!!!\n");
else{
struct Node *temp = top;
while(temp->next != NULL){
printf("%d--->",temp->data);
temp = temp -> next;
}
printf("%d--->NULL",temp->data);
}
}

Output
Expressions
What is an Expression?
In any programming language, if we want to perform any calculation or to
frame a condition etc., we use a set of symbols to perform the task.
These set of symbols makes an expression.

An expression can be defined as follows...

An expression is a collection of operators and operands that

represents a specific value.

In above definition, operator is a symbol which performs a particular task

like arithmetic operation or logical operation or conditional operation
etc.,

Operands are the values on which the operators can perform the task.
Here operand can be a direct value or variable or address of memory
location.

Expression Types
Based on the operator position, expressions are divided into THREE types.
They are as follows...

1. Infix Expression
2. Postfix Expression
3. Prefix Expression

Infix Expression
In infix expression, operator is used in between operands.

The general structure of an Infix expression is as follows...

Operand1 Operator Operand2

Example

Postfix Expression
In postfix expression, operator is used after operands. We can say that
"Operator follows the Operands".

The general structure of Postfix expression is as follows...

Operand1 Operand2 Operator

Example

Prefix Expression
In prefix expression, operator is used before operands. We can say that
"Operands follows the Operator".

The general structure of Prefix expression is as follows...

Operator Operand1 Operand2

Example

Any expression can be represented using the above three different types
of expressions. And we can convert an expression from one form to
another form like Infix to Postfix, Infix to Prefix, Prefix to Postfix and
vice versa.

Expression Conversion
Any expression can be represented using three types of expressions (Infix,
Postfix and Prefix). We can also convert one type of expression to
another type of expression like Infix to Postfix, Infix to Prefix, Postfix to
Prefix and vice versa.

To convert any Infix expression into Postfix or Prefix expression we can

use the following procedure...

1. Find all the operators in the given Infix Expression.

2. Find the order of operators evaluated according to their Operator
precedence.
3. Convert each operator into required type of expression (Postfix or
Prefix) in the same order.

Example
Consider the following Infix Expression to be converted into Postfix
Expression...
D=A+B*C
 Step 1: The Operators in the given Infix Expression : = , + , *
 Step 2: The Order of Operators according to their preference : * , +
,=
 Step 3: Now, convert the first operator * ----- D = A + B C *
 Step 4: Convert the next operator + ----- D = A BC* +
 Step 5: Convert the next operator = ----- D ABC*+ =

Finally, given Infix Expression is converted into Postfix Expression as

follows...

DABC*+=
Infix to Postfix Conversion using Stack Data
Structure
To convert Infix Expression into Postfix Expression using a stack data
structure, We can use the following steps...

1. Read all the symbols one by one from left to right in the given
Infix Expression.
2. If the reading symbol is operand, then directly print it to the
result (Output).
3. If the reading symbol is left parenthesis '(', then Push it on to the
Stack.
4. If the reading symbol is right parenthesis ')', then Pop all the
contents of stack until respective left parenthesis is poped and
print each poped symbol to the result.
5. If the reading symbol is operator (+ , - , * , / etc.,), then Push it
on to the Stack. However, first pop the operators which are
already on the stack that have higher or equal precedence than
current operator and print them to the result.

Example
Consider the following Infix Expression...
(A+B)*(C-D)
The given infix expression can be converted into postfix expression using
Stack data Structure as follows...
The final Postfix Expression is as follows...

AB+CD-*
Postfix Expression Evaluation
A postfix expression is a collection of operators and operands in which the
operator is placed after the operands. That means, in a postfix expression
the operator follows the operands.

Postfix Expression has following general structure...

Operand1 Operand2 Operator

Example

Postfix Expression Evaluation using Stack

Data Structure
A postfix expression can be evaluated using the Stack data structure. To
evaluate a postfix expression using Stack data structure we can use the
following steps...

