Southern Illinois University Carbondale

OpenSIUC
Dissertations Theses and Dissertations

5-1-2010

Shadowing practices: Ethnographic accounts of

private eyes as entrepreneurs
Craig L. Engstrom
Southern Illinois University Carbondale, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/dissertations

Recommended Citation
Engstrom, Craig L., "Shadowing practices: Ethnographic accounts of private eyes as entrepreneurs" (2010). Dissertations. Paper 136.

This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses and Dissertations at OpenSIUC. It has been accepted for
inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of OpenSIUC. For more information, please contact [email protected].
SHADOWING PRACTICES: ETHNOGRAPHIC ACCOUNTS OF
PRIVATE EYES AS ENTREPRENEURS

by

Craig Lee Engstrom

B.B.A., Mesa State College, 2000

M.A., Southern Illinois University, 2006

A Dissertation
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Doctor of Philosophy

Department of Speech Communication

in the Graduate School
Southern Illinois University Carbondale
May 2010
 DISSERTATION APPROVAL

SHADOWING PRACTICES: ETHNOGRAPHIC ACCOUNTS OF

PRIVATE EYES AS ENTREPRENEURS

By

Craig Lee Engstrom

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

in the field of Speech Communication

Approved by:

Nathan Stucky, Ph.D., Chair

Bryan Crow, Ph.D.

William McKinley, Ph.D.

Ross Singer, Ph.D.

John Warren, Ph.D.

Graduate School
Southern Illinois University Carbondale
April 4, 2010
 AN ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OF

CRAIG LEE ENGSTROM, for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in SPEECH

COMMUNICATION, presented on APRIL 4, 2010, at Southern Illinois University
Carbondale.

TITLE: SHADOWING PRACTICES: ETHNOGRAPHIC ACCOUNTS OF PRIVATE

EYES AS ENTREPRENEURS

MAJOR PROFESSOR: Nathan Stucky, Ph.D.

In recent years, entrepreneurship studies scholars have begun studying

entrepreneurship from a process-oriented philosophy and with an interest in the prosaic,

everyday practices of entrepreneurs. In keeping with these “new movement”

approaches, I have tried to “catch” entrepreneurship as it is happening within the field of

private investigations.

An in-depth, two-year field study of private investigators engaged in the entwined

practices of investigating and entrepreneuring was conducted. Methodologically, I

shadowed five private investigators and interviewed an additional 25. Because

shadowing is an emergent methodology, an in-depth discussion of conducting and

writing shadowing research is provided. As noted in this discussion, it is important that

writing remain primarily descriptive yet linked to dominant contemporary discourses.

Consequently, an overview of dominant narrative themes in popular and academic

discourses about private investigating and entrepreneurship are included. Based on the

framework of this methodology, dominant narrative themes, and field notes, various

culturally-situated accounts of private investigator practices are offered.

The findings of this research project suggest that private investigators use

various rhetorical and practical strategies to successfully and simultaneously complete

investigative and business-related tasks, such as “planting suspicions,” using gender

and race to strategically position themselves in relation to others in opportunistic ways,

i
and incorporating contemporary technology into their work routines. Drawing on actor-

network-theory, I argue that opportunities are enacted through a series of taken-for-

granted and everyday interactions among subjects and objects.

This research privileges descriptive accounts over theory-building. However, the

descriptive accounts of the practices of subjects and objects suggest pragmatic solutions

for private investigators to create and manage entrepreneurial opportunities. For

example, I propose that private investigators should collectively engage in practices that

further professionalize their field. Such professionalizing activities would include, among

other things, engaging in knowledge accumulation through academic and professional

research activities and professional association public relations campaigns. Insights are

also provided regarding the role of rhetoric and technology in opportunity creation and

destruction.

Readers interested in organization communication and theory will find many of

the descriptions to be empirically rich examples of ethno-methods used by actors in

highly institutionalized contexts. Similarly, these scholars may also find the descriptions

to validate recent arguments regarding organizing as “hybridized actions” (or action nets)

occurring in multiple spaces, places, and times. The examples herein demonstrate the

usefulness of shadowing as an approach to understanding organizing practices,

especially in fields where actors are always “on the move.” Readers interested in private

investigating will find many of the examples rich in techniques that will enhance

profitability. Finally, readers interested in entrepreneurship studies will undoubtedly find

many novel potential research projects that are embedded in the various thick

descriptions throughout the document.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This project could not have been completed without the support of Southern

Illinois University Carbondale, which provided me with a Dissertation Research

Fellowship. Without this award, I would not have had the time to conduct in-depth field

research and write this document. In addition, my parents’ continued support of my

academic pursuits, including paying for some expenses incurred during this project, was

more than helpful.

This project could obviously not have been completed without the five private

investigators in Illinois, Texas, Missouri, and Georgia who granted me access to their

work lives for over a week at a time. Shadowing can be helpful to both the shadowee

and the shadower, but I know the latter often gets more from the experience. I hope,

however, that some of my ideas and insights during the shadowing process were helpful

for them. Additionally, my gratitude extends to the other professional investigators who

were willing to sit down and talk with me so that I could ask them many questions in

sometimes lengthy interviews. It was obvious by the numerous phone calls they received

during the interviews that their time was valuable.

I would like to thank my dissertation committee members—Drs. Bryan Crow,

Ross Singer, William McKinley, and John Warren—for offering me helpful feedback on

the near-final version of this document. Special thanks go to Dr. Nathan Stucky, my

dissertation advisor, and Professor Emeritus Lenore Langsdorf, my graduate advisor, for

providing me guidance throughout my academic tenure at Southern Illinois University.

Finally, I appreciate the transcription services that Carly Main, of Carly Main

Creative Freelance Services (www.carlymain.com), and my colleagues Shauna

MacDonald, Suzanna (Bunny) LeBaron, and Aubrey Huber provided. They translated

iii
the digital recordings into ethnographer-friendly data, and the time they spent on this

work is much appreciated.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...............................................................................................iii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ vii

LIST OF IMAGES....................................................................................................... viii

CHAPTERS

CHAPTER 1 – The study of mundane entrepreneurial practices ..................... 1

Private investigating and entrepreneuring: A personal account ................. 3

Reading the story: Casting some light on my (shady) assumptions ........... 7

Introduction to the field of private investigations....................................... 17

Why this study? ........................................................................................ 31

CHAPTER 2 – Methodology and methods ..................................................... 35

Why I begin with method(ologie)s ............................................................ 35

Shadowing methodology .......................................................................... 47

How to shadow subjects and objects ....................................................... 72

How to write and evaluate praxeological writing....................................... 79

The particulars of this study...................................................................... 82

CHAPTER 3 – Prosaic and narrative accounts .............................................. 88

Narrative account defined......................................................................... 89

Chapter methods and artifacts ................................................................. 93

Prosaic and academic narratives of private investigating......................... 94

Prosaic and academic narratives of entrepreneuring ............................. 106

Conclusion.............................................................................................. 118

CHAPTER 4 – Shadowing subjects—threats and opportunities .................. 121

A profitable field experience ................................................................... 121

v
 Environmental pressures and prosaic threats ........................................ 132

Enacting opportunities ............................................................................ 150

Rhetoric(al) matters ................................................................................ 174

CHAPTER 5 – Shadowing objects—Technologies and reports ................... 175

Private investigators’ objects: Threats and opportunities ....................... 177

Producing the report ............................................................................... 201

Conclusion.............................................................................................. 216

CHAPTER 6 – Conclusion............................................................................ 219

Professionalization ................................................................................. 221

Communication studies and entrepreneurship ....................................... 229

Academic research about private investigating ...................................... 237

A final account ........................................................................................ 238

REFERENCES......................................................................................................... 242

APPENDICES

Appendix A – Shadowing research .............................................................. 260

Appendix B – Research subjects and costs ................................................. 263

Appendix C – A timely account about health insurance ............................... 279

Appendix D – An example field report .......................................................... 258

VITA ..................................................................................................................... 281

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

Table 4.1 .................................................................................................................. 140

Table A.1.................................................................................................................. 260

Table B.1.................................................................................................................. 263

Table B.2.................................................................................................................. 274

Table B.3.................................................................................................................. 277

vii
 LIST OF IMAGES

IMAGE PAGE

Image 4.1 ................................................................................................................. 128

Image 4.2 ................................................................................................................. 129

Image 4.3 ................................................................................................................. 130

Image 5.1 ................................................................................................................. 181

Image 5.2 ................................................................................................................. 198

viii
 1

CHAPTER 1: THE STUDY OF

MUNDANE ENTREPRENEURIAL PRACTICES

It was a fundamental mistake…to interpret economics as the

characterization of the behavior of an ideal type, the Homo
oeconomicus. According to this doctrine traditional or orthodox
economics [i.e., neoclassical doctrine] does not deal with the behavior
of man as he really is and acts, but with a fictitious or hypothetical
image. It pictures a being driven exclusively by ‘economic’ motives,
i.e., solely by the intention of making the greatest possible profit. …
No man is exclusively motivated by the desire to become as rich as
possible; many are not at all influenced by this mean craving. It is vain
to refer to such an illusory homunculus in dealing with life and history.
(Ludwig von Mises, 1949/2007, p. 62)

This project is located within the “new movements” research about

entrepreneurship, which specifically looks at entrepreneurship through relational,

political, geographic, discursive, and prosaic lenses (see Hjorth & Steyaert, 2004;

Steyaert & Hjorth, 2003, 2006). Within these movements scholars understand

entrepreneurship as not just an economic phenomenon, but largely as a social one.

Following this current of research, I describe some of the everyday work-related

practices of professional investigators 1 and the objects that make up the profession of

private investigating. The focus of this project is specifically on the prosaic and

discursive practices of private investigators—e.g., communicative interactions, meetings,

surveillance activities, performances of identity, and written accounts and reports. From

the data that derived from observing and documenting these inter-related practices, I

describe how the field of private investigations is constituted as a profession, as well as

how private investigators perform entrepreneurially in their everyday work. The results of

1
Professional investigator is now a term commonly preferred by private practitioners
(Sennewald & Tsukayama, 2006). I will interchange the adjective professional/private
with detective(s), investigator(s), and eye(s) so that the writing does not become
monotonous. For example, professional detective and private eye describe the same
type of individual—someone who engages in investigative activity for hire.
 2

this study have been compiled into a praxeological report of private investigating as an

entrepreneurial endeavor. 2

While I filter private investigative practices through the academic lenses of

communication, organizational, and entrepreneurship theory, I do not assume that

private investigators see entrepreneurship in the same way as “new movement”

scholars. Neoclassical economists’ assumptions about the world prevail, and private

investigators have adopted various institutionalized myths about competition and

governmentality. 3 Through interviews, therefore, I have tried to understand how private

investigators make sense of their practices and how they understand entrepreneurship.

In chapter 3, I will show that the dominant accounts about entrepreneurship in the United

States describe entrepreneurs as people who start their own business, take risks,

coordinate the factors of production, organize, innovate, compete scrupulously, and are

keen to opportunity discovery (Shane, 2008). Private investigators do describe

themselves as entrepreneurs in these terms. However, they also use words that

describe entrepreneurial praxis in processual ways, e.g., creating, developing, making,

and collaborating. Private investigators use a language of opportunity discovery and

creation, and a language of becoming and fixity. 4

2
I use the term “praxeology” for two reasons. First it means the “study of practices,”
which captures the essence of the spirit of phenomenologically-inspired “practice theory”
and ethnomethodological approaches, which include the observation of discourse
(including communication, narrative, and objects) in action. Second, it is the term used to
describe the method of economics research preferred by Austrian School economists,
which provides the philosophical basis of my approach to entrepreneurship studies.
3
I am using the notion of “institutionalized myth as reality” as developed by John Meyer
and Brian Rowan (1977) who, borrowing from Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann
(1966), overturned the conventional Weberian theories of social structure as emerging
from rationalized action. These authors suggested that institutions are enacted
ceremoniously through an ongoing performance of sedimented, taken-for-granted
practices often based on non-rational beliefs (i.e., myths).
4
See William B. Gartner, Nancy M. Carter and Gerald E. Mills (2003). What I empirically
found is consistent with their theoretical suggestions.
 3

Private investigators are members of a larger socio-cultural milieu and are,

therefore, active participants in creating, maintaining, using, and shaping socio-cultural

narratives about private investigating and entrepreneurship. Likewise, they are also

constituted by these stories. I have tried to account, therefore, for the academic and

popular culture discourses that shape both private investigations and entrepreneurship.

Practices that are regulated by these discourses are highly institutionalized and taken for

granted. For example, people largely accept “gender” as a natural phenomenon (as

opposed to socially constructed), monogamy as the “appropriate” way to be in intimate

relationships, and, at least in the United States, efficiency as a result of competition.

Private investigators’ organize much of their professional activities around these

“objective realities” and beliefs. Just how they entrepreneurially use, enact, and

challenge these discourses in everyday praxis was a primary concern of this project.

In writing a monograph that draws upon ethnographic techniques, including

rhetorical and literary conventions for understanding and representing the professional

practices of private investigators as entrepreneurs, I feel that it is fitting to begin with a

personal account from the field that more concretely introduces readers to the project

and expresses some of the assumptions that guide my choice of topic, method, and

writing style.

Private Investigating and Entrepreneuring: A Personal Account

A person in transition between Peace Corps and graduate school is likely to take

the fastest route to saving money. Living at home and getting a job through connections

was, for me, the fastest means of achieving this goal. This is how it came to pass that I

negotiated at random hours the streets of the Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex as a licensed

private eye. In my dark grey Ford Escape, I sought to capture the seemingly shady

activities of clients’ targeted subjects on recorded video. In the office, I also helped the
 4

agency owner with several business-related issues, such as maintaining the financial

books and developing marketing strategies.

In June 2007, two years after leaving my employment as an investigator and

quasi business consultant in pursuit of a graduate education, I returned to the field as

both an ethnographer and investigator. My goal was to make quick money for a summer

trip and to complete research as part of an independent study. On a drizzly and cold

morning, I was assigned a skip trace case for a corporate client. “Skip tracing” is a

colloquial term used to describe the process of locating someone’s whereabouts, often,

though not always, for creditors. In other words, to trace the path that someone who

“skipped town” took. We had located the target’s last known address and wanted to

establish that she was still living there. We also wanted to identify her current place of

employment. The task was to locate the target’s vehicle by identifying the registered

license plate that we had already obtained from the Texas Department of Motor Vehicles

and follow the driver (presumably the vehicle’s owner and our target) throughout the day.

I was unable to locate the vehicle, and the client agreed that I should set up surveillance

on the apartment. I established a visual position on the target’s apartment door just after

dawn and began a lackluster wait.

In keeping with my academic and entrepreneurial sensibilities, I would often read

books while sitting in my vehicle during stakeouts. On this particular day, it was Michel

Foucault who kept me company. I was reading, interestingly, Discipline and Punish

(1977/1991). One particular passage stood out due to its relevance to the context:

[Eugène François] Vidocq marks the moment when delinquency,

detached from other illegalities, was invested by power and turned
inside out. It was then that the direct, institutional coupling of police
and delinquency took place: the disturbing moment when criminality
became one of the mechanisms of power. A figure had haunted
earlier times, that of the monstrous king, the source of all justice and
yet besmirched with crime; another fear now appeared, that of some
dark, secret understanding between those who enforced the law and
those who violated it. The Shakespearian age when sovereignty
 5

confronted abomination in a single character had gone; the everyday

melodrama of police power and of the complicities that crimes formed
with power was soon to begin. (Foucault 1977/1991, p. 283; my
emphasis)

Vidocq, a French privateer and crook-turned-cop, is the entrepreneur-

quintessence of the private investigations industry. 5 According to his own accounts (cf.

Memoirs of Vidocq, 2003), he was the first director of the Sûreté Nationale, a civil

security and detective force. He founded one of the first modern private investigation

agencies, “Le Bureau des Renseignements,” in the early part of the 19th century and

collaborated with other ex-convicts to run his operation. While he successfully worked as

a hired police informant and spy, he was simultaneously hired by citizens to conduct

investigations that the police were thought inept to handle. Vidocq also introduced many

techniques and practices to criminology that continue today, such as record keeping,

ballistics, shoe impression analysis, and using criminals as informants. He also filed the

patent on indelible ink and unalterable bond paper. Using what we may call his “prior

knowledge” and criminal social network (Shane, 2000), he was able to recognize profit

opportunities that were emerging due to the changing social, political, and discursive

conditions that Foucault so poignantly illustrates. According to Foucault, the modern

mechanisms of policing became not only possible, but also fundamental to maintaining

social order around and since the 1800s (Foucault, 1977/1991, 1978/1994).

5
Based on the Schumpeterian conception of entrepreneurship, which sees “that the
function of entrepreneurs is to reform or revolutionize the pattern of production by
exploiting an invention, or, more generally, an untried technological possibility for
producing a new commodity or an old one in a new way…” (1942/1976, p. 132), Vidocq
certainly can be considered an entrepreneur. But unlike a significant amount of
contemporary entrepreneurship research that takes a more cognitive approach by
focusing on the entrepreneur as subject and their opportunity as object (Seymour, 2006),
my focus is on how Vidocq, within the sphere of everyday communicative praxis and
work, was able to enact and grasp such opportunities (this follows the processual and
“enactment” narratives to opportunity that are characteristic of a praxeological
approach). I am also interested in the social and historical conditions that made his
activities, techniques, and inventions profitable as socially sanctioned activities.
 6

Doing surveillance had its moments of fun and was “easy money,” as one private

investigator I shadowed frequently said. It is awesome to realize that my activities have a

rooted history. Foucault’s chilling passage, however, haunts me. I was covertly

observing and surveying people’s actions as they came and went from their dwellings. I

was making money by providing a service using practices that Vidocq himself may have

engaged in, but I was also reproducing, in my own small way, entire moral orders and

institutions. I was, at the very least, assuring that in our society it is hard to “skip town.” I

was also participating in the reproduction of the mechanism by which control and safety

in the credit market is asserted. I was holding people accountable for their debts; thus, I

was reproducing a power dynamic between corporations and private citizens. Using

institutionalized practices of private investigating, the powers vested to me by the state

as a citizen, and some regulatory statutes that regulate non-licensed citizens from

engaging in certain activities, 6 it was possible for me to engage in a highly lucrative

business practice.

At approximately ten o’clock in the morning, a cleaning crew arrived at the

apartment under surveillance. I recorded to video the cleaning crew’s activities. It seems

that we had just missed locating the client. Because our “no guarantee” clause in our

contract assures that we get paid whether we get results or not, this was not good news

for our client. It was great news for our agency because our client agreed to continue the

investigation until we located the target, which we eventually did by contacting a relative

that the apartment complex had on file as an emergency contact. One of the

investigators called this relative and pretended to be a former classmate wanting to send

the target an invitation for a reunion, a practice known as “pretexting.” “We sent the

invitation to [the apartment of record] and we got a ‘return to sender,’” he told the target’s

6
This point regarding regulation is very important and will become a major point in
chapter 4.
 7

relative in an alluring voice. The relative, without much pause, gave the investigator the

information. Such productive deception provides exciting stories for detectives to tell.

While using these tactics may be questionable, 7 they are recognized as necessary tricks

of the trade (Sennewald & Tsukuyama, 2006). My justification was that the deception of

trying to conceal one’s whereabouts to avoid contractual obligations is more perverse

than deceiving someone in order to hold another accountable to his or her tacit civil

obligations. It is always easier, I recognize, to justify one’s actions when on the

normative and legitimate side of power. 8

Reading the Story: Casting Some Light on My (Shady) Assumptions

The above introductory story, which I hope establishes my ethos to talk about

this topic, begins to shed light (so to speak) on what this project is about and some of

the assumptions that I bring to it. A story, and hopefully an entertaining one, is rich in

theoretical details (van Maanen, 1995). I see science not as an accumulation of

knowledge, but as an ongoing conversation that culturally participates in telling us who

we are as a people; and, “if science is conversation, then scientific texts are voices in it”

(Czarniawska, 1997, p. 7). To add my voice to our understanding of private investigating,

7
So questionable, especially in light of the Hewlett-Packard scandal (see Wong, 2006),
that private citizens’ rights to pretext is now a contentious legal issue. In most
circumstances, private investigators are not provided any special privileges above the
everyday citizen (see Hankin, 2009); often legislation passed to restrict access to
personal information or pretexting is a challenge to private investigators’ ability to
practice. Creative practices that seemingly seek to disrupt, preempt, and maintain
certain privileges will be discussed in chapters 4 and 5.
8
Following Michel de Certeau (1984), I see power as being both productive and
destructive. Normative power describes routines and practices of everyday life that are
sanctioned as appropriate. In this text, my goal is to describe practices of private
investigators and not pass a judgment on them. This is why I am not claiming to be
engaged in a “critical” analysis. While my attitude toward critical sociology is not as
critical (pun intended) as Bruno Latour’s (2005), I have to admit that I largely agree with
his critique of contemporary critical research for its desire to explain others’ practices as
if they are being controlled by a puppeteer. My critique of critical scholarship does not
make me anti-democratic, quite the opposite. When I discuss historic and situated
discourses of entrepreneurship, my preference for an alternative to dominant narratives
will become apparent.
 8

entrepreneurship, and communication studies, I am using an ethnographic style to

describe the practices of private investigators as entrepreneurs. I hope that by

highlighting some of the assumptions, definitions, and concerns more explicitly now,

readers will better understand the rationale for some of my writing choices.

Assumption 1

This is a study of the everydayness of entrepreneurship in a professional field

(see Hjorth & Steyaert, 2004; Steyaert & Katz, 2004). Sitting in a vehicle or negotiating

with a client to do more surveillance may not seem exciting, but it is part of the process

of the business of private investigating and part of the process of rhetorically enacting

opportunity. As a prosaic study of everyday practices, I bring to this project a distinct

process philosophy and interpretive ontology. Following practice theorists, I understand

the social as “a field of embodied, materially interwoven practices centrally organized

around shared practical understandings” (Schatzki, 2001, p. 3). Meaning and knowledge

are co-constituted through ongoing communicative and social interaction. Drawing on

actor-network-theory (ANT) as well, this study can be characterized as a praxeological

study of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial objects (technologies and opportunities)

as they emerge and are exploited in everyday human action (i.e., dialogue, performance,

narrative, and so on).

Assumption 2

While I am open to embracing multiple definitions of entrepreneurship, in this

study I begin with a loose definition of entrepreneurship. Borrowing from Chris Steyaert, I

define entrepreneurship as a “process of creation that connects the everyday with the

artistic” (2004, p. 9). In communicative praxis, entrepreneurship is “a form of art, [an

artful] practice-oriented endeavor that requires a sensitive and committed engagement

 9

with a range of phenomena in the surrounding world” (Berglund, 2007, p. 75). 9

Entrepreneurship, therefore, is not necessarily limited to the domain of business

venturing or the creation of organizations. To read and observe for my academic and

investigation jobs simultaneously, as I did that drizzly morning, may be commonly

referred to as “multi-tasking.” This practice, nevertheless, is an artful use of time

(arguably a scarce resource) in a creative, productive, and (some may say) efficient

manner. It can be described, therefore, as one of the entrepreneurial events that

constitute my existence as an entrepreneur. As Steyaert (1998) notes,

Every entrepreneurial attempt is written on a daily basis, with many

actors on multiple scenes simultaneously searching to move existing
realities through creative actions into new worlds. Entrepreneurship is
a creative process enacted through everyday practices: it is never
done, and always going on, a journey more with surprises than with
predictable patterns. As such, every entrepreneurial endeavor follows
and writes its own story. … / Every existing entity unites the
multiplicity of the world and thus creates identity and meaning out of
its relationship with other entities and parts. Conversely, new
possibilities come into existence out of ‘that which has become,’ and
the created event becomes involved with what is in turn being created
anew, creating yet another new event. (pp. 15-21)

From these situated events, products and services, business entities, organizations,

institutions, and even the concept “entrepreneurship” emerge and become recognizable.

In other words, these “fixed” entities are outcomes of the practices and technologies of

“entrepreneuring.” Following and narrating the story of an entrepreneurial endeavor as it

occurs in everyday practices is a project that closely adheres to ANT scholarship, which

9
While individuals, including entrepreneurs, are motivated by some kind of “itch” that
they hope to scratch (i.e., an intention), the praxeologist is only interested in
intentionality as a directedness toward concerted movement with others. As von Mises
(1949/2007) notes, “the field of our science [i.e., praxeology] is human action, not the
psychological events which result in action” (pp. 11-12). To express wishes and
rationalizations of planned or accomplished actions is a form of action, and can be
captured in an interview (another action event), but these enunciations must not be
confused with the actions to which they refer. The praxeologist is interested in action as
“a real thing” (von Mises, p. 12). This is why, in addition to interviews, shadowing
(explicated in chapter 2) is a good method for praxeologists.
 10

is an application of technology studies to ethnomethodology and other

phenomenologically-inspired research (see Czarniawska, 1997; Latour, 1994).

To “verb” 10 entrepreneurship is to claim that it is an activity that is always

becoming in and through an active and intersubjective process—i.e., it is socially

constituted. Thus, Vidocq may have put in motion the activities that established several

organizations and practices that have become institutionalized, but he couldn’t have

done so unless he engaged in practices with other actants. 11 To scholars of

entrepreneurship studies, verbing entrepreneurship may appear as a radical idea,

perhaps even dangerous for the field because it brings yet another perspective into what

they argue is an incoherent field (Welsch & Liao, 2003). But it really is not that radical,

nor dangerous. People accept, for example, that public investigators are defined by

what they do, and we have a verb that captures the spirit of this—“to investigate.” It

would not seem odd for a detective to say that she or he is “investigating a case” and

know what techniques are involved in this. The absence of a body of research that

captures the processes and everydayness of entrepreneurship leaves the academic field

in a (linguistically) vulnerable position (Steyaert, 1998, 2004).

I am aware that to some scholars, especially those in search of a Kuhnian (1970)

utopia achieved through imposed and enforced consensus in entrepreneurship and

10
An alternative word that could be used in place of entrepreneuring is “intervening” or
“undertaking.” Entreprende (from which entrepreneur is derived) is the French verb
meaning “to undertake,” which is a combination of the Latin words “entre” (between) and
“prendre” (to take). I prefer entrepreneuring to both words because “undertaking” is too
often association with contractual, funeral, and difficult tasks. Intervening also seems
aggressive or is too easily associated with the entrepreneur as the interventionist that
stabilizes disequilibrated markets, a problematic neo-classical assumption (explained in
chapter 3).
11
Vidocq was no doubt pivotal in establishing institutions, even in the classic sense of
the term as taken-for-granted practices (Berger & Luckmann, 1966). However, I will not
claim that he (or any individual) was an “institutional entrepreneur” (a construct that is
now fashionable in contemporary management and organizational literatures). An
institution is formed through repetitive practices and consistent narratives that emerge
slowly over time. Thus, an “institutional entrepreneur” is an oxymoron (Czarniawska,
2008a, 2009).
 11

organization studies (e.g., Welsch & Liao, 2003), my approach and definition casts me

immediately as (a) suspect. While I may be culpable of adding yet another perspective to

the already “accumulative fragmentalism” in entrepreneurship (Welsch & Liao, 2003, p.

33), I am no criminal in the academic enterprise. I offer my voice and perspective with

the belief that “organizations [including academic disciplines] with access to more varied

images will engage in sensemaking that is more adaptive than will organizations with

more limited vocabularies” (Weick, 1995, p. 4). Privileging more paradigmatic discourses

and definitions of a phenomenon at once strengthens the reach of academic fields and

appreciates the complexity of human phenomena. The success of academic fields is due

in part to the varied languages that each paradigmatic perspective brings to

understanding social phenomena. I respectfully agree, therefore, with scholars who

claim that more cumulative and replicable research leads to a stronger field, with the

caveat that they are also not arguing that this research replace other approaches to the

studies of human practices. In other words, positivist research does have its place and

purpose in keeping our understanding of a phenomenon vivid, but so do critical,

interpretive, and postmodern approaches. 12

I am not making a relativist argument, but rather a relational one. Nor am I

claiming that we should create jargon as a means of insulating and protecting our

disciplines. This seductive trap can often become a tool of exclusion, making our fields

more vulnerable (van Maanen, 1988, p. 28). Ethnomethodology, for example, is an

awesome approach for understanding people’s everyday practices. This study, in many

ways, is ethnomethodological in character and informed in large part by my love of this

powerful lens for seeing just how our social world is “endogenously produced, naturally

12
This claim may appear contradictory when I assert in chapter 2 that shadowing should
avoid taking a critical turn. My claim is not that critical perspectives should be avoided in
the study of prosaic entrepreneurship, but that shadowing methodology is limited. A
more general “critical ethnography” is certainly encouraged, but a “critical shadowing” is
not.
 12

organized, reflexively accountable, ongoing, … being everywhere, always, only, exactly

and entirely, … with no time outs, and with no possibility of evasion, hiding out,

passing…” (Garfinkel, 1991, p. 11). However, you will not see words like “artfully

extrusive reflexivity,” “autochthonous order properties,” or “endogenous coherence of

figural contexture” in this document. Partly because I admittedly do not fully understand

what some of these obscure phrases mean, but mostly because I agree with John van

Maanen’s (1988) argument that if ethnomethodologists are not careful they will write

themselves out of existence. I understand that the epistemological and ontological

divides between research programs can be great; however, I remain optimistic that our

desire to understand the world in multiple ways is what defines our academic field of

practices. 13

I am also aware that the claim that everyone, including academics, engages in

entrepreneurial practices may make some readers uncomfortable. But as William

McKinley (n.d.) notes, the practice of being an “intellectual entrepreneur” is important in

today’s academic climate, where novelty and fashions are rewarded (see also

Czarniawska & Sevón, 2005). Being fashionable, however, is not a bad thing. Fashion,

as a collective of choices, tastes, and ideas, “introduce[es] order and uniformity into what

might seem like an overwhelming variety of possibilities” (Czarniawska & Sevón, 2005,

p. 9). However, what is fashionable is, by definition, imitation and less attractive.

Consequently, academics who are able to articulate the next trend position themselves

as key players in the marketplace of ideas and will be rewarded in terms of prestige and

“profits” (e.g., tenure and salary increases). The differences between business

entrepreneurs and intellectual entrepreneurs are slight. Both groups link the everyday

with the artistic and both tend to desire to build a brand around their names.

13
Defined thoroughly in chapter 2, section 2.
 13

Assumption 3

I assume that there are common practices private investigators—whether as

agents of an organization or as sole-proprietors—share as investigators and as

entrepreneurs. Not all private investigators own their own business, of course, but all

investigators are engaged in the daily and mundane activities that are generative of a

recognizable field of practices. It is the “business of investigating”—a stand in term

representing many taken-for-granted and institutionalized communicative and

organizational micropractices—that constitutes private investigating as its own

recognizable profession. As a professional group, membership may not be limited to

“card carrying members,” but to those who are culturally competent. There is a

professional jargon (“skip tracing” and “pretexting”), standardized processes, and a legal

infrastructure that an investigator must know and follow. Just because an investigator is

able to meet the state licensing requirements, has the start-up capital to start a business

venture, and holds a paid-for membership with a professional association (e.g., Texas

Association of Licensed Investigators), does not ensure financial or professional

success. If private investigators do not speak or perform “private investigator”

competently, which includes knowing how to sell their services and “fit in” with potential

clients’ expectations, their professional and business tenure may be short-lived. Being

able to perform the dual roles of investigator and entrepreneur simultaneously becomes

crucial to business sustainability, and I propose that this is consistent with most, if not all,

professions.

Describing how private eyes perform these dual roles comprises a large part of

this text. In infidelity cases, for example, it was not uncommon for the investigators I

shadowed to play on the doubts and suspicions of clients to yield additional investigation

time: “Well, she [or he] hasn’t gone anywhere… yet”; “She [or he] is where she said

she’d be, for now.” In this project, I seek to account for these communicative,
 14

entrepreneurial practices in descriptive ways. While I will describe the field of private

investigating, focus will be primarily on how investigators practice entrepreneurship.

Assumption 4

Similar to assumption 2, I assume that as a coherent field of practices, the

business of private investigating occurs in institutionalized contexts. Because

institutionalization is an ongoing reproducible process of intersubjective accountability,

enactment, and sensemaking in situated contexts (Berger & Luckmann 1966; Garfinkel,

1967, 2006; Schutz, 1967), and sensemaking and routines are grounded in identity

construction, are ongoing, and are socially bound (Weick, 1995), (professional) fields

and their organizations are always in a process of becoming. In other words, fields of

practices are always transforming and changing. The basic image for representing

things-in-motion in entrepreneurship and organization studies is that of Heraclitus’s

aphorism, “You cannot step twice into the same river, for other waters are continually

flowing on” (as cited in Steyaert, 1998, p. 19). This does not mean, however, that the

everydayness of investigating and entrepreneuring is radically dynamic and unique—

institutionalization implies historicity and control. The river may flow, but practices

become sedimentation along its foundation in an ongoing process of eroding and

depositing. It also does not mean that the field cannot be shaped and controlled

systematically. Practitioners are often working to influence the direction of their field.

The example provided by Foucault (1977/1991) of Vidocq illustrates this point.

The changing social conditions in late 18th Century France provided the appropriate

institutional context to turn his criminal and entrepreneurial sensibilities into legitimate

business practices. Some of these practices (e.g., ballistics and print analysis)—whether

by chance or apprenticeship—were replicated in the United States, where organized

policing was largely a private enterprise until the late 1800s (Weiss, 1979). Taking field

notes is an example of a taken-for-granted practice that has both been sustained and
 15

changed over time. First, the mere idea that it had to be invented would likely strike

contemporary investigators as absurd—it is just a routine part of doing investigative

work. Nevertheless, the form, content, style, and rhetoric in contemporary “field notes”

and “reports,” as well as how they are produced and per-form on investigators, have

changed over time. In particular, the introduction of video and audio recording equipment

has altered report writing. It is unlikely that an investigator, no matter how much of a

luddite she or he is, would avoid using video surveillance whenever possible. From what

I observed, field notes are fewer and reports are longer. In today’s mediated world,

“seeing [not just reading] is believing.” Yet, I will show that the report still remains a

sellable product, a fixation of investigators, and as a technical document, continues to

mediate the field of practices as an actor-network. The report also influences the

constitution of other fields of practices (e.g., the legal field) long after the investigator is

detached from it.

In addition, and particularly in more recent years, professions have become

increasingly governed by law. For example, some states and cities have laws regulating

who can become a licensed investigator, whereas other states—e.g., Alabama, Idaho,

and Wyoming—do not require any form of special training or licensing. The criteria and

rationale for regulating private investigators varies, but a Pennsylvania Supreme Court

ruling summarizes in clear terms why Vidocq, despite his supposedly superior

investigative skills as a former convict, would again find himself on the opposite side of

the law:

The [Pennsylvania] Private Detective Act [of 1953] was designed to

afford the citizens the service of detectives whose reputation, moral
character and ability were beyond reproach. The emphasis [is] to
restrict this privilege to only the best qualified, both morally and by
training. Unlike the normal policeman, the private detective does not
have the supervision of a hierarchy of the department in which he
serves. He makes the judgments as to the manner in which he acts
and the matter in which he becomes involved. By virtue of this Act, he
is permitted to intrude upon the privacy of individuals and other
 16

entities in multiple areas… In conferring such awesome power, the

state, through its legislature, has prescribed strict qualifications for
those who would become licensed detectives. (Sentry Sec. Inc, In re,
417 A2d 190, 195-196 [Pa 1980]; my emphasis)

In the above ruling, the high court assumes (by way of institutionalized myths 14 ) that

hierarchal supervision inhibits corruption (i.e., public police are not able to be corrupt

because of a hierarchy, which private investigators do not have) and, given the legal

requirement for a minimum of three year’s supervisory experience in a public police

department, that only former police supervisors have the moral character capable of

owning a private detective business. Describing such points in this monograph will not

serve to argue correctives, but to demonstrate how field practices are institutionalized.

Assumption 5

Closely related to the fourth assumption, is the fifth. I understand a field of

practices as being located in and largely regulated by dominant discourses transmitted

through language in narrative form. 15 Discourses are “a specific series of

representations, practices and performances through which meaning are produced,

connected into networks and legitimized” (Pettersson, 2004, p. 181). Discourses

influence the background expectancies that interlocutors bring to everyday social

interactions, and regulate much of what is accepted as legitimate or real. In Berger and

Luckmann’s (1966) framework, discourses are a source of the “recipe knowledge” that

constructs our reality.

Discourses are not fixed or neutral (Foucault, 1984). Vidocq’s practices in an

earlier time cast him as a criminal, in another a legitimate business person. Like Vidocq,

14
According to Meyer and Rowan (1977) and DiMaggio and Powell (1983), laws emerge
as institutionalized typifications of taken-for-granted practices, are followed
ceremoniously as myths, and function as coercive pressures on organizational forms.
15
I explain this in greater detail later, but for now I should note that I understand life as
largely enacted through narrative. Situated discourses, for example, as they share and
participate with other discourses in the “texture of communicative praxis” (Schrag, 2003,
p. 23), over time produce a dominant social narrative that informs future practices, and
vice versa.
 17

individuals are constantly being cast as “types” in the ongoing narrative of everyday life.

Discourses help people make sense of their own and others’ actions, but sometimes in

problematic and threatening ways. This makes “problematizing” discourses appealing to

me. In this project, however, I am only concerned with how pervasive narratives

potentially regulate investigative practices and shape entrepreneurial opportunities within

the field of private investigating.

In keeping with the desire to situate this study in relevant discourses and to use

these discourses to understand private investigators’ practices, I forgo a traditional

“literature review.” Instead, I provide an introduction to the relevant narratives (i.e.,

accounts) about investigating and entrepreneurship that influence how private

investigators, researchers, and other cultural participants understand these professions.