1. Read all the symbols one by one from left to right in the given Postfix
Expression
2. If the reading symbol is operand, then push it on to the Stack.
3. If the reading symbol is operator (+ , - , * , / etc.,), then perform TWO pop
operations and store the two popped oparands in two different variables
(operand1 and operand2). Then perform reading symbol operation using
operand1 and operand2 and push result back on to the Stack.
4. Finally! perform a pop operation and display the popped value as final
result.
Example
Consider the following Expression...
Queue ADT
What is a Queue?
Queue is a linear data structure in which the insertion and deletion
operations are performed at two different ends. In a queue data
structure, adding and removing of elements are performed at two
different positions. The insertion is performed at one end and deletion is
performed at other end. In a queue data structure, the insertion
operation is performed at a position which is known as 'rear' and the
deletion operation is performed at a position which is known as 'front'. In
queue data structure, the insertion and deletion operations are
performed based on FIFO (First In First Out) principle.

In a queue data structure, the insertion operation is performed using a

function called "enQueue()" and deletion operation is performed using
a function called "deQueue()".

Queue data structure can be defined as follows...

Queue data structure is a linear data structure in which the

operations are performed based on FIFO principle.

A queue can also be defined as

"Queue data structure is a collection of similar data items in which

insertion and deletion operations are performed based on FIFO
principle".

Example
Queue after inserting 25, 30, 51, 60 and 85.
Operations on a Queue
The following operations are performed on a queue data structure...

1. enQueue(value) - (To insert an element into the queue)

2. deQueue() - (To delete an element from the queue)
3. display() - (To display the elements of the queue)

Queue data structure can be implemented in two ways. They are as

follows...

1. Using Array
2. Using Linked List

When a queue is implemented using array, that queue can organize only
limited number of elements. When a queue is implemented using linked
list, that queue can organize unlimited number of elements.

Queue Using Array

structure can be implemented using one dimensional array. But, queue
implemented using array can store only fixed number of data values. The
implementation of queue data structure using array is very simple, just
define a one dimensional array of specific size and insert or delete the
values into that array by using FIFO (First In First Out) principle with the
help of variables 'front' and 'rear'. Initially both 'front' and 'rear' are set
to -1. Whenever, we want to insert a new value into the queue,
increment 'rear' value by one and then insert at that position. Whenever
we want to delete a value from the queue, then increment 'front' value
by one and then display the value at 'front' position as deleted element.

Queue Operations using Array

Queue data structure using array can be implemented as follows...

Before we implement actual operations, first follow the below steps to

create an empty queue.
  Step 1: Include all the header files which are used in the program
and define a constant 'SIZE' with specific value.
 Step 2: Declare all the user defined functions which are used in
queue implementation.
 Step 3: Create a one dimensional array with above defined SIZE (int
queue[SIZE])
 Step 4: Define two integer variables 'front' and 'rear' and initialize
both with '-1'. (int front = -1, rear = -1)
 Step 5: Then implement main method by displaying menu of
operations list and make suitable function calls to perform
operation selected by the user on queue.

enQueue(value) - Inserting value into the queue

In a queue data structure, enQueue() is a function used to insert a new
element into the queue. In a queue, the new element is always inserted
at rear position. The enQueue() function takes one integer value as
parameter and inserts that value into the queue. We can use the
following steps to insert an element into the queue...

 Step 1: Check whether queue is FULL. (rear == SIZE-1)

 Step 2: If it is FULL, then display "Queue is FULL!!! Insertion is
not possible!!!" and terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is NOT FULL, then increment rear value by one
(rear++) and set queue[rear] = value.

deQueue() - Deleting a value from the Queue

In a queue data structure, deQueue() is a function used to delete an
element from the queue. In a queue, the element is always deleted
from front position. The deQueue() function does not take any value as
parameter. We can use the following steps to delete an element from the
queue...

 Step 1: Check whether queue is EMPTY. (front == rear)

  Step 2: If it is EMPTY, then display "Queue is EMPTY!!! Deletion is
not possible!!!" and terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is NOT EMPTY, then increment the front value by one
(front ++). Then display queue[front] as deleted element. Then
check whether both front and rear are equal (front == rear), if
it TRUE, then set both front and rear to '-1' (front = rear = -1).

display() - Displays the elements of a Queue

We can use the following steps to display the elements of a queue...

 Step 1: Check whether queue is EMPTY. (front == rear)

 Step 2: If it is EMPTY, then display "Queue is EMPTY!!!" and
terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is NOT EMPTY, then define an integer variable 'i' and
set 'i = front+1'.
 Step 3: Display 'queue[i]' value and increment 'i' value by one (i++).
Repeat the same until 'i' value is equal to rear (i <= rear)

Program to implement Queue using Array

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define SIZE 10

void enQueue(int);
void deQueue();
void display();

int queue[SIZE], front = -1, rear = -1;

void main()
{
int value, choice;
clrscr();
while(1){
printf("\n\n***** MENU *****\n");
printf("1. Insertion\n2. Deletion\n3. Display\n4. Exit");
printf("\nEnter your choice: ");
scanf("%d",&choice);
switch(choice){
case 1: printf("Enter the value to be insert: ");
scanf("%d",&value);
enQueue(value);
break;
case 2: deQueue();
break;
 case 3: display();
break;
case 4: exit(0);
default: printf("\nWrong selection!!! Try again!!!");
}
}
}
void enQueue(int value){
if(rear == SIZE-1)
printf("\nQueue is Full!!! Insertion is not possible!!!");
else{
if(front == -1)
front = 0;
rear++;
queue[rear] = value;
printf("\nInsertion success!!!");
}
}
void deQueue(){
if(front == rear)
printf("\nQueue is Empty!!! Deletion is not possible!!!");
else{
printf("\nDeleted : %d", queue[front]);
front++;
if(front == rear)
front = rear = -1;
}
}
void display(){
if(rear == -1)
printf("\nQueue is Empty!!!");
else{
int i;
printf("\nQueue elements are:\n");
for(i=front; i<=rear; i++)
printf("%d\t",queue[i]);
}
}

Output
Queue using Linked List
The major problem with the queue implemented using array is, It will
work for only fixed number of data. That means, the amount of data
must be specified in the beginning itself. Queue using array is not
suitable when we don't know the size of data which we are going to use.
A queue data structure can be implemented using linked list data
structure. The queue which is implemented using linked list can work for
unlimited number of values. That means, queue using linked list can work
for variable size of data (No need to fix the size at beginning of the
implementation). The Queue implemented using linked list can organize
as many data values as we want.

In linked list implementation of a queue, the last inserted node is always

pointed by 'rear' and the first node is always pointed by 'front'.

Example

In above example, the last inserted node is 50 and it is pointed by 'rear'

and the first inserted node is 10 and it is pointed by 'front'. The order of
elements inserted is 10, 15, 22 and 50.
Operations
To implement queue using linked list, we need to set the following things
before implementing actual operations.

 Step 1: Include all the header files which are used in the program.
And declare all the user defined functions.
 Step 2: Define a 'Node' structure with two members data and next.
 Step 3: Define two Node pointers 'front' and 'rear' and set both
to NULL.
 Step 4: Implement the main method by displaying Menu of list of
operations and make suitable function calls in the main method to
perform user selected operation.

enQueue(value) - Inserting an element into the

Queue
We can use the following steps to insert a new node into the queue...

 Step 1: Create a newNode with given value and set 'newNode →

next' to NULL.
 Step 2: Check whether queue is Empty (rear == NULL)
 Step 3: If it is Empty then,
set front = newNode and rear = newNode.
 Step 4: If it is Not Empty then, set rear →
next = newNode and rear = newNode.

deQueue() - Deleting an Element from Queue

We can use the following steps to delete a node from the queue...

 Step 1: Check whether queue is Empty (front == NULL).

 Step 2: If it is Empty, then display "Queue is Empty!!! Deletion is
not possible!!!" and terminate from the function
  Step 3: If it is Not Empty then, define a Node pointer 'temp' and
set it to 'front'.
 Step 4: Then set 'front = front → next' and delete 'temp'
(free(temp)).

display() - Displaying the elements of Queue

We can use the following steps to display the elements (nodes) of a
queue...

 Step 1: Check whether queue is Empty (front == NULL).

 Step 2: If it is Empty then, display 'Queue is Empty!!!' and
terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is Not Empty then, define a Node pointer 'temp' and
initialize with front.
 Step 4: Display 'temp → data --->' and move it to the next node.
Repeat the same until 'temp' reaches to 'rear' (temp →
next != NULL).
 Step 4: Finally! Display 'temp → data ---> NULL'.