Accounting for and engaging with these narratives comprises the text in chapter 3. By

locating my work within the relevant popular and academic accounts, readers should

better understand how I arrive at particular conclusions about professional investigators’

practices.

Introduction to the Field of Private Investigations

A Bit of History

The birth of contemporary private investigating, as previously mentioned, has its

roots in a turbulent 18th and early 19th century France. 16 The industry’s forbearer,

Eugène François Vidocq (1775-1857) was born, according to his own accounts, on a

night that “rain poured down in torrents [and] thunder rumbled” (Vidocq, 1935/2003, p.

1). As a result, a midwife concluded that his career “would be turbulent and stormy” (p.

1). His “turbulent career” sets the ongoing dance between deviance and (private)

policing, which is at the foundation of modern liberal governmentality, and which

16
I recognize that forms of citizen-investigating, especially as part of defense work in
public trials, probably dates to antiquity. Furthermore, this is the Western story of private
investigating and, therefore, it likely has a much older non-Western history.
 18

continues to create profit opportunities for private investigators (see Foucault,

1978/1994). Vidocq was a two-bit thief, army deserter, and convict who spent five years

of his life brawling, gambling, prostituting, pickpocketing, and engaging in large-scale

brigandage. Despite his multiple incarcerations (and escapes), his fortune changed

when he saw profitable opportunities by working as an informant and spy.

Vidocq eventually rose to prominence as a chief of police, criminologist, inventor,

Parisian entrepreneur and, eventually, private eye. He started, for example, a paper

factory and holds several patents. He is credited with the introduction of undercover

work (he was the early “master of disguise”), ballistics, anthropomorphics, record-

keeping systems, early forensic laboratory work, procedures of field investigations, and

using paid informants. Many of his informants were his criminal friends, and he had no

qualms of engaging in graft, extortion, and kidnapping in order to obtain results. As

Robin Walz (2003) notes, “the fact that Vidocq retired after fifteen years of official service

with assets approaching half a million francs, substantially in excess of his annual salary

of 5,000 francs, added circumstantial weight to suspicions that the Sûreté chief

promoted extralegal activities” (pp. xii-xiii). Through his life and field stories—which are

recounted in his Memoirs de Vidocq (written around 1827;1935/2003) and inspired his

friend Honoré de Balzac’s literary works, as well as authors Alexandre Dumas, Victor

Hugo, and Eugène Sue—Vidocq emerged as the original “detective as anti-hero” and

“hero of the bourgeois.” These two hero types continue to be reproduced in modern pulp

fiction, the social imagination, and the ongoing melodramas of our socio-political lives

(see chapter 3).

The heritage of private investigating in Europe soon made its way to the United

States of America where, until around the 1850s, policing largely fell upon private

citizens (Weiss, 1979). In this sense, private investigating and private policing

preempted the public form. While some major cities began establishing public police
 19

departments and sheriffs were performing some law enforcement duties in the

countryside, both were insufficient at providing all the necessary services that came with

Western expansion and modernization of cities. Both were also (justifiably) seen by

citizens as inept and corrupt (Gaines, 1999). For example, early police forces were

under the control of mayors who frequently handpicked officers loyal to them. As a

consequence, police protection was often only available to the mayor’s political allies

and officers would, at times, intimidate and punish adversaries. For example, “being

framed” was literally the practice of chiefs of police (likely at the direction of politicians)

hanging framed pictures of individuals that were to be closely monitored or toward whom

criminal charges were to be fabricated.

It was in this climate of fear that private policing formalized into organized

corporations. The desire by the general public to receive higher quality services and to

counteract the corrupt practices of the public police created profit opportunities; thus,

business for private policing and investigating flourished. The companies were so

successful that a Chicago mayor, Republican John Wentworth, provided in an 1857

newspaper editorial the following diatribe:

[I]t is a lamentable fact that whilst our citizens are heavily taxed to
support a large police force, a highly respectable private police is
doing a lucrative business. Our citizens have ceased to look to the
public police for protection, for the detection of culprits, or the recovery
of stolen property. (as cited in Gaines, 1999, p. 24)

While public agencies seem to be far more respectable today, there is a sense among

private investigators, some economists (e.g., Roger Koppl), and Civil Libertarians, that

citizens are again turning to private detectives to help resolve crimes and injustices that

the police are either unwilling to handle or perpetuate. While a private system may be

more favorable at times, it does not mean that they are infallible or necessarily better

than their public counterparts (see Churchill, 2004). During the early 1900s, for example,

private detectives working for the railroads supposedly sent a lot of innocent men to jail,
 20

and hence the phrase “being railroaded” came into existence (Gaines, 1999).

Furthermore, serious issues and concerns arise with private military and private policing

(which are much different than investigative services) offered by private companies like

Xe Services (formally Blackwater Worldwide).

In the early days, neighborhoods would often pay for the services of a private

patrol officer. Some private companies provided general services to all citizens (e.g.,

Chicago Detecting and Collecting Police Agency, established 1857) while others

charged businesses a nominal fee for “beat patrollers” who walked the streets and alleys

looking for riffraff and checking business doors throughout the night (e.g., Merchant’s

Police Company, established 1858). The most successful and comprehensive agency of

all was the Pinkerton National Detective Agency (originally North-Western Police

Agency; shortened herein to Pinkertons), which provided services to both individuals and

businesses. The company was founded by Allan Pinkerton (the self-labeled “Vidocq of

the West”; Walz, 2003) and Chicago attorney Edward Rucker. The agency provided

security protection, private military contracting, and detective services. Pinkertons

famously foiled a plot to assassinate President Abraham Lincoln, provided him

protection services during the Civil War (i.e., it created the Secret Service for the Union),

and was the prototype of today’s Federal Bureau of Investigations and Interpol (Horan,

1967; Weiss, 1979). Pinkertons was, by all extents, the country’s only national police

until the early 20th century, employing at times more agents than the standing US Army

(Horan). However, it is worth noting that private companies competed more with one

another than with public agencies (Gaines, 1999). 17

17
This remains the case today depending on how competition is defined. There are
many ways in which the public and private sectors are described in languages of
competition. There are areas, for example, in which public and private detectives’
investigations may be at odds with each other. Furthermore, private investigators are not
allowed to attend the same training sessions offered to public officers though they are, in
some states, regulated by the same government agency. While not the primary focus of
 21

Pinkertons’ main source of revenue was government contracts and other large

corporations. In 1855, for example, the company signed a contract to protect six

railroads for a yearly retainer of $10,000 (Gaines, 1999). Companies like Pinkertons

were especially useful to transportation and other interstate companies. With the

absence of national public agencies, private investigators could pursue fugitives into any

jurisdiction and, therefore, aided public police in this regard. 18 It was the protection of

large companies, however, that came to tarnish the reputation of the private industry for

a time. During the labor disputes of the late 19th century, private agencies were

employed by their clients (e.g., mining companies, railroads, and cattle companies) to

infiltrate unions, protect business assets during strikes (which often took the form of

agents beating protestors and working as scabs), and enforce homestead laws and

other contracts (Churchill, 2004). This often led to volatile and deadly encounters

between private agents and laborers. The public grew more resentful of the exploitation

of private agencies’ power and saw them as doing the dirty work of capitalists. Pinkerton

eventually prohibited his agents from involvement in lawful activities of labor unions;

Pinkertons’ image, however, was so tarnished that the US Congress passed the Anti-

Pinkerton Act in 1893, which continues to be a contentious issue for private security

contractors. 19 Despite the image of the private investigator having been tarnished, the

this study, some public investigators moonlight as security and personal protection
agents. Depending on city ordinances, these officers may be able to retain their power to
arrest and wear their uniform while working as private contractors. The public-private
police officers are able to charge more for their “added services” and are often preferred
by businesses over the private officer who has very little statutory authority. In this case,
competition between public and private entities is most obvious.
18
Bounty hunters continue this service today; however, private investigators frequently
note that there is a “huge ass difference between the two” (Interviewee 5).
19
5 U.S. Code 3108; Public Law 89-554, 80 Stat. 416 (1966); ch. 208 (5th par. under
"Public Buildings"), 27 Stat. 591 (1893). The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, in
U.S. ex rel. Weinberger v. Equifax, held that "The purpose of the Act and the legislative
history reveal that an organization was 'similar' to the Pinkerton Detective Agency only if
it offered for hire mercenary, quasi-military forces as strikebreakers and armed guards"
(see also "GAO Decision B-298370; B-298490, Brian X. Scott [Aug. 18, 2006]).
 22

public image of the private eye as a trench-coat and Fedora-hat wearing sleuth who lives

a life of mystery continues. This is largely contributed to the image’s compatibility with

rugged individualism and “truth and justice” narratives (see chapter 3).

As an investigations company, Pinkertons is not as prominent today.

Modernization (and militarization) of police departments, the rise of the Federal Bureau

of Investigations, changes in legislation, and growth in competition forced large

companies like Pinkertons to focus primarily on security service for private entities. In

the1960s, the company dropped the word “detective” from its logo and letterhead (Morn,

1982), though it seems to be reemerging. Pinkertons now operates as a division of

Sweden-based Securitas AB and is still one of the largest employers of private security

personnel in the United States. 20 Besides uniformed guard and security services,

Securitas provides specialized consulting services to organizations in several industries

through its division Pinkerton Consulting and Investigating (www.securitas.com).

Pinkertons consulting is a potential rival to the small investigative agencies in this

study; however, most of the agency owner-investigators I interviewed did not mention

them as a potential competitor. This is not inconsistent with the research findings that

suggest that rivals are often described as those of similar size, technology, and

geographic location (Porac, Thomas, Wilson, Paton, & Kanfer, 1995). In chapter 4, I

suggest why small agency size may be fitting to the field of private investigating. I make

an argument in chapter 6 that these agencies ought to form stronger associations to

counteract the growing regulatory legislation restricting their important investigative

practices.

20
Pinkertons was acquired, along with longtime rival William J. Burns Detective Agency,
in 2001 by Securitas AB. It has over 250,000 employees in over 30 countries. Ironically,
Securitas is under union organization through the Services Employees International
Union.
 23

A Bit of the Present

Almost all of the agency owners I interviewed were sole-proprietors or had a

handful of employees or contractors. Small-to-medium sized companies in the private

sector still tend to focus primarily on process serving 21 and security services niches. This

is largely due to the fact that economies of scale and knowledge can be achieved in

these sectors. While I did interview two agency owners who operated in the process

service niche, I primarily interviewed agency owners who focused on general

investigative work. This means that most of the agencies were small. Many of the private

investigators I interviewed purposefully avoided process serving because it requires

more overhead and employees. For them, process serving was a premium or courtesy

services they offered to their biggest clients. Three private investigators I interviewed

advertise that they specialize in “hard serves.” 22 For example, Interviewee 10 serves

papers to high profile figures living in Texas border towns overrun by drug cartels. He

charges thousands of dollars rather than the typical market price (currently $35-$65 per

paper). 23

After World War II, social and civil changes (e.g., the increase in stricter

sentencing rules and the emergence of worker’s compensation insurance) increased the

demand for paper process and domestic investigations. Defense attorneys and

insurance agencies needed a cadre of people to deliver court summons and do other

surveillance work. Small private investigator firms were perfect outlets for outsourcing

this remedial task, so attorneys and other companies reduced their use of Sheriffs and

Constables, who were seen as slow and over priced. (The credit crisis of 2008 has only

further pushed the demand for delivery of court summons and eviction notices.)

21
“Papers” is the common parlance for court documents and subpoenas.
22
In other words, people who are difficult to locate, are deliberately avoiding the service
of papers, or are high profile and potentially dangerous.
23
Investigators get paid for a paper even if it is not served, though the standard is three
(or more) good attempts.
 24

Arguably, the emergence of dual-earner families further increased the opportunity for

both partners to use and pay for the services of investigators when they suspected

relationship infidelity. Thus, there has always remained a need for the type of data

gathering and surveillance services that an individual private eye can provide. Private

investigating activities in general, but surveillance in particular, is a labor-intensive

activity. With lower overhead and the various rules and regulations of each state, the

individual investigator has location-specific knowledge and can provide specialized,

client-specific services at a much lower cost than larger agencies. One reason some

small companies have a price advantage in surveillance-related cases is due to how

they classify field investigators as contractors. This practice may be illegal (see chapter

4), but for now it reduces a small company’s tax burden and small companies have not

drawn much attention from state and federal regulators.

Until the 1960s, there was little regulation of the private investigations industry.

To date, there is still no specific federal law regulating the profession and state laws

vary. 24 Some laws, of course, regulate private investigators indirectly (e.g., privacy laws

that apply to all citizens). Laws governing private investigators are regulatory in nature

and do not specifically authorize any special privileges or powers not afforded to the

average citizen. A major concern shared by investigators, and an opinion that I share

with them, is that citizens’ powers are decreasing at an alarming rate. In the US, for

example, the power to obtain and execute warrants and make arrests has been given

solely to public police. Until the 1980s, however, one investigator explained that he was

able to take out warrants during his investigations into employee theft. Another example

is that it is difficult to obtain “public data” about an individual without his or her written

24
Nine states still have no licensing requirements. These states are Alabama, Alaska,
Colorado, Idaho, Mississippi, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, and Wyoming.
In 2007, Missouri implemented statewide licensing requirements. In some states, e.g.
Pennsylvania and Rhode Island, a license may be issued by counties.
 25

consent. While this may sound appropriate, it makes it difficult to skip trace, investigate

potential business partners, and hold government and business leaders accountable

through access to “public data.” As is often the case, there are exceptions to some of

these rules. For example, bounty hunters and some private police can arrest individuals

(see Gaines, 1999; Hankin, 2009). 25 Legislative rules shape fields of practices and

create and destroy (profit) opportunities for private investigators. The consensus among

interviewees was that regulatory changes have been mostly harmful.

The Private Investigations Marketplace: Perceptions and Financials

The individual professional investigator, despite the various legislative and social

changes that influence the field, is not generally at risk of disappearing. While some

agency types may vanish, opportunities for profit and employment in private

investigations are projected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. The

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), which offers the best (not optimal) data about the

industry, projects that there will be an 18% increase in employment during the next

decade. While job growth will be high, competition will remain keen (U.S. Department of

Labor, 2008). The increase in private investigations is due to an increase in heightened

security concerns, litigation (despite tort reforms), and the need to protect confidential

intellectual and physical property of all kinds. The proliferation of criminal activities on

the internet, especially illegal downloading and identity theft, and the proliferation of

affordable electronic devices have increased the demand for private (particularly

corporate) investigators to control internal and external financial losses, to monitor

competitors, to complete comprehensive background checks (which include criminal and

assets) of employees, and to prevent industrial spying. The same tools, however, have

25
Though recently, following the execution of four police officers in Seattle, some
political commentators are suggesting that bail bonding be eradicated. This situation
could lead to a situation in which only wealthy people could await trial (to prove
innocence or guilt) outside of jail.
 26

made it possible for many individuals and companies to do work that once was only

possible for private investigators and other specialists with large investments in

expensive equipment.

According to BLS (U.S. Department of Labor, 2008), in 2006 there were

approximately 52,000 active private investigators in the US. About 30% of these were

self-employed. It is these types (i.e., agency owners and sole-proprietors) that were

shadowed and interviewed as part of this study. The financial data, calculated by the

Department of Labor, does not account for self-employed investigators and there is no

agency or association that seems to keep these records. This makes it difficult to know

whether the agency owners I interviewed make more or less money than the average

corporation-employed investigator, or which sectors are most financially lucrative.

According to the BLS, Around 34% of the jobs were in investigation and security

services, 26 which would include private detective working for sole-proprietary agencies. 27

Around 9% of those included in the BLS data worked for department or general

merchandise stores (e.g., Home Depot). The remaining 27% worked in law firms,

employment services companies, insurance agencies, banks, and other corporations. 28

Private investigators who work for a single organization on their payroll (not as a

contractor) do not need a license (e.g., for a law firm, insurance company, or other

corporation).

Many private investigators, especially those who work as sole-proprietors, are

retired peace or military officers. Yet, despite their expertise, private investigators are not

26
This figure does not include security guards, who have separate occupational codes
OOH 33-9031.00 and 33-9032.00. Security means, for example, corporate espionage
and retail guards.
27
Problematically, many agency owners, despite it being against IRS rules and
potentially illegal according to private investigation statutes in some states, “hire”
investigators as 1099 contractors (herein referred to as 1099ers). This means that these
individuals would likely comprise the 30% of the self-employed calculated by the BLS
and, at the very least, skews all of the statistics for the industry.
28
For example, United Airlines (see Sennewald & Tsukayama, 2006, p. 12).
 27

generally thought of as professionals. The first inclination in the general public is to think

about private investigators and their covert work following deadbeat parents and

cheating spouses. Thanks, in part, to the dominant popular culture and academic

narratives, the private investigator is not seen as a competent individual who aids in civil

and criminal defenses, investigates murders and workplace deaths, and recovers or

thwarts billions of dollars in financial loss for companies each year. Their technical

expertise remains poorly understood. For the most part, even private investigators are

critical of their colleagues. Many of the investigators I interviewed often complained

about the work of other investigators or that there are too many unlicensed investigators

operating illegally. More prominent investigators have not been much help to their less-

famous colleagues. Lake Headley, for example, claimed to be the greatest private

investigator in the world by renowned prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi, wrote the following

tirade about the profession:

I can categorically state that with few exceptions people will be

happier, richer, and generally better off if they stay away from private
investigators. Until recently most states demanded no requirements
whatever from a person wanting to become a licensed p.i., and even
today the regulations are laughably lax. In some states all that is
needed is the purchase of a business license. The field is wide open
for hustlers, con men, adventurers, quick-buck artists, incompetents,
and other unsavory characters. (Headley & Hoffman, 1993, p. 20)

This general sentiment, obviously articulated by Headley with a degree of sarcasm and a

desire for more professionalization, leads to a conclusion that private eyes would benefit

from increased professionalization.

Professionalization, or at least the perception thereof, may increase the wages of

investigators. There may not be a causal relationship between the perception of prestige

and the wages of public and private investigators. There is, however, a discrepancy

between the two. The median wage of an employed private investigator in 2008 was $20
 28

per hour or $41,760 per year (U.S. Department of Labor, 2008). 29 This figure is

consistent with the wages paid to the 1099ers who worked for the investigators I

shadowed. 30 Their public counterparts, however, made a median wage of approximately

$30 per hour or $60,910 per year for a “full-time” employee (U.S. Department of Labor,

2008). 31 Based on interview data, agency owners were consistent with the occupational

data provided by the BLS for the top 10 percentile wages (approximately $75,000 net

profit). However, some were much more financially successful. Eight of the investigators

who participated in this study were making more than $250,000 net profits. But about the

same number of those I interviewed suggested that they are lucky to make $30,000 a

year in profit. Nearly 33% of the individuals I interviewed were retired law enforcement or

military, so much of this income was merely supplementary to their pensions.

Interestingly, almost all of the agency owners that I interviewed were thriving in

the midst of the recession which began in early 2008. It seems that the continued high

level of divorces, child custody disputes, parent-child kidnappings, domestic abuse,

marital and relationship infidelity, home invasions, and fraud continue to drive the

demand for investigators’ services. The proliferation of internet social networking sites in

general, and cheaters and sex sites in particular, will likely continue to increase the need

for both personal surveillance and electronics analyses. Additionally, increases in

addictions and mental disorders may continue to drive demand for the need of private

investigators in business and domestic sectors. With public law enforcement focused

upon illegal drug suppression and violent crime reduction, private investigators are likely

to be retained by small- to medium-sized companies to investigate employee theft,

(potential) business partners, suppliers, and customers, and other property or intellectual

crimes perpetuated against them.

29
See §33-9021; http://www.bls.gov/oes/2008/may/oes339021.htm
30
Most contractors were paid $15-20 per hour for investigative work.
31
See §33-3021; http://www.bls.gov/oes/2008/may/oes333021.htm
 29

This is not to say that public police are disinterested in the concerns of business

victims; however, in budget-strapped municipalities, the police may not be able to

undertake a lengthy investigation to recover property. The goals of public investigators

are to protect “the people” and not a single organization or person, which is the principal

goal of a private detective (Sennewald & Tsukayama, 2006). The goals of private and

public detectives also differ in regard to desired ends. The public investigator is seeking

prosecution for crimes committed against the public-as-victim and gains prestige based

on this goal; the private detectives’ goals are to protect the pecuniary interests of their

clients and seeks financial profit for doing so (though profit can increase with prestige).

Thus, if a valet parking agent is suspected of taking items from customers’ cars or an

employee is stealing merchandise or vandalizing business property, this is not going to

receive the same priority for a public detective as the string of robberies in the

community. However, a company often wants to avoid any public knowledge of the

investigation or the crimes its employees commit. In the case of valet parking agents, the

goal of the company may be to catch the thief and avoid negative publicity. In short, the

private detective agency of today continues to play an important role in protecting private

property and interests, as well as maintaining institutional orders.

Defining Private Investigator

Up until now, I have been using the term private investigator rather loosely. It is

obvious that I am talking about small agency owners and not investigators who work for

large corporations. I would like to specify exactly how private eye (agency owners) is to

be understood within this text. By definition, a private investigator is any individual who

engages in the practice of examining, studying, searching, tracking, and gathering of

physical or testimonial evidence with the objective of serving the (profit) interests of an

individual or organization. Based on this definition, an investigator who works as a loss-

prevention specialist, accident investigator, sexual harassment investigator, or internal

 30

computer forensic specialist (just to name a few) for corporations like Wal-Mart,

American Airlines, Liberty Mutual Insurance, or Citibank are, by definition, private

investigators. In this study, however, these investigators are of little interest and are

referred to as corporate investigators. They are employees of a corporation rather than a

private detective agency. I have not considered them as entrepreneurs, even though

they engage in entrepreneurial activities for their employers.

The private investigators of interest in this study are those who operate their own

private investigations agency (with or without employees) and are small business

owners (i.e., less than $7 million in sales 32 ). I have studied private investigators that fit

the dictionary definition of an entrepreneur: “one who organizes, manages, and assumes

the risks of a business or enterprise” (www.merriam-webster.com). In many instances,

entrepreneur-private investigators frequently do work for large companies and may even

be kept on retainer. However, they may advertise and be engaged in several different

types of investigations simultaneously. Typically, the entrepreneuring private investigator

is a generalist, though several interviewees have been able to find lucrative niches as

specialists.

Whether a private investigator considers him or herself a legal investigator,

corporate investigator, insurance investigator, employee background specialist, or

computer forensics expert (just to name a few), they were of interest to this study only if

they could be considered, literally, their own boss. This is an important point for me to

belabor because there are individuals who call themselves legal investigators and, by

definition, are private investigators even though they do not have a license (since they

work in-house for a civil or defense attorney). Needless to say, they do not likely worry

about the day-to-day operations of the business where they work (i.e., law office). In this

32
Based on US Small Business Administration Table of Small Business Size Standards,
2008.
 31

instance, the professional as entrepreneur is an attorney, not the investigator. On the

other hand, there are private investigators who are entrepreneurs but only work for legal

defense attorneys (i.e., they are legal investigators). Furthermore, as the brief history

above demonstrates, complications further arise since laws frequently change. During

this study, for example, Texas passed a law requiring all computer analysts and

electronic forensic specialists to obtain private investigator licenses. These individuals,

who operate their own computer business and do “investigative work” (a very vague

term) for multiple clients, must now be licensed as private eyes. This not only created

and destroyed opportunities for some, but it raised an issue about cross-pollination and

competition between professions. Some computer forensics professionals are now

begrudged private investigators (legally), but would rather not classify themselves as

such. They consider themselves computer experts, not investigators. Yet, some of the

individuals I interviewed do computer forensic work as private investigators. In short, the

subjects who participated in this study had to identify as a private investigator, meet the

criteria of licensure in their state, and operate their own business.

Why this Study?

The purpose of this project is to provide accounts of the social and cultural

practices of private investigators as entrepreneurs. Through these accounts, I describe

how private investigators are also “entrepreneuring” in everyday communicative

interactions, which includes the recognition of opportunities that emerge from within

everyday practices. From a pragmatic and methodological perspective, I chose this topic

for four reasons: 1) accessibility, 2) previous experience and personal interest; 3) a

seemingly high level of interest among scholars and non-scholars alike (i.e., greater

chances of publication); and, 4) my perception that private investigators are highly

entrepreneurial and use the everyday lifeworld in opportunistic (not solely profitable)

ways. In various contexts, I have observed private investigators’ everyday

 32

conversations with one another, with their clients, and with “professional gatekeepers”

(e.g., TALI). In this text, I have tried to account for the economic, historical, social, and

discursive conditions, as well as popular narratives, that create and constrain the

possibility (i.e., opportunity) for doing private investigating (e.g., using one’s gender and

race strategically) and becoming a legitimate private detective (e.g., laws). 33

This project informs entrepreneurship studies by adding another account of

prosaic entrepreneurship from a process-oriented perspective (see Hjorth & Steyaert,

2004), informs communication theory by demonstrating the entrepreneurial dimensions

of language and discourse (see Schrag, 2003), informs institutional theory (in

organization studies) by providing an account of how the private investigations industry

is ceremoniously enacted (Meyer & Rowan, 1977), and informs all three disciplines by

demonstrating how shadowing actor-networks can provide new insight into how our

social world is constituted through private investigators’ work. I hope, however, that my

project will be of some utility to investigators, who generously granted me access to their

business lives. If nothing more, I hope that this research will provide a better

understanding of the complexity of their work and its importance to our society,

regardless of how ordinary much of it is. Few would argue that private investigators are

engaged in business enterprise, yet there is little discussion about the entrepreneurial

practices of private investigators. Finally, I hope that we may all benefit by an artifact

that, while not a direct challenge to popular and neoclassical beliefs about our economy,

reflects an alternative perspective of entrepreneurship. On that note, just a reminder: I

33
The term “legitimate” is used to designate the institutionally recognized rather than the
culturally accepted. For example, a person may appear to cultural others as a private
eye and be hired to do investigative-related work, but may not be legally-authorized to
do this work. Additionally, a legally-authorized professional investigator may appear to
cultural others as not very “PI-like.”
 33

am interested in describing practices. As such, this project is largely a descriptive, not a

prescriptive, project.

This document will answer many questions, but also create new ones. The value

of using an interpretive approach and praxeological writing style instead of a scientific,

logic-centric style is that it helps encourage new engagement with the social world. To

loosely paraphrase van Maanen (1995): through our style of textwork, theory becomes

and answers emerge. Through the descriptions of the accounts herein, we may find a

path to understanding that at first remains unobserved; or in the case of this study, a

metaphorical street lamppost that allows us to see our subject(s) more clearly. Just as

bits of data (a video, a photo, a conversational moment) inform our descriptions and

theories, so too do our descriptions and theories inform our data. What is data without

pre-understanding of what we should be looking at anyway? And just as I could not deal

with all the fascinating topics that emerged in the field, I understand that my written

accounts herein may generate unintended or alternative interpretations. I do not

discourage readers for snooping them out.

Finally, and not an equivocal detail because I present it last, I must note that in

order to maintain an ethical relationship with private investigators I have used techniques

that may describe a practice but obscures, alters, or leaves out details. At times I have

been obliged to leave out entire field descriptions. While I describe the individuals I

shadowed and their practices in Appendix B, I have at times obscured from which

investigators certain practices were observed. For narrative fidelity, I have tried to

divulge as much information as I can; for ethical concerns, I tried to keep some practices

in the shadows.

I am also aware that there was some information that I was not privy to while in

the field. In order to maintain the integrity of their work or to project a particular image,

some investigators did not allow me access to certain meetings and many may have
 34

used impression management to try to control my perceptions. I have tried to provide

indications of when this happened. However, this generates even more interesting

questions. If investigators tried to manage impressions then they had to use deception in

order to do so. They are, in some sense, “masters of deception.” Much of their work, as

mentioned above and described in greater details later in this document, requires that

they engage in (deviant) pretexting practices in order to uncover others’ “deviant”

behaviors (Shulman, 2007). If they are masters of deception, is it even possible that I

would have been able to tell when they were trying to impress something on me? And, if

I could, were they failing at their professional practice? Or does this show they are good

at entrepreneuring?

Given the unending possibilities of such questions, I suggest that this document

be read using the same advice I gave myself while in the field: much can be gained by

paying attention to what remains obscured, hidden, or unobservable. Sherlock Holmes

(Doyle, 1892/2009) gave us useful advice about paying attention to these pesky,

(hidden) prosaic details:

Inspector Gregory: "Is there any other point to which you would wish to draw
my attention?"
Holmes: "To the curious incident of the dog in the night-time."
Gregory: "The dog did nothing in the night-time."
Holmes: "That was the curious incident."

My desire to account for the small details that are seen every day but often go

unobserved guides this look into the everydayness of two entwined creative practices—

private investigating and entrepreneuring.

 35

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY & METHODS

Why I Begin with Method(ologie)s

Researchers following standard protocol usually follow an introduction by

discussing relevant literature and recent theoretical developments or limitations in their

field. I am breaching this normative protocol for three pragmatic reasons. First, I want to

forefront that I am much more interested in working with and describing “social stuff”

(which includes non-tangible things like ideas) than “theorizing” about social

phenomena.

Second, I entered this project first as practitioner and then as researcher. I did

not do a literature review before engaging as a participant-observer in the field of private

investigating. I was first a private investigator and then an ethnographer. When I decided

to study the field of private investigations from an entrepreneurial perspective as a

researcher, I used primarily “ready-at-hand” stock knowledge (admittedly scholarly

readings comprise a large portion of this knowledge) to develop my approach to the

field. I prepared by reading literature on methodologies and methods used by

praxeologists and ethnomethodologists. For pragmatic reasons, I eventually settled on

shadowing methodology.

Finally, I initially avoided a literature review about private investigators because I

did not want to be too influenced by scholars’ “explanations,” “legitimations,” and

objectivations of second-order constructs regarding the profession (Berger & Luckmann,

1966; see, especially pp. 92-104). I conceptualized private eyes as individuals who must

engage in entrepreneurial praxis and went to the field to see just how they practice their

profession as entrepreneurs. Similarly, I do not want to lead readers with academic

explanations before they more fully understand how methodological choices color my

observations and writing choices.

 36

I have always thought that beginning with a literature review is a peculiar way to

explain one’s ethnographic research. It is certainly a way to demonstrate to an audience

that the author is in touch with current research trends and the scholarly conversation.

But the questions we ask as researchers and the results that we find have as much to do

with our methodological attitudes, access to instruments, and paradigmatically

sanctioned practices as with the literature we read. Beginning with theoretical

discussions, while an effective organizational pattern, is not the only way to begin. For

some research it is a poor way to begin. Human studies research that focuses on the

everyday speech and prosaic practices of actors in their own contexts is an example of

such research. It is best to focus foremost attention on the narratives and methods social

actors rely on to hold together their social order.

Focusing on methods first makes sense in that we are always already in need of

a way, more than anything else, to pursue actors and objects. As certain contemporary

rhetoricians and philosophers have noted (e.g., Walter Fisher, Ernesto Grassi, and

Martin Heidegger), in the beginning was the logos, which, in the early days, “meant

story, reason, rationale, conception, discourse and/or thought. Thus, all forms of human

expression and communications—from epic to architecture, from biblical narrative to

statuary—came within its purview” (Fisher, 1985, p. 74). It was because of logos that a

God could say “Let there be light.” But for this statement to be actualized there had to be

a method or, more accurately, a methodus. And, like logos, methodus—derived from the

words “meta” (after) and “hodus” (a traveling, way)—used to be richer in meaning. In the

early days it meant “pursuit, following after” and not just “scientific inquiry.” It seems

accurate to say, therefore, that if we want to understand a phenomenon, we are always

in need of a methodus to pursue after the logos that it follows (literally, method allows us

to “shadow” praxis). The method we choose will affect what and how we observe.
 37

My Connection to Other Praxeologists: A Methodological History

My fascination with method began when I was a child. I never was much

interested in general explanations of why stuff happens; I was more fascinated with the

particular details of how stuff happens. It was for this reason that I was always interested

in political activities (namely rhetoric) and entrepreneurship. My family has both

politicians and entrepreneurs. I used to love to watch them work. I diligently observed

how they interacted with others and how these interactions either succeeded or failed to

obtain a marginal gain for interactants. Sometimes I would have to wait patiently to see

whether a particular communicative event or persuasive claim had much effect. Often, I

would have to search for answers: “So whatever came of such-and-such?” I had already

begun living an ethnographic life.

I paid close attention to how my parents’ businesses operated on a day-to-day

basis, which is to say I watched work practices. I observed my mother “keeping books,”

“drafting contracts,” “moving push pins” from one jail and state to another jail and state

on a map (i.e., coordinating van movement), and “calculating profitability” based on the

most cost-effective route. 1 Of course, this was all contingent on which jails were able to

board transportees and interstate commerce commission regulations (i.e.,

institutionalized rules). When a decision was reached regarding the “best route”—which

it never really was—my mom would have to wait to hear from the drivers who made

phone calls frequently from gas station pay phones (this was before cost-appropriate cell

phones). Plans were always contingent on whether the drivers had traveled beyond a

specific point. I observed arguments between my parents and their employees, between

my parents and their investors, and between my parents. In short, I was observing how

1
My parents owned a private prisoner extradition and transportation company for
several years.
 38

their business practices shaped the business, but also how the business shaped their

everyday non-businesses practices. I was captivated.

I had some of my own enterprises too. I made a small fortune as an adolescent

by mowing lawns for neighbors and transporting and selling Little Debbie snacks and

other candies to neighborhood kids at a 20-500% markup. I started my first legal

business enterprise, Alternative Frequencies Music Entertainment Services, when I was

15 years old. I provided music entertainment with a professional light show at high

school and university dances, weddings, and other special engagements throughout

Wyoming and Colorado. That I did these things is not that important. What is important,

as far as this project is concerned, is how I accomplished them. The practices required

to be an entrepreneur felt natural because I had a significant amount of ready-at-hand

“stock knowledge” from observations of my parents’ practices. Growing up in a political

and entrepreneurial home helped me cultivate various technai—particularly rhetorical

ones—for successful engagement in marketplaces. I picked up the “tricks of the

(entrepreneurial) trade” while hanging around my mother like her shadow. I learned that

being in business required far more than a motivation for profit. I learned how to account

for and be accountable to institutions, objects, and other people, which are important to

business success. I needed to know how to build and maintain relationships, write a

business plan, sign contracts, pay bills, advertise my services, track money in and out of

the business, and so on.

My high school fortunately offered many business-related courses as part of their

vocational and technical education program. When I was in the ninth grade, I took

accounting and economic classes. I liked my other subjects, especially literature and

public speaking, but I treasured double-entry accounting. I enjoyed watching how data

moved from one account to another, producing information while remaining in balance

(barring human error). Crediting one account meant debiting another, for example.
 39

Placing a transaction onto paper required a bookkeeper’s decision, which was already

based on rules and regulations and a projected report, but the numbers also seemed to

want to move on their own. They coaxed the bookkeeper into moving them. From the

various meticulous and traceable movements of these figures, balance sheets and

income statements could be generated. These “statements” (the numbers were given a

voice!) performed for, but also per-formed, stakeholders. 2 Most importantly, they made it

possible for interested parties to make decisions.

Any financial statement is an assembly of several movements of numbers,

themselves being assemblages, into a single space and place. These assemblages of

numbers are based on various interactions between actants (e.g., a bookkeeper and a

number and a number and an equation). At the source of any number, nevertheless, is

an actant-to-actant interaction. This transaction typically involves a human actor (e.g., a

transaction between a car salesperson and a car buyer or a commuter and an electronic

ticket kiosk); however, in our computerized world it is possible for computers to now

interact and produce transactions without human involvement (e.g., robotic pharmacists

filling computer-generated orders, electronic trading systems, and cars operating with a

sat-nav system). Transactions are, after all, interactions involving exchange. In terms of

financial accounting, they are merely translated into numbers—usually very quickly in a

taken-for-granted process (think of any sales transaction at a register) and (eventually)

entered into an accounting regime. These (human) interactions, from a qualitative

researcher’s perspective, remain in need of descriptions. Receipts, in other words, tell a

story of a real-life transaction (as long as everyone was being honest) and they set into

motion (i.e., mobilize) other workplace practices. For example, once a receipt is

produced, the document needs to be entered into an accounting program (or books).

2
A stakeholder with a balance sheet is an actor-network (discussed later), each works
on the other in a transformative process (e.g., balance sheet-analyst or manager-cash
flow statement).
 40

Often a computer does this, or more accurately an algorithm in the cash register that

communicates with accounting software, which makes this process appear seamless.

Sometimes, especially in small businesses, a human inputs the reduced-to-numbers

transaction into a computer program (e.g., QuickBooks) at the end of the business day.

The various numbers that move into the ledgers from receipts are later used to produce

various statements that not only legitimate the company, but also put into motion yet

more actors’ practices (e.g., the Internal Revenue Service) and procedures (e.g.,

calculating tax based on the “net profit” itemized on the income statement). These are all

fascinating practices worth inquiring and qualitatively writing about, and they are what

produce businesses operated by entrepreneurs.

No matter how we convert all these different activities into bits of data—such as

field notes, receipts, or digital recordings—they are always traceable backwards (some

easier than others) to real-life interactions: to agent-customer conversations, to

“inventory manager”-“distribution agent” discussions, to executives writing memos, to

public relations personnel creating press releases, and so on. Each of these interactions

and transactions produce their own (multiple) accounts that are translated into various

data (some numerical and some linguistic) that become “objective” and, therefore, easily

moved around other fields of practices. The production of these objective data can also

be observed by researchers (a primary goal of strategy-as-practice research). 3 Accounts

are traceable backward, but they can also be projected forward as “five-year plans,”

“market projections,” and “organizational environment and climate predictions.” In short,

activity is always already in some other place (see Strannegård & Friberg, 2002). This is

what fascinated me most about accounting: a never ending stream of interactions and

transactions, some of which were contingent upon the very accounting practices that

3
If the goal is to observe the practices that produce objective phenomena as they
happen, then shadowing or other participant-observation research is a good method.
 41

were “keeping a record” of other transactional interactions, but all of them having an

origin in—for the most part—human interactions.

I would have continued studying accounting and pursued a career as an

accountant of finances if it wasn’t for managerial accounting; which is, in my opinion,

overzealously oriented toward the manipulation of numbers more than actual

marketplace transactions. If I had become a public accountant, I never would have

discovered ethnomethodology, which allows me to be an accountant of social and

institutional practices. Ethnomethodology is the study and detailed description of what

methods people use to maintain social order. The word ethnomethodology was coined

by Harold Garfinkel and is developed on a very simple idea: “If one assumes…that the

meaningful, patterned, and orderly character of everyday life is something that people

must work constantly to achieve, then one must also assume that they have some

methods for doing so” (Rawls, 2002, p. 5). The beginnings of ethnomethodology,

according to Anne Warfield Rawls, partly began in a “theory of accounts” course that

Garfinkel took during his undergraduate years. He came to understand that putting items

into an accounting worksheet was already a social construction and “…that construction

was accountable to superiors and other agencies in a variety of complex ways” (Rawls,

p. 10). Written accounts of people’s mundane interactions can highlight the ways in

which our everyday practices are accountable (in all the various meanings of the word).

This is what makes ethnomethodology so appealing to and compatible with narrative

approaches to praxeology.

Since the modern social world is composed of a large number of interactions that

are marketplace transactions, it is not surprising that many of the early

phenomenologically-inspired sociologists and economists (i.e., praxeologists)—who

 42

spent time together at the infamous Vienna Miseskreis 4 (e.g., Ludwig von Mises, Ludwig

Lachmann, Friedrich Hayek, Felix Kauffman, and Alfred Schutz)—had business- and

political-related experiences before and during their academic tenures. For example,

Alfred Schutz was the executive director of a bank and von Mises’s father was a

prominent railroad financier. Garfinkel helped his father in a furniture business and this

“had some unpredictably happy results” because it was germane to his theories

regarding ethnomethodology (Rawls, 2002, p. 9). Garfinkel borrowed heavily from

Schutz’s work and, therefore, ethnomethodology brought with it much of the

phenomenological thrust of praxeology that was collectively developed (though pursued

with slight variations) by Miseskreis discussants. The pragmatic experiences of

praxeology’s progenitors must have contributed to their belief that social phenomena

should not be solely studied and explained through experimentation or abstract

mathematical models. I like to speculate that the early praxeologists learned from their

practical business-related experiences—just as I did through observation of my parents’

and my own business practices—that it is in the prosaics of everyday human

(inter)actions that things like markets, economies, and societies are produced and

maintained. In order to understand these phenomena as researchers, we only need to

make accounts of others’ or our own practices.

Making an “Account” of Prosaic Entrepreneurial Praxis in Marketplaces

The reason I begin with methodology rather than with a traditional literature

review should now be clear. As a praxeologist, I begin with the assumption that the

4
The Miseskreis was a fortnightly gathering of a group of Viennese intellectuals from
1924 to 1934. The discussions were formally led between 7:30 pm and 10:30 pm by
Ludwig von Mises in his office at the Chamber of Commerce. Informally, these meetings
continued at Café Künstler until 3:00 am (Alfred Schutz was usually the last to retire).
Among the participants were some of the most preeminent thinkers in Europe. They
discussed many issues, but the most popular topics were social science methodology,
economics, and history. A favorite topic was Weber’s verstehen sociology and the ideas
of Edmund Husserl (Caldwell, 2004; see also www.mises.org).
 43

objects and subjects of the social world are (re)constituted through ongoing mundane

and taken-for-granted practices. I am interested in observing and describing the ongoing

interactions among various actants, which include both human and non-human subjects

and objects. I am practicing the role of accountant of the communicative, social,

technological, and cultural dimensions of the private investigations profession, which

generates products and services that are “valuable” both monetarily and non-monetarily.

In other words, I want to make an account of and account for profitable entrepreneurial

practices in the marketplaces 5 of private investigations.

I use the terms “marketplace” and “account” throughout this study because both

are etymologically rich words that work well with a praxeological report of prosaic

entrepreneurship. Regarding marketplace(s), I adhere to Michel Callon’s (1998)

distinction between the neo-classical definition of the market and a more heterodox

notion of marketplace. As Callon indicates, “while the market denotes the abstract

mechanism whereby supply and demand confront each other and adjust themselves in

search of a compromise, the marketplace is far closer to ordinary experience and refers

to the place in which exchange occurs” (p. 1). This definition of marketplace brings back

the Greek root of the word agora (place of assembly) as both a commercial and political

space where people went to shop (agorázō) and to speak in public (agoreýō). Agora is

the ethos in which the texture of entrepreneurial praxis is linguistically and practically

opened up. In short, the marketplace is the space of communitive praxis where a

praxeologist desires to do research.

The private investigators marketplace is not a physical location (like a traditional

farmer’s market), but is a set of conditions that open up the possibility for exchange

5
I use the plural form here because there is not just one central place (even
metaphorically) where private investigators and other constituents (e.g., clients and
targets) engage in economic exchange of goods and services.
 44

among various agents. 6 As with other entrepreneurs, therefore, private investigators’

object of concern is not economic abstractions (e.g., profit, price, supply, or demand) but

the ability to engage in (their) trade. Yet despite this obvious conclusion, many

economists and scholars of entrepreneurship studies have almost completely lost focus

on marketplaces and, instead, preoccupy themselves with playing around with economic

and market abstractions. 7 Ronald Coase (1988) notes that in economics “the discussion

of the marketplace itself had entirely disappeared” (p. 3). This would almost be

laughable if it did not carry with it such significant loss, which Rajani Kanth (1999)

captures in a curt yet eloquent manner: “The apparent rigour of mathematics was

recruited avidly by neoclassicism to justify and defend its truistic, axiomatic, and almost

infantile, theorems that deeply investigated but the surface gloss of economic life” (my

emphasis; p. 189). The goal of research should not be to gloss, but to provide deeper

understanding. Detailed descriptions achieve this goal. Private investigators may

produce economic data that can be abstracted (e.g., gross domestic product based on

sales) and may largely come to a similar price point without explicit collusion, but to

understand how they do so requires observation of their everyday practices.

Regarding “account,” I draw on the connotative richness of the word as

bookkeeping and narration. The benefit of using the word “account” when writing about

economic agency is explicated by David Stark (1998):

Accountants prepare story lines according to established formulae,

and in the accounting of a good storyteller we know what counts. In
everyday life, we are all bookkeepers and storytellers. We keep
accounts and we give accounts, and most importantly, we can all be
called to account for our actions. When we make such an accounting,
we draw on and reproduce social orders. (p. 133)

6
Describing these conditions is a central preoccupation of chapters 4 and 5.
7
This is a concern for many in these disciplines. D. North (1977), for example, notes that
“it is a peculiar fact that the literature on economics… contains so little discussion of the
central institution that underlies neo-classical economics—the market” (as cited in
Callon, 1998, p. 1).
 45

Praxeologists are bookkeepers. They maintain detailed field notes when doing

ethnological work and they try to categorize these details into coherent themes. Clusters

of words and claims come to account for various themes that generate theoretical

reports. Just like an accountant of finances, the praxeologist must maintain his or her

books with meticulous care. If the praxeologist is poorly trained, is not careful with the

type of information gathered, is not cautious with how various notes are thematized, and

is not trained in how to read various “outputs” of potential theoretical contributions, then

he or she is likely not capable of offering anything of theoretical or pragmatic value to a

scholarly field. As the popular technological saying goes, “garbage in, garbage out.”

Praxeologists are narrators. They must be able to make sense of a large amount

of data, summarize it, and assemble information in written reports. They also collect

accounts from practitioners (most often through in-depth interviews or participant diaries)

that can later be used to find common themes and insights into how practitioners

understand and conceptualize their field of practices. In giving an analytic assessment of

any sort, whether from ethnological field notes or in-depth interviews, strong rhetorical

and narrative skills are necessary if the praxeologist hopes to generate useful written

accounts of economic practices that can be interpreted and understood by other

scholars, practitioners, and lay citizens. This point has become especially lucid since

Deidre McCloskey’s (1998) rhetoric of economics projects, which have demonstrated

that even the most mathematically rigorous arguments tend to rely on common rhetorical

tropes and persuasive strategies.

Because it follows a more classical sense of persuasion and influence,

McCloskey’s definition of rhetoric is perhaps limited. However, by using her supported

findings while drawing on the epistemic and constitutive rhetorics literature (Brummett,

1990; Charland, 1987; Hyde & Smith, 1979; Hartelius & Browning, 2008; Scott, 1967,

1993), it is plausible to argue that the various artifacts, tools, and statements of social
 46

scientists not only represent a field but actually perform fields of practices, marketplaces,

and economies. For example, a claim by academics and consultants about

entrepreneurship and private investigations, or a measurement that captures and rates

the performances of entrepreneurs and investigators, will continually shape and reshape

how various constituents engage in their everyday practices regarding a particular

phenomenon. As Callon (1998) states, “not only do [business] tools contribute very

largely to the performation of calculative agencies and modes of calculation, while

allowing the constant reconfiguring of these agencies, they also contribute directly to the

shaping of discourse through which these agencies account for their action” (p. 26).

Praxeologists must understand, consequently, that their accounts are shaping the field

as much as the field is shaping their descriptions. If accounts suggest that competition is

better than collaboration in generating higher returns on investment, then competition

will be keen, providing further explanations and justifications for an entrepreneur’s

competitive attitude. Similarly, if an entrepreneur talks about his or her competitive

attitude then this will undoubtedly be a part of the account that generates the narrative

the praxeologist writes. But this is the ongoing process of evaluation in which all

participants in any marketplace must engage: they make individual judgments that are

always already collective. Over time, these judgments come to validate some accounts

and discredit others.

Since the methodological goals of this study were to observe entrepreneurship

and economic exchange “as it happens” (Brundin, 2007) and to provide an account of

how private investigators are accounting for the opportunities and threats that they

perceive as entrepreneurs, I used both participant-observation and interview methods.

From my field notes and interview data, I have made sense of how investigators’

(communicative) practices are constitutive of, and constituted by, specific “social

realities.” Their professional associations, institutions, organizations, regulatory laws and

 47

bodies, as well as larger ones like markets, capitalistic forces, family, and so on are co-

constituted through their prosaic activities. The report of my findings in chapters 4 and 5

are presented as praxeological accounts. Having obtained detailed notes about how

investigators engage with their world and what observable (i.e., “objective”) artifacts they

leave in their wake, I have described how these various individuals’ practices and

artifacts make up their field of practices.

Interviewing, as an accepted and legitimate research practice, has already been

well described in the literature (see, for example, Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009; Lindlof &

Taylor, 2002). Interviews provide researchers with an understanding of how others

understand their world, but it is not typically useful for understanding practices as they

happen. Interviewees, in recalling events, may not be able to remember how something

happened and will likely omit details. For this reason, “interview material is always

material for studying the dominant discourse (and deviations from it)” (Czarniawska,

2008b, p. 9). Recently, qualitative interview practices have been criticized for being more

like interrogations rather than honest development of inter-“views” between the

researcher and his or her subjects (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009). I have tried to adhere to

a policy of conducting interviews in a dialogical and “research-as-conversation” manner.

In order to get detailed field notes of practices that I could use to understand

practices in situ, I needed a (legitimate) method for collecting observations. I chose to

use a method described as shadowing. Shadowing has until very recently been void of

any serious methodological discussion. For this reason, the following in-depth discussion

of the method serves to be both a guide and an argument for this emerging method.

Shadowing Methodology

While techniques similar to those used by contemporary shadowers have

appeared in classic management studies (e.g., Mintzberg, 1970, 1973; Walker, Guest, &

Turner, 1956; Wolcott, 1973), the particulars of shadowing, as its own distinct
 48

methodology, are emergent. 8 To date, shadowing remains under-described in the

research methods literature and has been used to describe a whole range of techniques

and approaches (McDonald, 2005). While qualitative shadowing shares a kinship with

ethnographic fieldwork and other participant observation methodologies, it has many

methodological differences that make it unique and valuable in its own right.

In recent years, Seonaidh McDonald (2005), Barbara Czarniawska (2007), and

Dominique Meunier and Consuelo Vasquez (2008) have tried to enlighten shadowing

with thorough ontological, epistemological, methodological, and theoretical discussions.

Borrowing from these articles, I will add my own voice to the debate by clarifying what I

think ought (not) to count as quality shadowing research. Because a style of research

similar to “shadowing” can and has been used by positive-functionalist scholars to

engage in structured observation (e.g., Polite, McClure, & Rollie, 1997; Walker, et al.,

1956), I want to emphasize that the discussion that follows is limited to qualitative-

interpretivism (see Burrell & Morgan, 1979).

I present axiological claims in favor of practicing qualitative shadowing in specific

ways. This is not to suggest, however, that the method is to be avoided by researchers

in other paradigms. I have little concern with how positive-functionalists, for example,

use the term shadowing when describing acceptable research protocol. Given that

shadowing typically focuses on a select individual, is disruptive to the environment in

which it takes place, and requires ongoing communication between the shadower and

shadowee, it is not likely to be embraced by most positivists any time soon. 9

8
In Appendix A I provide a list of studies that use shadowing-like approaches to the field.
As the list shows, only a few use it by name.
9
Shadowers using an interpretivist epistemology may engage in quantification activities,
in particular they may gather descriptive statistics of activity frequency (of course no
inferences can be made). However, in keeping with an interpretivist approach, the
researcher does not enter the field with pre-determined categories but rather allows
them to emerge organically. Pragmatically, research using a priori categories does not
make sense. Mintzberg (1973) criticizes such research not on the basis of its
 49

I am concerned only with developing an argument for how the method should be

used by praxeologists and other interpretive researchers, in particular those doing

organizational (communication), professional, and prosaic entrepreneurship studies. I

will flesh out what ought (not) to be considered appropriate research protocol—i.e., what

is observable, where one can shadow, how data is to be accounted for in field notes,

and the telos of such research. In general, my overall perspective is very liberal.

However, in keeping with praxeological sensibilities, I will argue that in most

circumstances scholars should not engage in “critical” approaches or provide

explanations. In other words, description should always be followed by more description.

Shadowing and Field of Practices Defined

“Shadowing” is defined by Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary in two ways that fit

this study well: a.) “to follow especially secretly: trail”; b.) “to accompany and observe

especially in a professional setting.” As this definition implies, shadowing is a rather

common social practice. Young medical students shadow doctors to learn how to make

rounds and interact with patients. Junior electricians shadow senior electricians to learn

how to follow rules and regulations. In some municipalities, citizens can shadow police

officers to learn how they work a beat. As part of their activities when working a case,

private investigators shadow suspected cheating spouses, their clients’ potential

business partners, and workers suspected of stealing from their employers. Agency

owners—who, as I will later discuss, often do not implement formal training programs—

train most of their field investigators by having them shadow a senior investigator.

The above examples fit the general definition of shadowing used by organization

studies researchers: “following selected people in their everyday occupations for a time”

philosophical heritage but on the basis that researchers who make use of pre-
determined categories “are, at a higher cost, offering little more than a diary method” (p.
227).
 50

(Czarniawska, 2007, p. 17) and “following a person… walking in his or her footsteps

while taking many field notes” (Meunier & Vasquez, 2008, p. 167). These definitions are

not limited to research of actors engaging in their occupations, but could entail

shadowing other “types” of subjects: consumers (Miller, 1998), pupils (Sclavi, 1994),

families (Lareau, 2003), and marginalized citizens (Capote, 1975). In the social science

literature, shadowing is typically used as methods of experiential learning, recording

behavior, and understanding roles and perspectives, the latter of which specifies an

interpretivist perspective (McDonald, 2005). Meunier and Vasquez (2008), building on

McDonald’s argument, suggest that shadowing literature to date can be classified into

the managerial (e.g., Mintzberg, 1973), the human cognitive (e.g., Reder, 1993), and the

ethnographic (e.g., Bruni, Gerardhi, & Poggio, 2005). They develop their own

conceptualization of shadowing as a communicational approach. While I find

McDonald’s article more useful in terms of a classification around distinct research

paradigms (i.e., functionalist and interpretivist), the communicational approach described

by Meunier and Vasquez is clearly interpretivist and, borrowing from Latour (2005) and

Michel Callon (1986), considers both human and nonhuman actants within the

organizational environment.

Nonhumans and nonliving objects can also be qualitatively shadowed. Deborah

Gordon (1999), for example, shadows ants in the Arizona desert to understand how

“zillions of ant acts” add up to organized colonies despite their lack of any formal

leadership (p. x). From detailed observation and shadowing, she is able to postulate that

there is nothing queen-like about the queen, just her ovaries—“she has no special

authority or privileges” (p. 13). This insight was a result of careful observation of ant

practices from ant-level observations. Gordon does not just study the colony; she studies

individual ants as they work along the desert floor. As she notes, “Zoom in, you see the

ants—zoom out, you see the colony” (p. viii). Likewise, it is just a matter of personal
 51

desire, focus, and access for qualitative social researchers who study human actors.

Zoom in, see the actors—zoom out, see the organization, culture, society, and

marketplace. Studies of organizations can be ethnographic in character (focusing on

many cultural others and their performances in a given setting) or the ethnologist can

shadow specific individuals accounting for their practices and interactions with(in) the

organizational environment. When time permits, a combination of multiple methods can

be adopted. In this study, for example, I used a combination of shadowing, interviews,

and participant-observation field research. The use of so many field methods is common

in qualitative research, which “relies on pragmatism, luck, and moral sensibility”

(Czarniawska, 2008b, p. 10).

Researchers who shadow nonliving objects as actants often do so in conjunction

with their ethnological studies in organizational settings (e.g., Adolfsson, 2005; Bruni,

2005; Latour, 1999). Studies of objects-as-actants are usually associated with actor-

network-theory (ANT). ANT is “a narratology-inspired approach to science and

technology studies” (Czarniawska, 2007, p. 91). 10 In order to account for how social

phenomena (e.g., organizations, economies, professions, and institutions) are produced

and maintained, ANTs engage in a research program that is the tracing of associations

between heterogeneous material and semiotic elements. The general maxim of ANT is

’to follow the actors themselves,’ that is try to catch up with their often
wild innovations in order to learn from them what the collective
existence has become in their hands, which methods they have
elaborated to make it fit together, which accounts could best define
the new association they have been forced to establish. (Latour, 2005,
p. 12)

Researchers must become intimate with actors, artifacts, or activities to make notes of

the finest details. As Meunier and Vasquez (2008) note, “this means [researchers] must

10
ANT is faithful to ethnomethodology but adds the element of tracing how actor-
networks (which include objects and objectivated social action) bring together, hold
together, or pull apart social reality.
 52

document the flow of … actions over the course of which a set of objects (texts, stories,

bodies) in a series of interactions (meetings, hallway conversations, e-mail exchanges)

are mobilized” (p. 185). Given the heterogeneous nature of praxis and the possibility that

actants can mobilize in multiple directions at once, shadowers must be somewhat

familiar with the field of practices they study, have high stamina, and be entrepreneurial

while in the field.

The “field” for most traditional researchers is where people live and work. As

such, the field is an identifiable, rhetorically claimed, already performed, and legitimated

space or place (e.g., IBM headquarters, McDonald’s restaurant, elementary school, or

university). Following and describing what particular actors do in these spaces/places

and reporting them in ethnographies (e.g. Sclavi, 2007; Wolcott, 1973), taxonomies

(e.g., Walker, et al., 1956), or a mixture of both formats (e.g., Mintzberg, 1970; 1973)

can lead to interesting insights.

To follow objects in general and discursive objects in particular (as well as some

subjects), shadowing cannot be limited to a physical setting. For researchers adopting a

more ANT-like praxeological approach, the field is used in the sense of a field of

practices, which “is the total nexus of interconnected human practices” (Schatzki, 2001,

p. 2). This definition is consistent with the praxeological approach I have adopted for this

study. Studies using the “practice approach,” regardless of method (but shadowing is a

good one), are demarcated as “all analyses that (1) develop an account of practices,

either the field of practices or some domain thereof (e.g., science), or (2) treat the field of

practices as the place to study the nature and transformation of their subject matter”

(Schatzki, p. 2). Ontologically, theorists taking a “practice turn” approach believe that the

“the social is a field of embodied, materially interwoven practices centrally organized

around shared practical understandings” (Schatzki, 2001, p. 3). With its focus on how

the social is produced and objects manufactured (including social facts), researchers
 53

adopting a praxeological approach to fieldwork, with a telos of understanding a field of

practices, are not limited to physical settings, but can take place in cyber, textual, and

rhetorical spaces.

Philosophical and Pragmatic Considerations

As the above discussion suggests, shadowing is not limited to qualitative

research, may be used by interpretivists and positivists, and can be used to follow

subjects and objects (especially discourses) as they move through fields of practices.

The techniques used to shadow people and objects as qualitative interpretivist will be

explained thoroughly in the next section. What I will address now are the philosophical

assumptions that ought to be adopted when one claims to be engaging in shadowing

research as an interpretivist.

Given that the so-called qualitative turn has overtaken social science in the last

thirty years or so and that qualitative research in organizational studies is “expanding if

not exploding” (van Maanen, 2006, p. 13), I do not plan to justify or argue for more

acceptance of the now institutionalized, if not dominant, approach to fieldwork. I also do

not plan to justify interpretivism, which is a less dominant, though no doubt an emerging

force in social science research. What I would specifically like to argue for is a reflexive

awareness among qualitative-interpretive shadowers of the epistemological and

ontological assumptions they adopt when they choose to study the lifeworld through

qualitative shadowing, which I would argue must use an interpretive epistemology in

order to gain the greatest use-potential of the method. I would also like to highlight the

unique possibilities, burdens, and challenges that researchers face when they adopt this

approach to fieldwork.

Epistemological and ontological assumptions. Richard G. Seymour (2006)

notes that entrepreneurship researchers often “avoid the mire of the philosophy of

science and ‘skip’ straight to discussions of methodology or method” (p. 137). Per
 54

Davidsson (2004) exemplifies this when he claims in the opening to his book,

Researching Entrepreneurship, that “You will not find a lot of philosophy of science

arguments or references in this book. Let me tell you a secret: philosophers of science

often do not know much about conducting empirical research—they simply don’t have

the experience and expertise” (p. xi). Davidsson’s “secret” may be an accurate

observation. What Davidsson fails to mention, but Seymour draws attention to, is that

the opposite is equally true: researchers often use methods without understanding the

philosophical premises that guide their research practices. This partly arises from

researchers’ nonchalance towards philosophy of science or their desire for fieldwork

expediency.

Most notable in communication and organization studies is the common fallacy

among researchers that those who use quantitative measures are positivists and those

who use qualitative approaches are interpretivists. Qualitative research, in the simplest

definition, refers to the methodological approaches that rely on nonquantitative modes of

data collection and analysis. There are many different types of familiar qualitative

research (e.g., critical theory, ethnography, discourse analysis, ethnomethodology,

hermeneutic phenomenology, and rhetorical criticism) that represent a broad range of

diverse philosophical perspectives, research techniques and procedures, and styles of

presentation (Prasad & Prasad, 2002). In other words, researchers can do qualitative

research but not adopt an interpretivist epistemology.

Qualitative positivism is a term that Anshuman Prasad and Pushkala Prasad

(2002) use to describe the use of qualitative methods under the guise of positivism.

Such a research program “…adopts a relatively commonsensical and realist approach

toward ontological and epistemological matters. Reality is assumed to be concrete,

separate from the researcher, and cognizable through the use of so-called objective

methods of data collection” (p. 6). According to McDonald (2005), research in

 55

organization studies published under the shadowing label largely embodies a spirit of

qualitative positivism; it “is used as a proxy for a diary study in a situation where the

target individuals would not, or could not, take on the recording task themselves” (p.

462). As used by qualitative positivists, shadowing (like other qualitative methods) is a

tool that is seen as a neutral means of observing behavior and recoding what is

“actually” happening (McDonald, 2005). Researchers instruct participants to treat them

as if they are invisible or, more humorously, “as the family dog” (Lareau, 2003, p. 9). My

experience using shadowing made me conclude that positivism and shadowing are

largely incompatible.

Taking an objectivist approach whereby the researcher attempts to remain

invisible or neutral may be a worthwhile ambition, but the possibility and desirability of

doing so remains questionable. The shadowee and others with whom she or he interacts

will be very aware of the researcher’s presence and it is likely that the shadowee, at

least for some time, will be fully engaged in the art of impression management. What is

more, if the researcher tries to remain distant she or he cannot work to build rapport with

the subjects he or she observes. This increases the possibility that the shadowee will

restrict access to certain activities or, worse, come to resent the presence of the

researcher. The latter is especially likely in situations where the researcher is “studying

up.” 11 I didn’t experience much resistance while shadowing during regular work days;

11
“Studying up” or “studying sideways” refers to ethnological studies of individual or
groups who are in a higher or equal power positions to the researcher. Executives are of
equal or higher power than a university professor. The stress of “studying up” is greater
due to subjects’ willingness to be more assertive and controlling. I experienced this while
trying to do qualitative depth interviews at a regional entrepreneurship center. The
director of the facility was very excited about the research; however, the more I showed
up to conduct fieldwork the more annoyed she seemed to become. Eventually, the
tension was so great I decided that the study was not worth the emotional toll. My
example is consistent with Mitchel Abolafia’s (1998) documentation of the stress he
experienced studying traders of a stock exchange, Czarniawska’s (2007) tearful
experience with a city manager, who informed Czarniawska that she hoped to never see
 56

however, at the investigator conferences I attended the participants became particularly

annoyed about the process. In one case, an agency owner asked, “are you going to

write everything down?” I replied with a laugh to cut the tension, “Of course!” Despite

some tension, all the investigators continued to let me hang around.

Shadowers should not be overzealous about building a close friendship either.

When the researcher remains distant it is easier to play off the assumptions of the

shadowee and keep the activities and conversations directed toward the practices of

interest. Although it was stated in the informed consent that investigators signed (but

often never read) that I had worked as a private investigator, many of them treated me

as if I knew nothing about the field. By not correcting the investigators, they talked about

their practices in an instructive manner. If I had continually referred to my connection to

other agency owners, shadowees may not have divulged as much information regarding

business strategy.

My willingness to allow participants to deceive themselves may come off as

problematic or unethical. I would not be the only qualitative researcher to be called into

question for this use of covert research or deception (see Allen, 1997). But secrecy and

deception are intrinsic to (qualitative) field research for researchers and research

subjects (Mitchell, 1993). Admitting to this fact at the outset, which interpretivists do,

gives agency to research subjects and treats data as subjective. Interpretivists recognize

that “[researchers] may seek to present themselves in one manner or another; as a

friend, disinterested bystander, or novice, but subjects can and usually do reinterpret,

transform, or sometimes altogether reject these presentations in favor of their own”

(Mitchell, 1993, p. 12).

her again, and Richard Mitchell’s (1993) argument that researchers choose to study
people with lower power status because they don’t often resist.
 57

All qualitative researchers, even those using positivism, must build and maintain

relationships, negotiate access, overcome issues of (a)symmetry regarding power, and

maintain a balance between honesty and secrecy (both in the field and in writing). These

issues may be less problematic when doing general observation work of an entire

culture or organization: if access is denied in one space then the researcher can go

somewhere else, if someone does not want the researcher to “hang around” then she or

he can find someone else to “hang with,” if the information obtained is questionable then

a composite character can be constructed, and so on. Shadowing, however, presents

very unique problems, such as what to do when a shadowee indicates that she or he

wants to be presented in a particular way.

The goal of the shadower is to lower, through communicative effort, the chance

that a participant would deny him or her access to a particular space or situation;

however, the research subject must feel comfortable that she or he can deny the

researcher access. If a shadowee does deny access, especially abruptly (perhaps a

conversation turns to a sensitive topic), repair work will be necessary. Obviously, one

cannot remain distant from the shadowee and have this type of rapport. In writing, it is

very difficult to build a composite character when one uses shadowing. Therefore, a

great deal of subjectivity and care must go into crafting field reports. Interpretivism is an

approach that, through the philosophical tenets it adopts, deals with these issues

explicitly.

The philosophical basis of qualitative interpretivism is verstehen, which is a

principle attributed to the processes of understanding subjective realities through

(empathetic) insight into the intentionality and meanings ascribed by others (Schutz,

1967). Interpretivists do not seek causal explanations or correspondent theories of truth.

Instead, they seek a consensus theory of truth based on understanding, which is an

outcome of intersubjective experience (Berger & Luckmann, 1966). By sharing field

 58

experiences with research subjects while in the field, and by developing arguments

about the field in relation to others’ accounts, the researcher avoids giving eccentric and

solipsistic viewpoints. The plausibility of a claim is always “tested” against others’

experiences and “prior knowledge.” As a result, coherent and deviant viewpoints are

exposed. Communication between the shadower and shadowee while in the field is not

to be avoided, but instead is encouraged tout court.

As a “discourse of understanding,” interpretivism seeks to place in a dialectically

productive tension, if not reconcile, the bifurcation between the subject and the object

(Mumby, 1997). The shadower and shadowee are both objects and subjects and they

both simultaneously influence the field of practices. This was very evident during my field

research. At times, private investigators used me in ways that seemed to be

economically meaningful to them. In one instance, for example, a private investigator

suggested to a potential client that I was a doctoral student who was his intern to

demonstrate “…how serious we [the company] are at hiring highly qualified people in our

investigative work.” In this instance, I was translated into a “selling point.”

Since interpretivism suggests that “theory should be developed through the

iterative testing of tentative explanations against the experience of ongoing interaction

with group members” (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002, p. 11), I later asked the private eye if my

assumption about his intention was accurate: “Of course, but it also helped ease the

client. Didn’t you see that? You have to understand that people who are hiring a p-eye

are already squeamish. Tell them I brought along a person writing a book and you can

kiss that contract goodbye [laugh].” Shadowing thoroughly disrupts the divide between

the subject-object by throwing the researcher into the middle of everyday experiences.

Rather than trying to detach him or herself from the everyday, an interpretivist shadower

becomes an important part of each scene. To deal with issues that arise from the fact

that researchers may experience reality differently than their participants, that they
 59

influence the environment when present, and that they alter participants practices,

interpretivism dictates that the researcher adopt a reflexive attitude. Reflexivity is

concerned not only with bias, but also with the ethical and political dimensions of the

research activities.

So when the natives hide their modern-day electronics when the anthropologists

approaches, as a famous “The Far Side” cartoon by Gary Larson hints, the interpretivist

is not alarmed. First, she or he knows that after some time these non-routine activities

will grow tiresome and research subjects will eventually revert to old habits and

inconsistencies will emerge that suggest something is awry. When shadowing is used by

organizational researchers to follow managers, executives, and entrepreneurs, the very

need to get back to business precludes research participants from acting. When they do,

they will often be called out. In one instance, for example, an agency owner instructed

employees to “order in lunch, I’m paying” and the employees—whose work space was

located in a large open room—simultaneously replied, “Jeez! Aren’t we feeling generous

today?” It was possible that the shadowee was trying to show himself as generous, but

his employees disrupted this performance.

Second, interpretivists are largely indifferent to research subjects’ managed

performances. The positivists’ anxiety that subjects will present a picture of their

activities that is biased by their own interests is accepted as obvious. It is, as

Czarniawska (2005) notes, “a favorite pastime of all natives, be they Cuña Indians,

Polish managers, or Swedish scholars” (p. 18) to manage others’ perceptions of their

activities. The management of public perceptions, especially through research, allows

professions to gain credibility and thrive.

To get enough data to produce useful descriptions of professional practices,

prolonged field immersion and ongoing dialogue with participants is necessary.

Interpretivist research, therefore, is characterized by lengthy data collection periods. It is

 60

very unlikely that a person will allow him or herself to be shadowed for more than a week

or two, especially in a for-profit organization. That is, of course, unless you have the

magical skills of Harry Wolcott, who admits that it was with a great deal of “good fortune”

that he was able to commit a principal to shadowing for nearly two years (1973, p. 1). It

is important, therefore, that a shadower begin the shadowing project with significant

knowledge about the field so that understanding is more expedient. Meunier and

Vasquez (2008) argue that “performing real time coding in a reliable way requires highly

trained observers familiar with the group member’s goals and activities” (p. 175). There

may be instances, of course, in which a shadower may want to enter the field as

ignorant as possible. One example would be research on learning or training processes.

Fortunately, contemporary field research can take place in various locations,

including the internet (Czarniawska, 2007). Shadowers can conduct exploratory

research on the internet or conduct interviews with key informants before, after, or during

the shadowing process. In-depth analyses of these same field data can be conducted in

order to obtain a better picture of the “realities” of the field. I would argue that the more

the shadower understands the field and the organizational environment in which the

shadowee works, the more fruitful his or her time with a particular subject will be. One of

the benefits of having been a private investigator before I was a researcher was that I

knew the language of the profession. Thus, discussions with agency owners could go in

directions that would have been otherwise impossible.

Given the above overview of shadowing, it should now be clear what kind of

method the qualitative-interpretivist shadower is working with. There are still three issues

that I need to address regarding shadowing, each likely to provoke significant

disagreement and reaction among fellow interpretivists and shadowers. First, although

both Czarniawska (2007) and McDonald (2005) have provided thorough discussions of

how to engage in shadowing research, both short-circuit discussions regarding analysis,

 61

claiming that data, for example, “can… be analysed in the same ways as any other

qualitative data” (McDonald, p. 457). In shadowing research, data emerges as a process

of intersubjective experience, and that

…shadowing data are more detailed than data gathered through

many other approaches… [and] given that shadowing research does
not rely on an individual’s account of their role in an organization, but
views it directly, means that shadowing can produce the sort of first-
hand, detailed data that gives the organizational researcher access to
both the trivial or mundane and the difficult to articulate. (p. 457)

Here McDonald (2005) admits that research data are different, yet maintains that data

can be analyzed by the same means of other qualitative research. I disagree.

Data can be thematized or categorized like any other qualitative research, but

how does one know if data is “mundane,” “difficult to articulate,” or both? Should data be

treated as isolated events or as if the various shadowees are in dialogue with one

another? To what degree can data be treated as a-temporal or de-contextual? Can or

should qualitative data analysis software be used to organize data when shadowing

individual(s)? These types of questions deal with issues of analysis and should be

engaged as such. I would argue, for reasons I provide below, that no shadowing data

(given that it is so detailed) should be “analyzed” (at least not in the traditional sense);

rather, it should be presented as a means of getting closer to the phenomenon itself.

Interview and other qualitative data that are collected in conjunction with shadowing, on

the other hand, can and should be analyzed with the full tool box of qualitative analysis

techniques. This is just one benefit of mixing methods.

Second, although interpretivist research is open to explanation of social

phenomena and seeks to provide the potential meanings and relations among events,

people, and things, field data derived from shadowing should primarily be descriptive.

The distinction between description and explanation is slight, but the latter’s use of

inferences, assertions of causality between states of affairs, and clarifications can be

 62

troubling in shadowing research. Description sticks to the narrative advice of “show don’t

tell.” Good descriptions are not in need of explanations anyway. As Latour (2005) notes,

“God is in the details and so is everything else—including the Devil” (p. 137). Reporting

in descriptions reduces the possibility that a shadowee will feel that she or he was

misrepresented and it avoids adding a double-layer of meaning to what the shadowee

has already explained (i.e., theorized).

Lastly, shadowing researchers should, in almost all circumstance, avoid

engaging in critique. Adding an “attitude” to data through a subversive worldview

(Thomas, 1993) is likely to result in dishonest research agendas. If, however, critique

means offering “a more reflective style of thinking about the relationship between [sic]

knowledge, society, and freedom…” (Thomas, 2003, p. 45), then “critical” thinking is

encouraged. In fact, this should be a modus operandi for living. However, when I hear

scholars say that they are going to add a “critical lens” to their project, or that something

is not “critical enough,” I start to get a bit nervous. It seems to me that these folks are

decidedly uncritical by having already made up their minds about what (evil) forces

(capitalism, corporations, Republicans, and so on) are at work. They problematically

assume that power is asymmetrical and that they, the “critical” and “reflexive” theorists,

have insight that the “naïve,” “uncritical,” and “un-reflexive” lay person does not (Latour,

2005, p. 57). Critical inquirers have a decidedly negative opinion about most everything,

and consequently their research often “stops being empirical and becomes ‘vampirical’”

(p. 50).

Shadowees’ (institutionalized) faith in science and the researcher partly

contributes to their commitment to expose their practices to the scrutiny of an observer.

While business executives and organizational administrations may be the likely targets

of negative social critique, the reports that shadowing researchers produce reflect upon

all shadowers, and may determine the ability of others to obtain access. If a researcher
 63

obtains access to a shadowee under the pretext that due diligence will be practiced and

they will be fairly reported, then such a commitment should be honored. Of course, this

does not mean that the researcher should restrict himself or herself to positive accounts

or avoid noting problematic practices; it means that the researcher should put forth his or

her best rhetorical efforts to present such information carefully. In most circumstances,

the researcher should write collaboratively with the research subjects, seeking their

feedback on all scholarship that reports on their activities.