Program for Queue Using Linked List

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

struct Node
{
int data;
struct Node *next;
}*front = NULL,*rear = NULL;

void insert(int);
void delete();
void display();

void main()
{
int choice, value;
clrscr();
printf("\n:: Queue Implementation using Linked List ::\n");
while(1){
printf("\n****** MENU ******\n");
printf("1. Insert\n2. Delete\n3. Display\n4. Exit\n");
printf("Enter your choice: ");
scanf("%d",&choice);
switch(choice){
case 1: printf("Enter the value to be insert: ");
 scanf("%d", &value);
insert(value);
break;
case 2: delete(); break;
case 3: display(); break;
case 4: exit(0);
default: printf("\nWrong selection!!! Please try again!!!\n");
}
}
}
void insert(int value)
{
struct Node *newNode;
newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
newNode->data = value;
newNode -> next = NULL;
if(front == NULL)
front = rear = newNode;
else{
rear -> next = newNode;
rear = newNode;
}
printf("\nInsertion is Success!!!\n");
}
void delete()
{
if(front == NULL)
printf("\nQueue is Empty!!!\n");
else{
struct Node *temp = front;
front = front -> next;
printf("\nDeleted element: %d\n", temp->data);
free(temp);
}
}
void display()
{
if(front == NULL)
printf("\nQueue is Empty!!!\n");
else{
struct Node *temp = front;
while(temp->next != NULL){
printf("%d--->",temp->data);
temp = temp -> next;
}
printf("%d--->NULL\n",temp->data);
}
}

Output
Circular Queue
In a normal Queue Data Structure, we can insert elements until queue
becomes full. But once if queue becomes full, we can not insert the next
element until all the elements are deleted from the queue. For example
consider the queue below...
After inserting all the elements into the queue.

Now consider the following situation after deleting three elements from
the queue...

This situation also says that Queue is Full and we can not insert the new
element because, 'rear' is still at last position. In above situation, even
though we have empty positions in the queue we can not make use of
them to insert new element. This is the major problem in normal queue
data structure. To overcome this problem we use circular queue data
structure.

What is Circular Queue?

A Circular Queue can be defined as follows...

Circular Queue is a linear data structure in which the operations are

performed based on FIFO (First In First Out) principle and the last
position is connected back to the first position to make a circle.

Graphical representation of a circular queue is as follows...

Implementation of Circular Queue
To implement a circular queue data structure using array, we first
perform the following steps before we implement actual operations.

 Step 1: Include all the header files which are used in the program
and define a constant 'SIZE' with specific value.
 Step 2: Declare all user defined functions used in circular queue
implementation.
 Step 3: Create a one dimensional array with above defined SIZE (int
cQueue[SIZE])
 Step 4: Define two integer variables 'front' and 'rear' and initialize
both with '-1'. (int front = -1, rear = -1)
 Step 5: Implement main method by displaying menu of operations
list and make suitable function calls to perform operation selected
by the user on circular queue.

enQueue(value) - Inserting value into the Circular

Queue
In a circular queue, enQueue() is a function which is used to insert an
element into the circular queue. In a circular queue, the new element is
always inserted at rear position. The enQueue() function takes one
integer value as parameter and inserts that value into the circular queue.
We can use the following steps to insert an element into the circular
queue...
  Step 1: Check whether queue is FULL. ((rear == SIZE-1 && front
== 0) || (front == rear+1))
 Step 2: If it is FULL, then display "Queue is FULL!!! Insertion is
not possible!!!" and terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is NOT FULL, then check rear == SIZE - 1 && front !=
0 if it is TRUE, then set rear = -1.
 Step 4: Increment rear value by one (rear++),
set queue[rear] = value and check 'front == -1' if it is TRUE, then
set front = 0.

deQueue() - Deleting a value from the Circular

Queue
In a circular queue, deQueue() is a function used to delete an element
from the circular queue. In a circular queue, the element is always
deleted from front position. The deQueue() function doesn't take any
value as parameter. We can use the following steps to delete an element
from the circular queue...