Alternatively, the researcher can be forthcoming about the possibility that his or

her practices may be criticized. Some critique can be useful. I have found that many

entrepreneurs welcome a bit of critique. Ways to improve their businesses are, in fact,

what most of them are seeking by committing to this strange research. Shadowers’

feedback can be useful, but one must consider the risks shadowees take in opening

their lives to the researcher’s gaze.

I am not suggesting that critical qualitative research is problematic or that issues

of power or social injustice should be avoided in shadow research. In fact, a researcher

might shadow someone engaged in social activism or do activist shadowing research;

but this research should remain descriptive. The shadowee’s activism and purpose (i.e.,

what she or he is critiquing) will emerge in the text.

Burdens and possibilities in shadow research. In the previous section, I

addressed some of the typical concerns that are raised regarding interpretivist

methodology, such as researcher bias, “going native,” validity, reliability, and other

issues of subjectivity and objectivity. I connected these issues specifically to shadowing,

and I hinted that some of these “issues” can be both burdens and possibilities. I tried to

project an attitude that most of the so-called “burdens” can be turned into possibilities. In

this section, I will discuss these issues, among others, from a much more pragmatic

perspective.
 64

Access. The access-negotiation process in shadow research is similar to

ethnological fieldwork, but is certainly more complicated than more conventional

approaches to fieldwork (McDonald, 2005). In large organizations and corporations, the

researcher may have to pass through several levels of gate-keepers just to gain initial

access to the subject of interest and may be rebuked at any level. Shadowees may be

more than willing to sit for an interview, but would find the idea of a being shadowed

unsettling. In companies where security or confidentiality is concerned, the shadowee

may have to obtain permission from superiors. These issues partly indicate why

observational researchers rarely targets elites and such research is typically “done

among the poor, the powerless, the deviant, and in the less developed societies”

(Abolafia, 1998, p. 79).

For the most part, access in shadow research is an ongoing affair. The

researcher must continue to (re)negotiate access to each and every event, meeting, and

conversation that the shadowee engages in. The researcher should never assume that

initial agreement constitutes a full commitment to the terms of shadowing. I learned to

expect the unexpected and to pay attention to my intuition about whether I was welcome

in a conversation, excusing myself when I felt it was appropriate (e.g., “I need to use the

restroom, you guys go ahead”). Some shadowees, who were initially reluctant to be

shadowed, interestingly gave me unfettered access to their lives (both at the office and

at home). Two even gave me access to their financial ledgers. On the other hand, two

shadowees who accepted the commitment to be shadowed with ease seemed hesitant

once I began writing things down.

Access can be denied, but it may also be more easily obtained once shadowing

commences. If, for example, one is shadowing an executive and there is a high level of

trust, the shadower will be able to walk into a closed meeting with the shadowee. This

may not be something an ethnographer, who has not dedicated himself or herself to one
 65

specific individual, can easily do. The shadower, in my experience, is accepted by

association. Finding a way in, building trust, and ultimately getting the approval from the

appropriate people to engage in shadow research typically involves a lengthy courting

process, sometimes longer than the research itself. It took several years and some luck

before Marianella Sclavi (2007)—who shadowed members of the Banana Kelly Republic

housing cooperative as part of her shadow research in the Bronx—was finally able to

gain credible access to the community. 12

Time. Once a researcher has gained access to the field, she or he will need a lot

of (personal) time to do fieldwork. To complete a comprehensive study and reach a data

saturation point (where themes are emergent), shadowers will need to either shadow

individuals or multiple people (depending on preferences and research goals) over an

extended period of time (two years seems to be ideal). If developing access takes just as

much time, the shadowing project can take about four years of a researcher’s personal

and professional life before writing manuscripts. This is not particularly problematic for a

graduate student or single person, but a researcher with tenure concerns or a family is

likely to find this troubling.

Quality shadowing research also requires significant “chunk time.” Shadowers

need to be able to follow a particular individual consistently, often, and during his or her

work day. This means spending three to four days (or more) per week with a particular

individual, shadowing him or her for eight or more hours per day, and doing so over

several weeks. Of course, this all depends on the occupation of the shadowee, the goal

of the study, and how intimate the researcher is to his or her subject—shadowing can

take place only within the walls of a particular building or extend into “home life.” This is

distressing for both shadowee and shadower. From my previous experience working

12
Unlike some researchers who engage in shadowing without calling it so, Sclavi (2007)
describes her method as shadowing and adds her own thoughts regarding the benefits
of the method.
 66

with a private investigator, I knew that agency owners’ work never stops. So I set out to

follow the shadowee wherever and whenever I could. In one instance, I shadowed an

investigator for 16 hours, had a 3 hour nap and a shower, and was back out with him for

another 12-hour day.

Acceleration. In business and entrepreneurship, acceleration—or “the speeding

up of social processes – shorter life-cycle of products, higher pace of innovation…”

(Czarniawska, 2007, p. 15—poses a problem for researchers who are trying to provide a

relevant contribution. I want to make sure that the field of professional investigating is

able to get something from my future writing; however, by the time anything goes to

press it is very likely that the field will already have changed in ways that makes much of

the data or suggestions irrelevant. For this reason, I recommend that shadowers do

consulting work and, to compensate for the high cost of doing this type of field research,

charge a sufficient fee for insights. Given that a field may be in constant flux, data that is

collected during the first part of the study may not be consistent with data collected in the

second part. As Czarniawska (2007) notes, it is quite likely that while studying

organizations, leadership or industries can and will change. This is the advantage of

studying an action net of practices that comprise a field of practices. Individual actors

may come and go, but practices will be relatively stable (or else there could be no

collective entity).

Volume. Given that so much time in the field is required and that the shadower

must document as much as possible, it is hard to overstate the amount of data that can

be generated from shadow research, especially now that technology allows researchers

to gather more information at once. Like with most field techniques, it is difficult to

provide a steadfast rule to how much data ought to be collected. McDonald (2005)

suggests that “a typical transcript of a day’s shadowing might be between 8,000 and

10,000 words” (p. 458). Add, on top of that, two- to four-hour interviews, and field
 67

research obtained from media and other documents, it is easy to see that maintaining

and managing field research takes a great deal of effort.

To capture data as it emerged, I always carried a small 3” by 5” steno notebook,

on which I could jot notes. I also had accessible a large legal pad, a digital recorder, and

a 6” x 8.5” Dell netbook. I worked between these items as the situations dictated,

preferring to get most things into digital form as quickly as possible. After each day of

shadowing, I would return to wherever I was staying (usually a hotel or a friend’s house)

and then begin typing field notes, or orate ideas into the digital recorder (which I would

often send to a professional transcriptionist). Consequently, I had a large amount of data

in different places that then needed to be consolidated or managed. I was also trying to

coordinate 13 future field research as well. For example, I was sending initial letters of

introduction, follow-up letters, trying to logistically schedule interviews and shadowing

events to coincide with each other, and so on. Maintaining this information, along with a

high volume of data, was not easy. I used Atlas.ti, a qualitative data management

software, to manage and code research data. I used Endnote, a bibliography software

turned field note manager, to handle my field notes and internet-based field research.

Recording this volume of data on a daily basis, running around with someone

trying to be as attentive and alert as possible, giving both mentally and emotionally to the

shadowee and the project, typing up field notes and other important things at the

conclusion of every day (“to maintain its quality and contemporaneous nature”

[McDonald, 2005, p. 458]), and doing all this while still attending to other personal

matters in the evenings, was very exhausting.

Finally, it is important to note that despite the challenges of being in the field, in

today’s mediated world, going “to the field,” while time consuming, may actually assist

researchers who use the internet as a source of material. As Czarniawska (2007) notes

13
Coordination is a burden, but it doesn’t warrant its own category in this discussion.
 68

regarding the seemingly infinite amount of data on the web, “going to the field can also

be a way of limiting research material to manageable proportions – by allowing the

practitioners to select material that they find relevant for their practice” (p. 10).

Cost. The issue of cost makes me regret this project and reluctant to recommend

shadow research to others. Of all of the methods books I have read, not one discusses

financial matters specifically. Let me be brutally honest: If one wants to do something

that makes economic sense, stay away from ethnographic methods in general, and

shadowing in particular! As Appendix B demonstrates, this project cost me

approximately $6,200 to complete, not including lost financial opportunities. When I add

opportunity cost for the lost revenue from the work I turned away for my own business,

the cost is well above $10,000. The cost of shadowing, unlike ethnographic fieldwork,

may be slightly higher because the researcher cannot control who will volunteer, where

the shadowing will happen, or when one will be willing to be followed. My

(in)convenience sample was based on whoever was willing to participate. These agency

owners, unfortunately, did not reside in the same place and were not able to participate

in the research at the most convenient time for me, personally or financially.

Financial matters aside, shadowing someone can be intellectually and

professionally inspiring, a lot of fun, induce important connections between research and

praxis, and get academics engaged in a dialogue with interesting and influential people.

However, ethnography and shadowing, unless it can be accomplished near the

university one attends (i.e., urban ethnography) is financially, personally, and

emotionally costly. Ethnographic and shadowing research is a bourgeois method—it

takes time, money, and connections.

Proximity: Insidedness and outsidedness. The final issue returns to a more

philosophical concern. Proximity deals with the distance that the observer has from the

subject and object of interest. Physically, shadowers will literally be just a footstep or two
 69

behind their subject of interest. (Or in the case of people in mobile professions like

private investigating, a car seat over.) The physical closeness helps reduce the

emotional distance between the observer and the observed. This distance can, however,

create problems regarding insidedness and outsidedness.

In regard to insidedness (observer effect), the obvious issues arise. Because the

shadower is following just one person, this effect can be addressed directly by asking

questions along the way: “Is your day going as normal?”; “How would you have handled

that if I were not here?”; “Am I making you uncomfortable or do you feel like you are able

to be yourself?” Additionally, the researcher can discuss issues with employees and

observe their reactions: “Does today feel pretty normal for you or is your boss different?”

The researcher can also note when the shadowee points to the observer effect: “What

are you writing?”

Extended contact with the shadowee can also create issues in which the

researcher can “go native” or “rogue” by becoming sympathetic or annoyed with the

issues and problems of the shadowee. This is not as problematic as it at first seems.

Being sympathetic or annoyed can help the researcher gain insight from an affective

level. Sympathy can keep the writing ethical and favorable, but be cautious of

annoyance—it can create a negative tone.

Finally, in regard to professions in general and professions that deal with legal

issues in particular, spending a lot of time with a shadowee can give the impression to

the shadowee that you are “on their side.” They may, given the shadower is a third-party

witness who is taking meticulous notes, call upon him or her for various (legal) matters.

While I had not considered this issue before I went to the field, it did arise. One of the

agency owners was having an issue with a field investigator who had not performed well

on multiple jobs. This led to interesting interpersonal interactions between the two

parties and some insidious claims about each other. At the end of the week, the agency
 70

owner fired the field investigator. A week later the contractor was claiming that he was

going to file a lawsuit against the agency owner, who contacted me to collect “any and

all records, especially audio recordings.” A week after that, she or he was planning to

“arrange for me to provide a deposition.”

Outsideness deals with the issue of difference and power asymmetry between

the researcher and the researched. While the much romanticized notion of building

empathy can help alleviate some discomfort in doing shadow research, building a strong

rapport can create further discomfort, hijack the project, or itself lead to exclusion. As the

shadowee and shadower engage in the general get-to-know-you banter that is typical to

the first few hours of shadow research, too much can be disclosed. The fact that I am a

Democrat-leaning civil libertarian emerged within the first few hours of one of my shadow

events. While this shadow event was fruitful, the shadowee, who often expressed

(contradictory) neo-conservative points, was preoccupied with my political affiliation and

often turned discussions toward politics, interrogating me about how a “Democrat would

view it.” I had to constantly deflect these types of questions and redirect attention to her

or his investigative practices.

However, outsideness and power differentials, while taxing issues to deal with

while in the field, can be used as the preeminent lens for data collection and analysis. An

attitude of outsidedness… aims at understanding not by identification

(‘they are like us’) but by recognition of differences (‘we are different
from them and they are different from us; by exploring these
differences we will understand ourselves better’)… [it] assumes that
an observer can never know better than an actor; a stranger cannot
say more about any culture than a native, but observers and stranger
can see different things than actors and natives can. (Czarniawska,
2007, pp. 20-21)

In this sense, shadowing is more of an attitude than a technique. It is a dialogic

approach that treats the overcoming of differences as a source of knowledge.

 71

Summary and Other Practical Recommendations

Confidentiality must be a constant concern of shadowers. Even when shadowing

elites, there is much at stake. Given that shadowing by its nature just focuses on a few

people (or one), they are easily identifiable as the main characters in written report.

When the shadower begins to write for publication, therefore, serious consideration of

the effects of any one statement on the shadowee needs to be taken seriously. The

reach of a report goes beyond the shadower and shadowee and reflects on other

employees and researchers. A critique of management practices, for examples, can lead

to problems for a company, which will undoubtedly have implications for workers.

Shadowing entrepreneurs is particularly problematic. Most entrepreneurs, unlike

the popular myth suggests, are not wealthy. Writing about what entrepreneurs are doing

may give competitors insight into their unique business practices, exposing them to

additional risk. In this report, therefore, I have chosen only to report on practices that will

benefit the profession. I have excluded practices that are proprietary.

Czarniawska (2007), Sclavi (2007), and McDonald (2005) have all provided

various tips that are useful guides to shadow fieldwork. Their suggestions include, but

are not limited to, “never go in cold [be informed]…, write down as much as you can…,

[and] find an academic mentor who is away from the organization whom you can discuss

your research with if necessary” (McDonald, p. 460); “report back to [participants]”

(Czarniawska, p. 23), and be honest, reflexive, and philosophically engaged with regard

to methodological assumptions. To date, Sclavi (2007, pp. 293-294) has provided an

excellent list of maxims that ought to be adopted by shadow researchers: 1) “Never be in

a hurry to reach conclusions. Conclusions are the most ephemeral part of your

research”; 2) “What you are seeing depends on your point of view”; 3) “In order to

understand what another person is saying, you must assume that he/she is right and ask

him/her to help you understand what makes them [sic] right; 4) “The emotions are a
 72

central instrument of cognition if you learn to read their language, which is relational and

built on metaphors”; 5) “A good listener is an explorer of possible worlds”; 6) “A good

listener is happy to accept the self-contradictions that come to the fore in persona

thoughts and interpersonal communications”; 7) “To become an expert in listening you

must follow a humor-based methodology. But once you have learned how to listen,

humor arises on its own.” Sclavi notes that “the seventh rule sums up all others.”

How to Shadow Subjects and Objects

Based on the theoretical discussion above, the pragmatics of shadowing humans

throughout their day should be clear. Shadowing involves meticulously documenting the

activities of subjects and involves the ongoing reflexive practice of thinking about the

way in which the researcher and researched influence each other. The researcher

simply needs to find a willing participant and move wherever she or he does. The more

difficult tasks regarding data collection procedure, analysis, and writing will be tailored to

each researcher’s preferences; however, the underlying assumptions regarding how

shadowing human actors ought to unfold is guided by the paradigmatic assumptions of

the researcher’s methodological preferences. I specifically provided the guidelines for a

qualitative-interpretivist approach.

Because we live in a world of “objectual relationships” that comprise an “object-

centered sociality” (Knorr-Cetina, 1997, p. 12), the researcher will undoubtedly catalog

various objects that are used, produced, or avoided by the shadowee. Interpretivist

researchers, however, need not only document human actors’ use of objects as tools,

but can, or perhaps must, trace the associations and relationships between objects as

networks of actants. Drawing on actor-network-theory (ANT), “objects are [defined as] an

effect of stable arrays or networks of relations” (italics in original; Law, 2002, p. 91). The

importance of taking into account the relationship of humans to objects and objects to

humans is demonstrated well in Latour’s (1994) example of the human actor (citizen) in
 73

relation to a contentious object (gun). The actor-network formed is that of citizen-gun or

gun-citizen. This hybrid configuration allows us to understand how each acts on the

other:

You are different with a gun in hand; the gun is different with you
holding it. You are another subject because you hold the gun; the gun
is another object because it had entered into a relationship with you.
The gun is no longer the gun-in-the-armoury or the gun-in-the-drawer
or the gun-in-the-pocket, but the gun-in-your-hand, aimed at someone
who is screaming. What is true of the subject, of the gunman, is as
true of the object, of the gun that is held. A good citizen becomes a
criminal, a bad guy becomes a worse guy; a silent gun becomes a
fired gun, a new gun becomes a used gun, a sporting gun becomes a
weapon. (p. 33)

What Latour’s example demonstrates, according to Meunier and Vasquez (2008), is that

“action is distributed and … is accomplished by the association of human and nonhuman

actors” (italics in original; p. 184). Human actors do, of course, possess and retain

certain attributes that objects (for now) do not, such as emotions, power, and cognition.

However, what Latour’s example suggests is that these human attributes emerge in

interactions with various other actants and that “objects interpellate us” (Law, 1999).

Latour is also suggesting that objects, as they congeal into actor-networks, are the

“cement” that holds the social together.

Shadowers can also benefit from a focus on objects, which include such things

as texts, instruments, and discursive accounts, because they allow researchers “to call

on what is outside the interaction… [to] ‘dislocate’ interaction” (italics in original; Law,

2000, p. 176). For example, assume that a private investigator is being shadowed and

he is currently trying to locate the most recent address of a “skip.” The investigator first

enters a social security number, which was assigned to the skip more than 40 years ago

and was supplied by the client just moments ago via email; the investigator, via the

internet, connects to a database created ten years ago by a company that merged with

another (and, therefore, no longer literally exists) and which is located hundreds of miles
 74

away from where the investigator now sits; the database returns several addresses,

which were keyed in by someone sitting at a desk in Bangalore, India over a year ago;

the investigator verifies the skip’s address by calling her on his newly purchased iPhone.

The process goes on ad infinitum until something else redirects the investigator’s

attention or there is no more “skip tracing” to be done, in which case the investigator

may slip back into entrepreneuring activities like “billing the client,” wherein new

associations will be made and need to be traced.

What the “skip tracing” example illustrates is that the various objects and

practices that are assembled or completed in another place and time (e.g., social

security numbers, addresses, databases, and data entry) “are indicators of the ‘network”

that largely surpasses the ‘present’ situation” (Law, p. 176) and are what produce the

“social” phenomena (i.e., private investigating, profitable business organization) of the

researcher’s interest. The object “verified address” exists because of a private

investigator and a private investigator exists because of a “verified address,” and both

exist in relation to many other actor-networks. Together the subject-object transform

each other. The address is no longer just “out there” as a piece of data but is now a

profitable object. Only from their relationship is a transaction between a client (subject)

and private investigator (subject) possible. Not until the client-investigator becomes an

actor-network does “finding an address” make any sense. What this means is that social

phenomena are fragile, heterogeneous assemblies (Meunier & Vasquez, 2008).

The implications of this for private investigators as entrepreneurs will become

clearer in chapters 4 and 5, but what the example above demonstrates is that if one

actor-network is broken, the ability to assemble everything together into a coherent

practice (entrepreneurship, organization, society) becomes compromised. In short,

maintaining social orders requires the proper maintenance of constituting actor-

networks. While social practices and actor-networks are often taken-for-granted and can
 75

pass simply as intermediators, 14 interpretive and communicative effort is necessary to

maintain proper actor-network connections. For example, private investigators must

constantly work to convince other clients that they are important mediators in the

process of “skip tracing” (chapter 4). They must also work to convince politicians to halt

certain legislation out of fear that certain mediators will be lost—mediators necessary to

the production of profit. Of course, they don’t articulate this in such abstractness, but a

shadower’s use of ANT helps provide the appropriate lens for seeing taken-for-granted

practices and invisible-to-practitioner mediators that are important to a field of practices.

Shadowing objects is not as common as shadowing subjects. While shadowing

objects borrows greatly from ANT (Czarniawska, 2007, p. 358), “methodologically,

approaches to studying non-human actors are not well developed” (Bruni, 2005, p. 358).

Beyond the mantras of “[take] responsibility for ‘the social life of things’” and “follow the

actors themselves,” ANT has not, by Latour’s own admission, “said how to follow them”

(Latour, 1996, p. 238). Given that some objects are material and others symbolic, there

is not, of course, one best route by which to shadow objects. What is more, some

objects, with the assistance of other actants, transform rather quickly from something

concrete into something ideational. With ultrasound, an embryo can transform into a

sonogram. A textual graphic can become an advertisement, and an advertisement a

“suggestion.” Some things can be followed in the present, some have to be traced

through textual accounts from the past, and others must be “projections” into the future.

But given that the process of shadowing subjects borrows from interpretivism,

ethnography, and other participant observation methods, it seems reasonable that the

process of shadowing objects can also borrow broadly as well. In order to not get lost in

14
Mediators are things that transform and translate; their input is not the same as their
output. Intermediators are taken-for-granted black boxes in a situation. There inputs and
outputs are the same, they don’t affect anything in a situation. A banal conversation,
therefore, can be a complex mediator and a working computer can be an intermediator.
A down computer, however, can quickly become a mediator (Latour, 2005).
 76

generalities, I shall provide examples of studies in which researchers have shadowed

objects, and which are consistent with the approach I took in this project.

Method: How to Follow Objects 15

Ethnographic. In her book on shadowing method, Czarniawska (2007) provides

an overview and in-depth description of various studies that demonstrate the process

and outcome of following objects (Adolfsson, 2005; Bruni, 2005; Frandsen, 2009; Latour,

1999). What all of these studies have in common is that they are ethnographic in nature,

which is to say that human actors are being shadowed as part of the research process.

The actions of human actors, however, are treated symmetrically with nonhuman actors

as the researcher follows the “hybrid character of action” (Meunier and Vasquez, 2008),

“[which] means…document[ing] the flow of…actions over the course of which a set of

objects (texts, stories, bodies, [technologies]) in a series of interactions (meetings,

hallway conversations, e-mail exchanges) are mobilized” (p. 185). 16

These studies also engage in a process of (re)tracing the connections and

transformations of objects through different spaces and times as they shape a particular

scene. An observable interaction need not require the physical (i.e., visible) presence of

a respondent, only the imagined “response presence,” such as when people

“correspond” through email (Czarniawska, 2007, p. 16). This is why conceptualizing

these as studies of action nets is important: they are accounting for actions that go

beyond the immediate by following objects not necessarily as physical entities but as

things that continue to transform in the presence of other actants (in particularly

humans). Thus, when Bruni (2005) shadows software he is doing so as a retracing of

processes that have already unfolded, and uses these as his guide to where to go next

15
For a great listing of actor-network-theory literature, which includes great examples of
studies to emulate, as well as some of the critiques and rebuttals, see the following
website maintained by John Law: http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/centres/css/ant/antres.htm
16
Meunier & Vasquez’s study is also ethnographic—they “followed a project of science
and technology diffusion in a Chilean governmental organization” (p. 185).
 77

as an ethnographer. When he observes, for example, that “the printout of the day’s

appointments is one of the first objects consulted [by nurses] in order to verify the

presence of other objects [patients, appointments], and it is the software that manages

the timetable of patient examinations” (p. 369), he is highlighting how the software is an

actor in this particular scene because it “manages” timetables (without a computer, the

practices would likely be much different; a scheduling department may no longer be

needed). A human actor has to put information into the software and it takes a human

actor “to tell” the software to print a particular table. As an ethnographer, therefore, Bruni

can retrace the sequence upstream to see who inputs the tables and what the process

of printing them out entails.

This is precisely what Ann-Christine Frandsen (2009) did when she retraced the

accounting process in order to understand how a “rent” was charged to a Psorasis unit.

The process required moving from organization to organization trying to account for all

the contracts associated with the final figure billed to the unit. The complexity of the

procedure led Frandsen to see, among other things,

accounting as a ‘space/time/value machine’…which works by having

its references circulate… inside and outside human and non-human
‘actants’, thus connecting them into and as a network…. What
accounting names and counts thus becomes not only textually stable
but the basis for coordinating thinking, acting and the use of resources
in ‘lived’ space while designating whatever is articulated in its named
numbers as ‘valuable.’ (p. 105)

These studies emulate Latour’s (1999) pivotal study of soil samples. In this

particular shadowing exercise, Latour “followed the chain of transformations that

changed the soil samples taken in the Amazon forest into a scientific paper, a voice in

the debate over if the forest advances or retreats, whether or not it was being eaten by a

savanna” (Czarniawska, 2007, p. 92). In 1991, Latour followed a group of scientists into

the jungle and as they studied the environment, he studied the researchers. Using the

soil as the object of focus, Latour followed the samples as they were collected,
 78

organized, transported, analyzed, diagramed, summarized, and published. According to

Latour, all of these transformations were necessary because in the “academic debate”

the forest cannot be included. Things must be changed into words and images in order

to enter a debate. The point for Latour (1999) was as follows:

A thing [soil in this case] can remain durable and transported farther
and more quickly if it continues to undergo transformations at each
stage of this long cascade. / It seems that reference is not simply the
act of pointing or a way of keeping, on the outside, some material
guarantee for the truth of a statement; rather it is our way of keeping
something constant through a series of transformations. Knowledge
does not reflect a real external world that it resembles via mimesis, but
rather a real internal world, the coherence and continuity of which it
helps to ensure. (p. 58)

Following human and nonhuman actants in this style of research allows researcher to

not lose focus on all the important constituents acting (even the most humble of them) to

form a particular assemblage. And they may help the researcher potentially avoid some

of the ethical concerns which comes with writing as if the human subjects are

responsible for all the successes and failures of the organizing activities in which they

are involved. Focusing on nonhuman actants while shadowing humans gives

researchers permission to engage in research endeavors like a detective. They search

the environment for material (i.e., objective) evidence of people’s practices and

intentions. They collect witness and expert testimony of those they shadow and

encounter in the field. They do all of this in order to build forensically-viable cases

(forensic in the sense of scientific evidence and arguments).

Textual. There are various textual approaches to tracing objects as they

participate in socio-cultural activities (e.g., narrative, historical, and rhetorical). But any

approach is likely to follow a similar pattern, which is summarized by Czarniawska

(2004): 1) “Watch how the stories are being made”; 2) “Collect the stories”; 3) “Provoke

story telling”; 4) “Interpret the stories (what do they say?)”; 5) “Analyze the stories (how
 79

do they say it?)”; 5) “Deconstruct the stories (unmake them)”; 6) “Put together your own

story”; 7) “Set it against/together with other stories” (p. 15).

An example of a textual approach that is consistent with ANT is John Law’s

(2002) analysis of the various stories in a brochure about the British tactical strike and

reconnaissance warplane called the TSR2. In this study, Law traces the TSR2, a socio-

cultural and technical object (that did not materially exist) as a discursive form in a text.

The TSR2 was commissioned by the British government in the 1950s and was being

designed and promoted by the British Aircraft Corporation; however, the plane was

never built because the project was disbanded by the Labour government in 1965. By

focusing on the various pictures, tables, maps, and other exhibits in the brochure about

the TSR2, Law reveals how the TSR2 did exist in culturally meaningful ways. He also

suggests that it did not exist as just one singular thing, an aircraft, but also, among other

things, a weapons system, a fuel system, and a heroic, masculine pilot’s aircraft.

By identifying the various potential readings of the various stories that the aircraft

tells in each of its representative forms (and if they “tell” they act), Law demonstrates

that objects that appear singular and centered may actually be plural and decentered.

When shadowing objects in text, the researcher’s task is to follow the routes by which

each object’s effect is reassembled as a constituent of the whole of social practice. In

this instance, the multiplicity that the single aircraft assumed moved actors in different

political directions and, ultimately, may have led to its non-material existence. In chapter

5, I describe how equipment is transformed into marketing materials and how

opportunities (objectified practices) are enacted by entrepreneurs.

How to Write and Evaluate Praxeological Writing

“De-scribing, inscribing, narrating, and writing final reports are as unnatural,

complex, and painstaking as dissecting fruit flies or sending a telescope into space”

(Latour, 2005, p. 136). Yet, this is a necessary step and one that can be approached
 80

from a myriad of different methods. The ways of writing up shadowing research are

many. The end result of field work could result, according to Czarniawska (2007), in an

ergonography (descriptions of work practices), ethnography (description of culture), or

theoretical, dramaturgical, and multimedia accounts. Each of these types of

presentations of fieldwork can take on various forms from taxonomy to narrative. A

narrative account can be designed in many ways, such as realist, impressionist, and

confessional (van Maanen, 1988), and can express many attitudes, such as

representational, critical, postmodern, genealogical, and postcolonial (Clair, 2003).

In this study, I sought to present praxeological accounts that describe practices

and objects that constitute the field of practices of private investigating. I am guided by

writings about ethnography (e.g., Clifford, 1988; Geertz, 1973; Goodall, 1994, 2000) and

draw on various ethnographies in general, but entrepreneurship in particular (e.g., Bruni,

2005; Johnstone, 2007; Montoya, 2004). The accounts presented in this study are

written in a descriptive, praxeological style. I provide prosaic accounts of everyday

private eye work activities that can be read as entrepreneurial—i.e., activities wherein

opportunities are discursively and praxeologically constituted and discovered. The value

of this approach—which focuses on description of banal experiences of entrepreneurs

and a writing style that dramatizes without sentimentalizing (Czarniawska, 2008b)—to

communication and entrepreneurship studies is that it captures the liveliness of practices

that are often “deadened in the language of ‘scientific rigor’” (Berglund, 2007, p.75)

Praxeological accounts should adhere to the usual principles of realist

ethnography because, as previously mentioned, researchers do not want to explain;

rather, they ought to stick with descriptions. Shadowing is also an ongoing

intersubjective collection of data, so in most regards the data obtained has already been

“explained” and interpreted both in interviews and during shadow events with private

investigators. However, any study of the mundane—whether it is shadowing or some

 81

other interpretive method—must adopt the principle of “ethnomethodological

indifference,” which “bids the researcher from assessing correctness, appropriateness or

adequacy in articulating the practices and organization of endogenous order” (Emerson

& Pollner, 2001, p. 120). This does not mean, however, that once articulated (i.e., written

up) that the implications cannot be appraised. Similar to ANT accounts, praxeological

accounting is not “mere description” (Latour, 2005); but it is also not “the ‘unveiling’,

‘behind’ the actors’ backs, the ‘social forces at work’” (Latour, p. 137). A praxeological

account seeks to show how various social practices (re)produce social orders. Applying

a “theoretical attitude” should be done with caution: “Much like ‘safe sex’, sticking to

description protects against the transmission of explanations” (Latour, p. 137).

Realist tales follow the convention of a documentary style of presentation that is

“focused on minute, sometimes precious, but thoroughly mundane details of everyday

life among the people studied” (van Maanen, 1988, p. 48). Praxeologists provide

accounts of routine life provided by their fieldwork associates. But unlike realist

ethnographies (which tend to follow a more positivist sentiment), shadowers treat field

experiences and interviews as co-constitutive and do not assume an omnipotent pose.

As a consequence, “Knowledge claims are inevitably positioned and partial… [and]

researchers should reflect on and account for the contingencies of their [and the

participants’] claims” (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002, p. 11). Shadowing, from a praxeological

perspective, should reflect a tone that information and insights were generated in a

dialogic fashion.

The telos of any narrative that a praxeologist writes should pursue a writing

strategy that presents details in a playful and eloquent style. As Latour (2005) notes, “A

good text should trigger in its reader this reaction: ‘Please, more details, I want more

details’” (p. 137). Pragmatically, this should not be a very difficult task because, as Bruyn

(2002) notes, it is from within the mundane that we find the sublime. To illustrate this
 82

point, Bruyn cites Mitch Albom’s interview with Morrie Schwartz, a sociologist who died

of ALS (Lou Gehrig's Disease). When Albom asked what Morrie would do with a day of

perfect health, he replied:

Let’s see… I’d get up in the morning, do my exercises, have a lovely

breakfast of sweet rolls and tea, go for a swim, then have my friends
come over for a nice lunch… Then I’d go for a walk, in a garden with
some trees, watch their colors, watch the birds, take in the nature that I
haven’t seen long now… That’s it. (Tuesdays with Morrie, 1997; as
cited in Bruyn, 2002, p. 2)

This description, excerpted from an interview, eloquently demonstrates how a simple

conversation can evoke emotion more powerfully than an explanation. We don’t need

Albom to explain what this means in regard to issues of mortality, cultural values,

suffering, sickness, dying, living, disease, and death—the reader gets it. Of course,

gathering and presenting detail after detail in a manner that captures the spirit of an

experience is a painstakingly slow and onerous process. (Nothing about shadowing or

ANT is easy.) 17

Alasdair MacIntyre (1981/2007) notes that “human beings can be held to account

for that of which they are the authors; other beings cannot” (p. 209). Writing in a

praxeological format, therefore, must come with its own set of criteria for holding a

researcher accountable for the quality of his or her writing. I propose readers evaluate

writing based on whether the praxeologist adheres to the fundamental characteristics of

narrative rationality (a story’s credibility based on its plausibility) as described by Walter

Fisher (1987): narrative probability (a story’s coherence and integrity) and narrative

fidelity (a story’s claims are based on believable assertions about social reality).

The Particulars of this Study

Having discussed why I chose to focus on methods so heavily, the

epistemological and ontological assumptions regarding shadowing, how to write and

17
Latour (2005) notes that “the acronym A.N.T. [is] perfectly fit for a blind, myopic,
workaholic, trail-sniffing, and collective traveler” (p.9).
 83

read praxeological accounts, and how to shadow subjects and objects, attention can

now be given to the particulars of this study. Shadowing method was appropriate for

following professional detectives through their everyday work life, which is rarely located

in a single setting (e.g., office building). By focusing on specific private detectives rather

than on a single organization, I was able to get a better sense of private investigators’

daily practices, conversations, work-related activities, and so on.

I initially went to the field to understand how the profession of private

investigation is profitably produced by accounting for investigators’ mundane practices,

cares, and concerns. I realized very early that investigators obsessed about some non-

human objects that are important to producing and maintaining their profession (e.g.,

reports and laws). I could trace their practices to the object (a report), but I had to look at

the report itself as an object that then has an effect on other fields of practices (e.g.,

families, courts, and laws). While in the field, I listened to how investigators talked about

laws, but I had to focus on the “laws themselves” and trace what practices were largely

being shaped by these laws. In what follows, I describe the procedures and specifics of

my interactions with subjects and objects.

Subjects

Over the course of one and a half years, I interviewed 30 private investigators in

person (26) and by telephone (4). All of these interviews were recorded with the

exception of two (I did not have my recorder handy). Details about each interviewee are

provided in Appendix B. About half of the agency owners I interviewed had been in

business for more than ten years. This is significant because, on average across all

industries, according to data produced by the U.S. Small Business Administration, only

45% of new firms last five years, and only 30% last ten years. There is no data

specifically available for the private investigations industry. By the admission of an

executive officer of the Texas Association of Licensed Investigators (TALI) and the
 84

sentiments of many interviewees, there seems to be a high number of failed firms in the

profession. With luck, I interviewed individuals who were among the more successful.

I shadowed five agency owners for a total of 267 hours. Typically, shadowing

occurred over a four day period, but two shadowees were followed twice for a total of 1.5

weeks each and one was shadowed for two days. 18 On the high end, a day of

shadowing was 21 hours long and on the low end, just 7 hours. I shadowed a white

female in Atlanta, Georgia; a Latino male in Houston, Texas; a white male in Glen

Carbon, Illinois; a white male located near St. Louis, Missouri; and a white male located

in Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas. I also draw on my two years of experience as a field

investigator to assist in the sensemaking process. For such a small sample, I was

fortunate to have spent time in the field with individuals whose strategy focused in very

different aspects of the business: process serving, domestic cases, criminal and civil

defense, fraud investigations, and skip tracing.

Regardless of whether an investigator was interviewed or shadowed, all of them

went through a recruiting process that I thought would allow me to capture the more

entrepreneurial among the field. My assumption is that individuals who are

entrepreneurial would see my work as a potential opportunity for them (e.g., free

marketing). I first selected geographical regions that I knew I could easily get to and

where I had friends or family (to save money on lodging). These areas were St. Louis,

Chicago, and Texas (I knew I would attend some of the TALI conferences, so I did not

focus on one city). I then did a Google search using a combination of key words (e.g.,

“Texas private investigator,” “Dallas PI,” and “St. Louis private detective”). I searched

through the first 30 links, believing this would indicate that they had many relevant links

to and from their websites (they were institutionalized), likely had metatags embedded in

18
This shadow event was the last and I had already reached a saturation point;
however, this event was very rich. The investigator gave me full access to his financial
books and had several appointments I was able to observe.
 85

their webpage (they were attentive to internet marketing strategies), or had hired the

services of a web optimization company (they understand the importance of investing in

marketing). I also visited the websites who had advertised through Google AdWords

(sometimes up to 30 companies had sponsored links). I repeated this search on Yahoo!,

though the results were very similar. I also obtained agency names, addresses, and

website links by visiting professional association websites.

On an Excel spreadsheet, I logged important information (e.g., agency name,

address, email, phone number, and URL) in a format that could be easily filtered. I

excluded a small number of agencies at this phase because I could not find any contact

information on their website (in general, most private investigators’ websites are terrible).

Using a form letter, but tailoring it to appeal to each agency owner, I printed letters on

cotton-fiber paper with a replication of university letterhead. I sent these letters to over

200 agencies. 12 letters were returned to me by the post office due to “an insufficient

address.” Within two days of sending the letters, I was contacted by about 10 agency

owners. Interestingly, the ones who called first were also the ones that I shadowed. In

two instances, the agency owner in Atlanta, Georgia (who was a referral) and the one in

Glen Carbon, Illinois, called me the day after I sent the letter, and by 10 am. This

suggests to me that they immediately contacted me upon receipt. This attests, perhaps,

to their entrepreneurial sensibility. Again, I presented myself as a potential opportunity,

and given the data mining that took place while I was in the field, it was clear I was their

research subject as much as they were mine.

I followed up each letter with an email within a week. If I was contacted,

sometimes several phone calls would be required to secure an interview. All shadowees

were first interviewed and, depending on my feeling about the openness of an

interviewee, I would pitch the idea of shadowing. Three investigators proposed that I
 86

shadow them before I could extend the offer. The letter writing process recruited 15 of

the interviewees, all others were recruited by snowballing and post-conference follow-up.

Objects

Shadowing events and interviews revealed that two objects were particularly

important to investigators—legislation (i.e., laws) and reports. Of primary interest was

how private investigators translated everyday social practices into a report, a document

that can move beyond the field of practices of investigating into other fields (e.g.,

insurance). The moving between fields is what produced the potentiality for profit (see

chapter 5). To shadow these objects, I tried to get interviewees in later interviews to

describe the process of writing reports to me. I also asked to see redacted reports, which

some investigators were willing to share. Regarding laws, I had to investigate which

legislation seemed important to the investigators or important to practices within the

field. For this research, I turned to books regarding legal issues in the profession (e.g.,

Hankin, 2009) and some of the generic books that hinted at important legislation (e.g.,

Brown, 2007). I also obtained lists of upcoming legislation from professional association

websites. Focus on ways of speaking about and performances of agency owners with

equipment provided insight into what technologies are important to them.

From the insights I have gained, I hope investigators will be able to improve

training methods and business ownership strategies. As a study of entrepreneurship,

shadowing provided me with an approach to “catch [entrepreneurship] as it happens”

(Brundin, 2007, p. 279). Shadowing is a useful approach to studying a field of practices

that is (supposedly) comprised of actors always in a process of becoming: moving,

changing, adapting, discovering, inventing, and so on.

Shadowing and interviewing are not, of course, the only methods that I could

have used to study the profession of private investigations. However, they were useful

methods for studying prosaic practices and discourses within the field. These methods
 87

focus on practices and participants’ interpretations of discourse. For this reason, I now

turn to describing common themes in academic and popular representations of private

investigating and entrepreneuring.

 88

CHAPTER 3: PROSAIC & ACADEMIC NARRATIVE ACCOUNTS

The goal of this chapter is to account for some of the pervasive popular culture

and academic themes about private investigating and entrepreneurship. Narrative

accounts impress upon fields of practices by influencing actors’ perceptions and

practices (Pollner, 1987). They affect, therefore, the prosaic descriptions presented in

chapters 4 and 5.

In this chapter, I treat academic articles and popular texts (which include new

media) as “story-telling” artifacts that can be “plotted” into relevant themes. These

artifacts’ themes often supply the taken-for-granted assumptions that are inherent in our

knowledge of social phenomena. For example, I will suggest that most stories of

successful entrepreneuring and private investigating tend to be encapsulated in the

symbolic domain of the male—i.e., stories in which shrewd, pragmatic, creative,

promiscuous, and adventurous individuals succeed. Consequently, the fields of private

investigations and entrepreneurship are overwhelmingly dominated by men and they

engage in practices that can be read as masculine. According to PI Magazine, females

comprise between 15 and 20% of the private investigations profession (www.pi-

magazine.com). This figure is not inconsistent with the rate of female business

ownership in the United States, which is a stunningly low 27% (Shane, 2008).

The collection of stories into themes means adding coherence to a multiplicity of

voices in a limitless supply of artifacts. I accomplished this task by first limiting my focus

to artifacts that are likely to influence social understanding. I used television shows and

news articles for popular accounts and peer-reviewed articles for scholarly accounts. I

then thematized the artifacts from my culturally-situated perspective; reading, watching,

and listening to prove or disprove my hunches regarding the fields of practices. I am

reporting only themes important to descriptions in chapters 4 and 5. When available, I

 89

use articles that have already described pervasive themes (e.g., Bruni, Gherardi, &

Poggio, 2004).

In this chapter, I first define what is meant by “narrative account” and describe

what can be gained by thematizing the literature regarding private investigating and

entrepreneuring in this way. Accounting for themes in stories is a practice that is

consistent with the sociology of knowledge (Berger & Luckmann, 1966) and process-

philosophy orientations (Czarniawska, 2004; Hjorth & Steyaert, 2004; Schrag, 2003). I

then, in turn, provide the prosaic and academic themes of private investigating and

entrepreneuring. In the conclusion of this chapter, a few brief paragraphs preview

chapters 4 and 5.

Narrative Account Defined

According to Donald Polkinghorne (1988),

narrative is a meaning structure that organizes events and human

actions into a whole, thereby attributing significance to individual
actions and events according to their effect on the whole. Thus,
narratives are to be differentiated from chronicles, which simply list
events according to their place on a time line. Narrative provides a
symbolized account of actions that includes a temporal dimension. (p.
18)

While Polkinghorne uses the term story and narrative synonymously, I distinguish

a story from a narrative in that the former remains without a plot or temporal-cultural

coherence. In this sense, story is much closer to Polkinghorne’s definition of chronicle. A

story, in my use of the term, is an account of incidents and events; whereas narrative is

the addition of a storyline by plotting, thematizing, and culturally relating a story’s content

and structure to other stories and social knowledge.

Actors within fields of practices inhabit a holistic space of expression—or texture

as Schrag (2003) refers to it—that is, for lack of a better term, “messy.” Social actors

bring order to this mess by doing that which is primordial to homo narrans (Fisher,

1985)—they narrate. Which means that they tell stories as a process of sensemaking;
 90

however, whatever they tell must also make sense. In sensemaking, actors translate

their practices and localized accounts into a narrative form. This prosaic and taken-for-

granted process adds coherence to everyday life. However, while the “language of

expression [which includes story] is the language of showing, of setting forth, of making

manifest” (Schrag, 2003, p. 33), unreflexive actors take for granted the organizing and

interpellating processes of narratives.

The role of the analyst is to reveal some of the features of the “seen-but-

unobserved” assumptions and logics of dominant narratives. The themes within

narratives comprise what I call herein a narrative account. A story may itself take into

account several themes, but themes largely determine what kind of stories and practices

will count. Among stories, therefore, dominant perspectives emerge. These stories’

themes are informed by, but also inform, everyday communicative praxis. People adopt

and perform particular characteristics of the dominant roles within these narratives—

often to appear legitimate (see Berger & Luckmann, 1966; Meyer & Rowan, 1977).

Narrative is constitutive of personal and organizational identity (Brown, 2006;

Czarniawska-Joerges, 1994). In this sense, narratives are culturally- and temporally-

specific accounts that provide rationales for courses of action.

Narratives are a form of expressive discourse (i.e., it has a meaning-making

function) within the space of communicative praxis (see Schrag, 2003); they carry a

“surplus of meaning” beyond any one particular account. 1 As Steyaert (2004) notes,

“stories are thus interweaving personages that ‘speak’ with each other from their own

developing languages” (p. 15). Stories “speak back” to praxis and further regulate who

and what is discernible as an authority or authentic participant in a field of practices.

1
The implications of the narrative’s surplus of meaning to prosaic entrepreneurship can
be found in Steyaert (2004, pp. 13-16).
 91

Another way of putting this is that narratives, which emerge from meaningful-

action-as-texts (Ricoeur, 1991) and written discourse, function as a mode of

communication and as a mode of knowing (Czarniawska, 2004). Narratives hold us

accountable to one another by directing our actions, but can also “develop

consequences of [their] own” (Ricoeur, p. 153). Regardless of the intent of an

(inter)action or written text, narratives can take on different meanings and generate

unintended effects.

In the following sections, I report on the academic and popular narrative accounts

of entrepreneurship and professional investigating with keen interest in describing some

of their shared features. Each individual media or scholarly article is treated as a

discursive artifact (or story) that participates with others in constructing a particular

narrative account about entrepreneurship and private investigating. What is provided

below is not a hermeneutic exegesis or in-depth narrative analysis. I have simply

synthesized a body of works into a story of stories by following a basic approach offered

by Polkinghorne (1995), who suggests that “analysis of narratives moves from stories to

common elements, and narrative analysis moves from elements to stories” (p. 12). In

short, I have searched for the surplus of meanings that overflow the intentions of

particular speakers, particular actors, and particular authors.

Collecting stories and finding the dominant narrative themes in them is important

to a praxeological project because the process elucidates what storylines put isomorphic

pressures on fields of practices. 2 As noted in chapter 2, praxeologists are bookkeepers

who describe what counts. In other words, praxeologists need to describe what narrative

themes likely regulate actors’ practices, interpellate identities, and reproduce social

orders (see Czarniawska, 1997, 2004; Stark, 1998). Narrative accounting is a scheme

2
This follows the logic of DiMaggio & Powell (1983), but suggests that discursive
pressures are as equally important as coercive, mimetic, and normative pressures (see
Lawrence & Suddaby, 2006).
 92

that, among other things, elucidates what myths and ceremonies are culturally important

and likely structure organizational fields (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983).

Accounting for narrative themes running across multiple stories contextualizes

claims about a phenomenon. From these accounts, a praxeologist can then compare

and contrast how actors’ practices keep up with, add to, disrupt, maintain, play with, go

along with, perpetuate, and so on, the mythos embedded in narratives. The telos of a

praxeologist is description, but much can be gained from contrasting narrative accounts

with observed practices. The goal is not to explain a cause or effect between the two,

but rather to seek understanding as to how narrative accounts and practices remain

(mis)aligned. In chapter 4, it will become clear that some dominant narrative themes

about private investigating have created and may likely destroy opportunities for some

agency owners.

The notion that narrative accounts about a field can bolster or inhibit

opportunities within a field of practice is consistent with prosaic, narrative, and discursive

approaches to entrepreneurship studies. Hjorth and Steyaert’s (2004) collection of

essays in their second book of the new movements series—Narrative and Discursive

Approaches in Entrepreneurship—and a recent special issue in the journal

Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, spearheaded by Steyaert and Jerome Katz

(2004), demonstrate that much can be gained from understanding narratives’ role in the

creation, destruction, enactment, and discovery of opportunities in various contexts.

Narratives regarding entrepreneurship, which include those about opportunity, provide

the assumptions by which practitioners, researchers, and theorists (blindly) go about

their business (Gartner, 2001, 2004).

Entrepreneuring involves the ongoing process of “reading texts” for inspiration

and then translating interpretations (i.e., new ideas and processes) back into the social
 93

narrative. 3 What narrative approaches to entrepreneurship suggest is that all humans,

as homo narrans, are creative and “entrepreneurship is a matter of everyday activities

rather than actions of elitist groups of entrepreneurs” (Steyaert & Katz, 2004, p. 180).

This is not to suggest that all individuals seek monetary profit (though the themes of the

capitalistic narrative are certainly seductive), but that entrepreneuring and the success

and failures of entrepreneurs (and what they do every day) have a lot to do with

storytelling. For this reason, it is important for praxeologists to identify the dominant

themes in academic literature and popular media.

Chapter Methods and Artifacts

The popular culture artifacts that I collected and thematized come from a wide

range of sources, including web-based media, television programs, news articles, and

(non-)fiction books. The scholarly artifacts come from a collection of academic sources,

including edited books and peer-reviewed articles that I was able to access through

EBSCO, Academic Search Premier, and Lexis-Nexis databases. I gave attention to

works that discussed the profession and to artifacts wherein the authors appealed to

private investigating (often to invoke mystery). For the most part, scholarly texts about

professional investigating are difficult to find. Articles evoking the mystery of private

investigating—e.g., methods articles by ethnographers (e.g., Goodall, 1994)—and

literature analyses of fictional detective books were most common.

To collect artifacts, I ran searches through Google, 4 Amazon, and Academic

Search Premier using key words such as “private investigat*,” “private detect*,” and

“professional investigat*”. There were far too many popular texts to read, so I used my

best culturally-situated hunches to guide the collection of artifacts. The outcome of the

3
Sometimes entrepreneurs’ ideas are too ahead of the narrative and, lacking rhetorical
skills, suggest ideas that scare others. Many of Nikola Tesla’s inventions, e.g., wireless
electricity, scared the public and led some investors to withdraw capital.
4
I completed separate searches with other Google engines—e.g., Google News, Google
Books, and Google Scholar.
 94

peer-reviewed journal and scholarly books yielded a much more manageable size: there

were only 156 unique journal articles between the search terms (most regarding fiction

literature) and just a dozen or so contemporary books specifically geared toward the

profession.

Analysis of the texts followed the step-by-step procedure provided by

Czarniawska (2004), which I already outlined in chapter 2, section 3. I completed this

part of the study while shadowing and interviewing. This allowed me to see if agency

owners were aware of the themes in narrative accounts, which they often brought up

without my prompting. For example, they often criticized the popular television show

Cheaters, noting that these shows perpetuate “a myth that private investigators are

nothing more than ‘sleazy sleuths spying on people’s sexual affairs’” (Interviewee 04).

When they made such critiques, I used it as an opportunity to verify other themes I was

uncovering. This demonstrates the importance of going to the field to filter large data

obtained via texts and the internet (Czarniawska, 2007).

The examples and references from artifacts that I use to support claims are

representative of the larger collection of artifacts. The purpose of this chapter is not to

provide a textual exegesis, but to provide a general account of the narratives that

underlie assumptions and myths regarding the fields of practices of private investigating.

As a general rule, actors do not do in-depth analysis when they read and interpret texts;

they simply consume and share ideas as they construct reality (Berger & Luckmann,

1966).

Prosaic and Academic Narratives of Private Investigating

Popular Narratives of Private Eyes

In popular culture, “private detective” conjures the image of a shadowy, yet

perceptive, witty, and endearing (male) figure in a Homburg hat and trench coat. The

image of J.J. Gittes (Jack Nicholson) and his partner Lawrence Walsh (Joe Mantell) in
 95

Roman Polanski’s Chinatown comes to mind. Other film and television series that project

similar, but varied, representations of the private detective are Magnum PI, The

Rockford Files, and Dick Tracy. For older generations and fans of old-time radio

programs, it may be the smoky voice of Richard Diamond that gives the impression that

private detectives’ work is exciting.

The image of the private detective portrayed in film and books has its origins in

the embellished stories of Vidocq (Walz, 2003). It was his pals Honoré de Balzac, Victor

Hugo, and Alexandre Dumas who used Vidocq’s exploits as inspiration for many of their

fictional works. This coupling of investigative work and fiction immediately elevated the

conception of the private investigator’s work into the mythic realm: “it became the force

of order and rationality battling the chaotic and scary forces of darkness…, and living on

and endlessly transmogrified…in countless crime novels, movies and TV shows, has

proven to have fantastic resonance. And it has thoroughly infected our notions of crime

in the real world” (Walz, p. x).

In popular press books about private investigating—e.g., Private Investigators &

Bounty Hunters (Gaines, 1999), The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Private Investigating

(Brown, 2007), and Private Investigation, Security Science, and Public Service

(MacHovec, 2006)—there appears to be a tension between wanting to embrace the

nostalgic narrative of the shad(ow)y profession while inscribing a professional and

legitimate narrative of the private investigator in pursuit of truth and justice. For example,

in the forward to Introduction to Private Investigating, Joseph A. Travers notes,

The private investigation industry has changed dramatically in the

past half-century. From a time when the typical P.I. had the reputation
of being a booze-slugging, woman-chasing roughneck—to today’s
investigators, professional men and women dedicated to preserving
justice in the public and private sectors. (2005, p. xi)

Lest people think that private investigating has become a humdrum professional career,

writers of “how to” books are keen to remind readers that it is not “just a job”: “A career
 96

as a professional private investigator can be emotionally rewarding, entertaining, and

exciting. It’s much better than working for a living” (Brown, 2007, p. 17). Regardless of

whether private investigators were or are “roughnecks” or “professionals,” Travers is

correct about one thing—the field has changed dramatically. Dramas and narratives play

out in everyday interaction and become cognitive schemes through which people make

sense of investigators’ “rational” practices. Similarly, it is through narratives that people

obtain a recognizable identity (Czarniawska, 1997), which is why private investigators

are not often identified as entrepreneurs or professionals, while police officers and rich

Silicon Valley tycoons are. Two themes that were prominent in private eye narratives are

“unprofessionalism” and “autonomous man.”

Unprofessionalism. From popular representations of private investigators in

reality television shows and news sources, it is hard to see private investigators as

professionals. In the reality television show Cheaters, a Dallas-based private

investigations company engages in domestic surveillances for clients (“the complainant”)

who suspect that their spouse or long-term significant other is engaged in infidelity.

Spliced with interviews and some narration, Cheaters documents the activities of a

cheater (“the suspect”) with his or her paramour (“the companion”). While there is

nothing abnormal about the surveillance footage, the show adds an element of drama by

allowing the client to confront his or her partner after evidence of infidelity has been

obtained. This confrontation often turns quickly into an example of domestic violence

and has placed fear in some potential clients about hiring private eyes. While shadowing

in Dallas and Atlanta, I documented two phone calls during which a potential client

specifically asked if they will need to confront their partner or if the surveillance video will

be shown on television. Other interviewees mentioned they receive similar calls.

In Love Decoy: Sex Stings, Phoenix-based private investigator Sandra Hope

(Mate Check PI, LLC), her boyfriend and business partner Tom Scharrer, and her
 97

daughters Jasmine, Xanadu, and Kashmir, document their lives as well as their private

investigative activities. The type of investigations that they conduct is referred to as

“fidelity checking” and “baiting,” which involves tempting the client’s partner with the

prospect of hooking up with the decoy. The client hires Mate Check so that their

temptresses (two of the investigators are former strippers) can check the client’s

partner’s fidelity. Once the wayward lover’s devious intentions are sufficiently enticed, a

meeting (usually private) is set up in a location that can be rigged with hidden cameras

or publicly videotaped. The client and Sandra’s team sit in a nearby van and watch the

situation unfold live. Seeing his or her significant other take the bait, the client typically

goes into an emotional tantrum and storms in on the surprised partner. Usually many

epithets are tossed about, and in several episodes physical violence ensues. In the

episode “The Rock and Roll Romeo” (Season 1, Episode 2) the client storms into a bar’s

dressing room (for the band), tosses water on her partner, and slaps him. When there is

not much drama, Sandra and the decoys will verbally lambaste the cheater or try to

stoke the client’s frustrations. For example, in the same episode, the client is reconciling

with her partner when Sandra says, “You’re going back to the same thing [name]; he just

got done putting his tongue down another woman’s throat.” In the pre-surveillance

interviews the clients are often encouraged to be confrontational. Sandra hints that the

best time to confront them is when everyone is around (which obviously means when the

camera crews are too). But when one is emotionally charged, this is the worst time to

confront a partner—there is an increased the risk of physical violence. In the episode “A

Family Affair,” (Season 1, Episode 1) the police arrive on the scene of the confrontation.

Interestingly, Hope criticized Cheaters for “provoking confrontation” just three

years prior to making her own reality television show. She was a guest on MSNBC’s

“Scarborough Country” on December 19, 2005, and was asked to give her opinion

regarding the indictments brought against Cheaters staff for provoking a confrontation
 98

between Rafael and Maria Gutierrez. At the time, Maria had a protective order against

Rafael for alleged assault. After uncovering evidence of her infidelity, Cheaters staff

arranged for Rafael to confront his wife at her workplace, which led to charges being

sought by Maria. In commenting on “Cheaters,” Hope seems to suggest that provocation

is neither usual nor preferred:

I think that wanting to see if someone is being faithful is one thing, but
provoking it and making people aggravated and into a violent situation
is another…. When I have watched the show, I see a lot of provoking,
making the other party angry, upset into a violent situation. I‘ve been
doing private investigations and finding cheating spouses for 11
years, and you just don‘t run into this. (“Scarborough Country,” 2005)

It would seem that the entertainment and financial gain for Hope is now more important

than maintaining the profession. 5

The reality of these “reality shows” is that they showcase practices that most

private investigators try to avoid, particularly because confrontation can lead to legal

problems. Despite domestic surveillances being “easy money,” most private

investigators prefer to avoid doing them because of the high emotionality of clients

(interviewee 26). What is more, most investigators understand the risk of violence that

comes with domestic cases, some of which have ended in murder and murder-suicide,

as was the case with interviewees 26 and 29. Popular press books encourage

investigators to be cognizant of the risks of domestic cases: “We made it a policy…never

to tell the exact location of their cheating spouse until the following day” (Brown, 2007, p.

14). Nearly all of the investigators I interviewed said that they also adhere to such a

policy, frequently citing the Clara Harris incident as a premier example of why one

should not give certain details from the field about target activities. In 2002, Clara Harris

5
Interestingly, during the same discussion, the producer of Cheaters, Bobby Goldstein
argues that there is a moral value to these shows: “I think there’s more than just
entertainment value, Catherine [the show’s host]. You know, we are protectors of the
seventh commandment: Thou shalt not commit adultery. And some people find that has
a lot of merit as well” (“Scarborough Country,” 2005).
 99

hit her husband with a car and ran him over two additional times. This all happened in a

Hilton Hotel parking lot (Nassau Bay, Texas) after the investigation company she had

hired, Blue Moon Investigations, told her that they had documented her husband with

another woman at the hotel.

In an episode of Sex Decoys (“Web Wanderer” 6 ), a target is brought to his and

his girlfriend’s apartment for a confrontation after he is caught on surveillance cameras

receiving a lap dance from Kashmir. Expecting to continue his fling, he enters the

apartment with an unconcealed fire arm attached to his belt. He is greeted by the

production crew, other investigators from Mate Check, and his girlfriend, who begins to

yell at him. The situation, according to Tom, “was escalating fast.” Tom, therefore, un-

holsters the gun and refuses to give it back to the target, who eventually leaves his

apartment apparently without it. Tom’s actions could constitute theft. Moreover, the

documentation of these incidences, especially those that get physical, is not good for the

client. Not only does confrontation make the evidence largely useless in court, but it

could be evidence of domestic violence. In other words, these shows often demonstrate

poor private investigating, illegal activity, and works against clients’ interests.

The unprofessional activities of these reality television shows are, of course,

critiqued by other private investigators (at least until they have their own reality show).

For example, Florida private eye Bill Warner (2009) claims on his blog that Hope is

“trailer trash with a badge.” While I agree with most of the points raised in Warner’s blog

rants, his writing is poor, he presents his case on a cluttered and amateurish blog page,

and his tone toward another professional is, frankly, unprofessional. So in this sense, he

is also guilty of generating a largely negative representation of private investigators.

Despite Hope’s problematic representation of the field, news channels have

capitalized on the show by inviting Hope to serve as a pundit and commentator about

6
Season 1, episode 4.
 100

various social issues, especially infidelity. Her exposure on news media, in turn,

increases her popularity and the chance that television viewers will be exposed to her

brand of investigating. Yet, despite the few appearances of private investigators to give

commentary regarding issues of infidelity, the news media largely does not seek the

advice of private investigators for other social matters or report on positive practices. It is

much more likely, as my analysis of artifacts suggests, that the news will report on

negative practices of the field.

In recent years, stories of private investigator misconduct have dominated the

headlines. The Hewlett-Packard (HP) case, in which outside private investigators were

hired in 2005 to obtain the source of a media leak from the board (Kaplan, 2006), and

the Anthony Pellicano case, in which he was sentenced to 15 years for illegal wiretaps

and racketeering on behalf of high-profile Hollywood clients (Barnes, 2008), are two

examples of negative media. In the HP case, investigators used highly questionably

“pretexting” activities—e.g., pretending to be HP executives or journalists in order to

obtain phone records. They also sent emails with embedded software that could trace

computer activities without user knowledge. These practices led to the resignation of

several board members; investigations by the State of California, the FBI, and Congress;

and criminal charges (Donovan, 2007). The passage of the “Telephone Records and

Privacy Protection Act” 7 is a consequence of the HP scandal. But the damage to the

field extends beyond this one provision, as the following outtake from a USA Today

article demonstrates: “Phone records aren't the only traces of your life that can be had

for a buck. / Individuals' medical records, places of employment and class schedules are

just some of the nuggets data brokers obtain by impersonating others, a practice known

as pretexting” (my emphasis, Davidson, 2006, ¶1-2). The rhetorical condemnation both

reduces the legitimacy of the field and supports the numerous proposed state and

7
H.R. 4709, codified at18 U.S.C. §1039 (2007)
 101

federal bills that, if passed, will severely limit the practices of private investigators (see

http://www.nciss.com). Clearly, the media narrative about private investigating leads

toward the “hired gun” images that are prevalent in the fictional ones. Investigators must

(and are willing to) lie, steal, and cheat to satiate their need to make money: “too many

PIs' main concern is getting paid” (¶12). In short, private eyes are known to work “for

sizeable fees” (Tergesen, 2005) and will do just about anything for anyone, which

includes helping murderers (Motia, 2008). 8

Given the number of times private investigators find themselves in the media for

violations of the law, it doesn’t help that in many of the “how to” books regarding the

profession, especially the best among them (e.g., MacHovec, 2006), there is little

discussion of legal principles. MacHovec, for example, who holds a doctorate degree in

clinical psychology, correctly asserts that “ignorance of the law can lead to serious

errors, painful embarrassment in court, loss of confidence in you by colleagues and

company, lost business, and even the miscarriage of justice when a guilty person goes

free” (or, I would add, when an innocent person goes to prison). However, he only gives

a scant two pages (pp. 152-154) to the discussion of law. He also does not offer much

advice about where to get the training or what laws to know. 9 Worse, he indicates that a

great learning tool is Hollywood movies. At the end of each chapter he lists movies worth

watching (e.g., Witness for the Prosecution [criminal court proceedings] and The Usual

Suspects [interrogations]), but he does not indicate whether these are good examples,

poor examples, or teaching tools.

Autonomous man. If popular depictions of private investigators are largely those

of unprofessional roughnecks, these roughnecks are male, particularly since “private

investigations is a field that requires a great deal of courage…” (Travers, 2005, p. 4). Not

8
Some agency owners refer, sadly, to criminal investigations as “dirty work.”
9
Ron Hankin’s (2009) and Charles Nemeth’s (2004) books are good places to start.
 102

surprisingly, most of the artifacts I analyzed from news sources almost always cited a

male investigator. Where women are described as valuable to the profession, they are

seen as good tools for covert work (“most people don’t expect women to be PIs”

[Interviewee 05]). Allan Pinkerton supposedly hired the first female private detective for

this reason. Kate Warne approached Pinkerton and expressed her wish to become a

detective: “Though Pinkerton had never heard of a female detective, he leaned back in

his chair and asked why she thought she could be of value. Mrs. Warne carefully

detailed how she could ‘worm out secrets in many places to which it was impossible for

male detectives to gain access’” (Horan, 1967, p. 29). According to investigators, women

can be good covert operators due to a lack of public expectation. The Detective Training

Institute advertises:

In several types of assignments, women have often been more

effective than their male counterparts. Women are now actively
recruited by detective agencies because they have done very well
when assigned to surveillance activities, interviewing subjects, and
conducting telephone pretext calls. (http://detectivetraining.com)

In the narratives of female success, the sorts of assignments that women seem to excel

at are “baiting surveillances” (they use their sexuality), speaking with other women and

children (they are softer), and playing on people’s false assumptions in pretexts (the

benefit from the dominant male-centric discourse).

The expectation that mostly men are private investigators seeps into popular

texts in the most superficial of comments. Of course, certain biases in popular accounts

of private investigating do give women some advantages in the field. Similarly, age and

race can be a field advantage, though these are often not mentioned as factors in the

“how-to” books. From my own experiences as a field investigator in Dallas, I can attest

that advantages come to those who are young. Most people simply did not suspect I was

a private investigator. Similarly, one of my interviewees, a black female investigator

(Interviewee 08), indicated that she “often obtains things that others [e.g., white
 103

investigators] would not be able to, especially in more urban areas.” Making money as a

private eye is entwined with practices of race, class, and gender.

In most stories, there is little accounting or representation of other images

besides the autonomous (white) man. While non-fiction accounts often do not portray

private investigators as playboys, they are praised or critiqued for their ingenuity and

ability to get things from people. Given this sort of image, there are some financial risks

to private investigators; especially those who do not fit the typified image of the private

eye. While I certainly fit most of the criteria, I often sensed that my age was a factor in

how clients interpreted my field activities, especially when I did not perform well.

Additionally, I could sense that my age was a factor when negotiating contracts with

potential clients. For example, they would ask in a suspicious tone, “how long have you

been doing this?” or more directly, “are you sure you are qualified?”

The equipment of the investigative world also has been biased by popular

accounts. I once video recorded from up the street in my Ford Escape a client’s

husband, who knew he was being followed. He walked down the street and knocked on

a van window before going to his mistress’s house (located across the street from his

and his wife’s house). He later claimed he wanted to know if I wanted something to eat

or drink. He obviously thought that private eyes use vans. This is why no private eye I

interviewed or shadowed drove a van.

Academic Narratives of Private Investigators

Academic discourse about entrepreneurship and private investigating also

perpetuate narrative accounts that are constitutive of and constituted by the popular

culture stories. From an academic standpoint, there are few texts about private

investigators available. The majority of scholarship concerning the investigative

profession tends to favor public or corporate detectives’ work (Sennewald & Tsukayama,

2006). This is despite the fact that in the United States the private profession largely
 104

precedes public policing (see Weiss, 1979, 1981) and is one of the fastest growing

professions in the United States (U.S. Department of Labor, 2009).

Public police departments have been experiencing severe financial shortages for

decades, and are now taking on extra counter-terrorism duties in the post-9.11 era. With

skinnier budgets and more duties, departments must make strategic choices about

which cases to investigate. Most of their resources are now aimed at revenue-generating

activities (issuing citations), domestic disturbances, and investigating major crimes such

as murder, rape, armed robbery, and drug-related activities. Fraud, larceny, missing

persons, and “white-collar” crime are often left under-investigated. It is no surprise that

the fastest growing sectors on the private side are finance and mortgage fraud

investigations, followed by identity-theft cases (Motia, 2008). Other common cases that

private investigators take on are wrongful death, work-related injury, employee theft,

investor-related background investigations, kidnapping, and corporate counter-

surveillance (U.S. Department of Labor, 2008).

Despite these trends, the few academic texts that I have located about private

detective services tend to focus on the seedy side of the profession—such as the use of

deceptive practices (e.g., Gill & Hart, 1997; Shulman, 1994, 2007) or its historic coupling

with private interests or corrupt public policy (e.g., Churchill, 2004; Weiss, 1979, 1986)—

and its (problematic) representation in media or fiction (e.g., Broe, 2005; Broes, 1992;

Jackson, 2003). Other academics use private investigating as a metaphor, often

perpetuating the popular culture images. Ethnographers, especially, like to draw

comparison between ethnographic fieldwork and private investigating, evoking the (sexy)

image of the private investigator “casing” a culture in order to uncover “dirty data” (e.g.,

Atkinson, et al., 2007; Goodall, 1994, 2000; Mitchell, 1993; Shulman, 1994).

The greatest body of academic literature that focuses on investigations as a

(professional) field, rather than using it as metaphor, covers internal corporate

 105

investigations or private policing. These articles are written by faculty in law, criminal

justice, accounting, and economics (e.g., Geddes, 1989; Gill & Hart, 2007; Hankin, 2009;

Montgomery & Majeski, 2005; Nemeth, 2004). What this means is that there is an

academic discipline around identifiable jobs within corporate investigation—e.g.,

computer forensic technicians, forensic accounting specialists, and loss-prevention

specialists. There is no similar coherent research agenda tailored to private investigators

and their techniques or needs. This reduces social legitimacy and makes practitioners

have to rely upon anecdotal evidence to support their practices. To make this point, I will

use the discussion regarding the role of females in the field:

Consider the female employee who received an obscene phone call.

If a male investigator were conducting that interview, some of the
language during that conversation, language that could tie in with a
past or future case, might not surface. A female investigator would
probably obtain the entire conversation, word for word. Ideally, then, a
female investigator would do the follow-up interviewing on sex-related
offenses involving female victims. That is also true where children are
witnesses. As a rule, small children will confide in a female more
readily than in a male, and older people feel more at ease with
investigators closer to their own age. (Sennewald & Tsukayama,
2006, p. 100)

It may or may not be true that females have an advantage over men as investigators.

Sennewald and Tsukayama are relying on “common sense” (i.e., narrative accounts

based on doxa). They could rely on gender communication research to train male

investigators to adopt practice typical to women, but research testing these pedagogical

practices would be necessary. Sennewald and Tsukayama never cite a single study to

support their sweeping claims throughout the book.

The absence of research is a reflection of the state of the profession—

researchers do not have an incentive to take this field seriously. In Sennewald and

Tsukayama’s (2006) 300-page textbook, they only have a total of 45 citations, and most

refer to legal cases or popular press articles. That textbook and how-to books are written

with few or no citations to studies is troubling for a profession; there is no body of

 106

knowledge to help give the field legitimacy or to draw upon. Until an identifiable research

paradigm develops, private investigations will be subservient and dependent on

literature in other fields, which largely serves public and corporate investigators’

practices. While private investigators may engage in practices that are similar to public

and corporate investigators, they do have marked differences worthy of consideration.

Until serious academic writing and research occurs, the popular male and

unprofessional themes in narratives will continue to dominate.

Prosaic and Academic Narratives of Entrepreneuring

This section was completed in much the same way as the previous. There are

academic studies that have already accounted for themes in popular stories about

entrepreneurship. For this reason, I do not offer as many examples directly from popular

culture artifacts and instead draw on these academic articles.

Popular Narratives of Entrepreneurs

Mention the word “entrepreneur” to a person and it will likely conjure up images

slightly similar to the private investigator: a heroic and triumphant, creative, and hard-

working (male) businessperson who has built an organizational “empire,” sometimes

with just pennies of net worth. Allan Pinkerton, Andrew Carnegie, Bill Gates, Steven

Jobs, Sam Walton, and “those guys that started Google” are a few of the likely

characters who fit the ideal-type image of homo economicus. 10 In US-American culture,

stories about successful and rich business people are pervasive, and we admire those

who have seemingly defied the odds. For example, the “great entrepreneurial success

story” of how FedEx started with just a few planes and grew into a $36 billion global

delivery juggernaut has become a part of corporate Americana. The story of its birth tells

of Fred Smith’s legendary college term paper in which he first advanced his idea of an

10
For an excellent account of masculinity and entrepreneurship see James Catano’s
(2001) Ragged Dicks: Masculinity, Steel, and the Rhetoric of the Self-Made Man.
 107

overnight-delivery service and was supposedly given a C by his Yale professor (which

Smith says is an inaccurate portrayal) to the infamous trip to the Las Vegas casinos—

where he won enough hands of blackjack to meet a payroll and avoid bankruptcy (“Fred

Smith on the Birth of FedEx,” 2004). Such stories, and there are several amazing stories

I could have drawn from, often promote entrepreneurship as solely a profit-seeking

business endeavor and often in individualistic terms, whereby one or two individuals

have a “eureka” moment or discovery and exploit an opportunity. Successful or failed

entrepreneurs, however, are constituted by several factors, including historical timing of

their life, industry changes, previous experiences, and social networks.

In the United States, especially, it is the lure of riches that are the hook of most of

these stories. There is a reason I am writing about Fred Smith, the CEO of FedEx, and

not Fred Smith, my high school English and literature teacher. Smith, the teacher, is

likely just as intelligent and hardworking as the average CEO. Yet, entrepreneurs are

treated as the saviors of capitalistic economies: “Entrepreneurs that start and run small

businesses will be the propellant in this economy” (Jardin, 2008). English and literature

teachers, however, are just as important to capitalism. The Harvard Business Review,

for example, suggests that quality writing and the ability “to read fiction to the bottom

line” are important factors in managing creative and productive enterprises (see

Czarniawska-Joerges & de Monthoux, 1994). Nevertheless, with the economy and

environment in turmoil, it was “Joe the Plumbers” 11 that would save our economy.

Politicians’, political pundits’, and “news personalities’” ways of speaking about

economies and business people largely reinforce the image of an entrepreneur working

independently while thinking only about profits (and low taxes). In other words, the social

and mundane dimensions of entrepreneurship are often left out of the stories in favor of

getting straight to the profitable ending.

11
A phrase made popular during the 2008 United States Presidential campaign season.
 108

There have already been several studies of entrepreneurial metaphors and

narrative in popular texts and practices (e.g., Bruni, Gherardi, & Poggio, 2004; Down,

2006; Johansson, 2004; Nicholson & Anderson, 2005; Sørensen, 2008; Stewart, 1990).

These studies highlight that the public narratives of entrepreneurship (or “false clichés”

as Simon Down calls them) are infused with storylines of “manliness”; “risk and bravery”

(entrepreneurs are risk-takers, employees are not); “ambition and growth”

(entrepreneurs seek change, not routine); “autonomy and self-sufficiency”;

“bureaucracies and corporations” (entrepreneurs are not beholden to rules and

procedure) (Down, 2006, pp. 89-102). Louis Nicholson and Alistair Anderson’s (2005)

longitudinal study of metaphors in news stories printed between 1989 and 2000 is a

thorough analysis of popular themes about entrepreneurship. What they found in their

analysis was some shift, albeit slight, and mainly in the level of hostility, in the myth that

emerges from the metaphors used in stories over the decade: “The entrepreneur in 1989

is portrayed as battle protagonist, fighting a class war or broad range of opponents using

psychological warfare. … / In 2000, the entrepreneur is an aggressive protagonist in

battle, ‘nuking’ and ‘culling’ rival businesses or governments” (p. 161). They further

highlight that, regardless of what sort of individual she or he is (savior or fiend), the

entrepreneur is always in control:

The entrepreneurial myth stretches to cover the evil wolfish

entrepreneur and the supernatural angel-like guru, the successful
skyrocket and the community corrupter. However, the extensive range
of traits making up the entrepreneurial myth have a common element;
agency. Whether as creator, seducer, aggressor, charmer, savior or
pursuer, the entrepreneur is always active, rather than the object of
someone else’s agency. (p. 163)

While such articles are critical of some of the dominant themes, the authors’

arguments are aimed not so much at “main street” entrepreneurship, but at large

corporations. Most critiques of entrepreneurship still favor small start-up companies.