 Step 1: Check whether queue is EMPTY. (front == -1 && rear == -

1)
 Step 2: If it is EMPTY, then display "Queue is EMPTY!!! Deletion is
not possible!!!" and terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is NOT EMPTY, then display queue[front] as deleted
element and increment the front value by one (front ++). Then
check whether front == SIZE, if it is TRUE, then set front = 0. Then
check whether both front - 1 and rear are equal (front -1 == rear),
if it TRUE, then set both front and rear to '-1' (front = rear = -1).

display() - Displays the elements of a Circular Queue

We can use the following steps to display the elements of a circular
queue...

 Step 1: Check whether queue is EMPTY. (front == -1)

  Step 2: If it is EMPTY, then display "Queue is EMPTY!!!" and
terminate the function.
 Step 3: If it is NOT EMPTY, then define an integer variable 'i' and
set 'i = front'.
 Step 4: Check whether 'front <= rear', if it is TRUE, then display
'queue[i]' value and increment 'i' value by one (i++). Repeat the
same until 'i <= rear' becomes FALSE.
 Step 5: If 'front <= rear' is FALSE, then display 'queue[i]' value and
increment 'i' value by one (i++). Repeat the same until'i <= SIZE - 1'
becomes FALSE.
 Step 6: Set i to 0.
 Step 7: Again display 'cQueue[i]' value and increment i value by
one (i++). Repeat the same until 'i <= rear' becomes FALSE.

Program to implement Queue using Array

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define SIZE 5

void enQueue(int);
void deQueue();
void display();

int cQueue[SIZE], front = -1, rear = -1;

void main()
{
int choice, value;
clrscr();
while(1){
printf("\n****** MENU ******\n");
printf("1. Insert\n2. Delete\n3. Display\n4. Exit\n");
printf("Enter your choice: ");
scanf("%d",&choice);
switch(choice){
case 1: printf("\nEnter the value to be insert: ");
scanf("%d",&value);
enQueue(value);
break;
case 2: deQueue();
break;
case 3: display();
break;
case 4: exit(0);
default: printf("\nPlease select the correct choice!!!\n");
}
}
}
void enQueue(int value)
{
if((front == 0 && rear == SIZE - 1) || (front == rear+1))
printf("\nCircular Queue is Full! Insertion not possible!!!\n");
else{
if(rear == SIZE-1 && front != 0)
rear = -1;
cQueue[++rear] = value;
printf("\nInsertion Success!!!\n");
if(front == -1)
front = 0;
}
}
void deQueue()
{
if(front == -1 && rear == -1)
printf("\nCircular Queue is Empty! Deletion is not possible!!!\n");
else{
printf("\nDeleted element : %d\n",cQueue[front++]);
if(front == SIZE)
front = 0;
if(front-1 == rear)
front = rear = -1;
}
}
void display()
{
if(front == -1)
printf("\nCircular Queue is Empty!!!\n");
else{
int i = front;
printf("\nCircular Queue Elements are : \n");
if(front <= rear){
while(i <= rear)
printf("%d\t",cQueue[i++]);
}
else{
while(i <= SIZE - 1)
printf("%d\t", cQueue[i++]);
i = 0;
while(i <= rear)
printf("%d\t",cQueue[i++]);
}
}
}

Output
Double Ended Queue (Dequeue)
Double Ended Queue is also a Queue data structure in which the insertion
and deletion operations are performed at both the ends (frontand rear).
That means, we can insert at both front and rear positions and can delete
from both front and rear positions.
Double Ended Queue can be represented in TWO ways, those are as
follows...

1. Input Restricted Double Ended Queue

2. Output Restricted Double Ended Queue

Input Restricted Double Ended Queue

In input restricted double ended queue, the insertion operation is
performed at only one end and deletion operation is performed at both
the ends.

Output Restricted Double Ended Queue

In output restricted double ended queue, the deletion operation is
performed at only one end and insertion operation is performed at both
the ends.