 109

Consequently, in the majority of stories about entrepreneurship (whether from a positive

or negative angle), the less-positive and black-market practices of entrepreneurship are

left out (this is also true in the academic narratives; see Baumol, 1990; Rehn & Taalas,

2004a). Drug dealing and telemarketing enterprises may have much more in common

than our stories permit. If Vidocq’s story reminds us of anything, there is often a very thin

line between criminal and legitimate business practices. Our favored stories about

entrepreneurship also don’t deal with failure, so we have poor understanding of why

businesses fail and why so many people rush dangerously into business. For every story

of success, there are more stories of failure (Shane, 2008). There is, unfortunately, little

discussion in popular press about the wasted deployment of resources of a failed

business or firm created by venture capitalists just for the purpose of selling the

company for profit. When someone can claim “We’re mass-producing the start-up,” as

Paul Graham, founder of Y Combinator, has, citizens should be concerned about the

sustainability of this approach and its effect on local economies.

Finally, stories of entrepreneurship largely focus on businesses and not practices

of entrepreneurship. It is unlikely, therefore, that the founders of the Red Cross, Boys

and Girls Clubs, and the neighborhood church are going to be considered

entrepreneurs. They may be said to be entrepreneurial or be categorized as “social”

entrepreneurs, but rarely, if ever, just entrepreneurs. All of these stories, according to

Scott Shane (2008), perpetuate myths about entrepreneurship. The myth that

entrepreneurship is always good for the economy 12 or that people start businesses in

“start-up” industries are particularly dangerous ones. A significant amount of capital and

other vital resources are lost in business venturing, particularly because entrepreneurs

tend to start businesses in saturated markets with high firm failure rates (Shane, 2008).

The myth of the savior entrepreneur is also pervasive in academic narratives about

12
On this point, see also Baumol, 1990 and Baumol, Litan, & Schramm, 2007.
 110

entrepreneurship. Some scholars, however, as I shall show in the section on narratives

in entrepreneurship studies, have begun to challenge these myths.

Academic Narratives of Entrepreneurs

Unlike private investigations, entrepreneurship studies is an established

academic discipline. There are professional academic associations (e.g., United States

Association for Small Business and Entrepreneurship) and several other disciplines have

an entrepreneurship caucus or division (e.g., Academy of Management and American

Economic Association). There are disciplinary journals (e.g., Entrepreneurship Theory &

Practice and Entrepreneurial Economy) and other journals frequently publish articles on

entrepreneurship (e.g., Organization Studies). There are also numerous (text)books and

anthologies on the topic from a variety of paradigmatic and ideological perspectives.

Most importantly, courses are taught and degrees are conferred at several universities

throughout the world.

Not unlike most human studies disciplines, entrepreneurship studies has its

typical paradigmatic in-fighting and insecurities, particularly in recent decades as the

various “turns” and “posts” have emerged and disrupted scientism’s stronghold on the

human studies disciplines. Prying entrepreneurship studies from the positivist grip has

not been easy. With its bizarre quantitative measurements, game theory, and abstract

mathematical language, neoclassical economics has become the “queen” of the social

sciences (McCloskey, 1998). It is, consequently, the neoclassical definition of the

entrepreneur that has dominated the field for some time (Seymour, 2006). That the

entrepreneur emerges as an “ideal type” in neoclassical economics as a rational agent

that has the ability to coordinate, control, and equilibrate disorderly markets while

rewarding society with new products, services, and an accumulation of wealth, is not

surprising. It parallels the narrative of positivist science. It is also not surprising that

entrepreneurship scholars have preoccupied themselves for so long with trying to

 111

understand the psychological attributes and traits of entrepreneurs (see Gartner, 1988;

Shane & Venkataraman, 2000) or that such research has found that entrepreneurs

possess the following attributes: “a propensity for risk,” “strong leadership skills,” “self-

motivation,” “a strong ego,” and “a desire to make money” (see Ray, 1993). These are

largely the same characteristics that are pervasive in account of other sciences. As

Berger and Luckmann (1966) and Weick (1995) note, we have simply enacted the reality

we projected. These attributes are simply reified typifications. If the narrative suggests

that mostly these people are entrepreneurs, it is likely that mostly these “types of people”

will become entrepreneurs.

In recent years, it has become fashionable to take an Austrian School approach

to entrepreneurship, particularly among scholars with an interest in opportunity as the

primary object of focus (see Holcombe, 2003; Kirzner, 1973, 1997; Shane, 2000; Shane

& Venkataraman, 2000; Plummer, Haynie, & Godesiabois, 2007). Even though Austrian

theorists—namely von Mises and Friedrich Hayek—remained skeptical of positivism,

many of the assumptions of the neoclassical doctrine still persist in studies of

opportunity.

Popular definitions of opportunities describe them “as situations in which new

goods, services, raw materials, markets and organizing methods can be introduced

through the formation of new means, ends, or means-ends relationships” (Eckhardt &

Shane, 2003, p. 336). Where attempts have been made to explain the origins of

opportunistic situations (e.g., Holcombe, 2003; Kirzner, 1973; Plummer, Haynie, &

Godesiabois, 2007; Shane, 2000), the discussions have been primarily theoretical and

based on an understanding of opportunities as discovered objects that exist

independently of entrepreneurs’ actions, as byproducts of disequilibriated markets (e.g.,

changes in taste or technological advancements; Kirzner, 1973; Plummer, et al.,

Schumpeter, 1976; Holcombe, 2003), and unintended consequences of individuals’

 112

creative and destructive meddling in markets (Schumpeter, 1976). Based on these

assumptions, scholarly discussions about opportunity identification can be classified into

at least three coherent explanations: active search, prior knowledge, and creation.

Active search. The first common account of opportunities is that they are

discovered by active search. It is assumed that markets operate in equilibrium as a

result of the collective, price-motivated decisions of maximizing actors. Markets operate

in modes of perfect competition where supply and demand are balanced at a particular

price. Because markets are balanced and efficient at equilibrium, there are no additional

profit opportunities. However, a disruption in a market may push it into a state of

disequilibrium and create an opportunity for profitability. A disruption may be a higher

input price, environmental problem, or change in tastes. (Focusing on how the disruption

came to be is of little interest.) Opportunities in this model are considered to originate

from the disruption and, therefore, are external to entrepreneurs’ actions.

According to the neo-classical tradition, an opportunity is simply any occasion for

arbitrage (i.e., high profits). Because all actors are assumed to possess perfect

knowledge about markets, any opportunity presents itself as an equal opportunity for all.

Entrepreneurs in this model, therefore, are individuals who actively step in and take first

advantage of an equally obvious opportunity. Self-identified entrepreneurs are always

“on the lookout” and aggressively act whenever or wherever an opportunity arises. The

image of the entrepreneur in this orientation is that of the self-motivated risk-taker who

wants to make large profits; i.e., the popular cultural myth of the competitive, money-

driven individual. The advantage of this approach for researchers is that opportunities

are easily operationalized as monetary gain. A limitation of this approach is obvious: it is

assumed, for example, that everyone had an equal chance of discovering the internet

search engine and its revenue generating potential. Another limitation is that it is a-

historical and a-contextual. In order for the opportunity of “private investigating” to be

 113

possible, a market disruption must have occurred in Vidocq’s France. Such an approach,

however, does not account for the constitutive factors of disruptions.

Prior knowledge. This theme suggests that prior knowledge explains why some

individuals discover opportunities while others do not (Shane, 2000, 2003). This

perspective is largely espoused by entrepreneurship scholars borrowing from the

Austrian School of economics, particularly Kirzner (1973, 1997). According to the

Austrians, opportunity discovery is contingent on subjective knowledge. Shane (2003)

argues that prior knowledge moderates the relationship between technological

inventions and opportunity exploitation. Austrian economists are still largely interested in

the role of the price mechanism in generating profit and loss, but “[they] believe that

equilibrium approaches [of the neoclassical school] fail to offer a satisfying theoretical

framework for understanding market processes” (Shane, 2003, p. 449). Austrians

recognize that, in practice, markets are almost always in a state of disequilibrium

(Chiles, Bluedorn, & Gupta; Kirzner, 1997; Shane, 2000).

As the market oscillates between surpluses and shortages, opportunities are

common, plentiful, and always awaiting discovery. Knowledge is assumed to be

distributed asymmetrically in a society, so opportunity identification is contingent on a

person’s knowledge, experience, and timing. The fact that Sergey Brin and Larry Page,

the founders of Google, were Ph.D. students at Stanford University likely explains why

they recognized an opportunity to improve internet search engines. That Vidocq had

spent a great deal of time as a crook gave him access to informants and an intimate

knowledge of how criminals operate, which was important to the emerging notion of

“policing.” Individuals, according to Austrian thinking, have knowledge specific to time

and place that is not available to others (Hayek, 1975/2007). The explanation given by

scholars adhering to this approach for unexploited opportunity is that there has yet to be

a timely union between the opportunity and the person possessing the appropriate “prior
 114

knowledge” to recognize it. As Kirzner (1973) notes: “Entrepreneurship does not consist

of grasping a free ten-dollar bill which one has already discovered to be resting in one’s

hand [as neoclassical economists assume]; it consists in realizing that it is in one’s hand

and that it is available for the grasping” (p. 47). An implication of this approach is

obvious: entrepreneurial opportunities are abundant, but they cannot be understood

before they are discovered (Seymour, 2006). It is difficult to account for unseen or

abandoned opportunities in this research.

An entrepreneur is understood by Austrian-influenced scholars as any individual

who acts on information distortions. Though they may demonstrate an “alertness” that

others do not (Kirzner, 1973), entrepreneurs do not necessarily engage in an active

search process. An entrepreneur may passively discover an opportunity if she or he

possesses the necessary knowledge to discover and exploit it (Hayek, 1945; Shane,

2000). Individuals can certainly scan the market horizon looking for previously

unrecognized opportunities, but unless they have the appropriate information they are

likely to fail in their search. In this model, it is again assumed that opportunities originate

in the market and are external to entrepreneurs’ actions. It is recognized, however, that

entrepreneurs can subjectively influence the discovery process by obtaining knowledge

and experience that will help them to identify opportunities. This is why it has become a

favored perspective among many business educators (DeTienne & Chandler, 2004).

Although this perspective is preoccupied with opportunities as an objective economic

phenomenon and treats prior knowledge as cerebral, its focus on the subjective nature

of opportunity discovery offers insights that are useful to a praxeological perspective. I

use, therefore, aspects of this tradition in making sense of how everyday social practices

are generative of private investigators opportunities.

Creation. The final perspective relating to opportunity identification is a creation

perspective. This perspective is characteristic of what Shane (2003) labels

 115

Schumpeterian opportunities (after Joseph Schumpeter). These opportunities are

described as radically new and novel rather than incremental or improved. Sources of

Schumpeterian opportunities have been classified in the entrepreneurship literature as

originating from technological changes, political and regulatory changes, and social and

demographic changes (Shane, 2003, p. 23). The function of the entrepreneur, based on

this view,

is to reform or revolutionize the pattern of production by exploiting an

invention or, more generally, an untried technological possibility for
producing a new commodity or producing an old one in a new way, by
opening up a new source of supply of materials or a new outlet for
products, by reorganizing an industry and so on. (Schumpeter, 1976, p.
132)

Schumpeter, as is apparent in the above definition, saw entrepreneurs as heroic figures

who, through the introduction of “new combinations,” destroy and replace entire markets

(Chiles, Bluedorn, Gupta, 2007). This process, what he termed “creative destruction,”

creates profit opportunities. Once a market is created and destroys another, Schumpeter

(1976) argues, opportunities in the new industry quickly diminish as imitators enter the

market. The implication of this approach is that entrepreneurs are creators of opportunity

but often as the unintended consequence of their willful tinkering on the processes and

structures of current market practices.

Brin and Page, according to this perspective, created the opportunity for a new

search engine by doing research (i.e., “tinkering”) that led to the destruction of the then-

current search platforms. Many search engines now imitate Google by using Google-like

platforms and advertising schemas. Schumpeter, like the neo-classical scholars, would

say that the search engine market now operates in state of equilibrium. The Austrians

would argue that the search engine market is working toward equilibrium but there are

likely unexploited opportunities to be discovered. Vidocq created new processes for

investigation, which have now been imitated to the point that they are largely taken-for-
 116

granted as profit producing. Schumpeter never offered an explanation for why

entrepreneurs intrude into efficient markets (Witt, 1992), 13 but the concept of creative

destruction does offer at least one (simplistic) explanation for the origins of opportunities.

These three trajectories—active search, prior knowledge, creation—in current

discussions largely take a perspective based on the so-called law of supply and

demand. It is assumed that markets will exist in or tend toward a state of equilibrium due

to the competitive nature of markets. This does not necessarily have to mean that

markets are driven solely by the pecuniary self-interest of maximizing agents as

suggested by neoclassical economists. Austrian economists suggest that market

behavior need only rest on the assumption that human action is purposeful and that we

have a “propensity to manipulate scarce means consistently toward the achievement of

adopted goals” (Kirzner, 2005, p. 467; see, especially von Mises, 1949/2007). Many

entrepreneurship scholars have now begun to reject the neoclassical perspective in

favor of both Schumpeterian and Kirznerian opportunities. As Shane summarizes,

“Kirznerian opportunities reinforce established ways of doing things, whereas

Schumpeterian opportunities disrupt the existing system” (Shane, 2003, p. 20).

Regardless of what supposedly dis/equilibrates markets, the limitations of these

approaches are the same: 1) they treat markets as mechanical operations; and, 2) offer

opportunities as objective “things” or specific moments that wait to be “discovered” and

exploited.

In this project, I borrow some useful concepts from each of these schools. For

example, from the Austrian perspective the useful concepts of “prior knowledge” and

13
My assumption is that Schumpeter never explains why people meddle in markets
because it seems self-evident that they may be motivated by factors other than profit.
Brin and Page, for example, were motivated by the desire to practice science as part of
their ongoing activities as Ph.D. students. Through this process they recognized a
limitation in current search engine platforms and set out to develop a new one. When
Brin and Page saw that web users were using their platform, they realized advertising
could generate profits.
 117

subjectivism and from the creation perspective I borrow the idea that opportunities

become objectivated over time. But I focus instead on everyday practices wherein

opportunities are enacted; a focus consistent with prosaic approaches to

entrepreneurship studies (Hjorth & Steyaert, 2004). In rethinking entrepreneurship as a

social phenomenon, entrepreneurship scholars have come to recognize that

entrepreneurship is not a practice of an elite or risk-taking few, but a common vocation

of many. Thus, entrepreneurial activity occurs in everyday circumstances and in almost

any context (Johnstone & Lionais, 2004; Rehn & Taalas, 2004b; Steyaert & Katz, 2004).

These approaches tend to suggest that opportunities are enacted from within everyday

circumstances. By focusing on how opportunities are constituted in and through

everyday interaction, praxeologists come to see opportunities not only as object-like-

things, but the practices through which entrepreneurial opportunities arise (Seymour,

2006). It is a praxeologist’s task to describe and explain just how and in what ways these

individuals’ (communicative) efforts are entrepreneurial or produce opportunity. It is for

this reason that Steyaert (1998, 2004) suggests that entrepreneurship studies are in

need of more descriptive, prosaic accounts of entrepreneurial becoming. The

assumption is that enacting an opportunity occurs slowly over time and through an active

and social process.

Using an enactment approach, opportunities are recognized and exploited

through an intersubjective process of meaning making. The goal of researchers is to

understand the process and the objectified opportunity. My approach seeks to take into

account how an entrepreneur encounters an opportunity within the world and work of

others. As Seymour (2006) notes, “[t]he entrepreneur becomes aware of an ‘opportunity-

like-thing’ because of their work and the practical involvement in the world” (p. 149). The

limitations of the three approaches described in this section is that they abandon

discussions and examples of the marketplace—the pragmatic world of the

 118

entrepreneur—in favor of theoretical and economic models. By not describing the social

conditions or everyday practices in which opportunities are constituted, researchers are

taking for granted a significant part of the phenomenon under examination (Steyaert &

Katz, 2004). A praxeological examination from the standpoint of practice theory, which

borrows greatly from extant scholarship on opportunities but rejects its positivist-

functionalist undertones, will provide entrepreneurship with an enriched understanding of

how opportunities are (communicatively) enacted and abandoned in situ. A focus on

practices and objectified opportunities can provide insights into both opportunity

enactment and abandonment.

Conclusion

In this chapter, I reviewed the literature in relation to private investigating and

entrepreneuring from both prosaic and academic texts, highlighting in particular some of

the themes that are embedded in discursive artifacts about these fields of practices. I did

this in order to elucidate the particular themes within “narrative accounts,” which are

constituted by and constitutive of these fields. This discussion contextualizes the

descriptions in chapters 4 and 5.

In the prosaic and academic narratives of private investigating, there emerges a

serious issue regarding the field’s legitimacy. In many ways, the current storyline creates

a metaphoric “wild west” that is ripe with opportunity for any agency owner willing to

strike out on his (or her) own. This image of the private investigator is consistent with the

popular narratives of entrepreneurship. The following example from an internet article

illustrates this point:

What traits do all wealthy business owners have in common? … / Well

for starters they have vision. They see opportunity everywhere, and
they are always looking for ways to do things better and more
efficiently. Entrepreneurs do not look at problems as being problems,
but rather they see them as opportunities to make a difference... and
a fortune. … / The same opportunities are available to everyone, but it
is only a small group of people who see them and utilize them. (“What
 119

traits do,” 2009, ¶3-5).

Another popular claim is that successful entrepreneurs are not college graduates. While

such claims are supported by anecdotal data, evidence provided by researchers

disproves such myths (see Shane, 2008). While it is true that Michael Dell, Bill Gates,

and Steven Jobs all dropped out of college, and that Richard Branson, Walt Disney, and

Henry Ford did not finish high school, data show that “the average start-up founded by a

college graduate has 25 percent greater sales than the average start-up founded by a

high school drop out, and the average start-up founded by a person with a graduate

degree has 40 percent greater sales than the average start-up founded by a college

graduate” (Shane, 2008, p. 120).

What these data suggest in regard to private investigating, whose profession is

threatened due to issues of legitimacy, is that creating legitimized educational programs

to educate the next generation of private investigators may mean greater sales for all

firms. I will not claim that academia is the Holy Grail of professions; however, as some of

the descriptions in the following chapters will suggest, more work is needed to rid the

profession of the icon of the Fedora, trench-coat man. Serious public relations work to

develop an image of specialization and professionalization should commence.

Developing research within academic institutions is one way of building legitimacy while

simultaneously counteracting negative accounts of the field.

Finally, while there seems to be consensus that entrepreneurship is going to

sustain the economy by searching out new and unique opportunities, the descriptions I

provide in chapter 4 will suggest the opposite. By making private investigating more

mundane and taken-for-granted, i.e., legitimate, the profession will likely become more

profitable and sustainable. Likewise, it is from within the taken-for-granted and

legitimated practices (e.g., laws) that opportunities may come to exist. Opportunities are

not waiting to be discovered, but are reproduced every day through simple interactions
 120

based on various constitutive factors. Opportunities, as actor-networks, become

objectified (in discourse) and, therefore, gain salability as products and services. Once

object-like-things have formed, we can trace these opportunities around fields of

practices to understand whether they are yielding, for actants, the greatest use-value

and profits. But to see just how these opportunities are enacted and used, we must work

against popular and academic (positivist) assumptions. It is my hope that what I provide

in chapters 4 and 5 will demonstrate that praxeological accounting methods are not only

possible, but desirable.

 121

CHAPTER 4: SHADOWING SUBJECTS—THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES

In the first three chapters, I provided an introduction to this study with a focus on

the assumptions that I bring to the project, discussed the opportunities and challenges of

shadowing and interviewing methodologies, and cataloged some of the narrative

accounts that socially frame entrepreneurship and the field of private investigating. In

this chapter, the common themes related to agency owners’ practices as

entrepreneuring and investigating subjects will be reported. In particular, I will account

for everyday threats—defined as everyday challenges that detract attention or practices

away from the enactment of opportunities—that agency owners face. I will also describe

how they enact opportunities. I have not abstracted subjects’ practices and comments in

order to add to disciplinary theory; though I do draw upon theoretical frameworks about

rhetoric and social order to offer some insight into how private investigators are

successfully accomplishing their everyday work as entrepreneurs.

This chapter is organized into three parts. In part 1, I provide details about a

particularly interesting field experience that I had with a shadowee 2 (S-2). This

experience not only encapsulates many of the themes presented herein, but also

became the catalyst for many discussions with other participants. In part 2, I list and

describe—from my own observations as well as in investigators’ own words—some of

the prosaic threats entrepreneur-investigators face. In part 3, I describe how

opportunities are being rhetorically enacted within the field of private investigating.

A Profitable Field Experience

S-2 (also Interviewee 15; I-15), 1 a recently retired police officer, had been

moonlighting as a contractor for a little more than a year with an agency near St. Louis,

1
The numbers associated with interviewees are ordered by when they were sent for
transcription, not conducted. This means that interviews conducted during the same time
period may have inconsistent numbering (see Appendix B).
 122

Missouri. Upon his retirement, which was just weeks before I met him, he had made a

unique arrangement that would allow the agency owner (Interviewee 26; I-26) to focus

less on surveillance and more on other types of investigations. An agreement was made

that S-2 would build the surveillance unit, which focused primarily on insurance and

domestic cases. Each year I-26 would take a smaller percentage of the profits until the

business was fully under new ownership. This would have reduced S-2's risk of entry

and would have facilitated a profitable exit for the agency owner.

The arrangement between S-2 and I-26 was atypical. Most agency owners, it

became clear from interviews, do not have an exit strategy. Shadowee 1 (S-1) and

Interviewees 13 (I-13) and 26, were the only three who had concrete business plans. S-

1, who encouraged me to ask other agency owners if they had an exit plan, was certain

that they would not. He was correct. Interviewees were often perplexed by the question.

According to interviewees’ accounts, they would likely “just stop accepting business and

retire when ready”; or, alternatively, they would simply pass it off to one of their senior

investigators. Private investigating is a knowledge-intensive and low-asset profession, so

it is not clear what value an agency has beyond its owner’s expertise and personality. As

interviewee 22 (I-22) noted,

You could just sell your clients. But even then, if [to] one of your
steadier clients, before you leave, you say ‘I’m selling the business to
Craig. Craig’s now gonna take over,’ and this kind of stuff. They may
call you one time and not get that warm fuzzy feeling with you, or
something, or for whatever reason they never call you again, so
what’s it worth? I don’t know. It’s not like selling a liquor store or a
restaurant. I can’t put a number on that.

The interesting arrangement between S-2 and I-26 was also marked by a great

deal of trust and loyalty between agency owners and their employees/contractors which,

for reasons that will become clear in this chapter, are lacking in the profession. Six

months after our initial conversation, I revisited both I-26 and S-2 for follow-up

interviews. By then, the arrangement had dissolved. According to S-2, he “want[ed] to

 123

explore other options.” According to his former business partner, “he [S-2] has too much

of a ‘cop mentality.’” 2 When I noted that they had made a buy-sell arrangement, I-26’s

response surprised me: “no way would I ever consider selling my business.” This

example demonstrates why it is important but hard to capture entrepreneurial strategies

as they happen. Strategies may be pursued for some time and then abandoned. Had I

met S-2 and I-26 at another time, I would not have known about this strategy.

S-2’s business interests and concerns for profitability were revealed during our

conversations. He frequently discussed, often without prompting, the ways he was

growing his clientele. As we drove by a golf course, for example, he mentioned that on

his way back from Springfield, Illinois, he stopped for lunch at a golf course restaurant:

This guy sits down next to me at the bar and, you know, I have a
proclivity for talking, so I just strike up a conversation with him. Turns
out [that] he’s an insurance adjuster for [insurance agency] over there
in St. Louis. So we exchange business cards and arrange to play golf.
The other day, when I call him up to schedule a game, he asked if I
would submit my paper work so that he could get me on the approved
vendor list. So they ain’t lyin’ when they say it’s important to play golf
when you’re in business.

Shadowing allowed me to observe S-2 engaging in business-related practices that would

not arise in an interview. Three out of the four days that I shadowed him, S-2’s

entrepreneurial practices were directed toward surveillance-related cases. 3 For example,

while in the office he worked on writing and editing reports, made a compilation DVD of

surveillance videos for a domestic case, and billed clients using accounting software.

While in his vehicle, he assisted his field investigators with surveillances and engaged in

2
This theme was pervasive in interviews, even among those formerly associated
with law enforcement. Interviewees noted things like, “to work with police officers,
you have to first get past their egos in order to train them” (Interviewee 30, I-30).
It is also expressed in books: “Cop wannabes don’t make good private
investigators” (Brown, 2007, p. 11).
3
On the other day, he served a few court summons and then he used me to help him
move some heavy personal items from one house to another (he was in the process of
moving).
 124

his own surveillance-related activities. At the time, he was just beginning a new case. He

drove around doing “pre-surveillance activities.”

Regardless of whether he was in his vehicle or in the office, S-2 fielded phone

calls from potential clients (9 in total). All of them, except one, wanted to know how much

it would cost to find out if his or her spouse was engaged in relationship infidelity. (The

non-infidelity case was an issue of child custody. A parent of a child wanted to conduct

surveillance on the other parent to see if she was adhering to court orders.) Based on

the conversations he had with these individuals, the hourly rate and the estimated price

of the investigation varied. The retainers quoted were between $700 and $1500. These

prices were all offered rather quickly and without any formal process (i.e., he simply

quoted the price based on the conversation). When I asked about the disparity in price

among cases, S-2 noted that he “based [his] quote on the specific details of the case.”

Major determinants of price variation were the estimated length of surveillances and “a

feeling” about how much money the client had to spend: “It all depends on how much

money the client has and the estimated length of the case. … The more estimated

hours, the lower I may go on the price.” 4 The hourly rates provided were $85 to $125 an

hour. The per-mile rate for vehicle expenses remained consistent at $0.75 cents per

mile. Field investigators, he noted, would be paid $20 an hour and $0.28 cents per mile.

(This was consistent with all agency owners’ pay to contactors and employees.)

As part of his ongoing daily practices, S-2 “engage[ed] in ‘important boss

behavior,’” such as scheduling investigators for future surveillances and calling his field

investigators to obtain “field updates” or to “just chat to alleviate the monotony.” At the

time of shadowing, the company was working a case that involved trailing a client's

former employee. The target had an adjudicated cease-and-desist order against him.

4
Some investigators rarely asked clients how much they had to spend on an
investigation. They would base this on impressions obtained during conversations.
 125

The target had supposedly stolen trade secrets and clients when he left the client’s

company, a violation of a “no-compete” clause in the target’s employment contract. The

investigation was to see if the individual was adhering to the order. During phone

conversations, S-2 and his field investigators speculated that the target was not violating

the court order, but “may be selling drugs.” As S-2 noted, “there is a lot of suspicious

activities going on around the place.” I only met one field investigator assigned to the

case, who was also a former police officer. It is not surprising, therefore, that they

engaged in such games of speculation (i.e., it is part of the “cop mentality”).

From what I observed while “sitting on the house” with S-2, his speculations

seemed somewhat farfetched. For example, a person was standing on the porch talking

on a cell phone and smoking a cigarette and he was “convinced that he [was] ‘the look

out.’” What would be interesting to know, but would require a lengthy experimental study,

is whether their prejudices were hindering the investigation. What I could document is

the way S-2’s suspicions of the individual came across rhetorically in telephone

conversations with the client. One phone conversation went as follows (my notes are in

brackets):

He’s [the target] definitely up to something, we just aren’t sure yet

what it is. I mean there’s something suspicious going on. [He is
planting a suspicion masked as a point of clarification, a selling
strategy]. As I’ve said before, we are 99.9% certain he is not in
violation of the court order [foreground to the client that the original
objective is not likely to be met], but something suspicious is definitely
going on in there [house under observation; the “but” indicates that
other useful information may come from a lengthened surveillance]. I
am just calling to confirm that you that you want us to continue the
investigation because your retainer is exhausted. I am going to need
another $2000 by tomorrow if you want us to continue the
investigation. 5 [The client speaks for some time, but must indicate

5
The repetition of the words “you want” and “investigation” rather than “we” and
“surveillance” invoke different impressions of what the investigator is doing. Investigators
almost always used the word investigation. They also always gave clients the final
decision regarding field activities. While they may suggest ideas, private eyes rarely
engaged in unauthorized activity. “That way, when they [clients] are angry about their
bill, I can just say, ‘Well you wanted us to continue doing that and so we did.’ This
 126

that he’ll give more money.] I think that’s a good idea. I mean, even if
we don’t get something on him regarding a violation of the court order,
maybe we’ll get something that can be helpful to you. I mean, they’re
definitely up to something.

The tone of S-2’s voice and the hint that something suspicious was going on are

rhetorically creating a need, albeit subtly, for the company’s specialized surveillance

services. S-2’s language choices are part of the prosaic practices that rhetorically define

a problem and convince the client that his or her investment is worthwhile. Without this

everyday rhetorical practice, shared by investigators across the field, the actor-network

of investigator-client-target would be meaningless. The client (and potential clients) must

remain convinced before, during, and after an investigation of a private investigator’s

interpretations of social practices. Private eyes must successfully present a case that

their services are worth the price. Being in the business of private investigating means,

among other things, knowing how to understand client needs, interpret targets’ activities,

and sell an investigator’s expertise and services in such a way that convinces clients and

jurors. In other words, the business requires a considerable amount of hermeneutical

and rhetorical work. This type of “rhetorical work” appears to be largely institutionalized

and taken-for-granted. Most investigators did not account in interviews for the

importance of their speech practices.

Using client-supplied intelligence, S-2 “spot checked” and mapped the potential

routes that the target of an upcoming surveillance could take. This is an activity that he

“[was] not charging the client for, but would allow him to do a better job.” This practice

highlights the sometimes incompatible tensions between good business and good

investigating. The cost of doing pre-surveillance can be high, and is often not approved

by clients; however, it is an activity that some private investigators do in order to

complete a better investigation. If a successful outcome of the investigation is increased

reduces the chances that our billing will be challenged by clients who don’t think we got
them good results. There are no guarantees in this business” (I-30).
 127

by pre-surveillance activities, than such “free work” may lead to more satisfied clients

and more referrals. Pre-surveillance, in other words, is not only good for investigations

but is an investment into customer service. The value of such potential advertising

offsets, in the long term, the immediate financial losses. S-2’s objective for the pre-

surveillance was to identify at each location the best places to “set-up” during the

surveillance, describing his practices as follows: “what we are up to right now, I have

different locations where I know the guy is going and I am just going to do quick spot

checks, drive bys, and see where we are going to set up.”

As he approached one of the first locations, S-2 indicated that when we arrived at

the location he was going to ask me where I'd set up if I was the investigator, adding

assuredly, “of course, I'll already know before you do where the best place to set up is.”

Regardless of what conditions or factors a private eye faces, “typically the goal is to

establish a position where there is a good line of sight, where one can ‘blend in’ or not

be too exposed, and where there are multiple exit routes” (Interviewee 3; I-03). Certain

objectives may, however, lead to a prioritization of some decisions over others. For

example, if the case will be closed by “getting burned” (caught by the target), one may

forgo opportunities for multiple exits in order to increase the ability to “blend in.”

Supposedly, the target of the surveillance frequented Jack’s Place after work.

Jack’s Place is a pub located in a strip mall on Illinois Route 157 and North Main Street,

Caseyville, Illinois (see Image 4.1). It was believed that the target would rendezvous

there with his alleged mistress and then travel with her to another unknown location. The

objective was to find out where the two went and to document their activities after

leaving Jack’s Place. Of course, there was no guaranty that the target would go to Jack’s

Place; but he worked at a large factory, so it was impossible to know where he would be

parked when his shift ended. Showing interviewees Image 4.1 and an interactive Google

map (http://tinyurl.com/y8agm2h; example shot provided as Image 4.2), I said: “Just

 128

suppose that the target will be at this location. How would you set up if you had to follow

someone in and out of the parking lot?”

Jack’s
place

Image 4.1; (Google Maps, 2009)

As these maps show, this is not a surveillance-friendly area. The parking lot is

not large, so it is possible that the target would see an investigator, other patrons would

inquire about the investigator’s activities, or vehicles would obstruct the investigator’s

line of sight. If an investigator chose to park in the lot (Image 4.3, C or D), they said that

it would be necessary to park closer to the pub (location D). This would exacerbate the

problem regarding the investigator's cover being blown. Given the lack of development in

the area, there were not many places to park off site. An investigator could park across

the street in the Happy Cow restaurant parking lot (Image 4.1 and 4.3, area A), where S-

2 suggested he would park, but the problem with this, according to several interviewees,

is the high volume of traffic on route 157 and the strange medians and dividers in the

road (Image 4.2 or Image 4.3, B). If the target exited the parking lot and traveled north,

an investigator could potentially lose him or her.

 129

Jack’s place

Median

Image 4.2; (Google Maps, 2009) 6

Since this was a standard infidelity case, some concern about getting burned

seemed warranted. However, I thought priority ought to be given to not losing the target

(domestic clients often don’t have much money), so I chose area C (Image 4.3). My

intuitive opinion, therefore, was contra S-2. But we were both consistent with other

investigators. Of the 23 interviewees that were asked about this scenario, 10 chose area

A, 9 chose area C, and 4 chose area D (Image 4.3). All interviewees struggled, however,

to give a concrete answer. Interviewee 23 (I-23), for example, suggested that “it would

all depend on the circumstances, so it is difficult for me to say right now. I mean, this

place looks good [pointing to area A, Image 4.3], but this thing here [pointing to point B,

Image 4.3] would almost make me want to set-up here [pointing to area C, Image 4.3]

and I'd have to take my chances.” Some even questioned the intelligence, “the

investigator [referring to S-2] took the client’s word that he [the target] would show up at

6
This is an example screenshot of interactive map shown to investigators during
interviews. To experience map and walk around, click on image or follow link:
http://tinyurl.com/y8agm2h.
 130

this place [pointing to Jack’s Place, Image 4.1]; it sure would be nice to have a tracker

on the vehicle. I would question the intelligence more” (Interviewee 29; I-29).

D
B

Image 4.3; (Google Maps, 2009)

With the assistance of Google Maps, this field experience became a profitable

one. My use of these new media technologies to obtain insights from interviewees, adds

credence to photo elicitation as a useful ethnographic exercise (see Harper, 2002).

Foremost, the disparate explanations that I received suggest that it is not clear to

investigators whether there are more or less effective field practices, especially when

taking into account financial constraints. Consistent with the claim that investigating is

both an art and science (Sarre, 2009), investigators seemed to rely on intuition or

anecdotal evidence to support their decisions. Attempts should be made to scientifically

understand these artful practices and to develop methods that will help private eyes

hone their skills.

 131

Besides insight into investigators’ decision-making processes regarding

investigations, this field exercise, and the subsequent field interviews regarding this

scenario, provided insight into business-related decisions. It was clear that surveillance

strategies were prejudiced by agency owners’ financial concerns. First, many agency

owners criticized S-2’s practice of pre-surveillance, suggesting it was obvious he was a

former police officer:

Oh, that make sense now that you mention he’s a former cop and new
agency owner. He’s [referring to S-2] obviously used to using that
endless pot of money that public agencies have for investigations.
When you’re in this on your own, you can’t waste money on ‘pre-
surveillance activities.’ I’d like to, but I can’t afford it. But I never
thought of using Google Maps to do it. This is an interesting idea.
(Interviewee 18; I-18)

Second, when I asked if they would change their decision regarding where they’d park if

they knew the client had very little money, those who initially chose point C (Image 4.3)

would solidify their decision and say something to the effect “oh, then I would definitely

park here [pointing to area C]” and those who chose to initially park somewhere near

area A, said they would switch to area C. When asked why, most said something similar

to interviewee 10 (I-10), “it makes sense to be more risky, and I wouldn’t want to lose

him in this crazy intersection [pointing to area B, Image 4.3]. I want to get the best

possible results, and in this case if I don’t get him on the first try then I’ll have wasted my

client’s thousand dollars.” Only three interviewees (I-20, I-22, and I-24) said they would

try to convince the client to pay for a second investigator in another vehicle. I-24 added

that “[he] would still have two investigators and ‘eat the costs’ if the client couldn’t afford

it…, as a matter of principle for doing a good investigation” (I-24).

The field experience described above and the insights from interviews based on

this example encapsulate many of the themes about agency owners as investigator-

entrepreneurs that I will present this chapter. Among other things, the example shows

the importance that agency owners place on making decisions that simultaneously work
 132

to enhance their investigative and business interests. In this sense, my descriptions of S-

2’s everyday practices support my general thesis that private eyes are always already

entrepreneuring as they engage in everyday investigative practices. Often the goals of

business and the goals of investigating are compatible, but they are also at times

contradictory. It takes (communicative) work to turn environmental pressures and

prosaic threats into opportunities. The descriptions from shadowing and interviews

reveal just how investigators overcome these issues.

Environmental Pressures and Prosaic Threats

The field of private investigations is under assault by various environmental

pressures, including increased new entrants, increased competition from both private

and public agencies, and legislative changes. Combined with the lack of alternatives to

the popular culture accounts outlined in chapter 3, which tend to portray a more shady

storyline of private investigating, the future of some private investigating niches are

uncertain (e.g., process serving and skip tracing). In this part, I will highlight prosaic

threats to the field. While private investigators discussed several issues that are

common with all business owners in the United States, such as health care, I have not

included these as separate themes despite a strong inclination to do so. 7 I have chosen

to stick with issues specific to private investigations.