Program to implement Double Ended Queue

(Dequeue)
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define SIZE 100

void enQueue(int);
int deQueueFront();
int deQueueRear();
void enQueueRear(int);
void enQueueFront(int);
void display();

int queue[SIZE];
int rear = 0, front = 0;

int main()
{
char ch;
int choice1, choice2, value;
printf("\n******* Type of Double Ended Queue *******\n");
do
{
printf("\n1.Input-restricted deque \n");
printf("2.output-restricted deque \n");
printf("\nEnter your choice of Queue Type : ");
scanf("%d",&choice1);
switch(choice1)
{
case 1:
printf("\nSelect the Operation\n");
printf("1.Insert\n2.Delete from Rear\n3.Delete from Front\n4.
Display");
do
{
printf("\nEnter your choice for the operation in c deque:
");
scanf("%d",&choice2);
switch(choice2)
{
case 1: enQueueRear(value);
display();
break;
case 2: value = deQueueRear();
printf("\nThe value deleted is %d",value);
display();
break;
case 3: value=deQueueFront();
printf("\nThe value deleted is %d",value);
display();
break;
case 4: display();
break;
default:printf("Wrong choice");
}
printf("\nDo you want to perform another operation (Y/N):
");
ch=getch();
}while(ch=='y'||ch=='Y');
getch();
break;

case 2 :
printf("\n---- Select the Operation ----\n");
printf("1. Insert at Rear\n2. Insert at Front\n3. Delete\n4.
Display");
do
{
printf("\nEnter your choice for the operation: ");
scanf("%d",&choice2);
 switch(choice2)
{
case 1: enQueueRear(value);
display();
break;
case 2: enQueueFront(value);
display();
break;
case 3: value = deQueueFront();
printf("\nThe value deleted is %d",value);
display();
break;
case 4: display();
break;
default:printf("Wrong choice");
}
printf("\nDo you want to perform another operation (Y/N):
");
ch=getch();
} while(ch=='y'||ch=='Y');
getch();
break ;
}
printf("\nDo you want to continue(y/n):");
ch=getch();
}while(ch=='y'||ch=='Y');
}

void enQueueRear(int value)

{
char ch;
if(front == SIZE/2)
{
printf("\nQueue is full!!! Insertion is not possible!!! ");
return;
}
do
{
printf("\nEnter the value to be inserted:");
scanf("%d",&value);
queue[front] = value;
front++;
printf("Do you want to continue insertion Y/N");
ch=getch();
}while(ch=='y');
}

void enQueueFront(int value)

{
char ch;
if(front==SIZE/2)
{
printf("\nQueue is full!!! Insertion is not possible!!!");
return;
}
do
{
printf("\nEnter the value to be inserted:");
scanf("%d",&value);
rear--;
queue[rear] = value;
printf("Do you want to continue insertion Y/N");
ch = getch();
}
while(ch == 'y');
}
int deQueueRear()
{
 int deleted;
if(front == rear)
{
printf("\nQueue is Empty!!! Deletion is not possible!!!");
return 0;
}
front--;
deleted = queue[front+1];
return deleted;
}
int deQueueFront()
{
int deleted;
if(front == rear)
{
printf("\nQueue is Empty!!! Deletion is not possible!!!");
return 0;
}
rear++;
deleted = queue[rear-1];
return deleted;
}

void display()
{
int i;
if(front == rear)
printf("\nQueue is Empty!!! Deletion is not possible!!!")
else{
printf("\nThe Queue elements are:");
for(i=rear; i < front; i++)
{
printf("%d\t ",queue[i]);
}
}
}
Linear Search Algorithm
(Sequential Search)
What is Search?
Search is a process of finding a value in a list of values. In other words,
searching is the process of locating given value position in a list of values.

Linear Search Algorithm (Sequential Search

Algorithm)
Linear search algorithm finds given element in a list of elements
with O(n) time complexity where n is total number of elements in the
list. This search process starts comparing of search element with the first
element in the list. If both are matching then results with element found
otherwise search element is compared with next element in the list. If
both are matched, then the result is "element found". Otherwise, repeat
the same with the next element in the list until search element is
compared with last element in the list, if that last element also doesn't
match, then the result is "Element not found in the list". That means, the
search element is compared with element by element in the list.

Linear search is implemented using following steps...

 Step 1: Read the search element from the user

 Step 2: Compare, the search element with the first element in the
list.
 Step 3: If both are matching, then display "Given element found!!!"
and terminate the function
  Step 4: If both are not matching, then compare search element
with the next element in the list.
 Step 5: Repeat steps 3 and 4 until the search element is compared
with the last element in the list.
 Step 6: If the last element in the list is also doesn't match, then
display "Element not found!!!" and terminate the function.

Example
Consider the following list of element and search element...
Linear Search Program in C Programming
Language
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

void main(){
int list[20],size,i,sElement;

printf("Enter size of the list: ");

scanf("%d",&size);

printf("Enter any %d integer values: ",size);

for(i = 0; i < size; i++)
scanf("%d",&list[i]);

printf("Enter the element to be Search: ");

scanf("%d",&sElement);

// Linear Search Logic

for(i = 0; i < size; i++)
{
if(sElement == list[i])
{
printf("Element is found at %d index", i);
break;
}
}
if(i == size)
printf("Given element is not found in the list!!!");
getch();
}

Binary Search Algorithm

What is Search?
Search is a process of finding a value in a list of values. In other words,
searching is the process of locating given value position in a list of values.

Binary Search Algorithm

Binary search algorithm finds given element in a list of elements
with O(log n) time complexity where n is total number of elements in the
list. The binary search algorithm can be used with only sorted list of
element. That means, binary search can be used only with lkist of
element which are already arraged in a order. The binary search can not
be used for list of element which are in random order. This search
process starts comparing of the search element with the middle element
in the list. If both are matched, then the result is "element found".
Otherwise, we check whether the search element is smaller or larger
than the middle element in the list. If the search element is smaller, then
we repeat the same process for left sublist of the middle element. If the
search element is larger, then we repeat the same process for right
sublist of the middle element. We repeat this process until we find the
search element in the list or until we left with a sublist of only one
element. And if that element also doesn't match with the search
element, then the result is "Element not found in the list".

Binary search is implemented using following steps...

 Step 1: Read the search element from the user

 Step 2: Find the middle element in the sorted list
 Step 3: Compare, the search element with the middle element in
the sorted list.
 Step 4: If both are matching, then display "Given element found!!!"
and terminate the function
 Step 5: If both are not matching, then check whether the search
element is smaller or larger than middle element.
 Step 6: If the search element is smaller than middle element, then
repeat steps 2, 3, 4 and 5 for the left sublist of the middle element.
 Step 7: If the search element is larger than middle element, then
repeat steps 2, 3, 4 and 5 for the right sublist of the middle
element.
 Step 8: Repeat the same process until we find the search element
in the list or until sublist contains only one element.
 Step 9: If that element also doesn't match with the search element,
then display "Element not found in the list!!!" and terminate the
function.

Example
Consider the following list of element and search element...
Binary Search Program in C Programming
Language
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

void main()
{
int first, last, middle, size, i, sElement, list[100];
clrscr();

printf("Enter the size of the list: ");

scanf("%d",&size);
 printf("Enter %d integer values in Assending order\n", size);

for (i = 0; i < size; i++)

scanf("%d",&list[i]);

printf("Enter value to be search: ");

scanf("%d", &sElement);

first = 0;
last = size - 1;
middle = (first+last)/2;

while (first <= last) {

if (list[middle] < sElement)
first = middle + 1;
else if (list[middle] == sElement) {
printf("Element found at index %d.\n",middle);
break;
}
else
last = middle - 1;

middle = (first + last)/2;

}
if (first > last)
printf("Element Not found in the list.");
getch();
}

Insertion Sort
Sorting is the process of arranging a list of elements in a particular order
(Ascending or Descending).

Insertion sort algorithm arranges a list of elements in a particular order.

In insertion sort algorithm, every iteration moves an element from
unsorted portion to sorted portion until all the elements are sorted in the
list.

Step by Step Process

The insertion sort algorithm is performed using following steps...