Low Professional Barriers to Entry

Barring highly specialized expertise in certain niches, the barriers to entry into the

field of private investigations are relatively low. Although it is regulated by many state

legislatures, the requirements and process of meeting agency ownership are not

particularly stringent. In states with the most stringent rules, such as California, Illinois,

7
Appendix D provides an outtake from an interview that describes this issue.
 133

New York, and Texas, the basic requirements for owning, managing, or being employed

by a licensed company are still low. 8 In Texas, for example, the licensee must

ƒ be at least 18 years of age;

ƒ be of good moral character;
ƒ not have been declared as incompetent by reason of mental or physical defect or
disease;
ƒ not be a registered sex offender;
ƒ not be drug or alcohol dependent;
ƒ not have been dishonorably discharged from the armed forces;
ƒ have a minimum of three years experience as a full-time private/legal investigator
with a licensed agency or attorney or three years compensated experience as a
full-time investigator or supervisor experience in a public law enforcement
agency.

Texas’s rules are relatively similar in states that require licenses.

Regulation of licensing also varies by state. For example, in some states it is

regulated by the Department of Public Safety (DPS), which oversees primarily public

police (e.g., Texas), and in others it is regulated by a Department of Professional

Regulations that oversees a variety of industries from hair stylists to private investigators

(e.g., Illinois). In Pennsylvania, licenses are issued by county judges and there is no

state board that oversees practices. Consequently, it is hard to hold an investigator

accountable for wrongdoing. Even in states that have boards, investigators complained

about poor oversight. For example, I-21 noted that the board did not help her resolve an

issue regarding poor business practices,

I [am] very disappointed with our board too. I had an incident

where…an investigator that I hired in Dallas didn’t follow through and
provide a tape for me, and so I filed a complaint with the board. So
they assigned a [board] investigator 9 and … it took him over six
months to contact the [private] investigator and to secure this tape.
And then it took him another three or four months to get the tape to
me. And I was hired by an insurance company… [that was] going to
sue me [for the tape]…. It was a nightmare, and so [when] I got the
tape, I popped it in. And it was two minutes [long]! Less than two
minutes of some surveillance footage! And I thought this trooper

8
See California Business and Professional Code §7512-73; Illinois Private Detective Act
225 ILCS 447,8 Article 15 §10; New York General Business Law, Article 7
§172.1; Texas Occupational Code §1702.113
9
In Texas, these are Texas State Troopers.
 134

should have known, looked at the tape, it was useless to me. I

couldn’t use it. … So I sent a complaint to the board and to the
association listserv. (I-21)

A popular theme discussed by interviewees was the issue of unlicensed investigators, so

I asked what I-21 proposed as a solution to these issues:

I think [regulation] should be [from] a different agency, but that’s just

me. I think it’s, I think they have so much to do at DPS that I don’t
even think they take us seriously. And they’re overworked and
understaffed over there, and half the time they don’t know what the
right hand’s doing versus the left hand. And I hate to say it but it’s
true.

Interestingly, in Texas the professional investigations industry lobbied to raise its own

rates to pay for more DPS investigators. According to interviewee 9 (I-09), the former

president of the Texas Association of Licensed Investigators (TALI), the increase in

licensing fees helped raise millions of dollars in funds, which were used to hire an

additional 27 regulators. The issue could be, however, that regulators prioritize

regulation of armed security companies.

Interviewee 5 (I-05) was so frustrated with her state regulatory board that she

was convinced the answer to the problem was deregulation of the profession:

I don’t believe in licensing in our state. And the only reason I do not
believe in it is because I have no clue what they’ve [the board] done in
the past, and I just – they don’t do anything for us if you ask me. They
don’t do anything but go against us, and I just don’t know why they
exist. … If you research what exactly the boards do I don’t think you’re
gonna find a board that supports the private investigator. They just
give the private investigator a hard time. Now don’t get me wrong,
there are people out there practicing private investigation that don’t
have a license, but it’s almost like they don’t go after them.

Regardless of one’s opinion on how to address the problem, these complaints highlight

the issue of poor oversight and regulation in the profession. Some boards publish online

the results of complaints. Of those that do (e.g., California, Georgia, and Texas), the

pattern seems to be that each month there are a dozen or so censures and license

revocations (usually for not meeting insurance requirements).

 135

The simplicity of entry into the profession and the lack of ongoing regulation

affect private investigators’ everyday business practices. For example, in Illinois an

undergraduate degree can lower the requirement to just one year for license

qualification. One interviewee said she or he would “never hire someone with a four-year

degree. Even though they may be better employees in many ways, they’re also much

more likely to be the kind to use me to get a license, steal some of my contacts, and

then become my competition.” 10 Interviewee 8 (I-08) stated she “was currently looking

up various websites and planning to call a few investigators she trusts to see if they can

recommend someone to do an investigation in Dallas. You just can’t trust everyone.”

While I was shadowing S-5, he noted that he was “concerned because business had

been slow.” During a phone call with his field investigators, he asked them to “look at the

DPS website and find expired licenses and then pretext these agencies to see if they’re

operating without a license.”

The general concern for many agency owners was that “registrants” and

“PERCs” 11 would use their company to obtain important contacts, gain experience and

knowledge, develop a social and professional network, and ultimately meet the

qualification for agency ownership. They also were concerned that some would

“moonlight on the side.” 12 These concerns seem legitimate. The licensing process and

low start-up costs makes hiring additional support risky to agency owners.

Consequently, this affects how agency owners prosaically interact with their field

investigations, which is not very well. Shadowees S-3 and S-5 spent, on average, two

hours per day micromanaging their investigators in person and over the phone. They

10
This interviewee asked that I do not provide any identifiers in regard to this statement.
11
Field investigators in Texas and New York are called “registrants.” In Illinois, they are
called PERCs for “Permanent Employee Registration Card” holder.
12
In colloquial US English, “moonlighting” typically means taking a second job in addition
to one’s primary occupation. Agency owners used it a bit differently, referring to
contractors and employees taking jobs as if they had their own agency. In many
regulated states, this would be a misdemeanor violation.
 136

also often communicated in a manner that could be interpreted as belittling and hostile—

e.g., yelling at them over a minor error: “Dude, I can’t teach you common sense!” (S-5).

Common Skills, Low Standards, and Poor Training

Another challenge, in the same vein as the issue above, is that the skills required

to be an investigator are neither highly regulated nor technical. In other words, education

does not present itself as major barrier to starting one’s career as a private investigator.

This leaves the field wide open for new entrants. In most states, there are no special

credentials or certification programs. Not one agency owner I interviewed required, as a

condition of employment, that a field investigator have any sort of post-secondary

education. With the exception of two larger companies (those with more than 10

employees), agency owners indicated that they did not have formal manuals, such as

business plans, occupational safety plans, standard operating procedures, or employee

handbooks. To get started with a company, one must simply pass through an informal

application process with the company owner, 13 go through a background screening (if

required by law), and perhaps go through a “cash-cow” training program. 14 In some

states, this training is required by law, though not always adhered to by agency owners.

In Illinois, for example, the law regarding training is stated as follows:

Registered employees [PERCs] of a private detective agency shall

complete, within 30 days of their employment, a minimum of 20 hours
of training provided by a qualified instructor. The substance of the
training shall be related to the work performed by the registered
employee and shall include relevant information as to the identification
of terrorists, acts of terrorism, and terrorist organizations, as defined
by federal and State statutes. (IPDA 225 ILCS 447, Article 15 §25a)

13
At a TALI conference session on business management, a session leader noted that
“for many of you, I know you often hire people during your first phone conversation.”
14
This was the term used by I-22 during our interview. As with seven other interviewees,
he criticized online PI training programs that “have you read some stuff and then take a
quick quiz and they send you a little certificate that says, ‘Now you know how to be a
PI.’”
 137

From what I gathered from Illinois-based interviewees, they interpret “qualified

instructor” as themselves or their senior-most investigator. No information is provided

either in statute or by the Illinois Division of Professional Regulation as to what

constitutes “qualified instructor.” This appeared to be the same in Georgia, where S-3

was engaged for 30 minutes in a heated phone conversation with a state bureaucrat

about what qualified as continuing education credit. Interviewees in Illinois did not seem

too concerned about adhering to this rule, likely because there are no filing

requirements. By statute, “It is the responsibility of the employer to certify, on a form

provided by the Department, that the employee has successfully completed the training.

The form shall be a permanent record of training completed by the employee and shall

be placed in the employee's file with the employer for the period the employee remains

with the employer” (IPDA 225 ILCS 447, Article 15 §25c). As interviewee 20 (I-20) noted,

“Most private investigators engage in problematic business practices based on the

assumption they won’t ever be audited. And this is risky business behavior that

undermines the profession.” 15

In Texas, where no formal training is required, a registrant must pass an online

“level-1” quiz administered by the Texas DPS. I-24 thinks “the quiz [was] created for

idiots and would be laughable, if only armed security guards weren’t taking it too.” The

pre-employment exam, which I took as part of my own employment in the industry, asks

test takers 40 true-false and multiple-choice questions, much like the following two

examples obtained from the DPS website: 16

Example 1: To find out the spelling or the meaning of a word

a) use a dictionary.

15
I took the 20-hour program offered at a local community college and I can’t say it
qualified anybody for work in the profession. The instructor mainly told silly “war stories”
from the field, cracked sexist jokes, and, among other things, noted that “I have to talk to
you about terrorism, let’s talk about how worthless TSA [Transportation Safety
Administration] is.”
16
http://www.txdps.state.tx.us/psb/testing/index.htm
 138

b) ask your partner.

c) call your high school teacher.
d) spelling iz not important.

Example 2: Using simple, short words and sentences makes your report more
accurate.
a) True
b) False

On first brush, the two questions seem somewhat silly, if not offensive. But in

fairness to DPS, one must admit that the test writers have a sense of humor and are

seemingly more interested in distributing information about taken-for-granted protocol

and registrants’ rights than in guaranteeing quality professionals. For example,

interviewee 13 (I-13), who owns the largest firm out of all interviewees (39 investigators),

indicated that he promoted a senior investigator to quality control manager: “His job is to

read all reports for grammar, consistency, and objectivity.” I mentioned this earlier

interview to shadowee 1 (S-1), who had obviously become frustrated while working on a

tedious project of compiling one PERC’s field reports into a single document. It was

around two o’clock in the afternoon on the second day of shadowing and S-1 wanted “to

have an early day.” So he was working fast. At the time of his expressed frustration, he

had been working on the task for about 45 minutes. Suddenly, he let out a deep gasp,

leaned back in his chair, and thrust the keyboard drawer back under the desk. As he lit a

cigarette, I fired up my digital recorder. It had been idle for some time as I sat patiently

documenting his copy-and-paste activities and writing fieldnotes detailing the features of

his smoky office. “You know,” I said, “this guy down in Texas has hired someone to do

just that [indexically referring to what he was doing], because it is his experience, and I

would have to concur, that people can’t write worth a damn in this profession.” S-1

replied,

Now, that’s true. I’m the one that does this usually. It’s horrible. The
way these people write is horrible. They’ll write in all caps. …Here’s
the thing that bugs me, they don’t use complete sentences. They’ll
say ‘Showed up at scene.’ ‘Car was in parking lot.’ ‘License plate
 139

was….’ What happened to “the”? What happened to complete

sentences? I know that you’re good in English. I took college English,
three or four semesters of it. That’s my pet peeve, when someone
doesn’t use proper English.

What S-1 inadvertently points out in his statement is that for a growing agency,

he hasn’t implemented any formal (training) procedures. His employees continue a

practice that he finds frustrating. What is more, when I asked him about formal training

programs, he indicated that new hires “ride along with older investigators for a couple of

days.” Consequently, it is likely that bad habits are transferred from one investigator to

another. During a recent visit to his firm, however, he highlighted changes he is making

to curtail these issues. His employees are all engaged in the process of documenting

practices for the purpose of an employee manual. But what his admission and the Texas

DPS quiz demonstrate is that sometimes what seems like “common sense” (e.g., looking

up the spelling of a word in a dictionary) is curtailed for various reasons, not limited to

laziness, poor training, desire for expediency, lack of time, or arrogance.

Low start-up costs

In the state of Texas, a competitive state with higher-than-typical licensing and

insurance requirements, the capital investment required to start an agency is very small,

roughly $3,000 (see Table 4.1). This figure assumes that the owner-operator would

operate the company as a home-based enterprise and would be using his or her own

personal vehicle, cellular phone, and internet connection to do private investigations-

and business-related work. It is likely that the investigator will have accumulated the

necessary equipment while working for another firm, so this is not included in the initial

start-up costs. Consequently, it is assumed that the figure will be substantially higher for

individuals who do not have much equipment to begin with (e.g., retiring public

detectives who meet licensing requirements but have never had to supply their own
 140

equipment). I am also assuming the owner would want to start an S-Corporation or

Limited Liability Company, which, unlike a sole-proprietorship, requires filing fees.

Table 4.1. Private Investigator Agency Start-up Cost (Texas)

Item Cost ($)
Name Registration with Secretary of
State $ 40.00
Certificate of formation
(Corporation, LLC, or S-Corporation) $ 300.00
Attorney paperwork fees $ 49.00
Class A License $ 350.00
TDPS Subscription Fee $ 11.00
FBI Fingerprint Verification $ 25.00
Exam fee $ 0.00
(+ $100.00 each retake.)b
Business insurance $ 750.00 (annual, assumed
(min. $1 million coverage required)a pay yearly schedule)c
Advertising $1,200.00d
Total $2,725.00
Notes. aVaries by state. Most common is a $500,000 policy (Brown, 2007).
b
In Illinois, the exam cost and filing fees are approximately $400.00.
c
Depends on insurer and state. This estimate was based on the average of
five Texas agency owners’ annual premiums. In all states the insurance will be
double for investigators licensed to carry a concealed weapon.
d
Calculated based on starting a website and paying for some advertising both
on internet and traditional print (e.g., yellow pages).

Table 4.1 demonstrates it is very easy to “hang out a shingle” in the profession,

as the idiomatic expression goes. This is why it is risky for agency owners to hire field

investigators and other employees. Disgruntled or self-interested employees can easily

establish their own operation. Several agency owners even admitted that they had

begun their own agency in a similar way. But this situation is not only risky to the

individual agency owners as an issue of competition, but may be damaging to the

profession because it means an increase in firm failure rates. 17 Initial investment aside, it

is expensive to stay in business and get beyond the start-up phase in any industry

(Shane, 2008). Once in operation, private investigators’ monthly expenses can be

17
In Illinois, for example, the number of active licensees fell 125 in a single year (2000-
2001), when adjusted for new entrants in edition to those who did not renew from one
year to the next (www.ifdpr.com).
 141

exasperating. For shadowees 2 through 5, who are primarily in investigation-related

work (e.g., defense, domestics, and fraud), their average monthly expenses, excluding

payroll, are approximately $6,000 each. Their fixed and variable expenses include things

such as database access (e.g., PersonLocate), Internet advertising (e.g., Google and PI-

specific search [pinow.com]), webpage hosting and maintenance, yellow page

advertising, insurance, vehicle expenses (maintenance and fuel), association fees,

utilities, and so on. In other words, just to have a take home a salary equivalent to

$4,000 a month, they had to be doing more than $10,000 in business, and some of them

were not. According to shadowee 4 (S-4), some months he grosses $20,000, in others

he may gross $2,000. 18 S-5 suggested that for new company founders, they should have

at least $30,000 in escrow to cover business and personal bills. For established firms, he

suggested that it is smart to have at least $60,000 to cover any unexpected bills during

slow periods. If the field of private investing is similar to other fields, many new entrants

will begin with very little financial cushion, exacerbating the rate at which they fail

(Shane, 2008).

High failure rates are problematic for the profession according to several

interviewees. First, agency owners may begin an investigation and then abandon it. This

is particularly likely when investigations are engaged in lengthy and ongoing cases for

insurance companies and attorneys. While some investigations can be reassigned and

steps can be taken to exit the industry on good terms, some private eyes do not take this

18
All interviewees referred to this as the “feast or famine” phenomenon, indicating that
the slowest months were near holidays, especially December: “Yep. We ride that ‘feast-
or-famine’ roller coaster of ‘it’s quiet then it’s real busy,’ ‘it’s quiet then it’s real busy.’
During the winter, I go snow skiing. It slows down close to Christmas and it stays slow
until the middle of January. The courts are closed, so the criminal defense work falls off,
‘let’s just stay together for the children’ and ’joy to the world and peace to all men’ and all
that lasts through Christmas, so everybody’s kind of tranquil. But then for Christmas, the
wife gets a set of pots and pans or a vacuum cleaner for her Christmas present and then
a couple weeks later, she’s cleaning the house and finds a receipt from the jewelry store
for diamond earrings and she knows she didn’t get them. So then our phone starts
ringing again.” (I-22)
 142

route. Consequently, there are some negative attitudes among attorneys and insurance

adjusters about the poor quality of work they get from private investigators. As I-22

noted,

From time to time I’m asked to speak before a group of attorneys. …

They want to know about private investigators. Some have had good
experiences, some have had bad experiences, [and] I apologize for
the bad experiences. Then you’ve got some of them that somehow,
somewhere in the past had a bad experience with a private
investigator somewhere and they say, ‘They’re lazy. I’ve tried to get
reports out of them, I’ve tried to get them to do this, they don’t want to
do it…’

This issue is so important to investigators that it was a common theme at TALI

conference sessions. TALI board executives and presenters stressed the importance of

TALI members following through with quality work products for attorneys and insurance

companies. An attorney who spoke at the TALI Midwinter Conference stressed this

point, noting that he simply does not rehire an investigator who doesn’t follow through “in

order to avoid…the unpleasantness of that type of communication.” He also noted that

low-quality work has serious implications: “in my cases, the stakes are always the same

in one form or another. Is someone going to prison, or not? Is someone gonna be

convicted, or not? So the stakes are always high.”

Second, low start-up costs mean that one can start a company as a hobby rather

than a business, which has consequences on how people deal with clients. This point is

made well during a friendly, though intense, exchange between Interviewee 10 (I-10),

who has been in business for 13 years and Interviewee 11 (I-11), who has been in

business for about 3 years.

I-11: It’s business, but also I want to make my hobby of it.

I-10: Let me make a comment…
I-11: …sure…
I-10: …if you don’t mind. And that is, this should not be a hobby type of activity.
And the reason for that is, there’s hobbyists and there’s professionals.
I-11: Of course.
I-10: And the hobbyist cannot perform at the level of the professional.
I-11: When I say a hobby…
 143

I-10: …I didn’t mean to criticize.

I-11: No, no, no. I understood you. See, I got my ethics. And I know for a
private investigator, you’ve got to keep your ethics in a high standard.
I-10: Ethics have to be maintained at a high level.
I-11: Right. And when you enjoy what you do, it’s a hobby.
I-10: I enjoy my profession.
I-11: It’s a hobby, you make a hobby of it.
I-10: No, it’s not. It’s a business for me.

Though I-11 is making the point that he enjoys his work, what I-10 is suggesting is worth

consideration because “framing” is important to professionalization (see Cheney &

Ashcraft, 2007). This appears to be something that TALI takes seriously. During an

interview with I-09, a former TALI President, he corrected himself: “In our industry, I

mean profession.”

Competition and Consolidation

So far what I have described regarding the field of private investigating is

consistent with entrepreneurship literature. According to Shane (2008), “the data [about

industries] show that entrepreneurs are more likely to start businesses in industries that

demand less capital, where the average size of firms—in terms of both number of

employees and the amount of assets—is lower, and where products are not

differentiated from each other” (p. 38). At year end 2009, there were approximately

1,800 active private detective licenses in Illinois, 2,330 in Georgia, and 5,248 in Texas. 19

A saturated market means that competition is keen, even if some private

investigators suggest otherwise. While agency owners may claim that “I always think

they’re [other agencies] partners and I always think I can give them some advice

because I don’t think any of them do the things that I do at all… they’re never a

competition for me. Nobody in my state’s a competition for me at all” (I-05), my

19
See http://www.idfpr.com/dpr/, http://sos.georgia.gov/plb/detective/, and
http://www.txdps.state.tx.us/psb/quarterlytotals.htm. Texas data includes private
security, which is not represented in the Illinois and Georgia data. If Texas is consistent
with both of these states, it is highly probable that there are approximately 2,500
investigative agencies.
 144

conversations with interviewees, observations of mundane conversations, and

conference practices suggest otherwise. In fact, Interviewee 04 (I-04) referred me to I-05

because he considers her to be “very aggressive” and “a ruthless self-promoter.” In

mundane conversations, shadowees would use various tactics, such as planting

suspicions about other companies, to influence the perceptions of potential clients. As

Shadowee 4 (S-4) claimed during a telephone conversation with a potential client, “I

encourage you to call another investigator to see what his prices are, but be careful!

Many guys and gals out there aren’t licensed and are operating illegally. You can link

from my website directly to the Department of Public Safety and see I’m legit and have

no complaints against me.”

Planting suspicions about other investigators is a problematic practice because it

adds to the negative discourse about “seedy” private investigators. But the biggest

detriment to the field due to keen competition is that investigators do not often

collaborate or work collectively, decreasing the chances of forming strategic alliances in

order to counter negative perceptions of the field, proactively influence legislation, and

build influential associations. This is the “lone wolf” mentality, which is part ego and part

rugged-individualism:

It’s been my theory for years that if you put ten [private investigators]
in a room together, you’ve got 12.5 egos in the room. We are all high
ego people, most of us are type-A personalities, and we’re just driven
that way. … TALI is a diversified group, and our corporate attorney,
who’s also a member—he’s a lawyer and a PI—coined a phrase back
when I was president and we were having all this turmoil. He said,
‘We are an organization of mavericks. We all go our own way. We all
march to our own drummer.’ I agree.

Given the maturity of the profession and the lack of possibilities for product

innovation, one would suspect that a process of consolidation would have reduced the

number of competing firms. More quantitative data is necessary in order to better

understand this phenomenon. It is not entirely clear how large the market is (by number
 145

of firms or by financial data), whether it is growing or shrinking, and whether

consolidation is occurring. Based on the perceptions of interviewees and my

interpretation of the limited data available, it appears that the market is growing and

consolidating in a small number of niches, such as background verifications and skip

tracing.

Consolidation has occurred rapidly, according to I-04 and I-05, in the sister

industry of process serving because economies of scale (i.e., court paper volume) and

technological innovations have lowered the time and skill-levels required to serve court

notices and subpoenas. Only in extreme cases, where a court summons needs to be

delivered to a high profile target or in a dangerous area, such as Texas border towns

overrun by cartels, can an investigator charge a premium fee (I-11 charges more than

$700 per paper in these towns).

Consolidation poses a threat because it reduces managerial control and invites

more regulatory scrutiny. For example, in the process service industry, where firms have

consolidated, workloads per firm have increased and wages have deflated. Low quality

employees and poor monitoring have spelled disaster for some firms. For example,

Major Legal, a process company in Minnesota, employed a process server who falsified

over 200 affidavits. While the forger faces perjury charges that could land him a life

sentence in prison, Major Legal is in the process of dissolving. Law firms and credit

agency have also had to spend expensive labor hours reviewing and re-serving

defendants (Lore, 2009). This has not been an isolated incident in the post-mortgage

bubble economy. The United States Congress, consequently, is considering bringing the

process service industry under the Fair Credit Reporting Act. These rapid changes will

likely force many companies out of the industry and increase consolidation. S-1 sent me

a text message from a National Association of Professional Process Servers (NAPPS)

conference, which summarizes the concern of agency owners regarding this threat:
 146

“They [NAPPS members] are so lost as to what to do about technology… and the wave

of criticism foisted on the entire process service industry…. There was a big argument

about where to begin their efforts or how much it will cost and the benefit derived from it.

Sad really. I believe we're dead as an industry eventually. If we don't do something.”

Illicit Activities

As with registrants and PERCs, some agency owners are also not engaging in

ethical practices. This has had, of course, repercussions for the industry. It has come

namely in the form of negative publicity (e.g., the Hewlett-Packard case) 20 and increased

regulation that inhibits what a private investigator can do. For example, until the Hewlett-

Packard case led to the crack-down and prosecution of several agency owners, it was a

common practice for private investigators to produce cell phone records either through

industry contacts or through pretexting. I-20 notes that for years he preached against

giving cell phone records to clients:

You know it’s, we’ve had some terrific fights [on the TALI listserv]. I
can remember 4 or 5 years ago when we had a half a dozen
investigators who managed to get people inside of these cell phone
companies. They were selling cell phone records, and I was
screaming and yelling over the listserv saying, ‘We can’t do that,’
‘That’s blatantly illegal,’ and ‘Somebody’s gonna get arrested for it!’
And everyone was telling me to shut up and mind my own business,
and that there wasn’t anything wrong with it. And then after the FBI
busted private investigators all over the US for doing that, and they
passed all these laws about pretexting, everyone stopped doing it.

Until the enactment of the “Telephone Records and Privacy Protection Act of

2006,” it was not explicitly illegal to obtain others’ cell phone records in the United

States. 21 However, the practice is ethically questionable. For agency owners who were

20
As noted in chapter 3, chairwoman of HP, Patricia Dunn, contracted a private security
firm to look into a media leak. The agency used pretexting techniques to obtain the cell
phone records of board members and journalists.
21
Before the law was passed, it was illegal in California. This is why the private
investigators working the HP case were eventually sent to prison. It was only a federal
crime in the United States to use pretexting to obtain financial records as defined by the
 147

not among the first to be pursued or prosecuted in California, they escaped unscathed.

However, one never knows when they are going to become the unfortunate test case for

any questionable behavior. For example, investigators regularly noted that they felt they

were being monitored by government agencies, noting things like “I get calls all the time,

I think from either my competition or the government, trying to get me to do something

illegal” (I-04) and,

I still am convinced that there are some state or federal agencies

doing a little fishing because I got a call from this same woman
several times, with an out-of-state telephone number, saying that she
wants her husband’s cell phone records. I explained to her that I don’t
do that, it’s against the law, no investigator is supposed to be able to
do that for you legally. ‘Oh, well okay,’ she says and hangs up. So I
think there’s some agencies fishing out there to see if you’ll do it and
then they’re gonna arrest you. (I-22)

Another example of questionable practices involves the selling of some

investigative technology. For example, computer key-stroke loggers, such as

SpectorSoft’s Spector Pro, are frequently advertised on private agency websites. The

software is designed to allow interested parties (e.g., managers) to log and record

everything users do on a personal computer or internet. The software records every

keystroke, takes screenshots to obtain pictures of sites, and intercepts instant

messages, emails, website visits, and so on. Intercepting electronic information is okay

in some circumstances, but if there is “an expectation of privacy,” doing so is a federal

crime (18 U.S.C.A. § 2511). While such software may be a legal and useful tool to

monitor activities where people do not have a high reasonable expectation of privacy

(i.e., work computer), court rulings have since interpreted shared home computers as

devices that individuals have a reasonable expectation of privacy, particularly when

using password protected services. Even in the workplace these practices raise ethical

and productivity concerns (see Smith & Tabak, 2009). A suspicious spouse, therefore,

“Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999” (Pub.L. 106-102, 113 Stat. 1338). Case
law, however, set precedent for legal and civil action.
 148

could be held criminally and civilly liable for using such software against his or her

spouse.

Some agency owners, however, still pitch this software for home use. While

shadowing an agency owner, she or he 22 informed a potential client about the criminal

and civil laws regarding the use of such software, but then proceeded to coach the

person about its potential benefits: “…and, look, if you do decide to use this software to

see if your husband is engaged in cyber- or even physical-infidelity—it may be helpful to

you and can save you some money in the long run—never tell anyone, your spouse,

your lawyer, me, if you happen to hire me, that you obtained information in this way.” 23

Because many state laws mirror the wording of the federal act, one can be punished

under state laws too. Of course, not every criminal case will be pursued, but there are

civil remedies that can be just as damaging. In Texas, for example, a person whose

wire, oral, or electronic communication is intercepted or disclosed has a civil cause of

action against the interceptor or discloser. The claimant is entitled to recover $10,000 for

each occurrence, actual damages in excess of $10,000, as well as punitive damages

and attorney fees and costs (Texas Civil Practices & Remedies Code §123.002-

123.004).

Similar programs and software, which can be sent as malware via text message,

can extract and intercept cellular phone information and conversations. For example,

there are several programs, or “Bloovers,” that allow users to hijack and intercept cellular

phone messages using Blue Tooth technology. Some software can give users the ability

to track a cell phone’s geographical location with an accuracy of a few hundred feet. Due

to the large hard drives and flash drives in today’s cell phones (especially iPhones and

Blackberries), it is unlikely that data will be written over. Using technology like Cellebrite,

22
Concealed for identity protection.
23
Nine investigators admitted in interviews that they sell the software and have coached
clients in similar ways.
 149

which allows the recovery of “deleted data” from cell phones, forensic specialists and

private investigators have been able to retrieve data from employees’ and romantic

partners’ cell phones (the legality of this typically centers on issues of phone ownership

and password protection).

The major business-related issue facing investigators deals with how to classify

and pay registrants and PERCs. Most agency owners treat their “employees” as

independent contractors. By doing this, agency owners run the risk of finding themselves

in violation of private investigator acts and Internal Revenue Service (IRS) tax codes. In

regard to tax codes, the IRS stresses three key common law factors for determining

whether someone is a “1099” contractor 24 or an employee—behavioral, financial, and

type of relationship. According to the IRS, “The general rule is that an individual is an

independent contractor if you, the person for whom the services are performed, have

the right to control or direct only the result of the work and not the means and methods

of accomplishing the result (www.irs.gov; emphasis in original). Agency owners indicated

in interviews that they typically offer some training. I observed them directing the field

investigator in regard to when and where to be, dictating what kinds of behaviors are

acceptable and unacceptable, controlling payment procedures, providing equipment to

complete jobs, and so on. Their workers appear to be, by IRS definition, “employees.”

The risk to agency owners is that a 1099 contractor may sue for unemployment benefits

or they may be required to pay back taxes and penalties. But even if agency owners are

not in violation of tax policies regarding employee-contractor status, they may be in

violation of private investigation laws. According to Texas law, a non-licensed

investigator (i.e., registrant) must be a bonafide employee. I-20 again stressed his

concern regarding this issue:

24
A “1099” is synonymous with contractor. It is the number of the IRS form used to file
contract labor. In business settings, these terms are verbed. Employees are “W-2ed”
and “we 1099 them.”
 150

See, your average investigator doesn’t understand this. There’s

another war that I’ve had with these guys [in TALI]…, if you hire
somebody and they work under your license, by definition they’re an
employee. And you’re required to take taxes out, you have to meet
certain taxes and stuff like that. Again the easy way out is these guys
say well they’re not employees, they’re independent contractors. Well
some day somebody in the tax department is gonna notice that, and
they’re gonna bust half the PIs in Texas.

This sticky situation clearly poses a risk for private investigator agencies not only in

terms of their own potential illicit activities, but in how they must cautiously deal with

employees in everyday interactions, especially if they “1099” them.

Enacting Opportunities

In spite of the many direct and indirect pressures that agency owners face on a

daily basis, they continue to creatively—though not always cognitively—profit from

everyday exigencies and institutionalized practices. In this part, I will account for how

private investigators describe opportunity enactment (drawing on interviews) and how

they prosaically engage in the process of opportunity enactment (drawing on shadowing

experiences), which includes rhetorical practices and performances of identity.

In relation to institutions and institutionalized beliefs and practice, private

investigators’ various tactics—intentionally or not—open up spaces for them to grasp

opportunities, which may also emerge from others’ everyday deceptive practices. To

cheat, for example, one must engage in practices that leave a trail of suspicious

behavior for the investigator to follow and put together. The couple, by engaging in

infidelity, creates an opportunity. Without these various socially and culturally constituted

opportunities, there would be no need for private investigators. In short, without the sum

of all the daily performances of self and others, an objectivated and profitable 25 field of

25
Although I personally do not define profits solely in financial terms, most of the
investigators did. I am also defining “success” as “still in operation.” Though this adds to
the discourse of entrepreneurship as the study of profit making, it makes it easier to
describe everyday practices in terms of a phenomenological intentionality (i.e.,
 151

practices could not emerge. Investigators who are successful appropriate everyday,

taken-for-granted social performances to their advantage (including collaborating with

others). Such opportunity making, because of its taken-for-granted nature and lack of

operationalizability by neoclassical scholars, is not accounted for in most academic

articles about entrepreneurship. The lack of understanding of opportunity enactment on

the level of everyday interaction, however, leaves very little possibility for understanding

what (communicative) strategies may be most productive for entrepreneurs in everyday

situations. Communicative practices will vary by profession; thus, these descriptions of

opportunities are limited to the field of private investigating.

Focusing on opportunity as enactment, a researcher looks at what practices

seem to be producing the object-like opportunities that entrepreneurs “discover.” In this

part, therefore, I will describe the ways in which opportunities arise and are enacted,

both strategically and prosaically, by private investigators. I will first describe how private

investigators draw upon institutions and others' taken-for-granted practices in order to

accomplish their investigative and business-related tasks. Second, I will describe the

communicative practices private investigators engage in as a means of acquiring

business. As the examples will show, enacting opportunities does not require that an

entrepreneur create a new means-end framework (Shane, 2003), but may use the

existing means-end framework in situated and creative ways—opportunity discovery is a

conservative rather than radical process (Seymour, 2006).

Institutions and Mundane Practices that Make Possible Private Investigating

Successful private investigators continue to succeed, at least in part, for two

reasons. First, they and their social contemporaries continue doing and believing in the

same things day after day. Second, social and legal institutions restrain individuals’

directedness toward a telos). The ends of a private investigator may be many, but
agency owners must break even to stay in operation.
 152

practices. Most of this section is dedicated to the first reason, so I will briefly mention

something about the second. Whenever a set of practices is restricted criminally, civilly,

or socially, and people have an incentive to curtail another’s engagement in these

practices, the possibility of doing surveillance and investigative work exists. (This is why

lobbying has become such a favored entrepreneurial practice.) For example, while I was

shadowing S-3, she received a call from a potential client who wanted to know if her ex-

husband, a recovering gambling addict, was violating his court order to halt such

activities. She was in the midst of a “nasty custody battle” and, as a condition of seeing

his children, the father could not gamble. The potential client had, therefore, a vested

interest in knowing whether he was gambling at a casino or, as she thought, on the

internet. The restriction on the potential target had opened up an investigative

opportunity. S-3 had, of course, an immediate solution—“we can take his trash, put a

tracker on his car, or surveil his activities for a period of time.”

What is important to keep in mind, however, is that without the various conditions

and actor-networks, such as an institution that gives the authority to issue “court orders,”

a gambling addiction, or divorcing parents, there would be no incentive to do such an

investigation. Until there is a court order with an addict and an addict with a court order,

there is little justification for a costly investigation. S-3 did nothing to create this

opportunity, except participate in a shared cultural belief system that does not typically

approve of addiction-father networks. 26 S-3 is simply situated within a particular social

world at a particular time. Her own entrepreneurial practices (e.g., marketing) were likely

important to inciting this call, but S-3 benefits from the institutionalized social practices

that motivated the call. The potential client’s knowledge concerning her available

options, which appear limited, is a product of the discourses of her time. Even the “seedy

26
A father with an addiction is not the same as a father without an addiction (see Latour,
1994).
 153

stories,” in this instance, may have brought the potential client to the conclusion that

private investigators are best suited for what she likely sees as dirty work. There are, of

course, other ways that the client could resolve this issue without an investigator. She

could, for example, simply do the investigation herself. Anybody can take another’s curb-

side trash. 27 She could also simply ask her ex-spouse or, through her attorney and court

proceedings, force him to prove he is not gambling (e.g., by supplying financial

statements). Regardless of the numerous conditions that incited the call, S-3 must

rhetorically demonstrate that she has the means to transform the court order-addict into

a “target” of an investigation.

One would expect that during such calls, the private eye would use rhetorical

strategies that demonstrate sympathy. But showing care for the customer does not seem

to be the preferred strategy among investigators. Very pragmatically and bluntly, S-3

said that she would need a $5,000 retainer from the potential client. When the woman

was being indecisive because of the cost, S-3 hinted that she knew judges in the

potential client’s county. She also curtly added, “Look, we can give you a peace of mind

or, possibly, 100% control of your kids. Either way, you win. This is an investment in your

future. What is it worth to you? It’s a very easy decision. You can’t do it yourself; you

don’t want to look like a stalker. Call me back when you’re ready.” At first, I was

surprised by her tone, but I later realized that all the investigators I shadowed spoke to

clients in this way. As I tried to make sense of this with investigators during interviews,

they explained that “being curt airs a sense of confidence” (I-29). In short, they must

rhetorically create the perception that they are confident in what they do. They also often

try to sound busy, perhaps because “a busy investigator must be a good investigator”

27
To dissuade the potential client from doing any investigation on her own, S-3 said that
“she shouldn’t do any part of the investigation or else she [the potential client] would
appear to be a stalker.” While this is a legitimate concern, S-3 is slightly overstating the
case and is committing at least two rhetorical fallacies: an appeal to belief and an appeal
to fear.
 154

(Interviewee 28, I-28). The woman called back the following day and signed a contract.

In the business of private investigations, how and what one communicates with others

matters. I-09, who has been in business for more than 30 years, provided a nice

summary of this point:

You just have to be frank with people. You know, I’ve landed some
great contracts just because people liked the way I act myself. So you
just tell people you’re gonna do a job. You make them believe it. You
make them understand that you have experience and expertise.
What’s the old adage? ‘When a man with money meets a man with
experience, the man with the experience gets the money, and the
man with the money gets the experience.’ So you just give them the
impression that you’re special and you’re going to be able to solve
their problem.