 Step 1: Asume that first element in the list is in sorted portion of

the list and remaining all elements are in unsorted portion.
 Step 2: Consider first element from the unsorted list and insert that
element into the sorted list in order specified.
 Step 3: Repeat the above process until all the elements from the
unsorted list are moved into the sorted list.
Sorting Logic
Following is the sample code for insrtion sort...
//Insertion sort logic
for i = 1 to size-1 {
temp = list[i];
j = i;
while ((temp < list[j]) && (j > 0)) {
list[j] = list[j-1];
j = j - 1;
}
list[j] = temp;
}

Example
Complexity of the Insertion Sort Algorithm
To sort a unsorted list with 'n' number of elements we need to
make (1+2+3+......+n-1) = (n (n-1))/2 number of comparisions in the
worst case. If the list already sorted, then it requires 'n' number of
comparisions.
Worst Case : O(n2)
Best Case : Ω(n)
Average Case : Θ(n2)

Insertion Sort Program in C Programming

Language
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

void main(){

int size, i, j, temp, list[100];

printf("Enter the size of the list: ");

scanf("%d", &size);

printf("Enter %d integer values: ", size);

for (i = 0; i < size; i++)
scanf("%d", &list[i]);

//Insertion sort logic

for (i = 1; i < size; i++) {
temp = list[i];
j = i - 1;
while ((temp < list[j]) && (j >= 0)) {
list[j + 1] = list[j];
j = j - 1;
}
list[j + 1] = temp;
}

printf("List after Sorting is: ");

for (i = 0; i < size; i++)
printf(" %d", list[i]);

getch();
}

Selection Sort
Selection Sort algorithm is used to arrange a list of elements in a
particular order (Ascending or Descending). In selection sort, the first
element in the list is selected and it is compared repeatedly with
remaining all the elements in the list. If any element is smaller than the
selected element (for Ascending order), then both are swapped. Then we
select the element at second position in the list and it is compared with
remaining all elements in the list. If any element is smaller than the
selected element, then both are swapped. This procedure is repeated till
the entire list is sorted.

Step by Step Process

The selection sort algorithm is performed using following steps...

 Step 1: Select the first element of the list (i.e., Element at first
position in the list).
 Step 2: Compare the selected element with all other elements in
the list.
 Step 3: For every comparision, if any element is smaller than
selected element (for Ascending order), then these two are
swapped.
 Step 4: Repeat the same procedure with next position in the list till
the entire list is sorted.

Sorting Logic
Following is the sample code for selection sort...

//Selection sort logic

for(i=0; i<size; i++){

for(j=i+1; j<size; j++){
if(list[i] > list[j])
{
temp=list[i];
list[i]=list[j];
list[j]=temp;
}
}
}

Example
Complexity of the Insertion Sort Algorithm
To sort a unsorted list with 'n' number of elements we need to make ((n-
1)+(n-2)+(n-3)+......+1) = (n (n-1))/2 number of comparisions in the
worst case. If the list already sorted, then it requires 'n' number of
comparisions.

Worst Case : O(n2)

Best Case : Ω(n2)
Average Case : Θ(n2)
Selection Sort Program in C Programming
Language
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

void main(){

int size,i,j,temp,list[100];
clrscr();

printf("Enter the size of the List: ");

scanf("%d",&size);

printf("Enter %d integer values: ",size);

for(i=0; i<size; i++)
scanf("%d",&list[i]);

//Selection sort logic

for(i=0; i<size; i++){

for(j=i+1; j<size; j++){
if(list[i] > list[j])
{
temp=list[i];
list[i]=list[j];
list[j]=temp;
}
}
}

printf("List after sorting is: ");

for(i=0; i<size; i++)
printf(" %d",list[i]);

getch();
}

Quick Sort
Quick Sort Program in C Programming
Language
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

void quickSort(int [10],int,int);

void main(){
int list[20],size,i;

printf("Enter size of the list: ");

scanf("%d",&size);
 printf("Enter %d integer values: ",size);
for(i = 0; i < size; i++)
scanf("%d",&list[i]);

quicksort(list,0,size-1);

printf("List after sorting is: ");

for(i = 0; i < size; i++)
printf(" %d",list[i]);

getch();
}

void quickSort(int list[10],int first,int last){

int pivot,i,j,temp;

if(first < last){

pivot = first;
i = first;
j = last;

while(i < j){

while(list[i] <= list[pivot] && i < last)
i++;
while(list[j] > list[pivot])
j--;
if(i < j){
temp = list[i];
list[i] = list[j];
list[j] = temp;
}
}

temp = list[pivot];
list[pivot] = list[j];
list[j] = temp;
quickSort(list,first,j-1);
quickSort(list,j+1,last);

}
}