As with all human actors, private investigators and entrepreneurs rely on their

own “prior knowledge” and historicity, and count on others to interpret the context of

experience of an interaction as they do. The context of experience can be defined “…as

(a) the content of the totality of meaning-configurations brought together within one

moment or (b) as a meaning-context of higher order” (Schutz, 1967, p. 76). In order for a

context to be “productive”—and I mean this in all the varying meanings of the word—

actors must draw upon the “stock of knowledge at hand,” which is understood as “the

store of already constituted objectivities of experience in the actual Here and Now, in

other words, to the passive ‘possession’ of experience” (Schutz, p. 78). I will provide

three scenarios below that demonstrate entrepreneurial creativity and the enactment of

opportunities from within everyday interactions and institutionalized contexts. While

contingent on other participants doing what is expected within a particular context, it is

the slight variations and deceptions of the entrepreneur-investigator within these

scenarios that create a communicative space for opportunity enactment.

For agency owners to enjoy a process of free creativity in spontaneous activity

(e.g., playing as a shopper while doing surveillance), she or he counts on cultural others

to see the world similarly. In the scenarios below, so long as no questions are asked and
 155

other inter-actants go along with the entrepreneur’s game, then the private eye remains

in control of the context and can manipulate others. Each act within the scenario need

not be performed consciously. The institutional orders and beliefs of all actors, including

the private investigator-entrepreneur, will pressure actors to continue doing things as

expected. The goals of actors in these situations may be multiple, but we can assume

that agency owners are partly doing these activities to improve their business reputation.

Scenario 1: Getting beyond gate keepers. As S-4 and I drove to meet with a

client at an attorney’s office in a large building near downtown Houston, he informed me

that “there are a lot of law offices in this building, and just about a week ago I went to this

building to drop off marketing materials to these attorneys.” “So how’d that turn out for

you?” I asked. S-4: “Not well. I went into the building, but the security guard kicked me

out.”

As we approached the security reception area near the elevators, S-4 whispered

to me, “It’s the same guy.” It did not appear that the guard recognized S-4. The security

guard called to the attorney’s office to verify that S-4 had an appointment. The meeting

with the attorney was set up to deliver a report, “which could have been faxed, but I told

the attorney it would be easier to drop off.” After we delivered the file to the attorney’s

office, which was located on the fourth floor, we then took the elevator to the tenth floor

and proceeded floor by floor, distributing marketing materials.

Our arrival at each law office, except for one, went unquestioned. We would

enter an office, a receptionist would ask what we wanted, and S-4 would say, “I need to

deliver this to [name-of-attorney].” Most of the time, this worked, and the person would

take the manila envelope. As we walked out the door, I would catch the receptionist put

the envelope into an “in-box” or walk toward an office. In the office where our activities

were questioned, it turned into an opportunity for S-4. In this instance, the attorney was

present. Taking the manila envelope, the attorney asked “What is this?” Quick on his
 156

feet, S-4 quickly stuck out his hand and initiated a greeting. “Look,” S-4 stated, “I am a

local private investigator and I am just dropping off these brochures.” “Oh, okay,” the

attorney playfully replied, “but didn’t you read the sign on the door that said ‘no

soliciting’?” “But I am not soliciting,” S-4 proclaimed, “I am merely dropping this

information off; I don’t want anything from you. I just want you to know that I have a

Master’s degree and am a Spanish-speaking investigator.” It turned out that this attorney

was currently looking for a Spanish-speaking investigator to interview witnesses. Just

outside the door, S-4 turns to me in excitement, “This is why you don’t pass up any

chance to distribute information.”

In a follow up interview, S-4 indicated that besides the attorney we met

personally, two other firms from the building had called him. What is fascinating about

this example is how S-4 was able to accomplish this marketing activity. S-4 simply

played off of everyone’s prejudices and expectations. He used the expected in-order-to

motives of the situations and some deception. The interlocutors with whom he interacted

deceived themselves by going along with the protocol of a regular mail delivery. S-4

simply set-up the context and the actors did the rest. As Rawls (2006) notes,

The order of situated action is the important question…, motives are

properties of situations and situated identities, not properties of
individual actors: ‘Every social relationship will have its peculiar order
of motives that the actors assign to each other.’ But while the actors
treat these motives as originating inside of the other, they actually
belong to the situation, its background expectancies, and its cognitive
styles. Furthermore, these motives are not assigned by the one who
acts, but, rather, are assigned by one actor to the other. (p. 75)

The receptionists assumed that S-4 and I had received clearance form the security

guard, so they did not question our presence. The security guard, similarly, could not

foresee that S-4 had entrepreneurial motives. In the situation in which we met, S-4’s

motive appeared to be a meeting with a specific attorney. Keeping with normal

expectations and routines, but changing his own motives, S-4 was able to get beyond
 157

two gatekeepers. Had S-4 immediately presented himself as a solicitor, for example, it is

likely that the marketing materials would not have been passed along. That he put the

materials in a plain manila envelope 28 gave off the impression that it was work related,

not marketing related. While this example is not what is typically accounted for in stories

of entrepreneurship, it is these types of everyday creative practices that play a role in

obtaining future business, a requirement of firm sustainability.

During our interviews, S-4 and I interpreted the activities of our day together. I

noted that I was surprised the attorney was not upset that he violated the “no solicitation”

rule. “And why would they?” he replied, “I am different because I am not listening to that

advice; but most importantly, I have an advantage that others do not. I speak Spanish

and this is an opportunity for me.” S-4 continued,

And here is an example, one of the attorneys [James], we’ve been

friends, finally got me in working with his firm in 2006. One of the
things he promotes when he invites me to attorneys’ meetings and all
this after-night or after-work types of things—he’s a Texan, but you
can see that there’s some Mexican heritage in him—is ‘Hey man, this
guy is the guy who [interviews] all our wetbacks.’ The language is not
the best language, but he gets the point across. A couple months
down the line, I will meet the attorney again and she or he will say,
‘Hey, remember me from the party? James introduced us. He said
you’re good at locating…um…,’ and I say ‘Yeah, remember the word,
you mean undocumented workers. ‘Yeah, that one.’ And he [the
attorney] says, ‘Yeah, I need some help.’

I reinforced his story, offering legitimacy to his claims by saying that “opportunities arise

in everyday circumstances and conversations. And the thing is, since you broke some

rules, you sort of showcased that you’re unconventional.” “Exactly!” he interjected. I

continued by retelling a story provided by I-02:

I interviewed a person [I-02] a while back and he said he had been

hired by a company to serve a high profile personal injury lawyer in
Chicago. The guy was very hard to serve, but the PI ended up calling
the lawyer and left a message. He said something about his wife

28
Here we should not forget the role the envelope plays in making the interaction
possible (Latour, 2005). Objects’ roles in opportunity enactment are discussed in chapter
5.
 158

having been in an accident and he was given the business card by a

traffic cop. The lawyer called up and they set up a meeting. He sent
one of his female investigators and served him. Turns out that the
lawyer was so impressed with this that he hired his company to serve
his firm’s papers.

Though these are interesting examples, it is important not to lose focus on how these

opportunities emerge within the world and work of others. They are simply creative uses

of the everyday, taken-for-granted assumptions of others. From a prosaic perspective,

S-4 and I-02 have not done anything that makes one more entrepreneurial than the

other—“creativity… is not an exceptional condition, but an everyday occurrence”

(Steyaert, 2004, p. 13).

Scenario 2: Using “things at hand.” As I noted in chapter 2, I do not deny that

my presence as a researcher influenced shadowees’ practices. I was often used by

investigators to assist them with various tasks. S-5 asked me to go to a door and

pretend I was looking for a friend. As I did so, he shot video of the person who answered

the door. I was coached to “pretend [I was] at the wrong house.” In another instance, I

was asked to “entertain a client” while we waited at a court house so as to distract him

while S-3 “took care of business that he should not be involved in.” So that we could

save time, S-1 asked me to check an electric meter in the back of a foreclosed house (to

see if it was on or off) while he took photographs of the exteriors. Among other things, I

was asked to reach out of a car window and grab some curb-side trash as the

investigator drove by.

I was also useful in business transactions. For example, S-4 used my presence

during an initial meeting with a client. We met the client at a Waffle House in order to

sign a contract. At the start of the hour-long meeting, 29 he introduced me as one of his

investigators, a protocol I suggested to all interviewees so that the clients would not feel

29
Many investigators criticized the length of this meeting. They try to keep contract
signing to fifteen minutes. S-3 was the only one that charged a $250 intake fee, which
included an hour-long meeting.
 159

uncomfortable. At one point, while he was selling the potential client on his firm (which

was unnecessary, according to S-5, “if the client meets to sign a contract, they don’t

need to be persuaded”), S-4 said “our team is highly educated, he [referring to me] is

about to complete a Ph.D., I have a Master’s degree, and my colleague [his brother] at

the office has certification [in accounting] beyond college.”

S-3 utilized my entire visit as a lucrative venture. Our first few hours together

were a little awkward as she struggled to find the appropriate language to describe my

presence. For example, during a phone call she awkwardly said, “I have Craig here, a,

um, a student from Illinois University. He’s writing a paper about investigating.” When it

was clear that this did not receive favorable “wow-like” replies, she tried to adjust her

descriptions to little avail. Eventually, I said she should just say that I teach at a

university and I am doing research for publication.

During the first half of our day together, she made several calls to create

meetings throughout the week with key figures— a sheriff, a defense attorney, a judge,

and a television journalist. I thought, at first, that this was not going to yield insight into

her everyday business practices. But as our week together progressed, it became clear

that this was, in fact, part of her ongoing business strategy. She was, as I-04 had

informed me, “a ruthless self-promoter.” It was not that I could bolster her image, but I

was a “good reason” to meet with these important people. “It’s Georgia, after all,” she

noted at one point, “where connections matter.” A private investigator’s connection to a

judge could mean favorable court treatment, something useful in a criminal defense

case. S-3’s strong connection to the sheriff’s department meant increased access to the

jail, a good thing for any client needing to speak with an investigator or attorney late at

night. The journalist, Jim Strickland, is the “Channel 2 Action News Consumer

Investigator” for WSB-TV Channel 2, the ABC affiliate of the Atlanta and South Georgia

market. S-3 has compiled onto a DVD several of the special investigative reports she
 160

has done with Jim Strickland. She hands this DVD out to everyone she meets. My

presence was a “good reason” to meet these important people; she told them I was

writing a book about her and needed to ask them questions. By simply meeting with

them, she was maintaining lucrative connections.

So valuable are these connections that she is able to charge a higher-than-

average rate for her services ($145 per hour compared to the usual $65-$85). When

potential clients call her, she mentions these connections frequently: “I personally know

Jim Strickland, the consumer reporter for Channel 2;” “Oh, that won’t be a problem, I

know the judge up there, so we need to get your hearing moved to that county”; “You

might recognize my last name [deleted], you know my family goes way back in that

county”; and, “You know, if you need a criminal report filed, I can make a quick phone

call and the police will be there quick. My husband is a police sergeant.” During every

phone call, except those from clients complaining about their bills, she mentioned a

connection, one that would likely be symbolically meaningful to the listener.

Scenario 3: “Doing” identity. In scenario 1, I described how S-4 used his

bilingualism as a way to sell his services. (I-08 also uses her bilingualism as a major

selling point.) While attorneys seem to appreciate that S-4 is a Spanish speaker, hiring a

firm with a Spanish speaking agency owner is not the only option for clients. They could

retain the services of an agency with a white, non-Spanish speaking owner. I

interviewed, for example, two agency owners who advertise Spanish speaking services,

though they themselves do no speak fluent Spanish. One keeps on staff a Spanish

speaking field investigator and the other sub-contracts with firms such as S-4’s. These

business practices transform field investigators, often a threat, into potential

opportunities. This is why one could make a case that having a diversified labor force in

the field of private investigations will generate opportunities.

 161

For come clients, they will not be persuaded to hire a Spanish-as-a-secondary-

language speaker. Such clients may feel that an interview will require an investigator

who is culturally and physically similar to interviewees. This means that when an agency

owner claims that his or her company is comprised of “minority specialists,” as I-08 does,

people will likely expect that the company and its investigators are minorities. Of course,

a white person could claim to be an expert on a particular group of people, as many

anthropologists and sociologists do. But as S-4 (I-17) highlighted, his cultural knowledge,

in combination with his Spanish fluency, helps him obtain results a non-Latino would

miss:

Here in Houston there was a group of people from El Salvador and

Honduras who owned a couple bars. And these were pretty much like
whorehouses. But you would never know unless you knew how they
operated. And what happened is, you would go in and there were
always ladies inside, to make you feel ‘comfortable,’ [that] is what they
called it, to give you ‘companionship.’ A lot of the people who went in
were undocumented workers, people with no documents to be in this
country. They knew about this because they find it in their country.
Let’s say you and I go. You and I pay for a beer, which is $2.50 or $3
dollars. Good looking girls A and B come along, you take A, I take B,
and we offer them a drink. Their drink costs $13 bucks. $9 for them,
the rest for the bar. Those $9 dollars were for the purpose of paying
their transport from whatever Central American country or Mexico to
here in the United States. Many times, that’s over $10,000. So the
Feds went in—FBI, DEA, ICE—they all went in and busted this place
big time. Some of the people who got busted needed attorneys and,
of course, this is a federal case, so they needed representation. A lot
of people didn’t have representation so they needed court-appointed
attorneys. So a court-appointed attorney contacted me because he
had a female as a client and he needed somebody to interview some
witnesses. Come to find out, I went to the federal prison and to ICE
holding, immigration holding, to interview 45 women. It became a big
case here in Houston. So, I had the good luck to work on all these
cases.

In this instance, it may be more productive for S-4, himself an immigrant, to conduct the

interviews. His understanding of the operation and the potential identification between

him and the undocumented workers will likely open communicative avenues that would
 162

otherwise have remained closed. Trust is established in the course of conversations, but

I suspect that S-4’s Latino identity was helpful.

In investigating and business, one’s identity and appearance does matter. As

Bruni, Gherardi, & Poggio (2005) note, “as well as being an economic phenomenon,

entrepreneurship can also be read as a cultural one…. [W]hen men and women set up

as entrepreneurs they do not separate [their gender from entrepreneurial praxis];

instead, they produce the normative meaning of what it is to be a male or female

entrepreneur in a single cultural model framed by a cultural as well as an economic

context” (p. 1). While these authors primarily reference the cross-reading of gender and

entrepreneurship in everyday practice, the same ethnomethodological rules apply for

any identity performance (West & Fenstermaker, 1995).

Many interviewees referenced issues of gender, age, race, class, and sexuality,

both as potentiality and as a barrier. Coding of interview transcripts shows that there

were 67 references to gender, 66 to age, 54 to race, 47 to class, 6 to sex and 3 to

sexuality. Investigators understood that there are certain ways of “doing” gender or race

that makes a difference in interactions with potential and actual clients. They also

recognized that these constructions have an impact on where an investigator can

comfortably do his or her work. In a predominantly black neighborhood, for example, a

white investigator will likely draw more attention. Similarly, a black investigator in a white

neighborhood may be seen as more suspicious than a white investigator, and a white

target may pay more attention to a non-white investigator when being trailed. In other

words, “when it comes to doing undercover investigative work, one must factor identity

into the equation” (I-29). Many investigators do. I-22, for example, noted during our

interview that he was in the process of hiring younger investigators:

I think I’m gonna take three more [employees] on that are in their
twenties because of the alleged-cheating-spouse cases. A lot of these
folks are in their twenties, thirties, maybe even forties, mid-forties or
 163

something, and they’re gonna go out night-clubbing. They’re out in

night clubs on 6th Street and other night clubs around town. And as
old as I am, and with all the gray hair, I’ll walk into some of these
clubs on 6th Street and it’s like the band stops and everybody turns
around and looks at me like, ‘What the hell are you doing here?’

This example suggests that the impressions one “gives off,” deliberately or not, matter to

the success of a case. These impressions may even determine what niche an

investigator settles in. In short, there are rhetorical dimensions to one’s corporeality,

which can be used to an investigator’s advantage, but can also become liabilities in

various settings. Utilizing performances of identity and using one’s body rhetorically is an

important part of the business of investigating. Business opportunities are threatened or

enhanced by how one understands and uses these factors in everyday situations. The

extent to which investigators’ identities play a role in their successes and failures can

only be answered through future research.

What these scenarios demonstrate is that not all opportunities necessarily arise

through innovation, nor are they “discovered” as the traditional literature tends to

suggests (Eckardt & Shane, 2003). Instead, opportunities may be enacted over time

through the creative use of communication in situated contexts. From a prosaic

viewpoint, creativity is situated within the mundaneity of everyday life.

Rhetorical Practices as Opportunity Enactment

In this section, I highlight the rhetorical practices that investigators use to support

their monetarily valuable investigative and business practices. If we could return to the

streets of early 19th Century France, where Vidocq was developing some of the

important practices of private investigating, things that are taken for granted today—e.g.,

“interviewing witnesses,” domestic spying, or writing reports—would likely have struck

people as a peculiar service, especially at five francs an interview and 20 francs an

investigation. Billable services that clients simply accept today likely would have been

questioned.
 164

At its peak, Vidocq’s agency was seeing up to 40 clients a day. He was not, of

course, the only agency in town. Thus, he was entrepreneuring as part of his everyday

concerns. For example, he had to establish investigator work protocol, market his

company, and lobby for the legitimation of rules and procedures (Vidocq, 1935/2003).

Furthermore, just as issues arose between the U.S. public and Pinkerton, Vidocq and his

crew were heavily criticized by the Parisian public for their lewd behaviors, corrupt

practices, and political misdealing (Morton, 2004). Faced with investigator

impersonators, Vidocq responded by requiring his staff to carry signed commissions.

This was, at the very least, a rhetorical strategy to show that he was committed to

operating a legitimate operation. A successful investigator-entrepreneur must do things

within the expectations of clients, and defend practices when they are called into

question. Agency owners do this very subtly, often dropping references to law (for

example) into conversations.

Regardless of whether or not investigators are doing so implicitly or explicitly,

they are using a constitutive rhetoric—a rhetorical style that seeks to constitute an

audience of “clients” and “potential clients.” The private investigator only benefits from

institutionalized practices so long as they continue to reveal themselves to potential

clients as important. In other words, private eyes have to rhetorically maintain the

ideology that legitimates particular practices: “[I]deology is material, existing not in the

realm of ideas, but in that of material practices. Ideology is material because subjects

enact their ideology and reconstitute their material world in its image. Constitutive

rhetorics are ideological not merely because they provide individuals with narratives to

inhabit as subject and motives to experience, but because they insert ‘narratized’

subjects-as-agents into the world” (Charland, 1987, p. 143).

Private investigators’ roles in the maintenance of ideologies that serve their

business interests are also highly institutionalized. This means that they are likely
 165

unaware of their participation in this social ordering. But when private investigators meet

their “narratized” clients and other actors in practical circumstances (e.g., interviewing

witnesses and testifying to jurors), they must appear legitimate. To appear “as

something” requires rhetorical work. In this regard, investigators are always already

engaged in the primordial function of rhetoric, which, according to Michael J. Hyde and

Craig R. Smith (1979), “is to ‘make-known’ meaning both to oneself and to others.

Meaning is derived by a human being in and through the interpretive understanding of

reality. Rhetoric is the process of making-known that meaning” (p. 348; italics in original).

This hermeneutic and epistemic rhetoric draws from the interpretation of the pragmatic

exigencies of the particular space, place, and time, and is creatively translated by

entrepreneurs to advocate a “new reality” 30 in which the product or service the

investigator is offering “makes sense.” The themes that follow are practices that draw

from prosaic and institutional orders. They show how private eyes use rhetoric to shape

the perceptions of clients in ways that are financially meaningful to the client and

investigator. This section is perhaps the most insightful for investigators because it offers

rhetorical strategies that are working for others.

Closing the deal. Agency owners consistently pointed out that when they

receive an initial phone call from a potential client it is “not a hard sell” (S-3). This is

because, as I-21 noted, “when people call they want help. That’s why they called us.

They don’t know which way to turn sometimes to find the information or to get help, so

that’s what we try to do.” Agency owners simply need to demonstrate that they can

resolve some of the (potential) client’s problems. This demonstration is also a rhetorical

act, which often takes place, at least initially, via mediating technologies. A potential

30
Barry Brummett (1976) notes that “rhetoric is in the deepest and most
fundamental sense the advocacy of realities…. It is the function of managing
meaning within social arrangements, and is thus a dimension of the countless
acts and objects comprising a cultural environment” (p. 38).
 166

client will see an internet page and have initial reactions to both its design and the types

of claims that are made on it. This is why I was surprised to come across so many poorly

designed websites. Several interviewees criticized other investigators and noted that it

projected a negative image for the profession. For example, I-24 noted that “there are

these silly magnifying glasses or Sherlock Holmes images [on websites]—I don’t

understand why most p-eyes want us to be associated with that shit.”

Given that websites are increasingly an important site for first impressions, 31 it is

not uncommon to find in the first few lines of text the following type of claims: “United

International Investigations is an experienced private investigations firm with a reputation

for integrity, dependability, and thoroughness” (www.investigateworldwide.com); “We are

a full service, professional investigative agency serving primarily the Dallas & Fort Worth

metropolitan area…We have investigated criminal and civil cases since 1980 ranging

from petty larceny to 1st-degree murder” (www.covert-pi.com); and “Second Nature

Research Group is a full service bilingual private investigation agency. Our private

investigation agency is licensed, insured and bonded by the state of Texas”

(www.secondnatureresearch.com). Through these claims, investigators seek to

establish, among other things, an impression that the company has something unique to

offer a (potential) client and that, foremost, their experience and professionalism will be

used to resolve any issue at hand.

While shadowing and interviewing, I was present for several phone calls between

investigators and potential clients. 32 What surprised me most, which I have previously

noted, is just how callous agency owners were. They did not try to establish rapport with

the potential client. They did not, for example, say things like, “well, I am sorry that you

are in the position that you are” or “I understand how painful this must be for you.”

31
Although the Yellow Pages is still the primary first stop for people seeking local
services (“Dial I for Internet,” 2008)
32
Agency owners always answered their phones, even during interviews.
 167

Instead, they interrogated the potential client by asking the following types of questions:

“What makes you think that he is cheating?”; “Why do you suspect your business partner

is up to something?”; “What do you want to get from hiring a private investigator?” At

some point in the conversation, they almost always would claim, “Well, if you suspect

that she (or he) is (cheating, stealing, hiding assets, abusing, etc.), you are probably

right.” During interviews, I asked why they speak to potential clients in such a brusque

manner. Most of them replied that they want to sound objective and they want to project

confidence. “Engaging in such gushy talk will make you sound less competent. They are

calling an investigator, not a counselor. They [clients] will not appreciate your sympathy;

they expect the objective attitude of an investigator” (I-30).

Individuals who call a private investigator, particularly for domestic cases, are

initially very reluctant. “I suspect that they likely go through cognitive dissonance about

wanting to have someone they love followed. They themselves feel like they’re doing

something shady” (S-4). Given that the popular narratives are not particularly positive

about the private investigating profession, it likely adds to the dissonance. Potential

clients may fear that they are engaged in a seedy business exchange. Consequently,

private investigators do not tend to ask for a caller's name or telephone number until

later in the conversation. This means that it is important that the person answering the

telephone have the authority to speak with potential clients. Callers do not, at least in my

experience, feel comfortable leaving a phone number. According to I-01, “A potential

[domestic] client’s sensory perceptions are enhanced, they are clued in because they

are nervous about losing money or hiring a shady character—so they’ll catch on if you

seem to be uncertain about anything” (I-01).

Where the dissonance is less, say with attorneys, they are also still concerned

with professionalism. Consequently, “they are searching for whether the investigators

sound like they are inexperienced, overselling their experience, what they can do, and
 168

what services they can really offer” (I-10). When I was shadowing S-3, for example, she

was obviously more cautious when speaking with her attorney clients, providing clues

during the conversation that her investigators would be cautious, “well, I am not going to

do anything, especially record anything unless you ask me to.” A phone call with a

potential domestic case client, however, led to the following claim, “we’re going to do

everything we can to find out if he’s up to something.” To “close the deal” an investigator

needs to deploy various communicative tactics and use rhetorical strategies that work for

them. The evidence shows that investigators have developed similar rhetorical styles,

apparently independently.

It’s an investment. I first heard the claim that an investigation is an investment

while shadowing S-3. She was speaking to a potential client who was seeking

information regarding her husband’s suspected infidelity. As usual, S-3 had the woman

on speaker phone so that I could listen to the conversation. The woman rambled for five

minutes about all the things her husband was doing to hurt her emotionally. Eventually,

S-3 cut the woman off and said, “If you think he is cheating on you, he probably is. What

we can do for you is a thorough investigation, which would include following him and

recording his activities. We will get as much information from you during your intake so

we know when the best time to follow him is.” The woman seemed to understand that S-

3 wanted to get “down to business” and immediately asked, “well, how much is this

going to cost do you think?” “Investigations typically run about $2500 because we don’t

know how active he is going to be.” “I see,” the woman hesitantly replied. “Well, let me

tell you something, either you want the information or you don’t, I can’t sell you on that. If

you want it, it’s worth it to you. This is an investment in your future. If we find out he’s

cheating, and it sounds like he most likely is, well let me ask you, do you have children?”

The woman replied affirmatively. “Then this is even better for you, because if you’re

talking divorce this could mean better leverage for custody, child support, and alimony.”
 169

After about ten more minutes, the woman agreed to the $250 intake interview, and by

the end of the following business day she had signed the contract and paid the retainer.

Investigators typically coached people where to get money (e.g., family). If the

person seemed slightly reluctant, they pushed a bit harder and tried to get the client to

skip a personal meeting and contract by fax or internet. Many investigators post their

contract on their websites and have mobile internet connections so they can always get

a potential client a contract. Many also accept payment via internet, so that no matter

where they are, the client can get a contract and make a payment or deposit. S-3

explained this practice, “…if you don’t get the money right away, they may do something

else with it. When you ask for a $5000 retainer… this person might go out and buy a

computer or pair of diamond earrings instead. We’re dealing with emotional people.”

In Georgia, it makes sense to use the language of investment for domestic cases

because, unlike most states, it is not “no fault”—proof of infidelity could mean getting

more assets from a divorce. It literally is an investment when put in these terms.

However, S-3 also told clients that it could be an investment in that “once you provide

proof to your husband that you know what he is doing, you might be able to begin

mending the relationship.” I shared the idea of using the term “investment” with several

other investigators, who though it was, as I-17 put it, “excellent advice” (I-17).

Strategic positioning. Agency owners often employ a tactic that I have labeled

strategic positioning. This is using one’s knowledge, skills, ability, identity, and so on in

creative ways to gain power or control over targets, clients, or others. It can also be a

form of pretexting, which investigators are particularly good at.

I observed S-3 change her last name several times. She was not pretexting, so I

thought this was interesting and asked her about it. She explained, “I have two last

names, my maiden name and my husband’s last name.” She continued, discussing how

she manages her image through her office, her website, and her last name:
 170

If you’ve got a nice office and everything sounds good, they’re gonna
hire you. I mean people hire me just on the fact that people think I
have a nice website they think is cool, they know I’m a woman, and
they see that my name is Italian. And they go, ‘well, you’re definitely
not Italian because you’re talking about ‘y’all’ and I said, I know, my
husband’s Italian.’ So I’ve gotten business, very big business from the
north just on my last name. And I told my husband, this is - my last
name is Irish, my last name is [omitted]. And see my dad’s brother is a
millionaire and he lives in Walton county, so when I go in Walton
county or talk to people from there [referring to the person she just
talked to], my name is … [First, maiden, and married names omitted].

This example highlights that the rhetor-investigator/entrepreneur uses strategic

language that draws upon his or her audience’s prejudices. For example, S-3’s claim

that she “gets business from the north because of an Italian last name,” in addition to an

earlier admission in an interview that she did not name her company “Southern” because

she expected people would think she is stupid, demonstrates how she strategically

positions her name to project a particular business identity. I-18 and I-19 (a husband and

wife team) also described how they use I-19’s accent and I-18’s gender in strategic

ways:

CE: So even with attorneys, you would use that sort of language? It’s an
investment rather than an expense?
I-18: It’s a mixture. I guess an element of it is that I rely on my Englishness as
well. I think you have to capitalize on…
I-19: …On what you got.
I-18: …on all and any assets that you’re able to offer. [You need] to make
people think, maybe not think, but make them understand and appreciate
that you can do what you say you’re gonna do.
CE: Do you think there is sort of a bias there, a positive bias?
I-18: I know that’s there. I mean, I know it’s wrong, but…
I-19: If you [referring to I-18] had maybe a different accent, it wouldn’t go over
the same way.
I-18: I do try to capitalize on it. I think they think ‘educated, sophisticated.’ As I
said, I’ve met a number of paralegals recently at big attorney offices, and
I make sure that they ‘enjoy’ my accent, my British-ness [laugh]…
I-19: And then I meet the lawyers. [Indicating she meets with the lawyers
because she is an attractive female].
CE: That’s great.
I-18: We have to play to our strengths, and that’s what it’s about. We use our
strengths, and if it’s a male environment, you know what I mean? It’s very
much a case of working to…
I-19: Some people don’t want, they think men are more intelligent, you know?
 171

I-18: Sometimes, particularly in certain parts of Texas, they only want to speak
to a guy. They don’t want…
I-19: I get a lot of people that think he’s the brains so, great. That’s fine. I don’t
care.
I-18: They think she just answers the phone, so yes, we have to play to that.
You’re my girl in the office, my office manager. You know, we just have to
do that so our company appears bigger than a two-person, husband-wife
operations…
I-19: Which I love.
I-18: Keep our perspective, and, yes, I call her my office manager.
[All laugh.]

This strategic gender role playing seems to be common among entrepreneurs. Bruni,

Gherardi, and Poggio (2004) provide an ethnographic example from a small Italian

production enterprise owned by two sisters,

According to the… sisters, being mistaken for a secretary sometimes

proves useful, because it enables them to follow negotiations from the
inside while appearing to be outsiders: especially because they often
have insufficient information to gauge a situation, so that being taken
for secretaries gives them a chance to acquire it. We’ve got an excuse
because we’re women. / By way of example, they mention an episode
when a customer telephoned (somewhat irritated) about a
malfunctioning machine and Franca Somma put him off until the
Engineer arrived. By the time the Engineer did so, the situation had
resolved itself. When the customer spoke to the Engineer, he asked
him to apologise for me to your secretary (she laughs). They tell me
about another occasion when it was the Engineer who pretended to
be a secretary (imitating a women’s voice) to ‘get shot’ of someone
who kept on ringing him. (2004, p. 414)

What these examples show is that investigators can rhetorically position themselves

using their identity while playing off others’ assumptions. Strategic positioning is not

used exclusively by entrepreneurs or investigators, of course. Private investigators are,

however, particularly good at it.

Planting suspicions. As I briefly mentioned earlier, agency owners also make

subtle rhetorical claims that plant suspicions into the minds of their (potential) clients and

targets. While S-3 was speaking to the woman on the phone regarding the belief that her

spouse was cheating, she noted that “if you think he is cheating, he probably is.” Other

shadowees also did this. Even on their websites, they use a language of suspicion, “trust
 172

your intuition,” “one in three marriages ends in divorce,” “adultery undoubtedly causes

the greatest heartache in any marriage,” “do you suspect a company is acting

irresponsibly?” and “do you know who your business partner is?” Of course, they then

present their company as the best solution to these problems: “Disprove or confirm

suspicions of adulterous spouses with the assistance of one of our undercover agents”

(www.secondnatureresearch.com); or, “We help private individuals and non-profit groups

hold small and large corporations accountable” (www.covert-pi.com).

While shadowing, I observed investigators plant suspicions during telephone

calls. As with their websites, investigators told potential clients to “trust their intuition”

and “to believe in their fears,” and they would often hint to current clients that the best

strategy was to continue an investigation. At the conclusion of one investigation, for

example, S-4 had received a phone call from a client who wanted to thank him for a job

well done. When asked what the client had decided to do, the client indicated that he

and his wife were in couples counseling. S-4 congratulated him, but added a caveat: “I

am happy to hear things may work out, but the best thing you can do for yourself is to do

a fidelity check in about six months, make sure she is not back to her old ways.”

Small delivery companies also tend to hire private investigators. High volume

movement of goods creates ample opportunities for employees and drivers to steal

merchandise. When S-5 met with a potential client, he noted during the meeting that

“employees come up with some pretty creative ways to steal merchandise” and he

reminded the potential client that “Robbery occurs every one second, property crimes

every three seconds. Chances are they are doing something, even if it is just not driving

safely. Money spent on surveillances for a business is never lost. It’s either due diligence

or peace of mind” (S-5).

Building strategic alliances. Building strategic alliances is a rhetorical strategy

that moves beyond direct persuasive claims into prosaic practices and conversations
 173

that function rhetorically. Alliance building typically occurs with attorneys, insurance

adjusters, and business owners because domestic clients are typically not good sources

for referrals. However, as I-21 noted, “with attorneys, it is important to stay in their

minds” (S-21). In other words, private eyes do not typically take clients of cheating

spouse cases golfing or send them holiday cards. With insurance adjusters and

attorneys, however, agency owners had better because “if they [e.g., attorneys] don’t

hear from you, they’ll hear from someone else” (I-07).

Strategies for building alliances were typical. Investigators said they often call

their important contacts and have mundane conversations about work and family life and

they send flowers on Secretary’s Day. But I was surprised by a few unique strategies. At

the TALI conferences, for example, new investigators were coached to target younger

attorneys just coming out of law school. Young attorneys, according to a session

speaker, “need all the help they can get when they first get started, so offering a

discount or some free work is a good strategy to build up their faith and confidence in

you. Then as they move up into higher positions within a company or get more business,

so do you.” In another instance at the same TALI conference, a lawyer coached

investigators that one of the most “strategic things you can do in your relationship with

attorneys is not speak with clients at meetings, to know your place.”

Interviewees also noted that it is important to “pay attention” to the paralegals,

who often are the ones who must call or find private investigators for a particular case.

For this reason, S-4 said he speaks with female paralegals in a “flirtatious” and

“flamboyant” manner:

In many cases… it’s better to talk to their paralegal, so I’ve learned to

target the females. They’re your gatekeepers. I’m a thin guy, I weigh
170 pounds. Six foot tall, 32” waist. So I dress and go in my suit and I
see some lady. She may not be the prettiest lady, but every time I go
in, she must have something nice that I’m gonna tell her. ‘Good
morning. Oh my god, that’s a beautiful blouse, love the colors.’ ‘You
like it?’ [falsetto voice]. ‘Oh my god, it’s refreshing. It needs to get out
 174

of this place and go somewhere tropical.’ ‘Yeah, you’re right. How can
I help you?’ [falsetto voice] ‘This is who I am.’ “Ahhhh.” So, within a
week, two weeks, a month, they will call me and say ‘[I-17], remember
me? I’m the lady who sat and you complimented the blouse?” ‘Of
course.’ ‘Well, the attorney so-and-so wants to know when you could
come by and have a meeting with him.’ And, I’ve made like $15,000-
20,000 just off of nice comments.

Investigators also stressed the need to complete jobs quickly, “Sometimes

attorneys will call us and say ‘I need to know who owns this vehicle, I’ve got a license

plate,’ or something like that. ‘Okay, here ya go.’ You have to have quick turn around

and…I mean, we have quick turnaround time, and that’s part of our strategy” (I-22).

What “being quick” says is that “you are an important client.” Attorneys need to know

that an investigator will attend to their needs quickly, especially when it comes to

interviewing witnesses. As I-08 noted, “the first one to get to a witness has the

advantage. You want to get to them before they change their story.”

Rhetoric(al) Matters

This chapter demonstrates that rhetoric matters. The above descriptions highlight

that the prosaics of everyday entrepreneuring requires the use of rhetorical strategies

both in business and in investigative matters. From the point of view of communication

research, what this suggests is that, in addition to developing business skills,

entrepreneurs should practice becoming better rhetoricians. Much of the work product

that private investigators produce is an outcome of interpretive and rhetorical endeavors.

Their preeminent work product, the report, as I will describe in the next chapter,

becomes forensic evidence and may even be understood as evidence for deliberative

action (e.g., whether or not a business person will cut ties with her or his partner).

Persuasion in everyday interactions affects business success or failure.

Entrepreneurship researchers should not take for granted the role of everyday rhetorical

practices in the constitution of a successful or failed enterprise. Differences in rhetorical

styles partly determine which entrepreneur gets venture capital and retains customers.
 175

CHAPTER 5: SHADOWING OBJECTS—TECHNOLOGIES AND REPORTS

Economic exchange creates value. Value is embodied in commodities

that are exchanged. Focusing on things that are exchanged, makes it
possible to argue that what creates the link between exchange and
value is politics, construed broadly. This argument… justifies the
conceit that commodities, like persons, have social lives. (Appadurai,
1986, p. 3)

In the previous chapter, I described how private investigator-entrepreneurs

engage as subjects in their field of practices, focusing particularly on the rhetorical

strategies that they use to enact opportunities. In this chapter, I continue with the theme

of rhetorical enactment, but place emphasis on objects that are constitutive of

opportunities. Objects interact with other subjects and objects; so they have, in the

words of Arjun Appadurai (1986), “social lives.” As social actants, the equipment of the

field of private investigations can also enhance or disrupt opportunity enactment.

In order to demonstrate how everyday practices and interactions get transformed

into object-like opportunities, I will describe the process of generating reports—the

sacred product of the private investigator. The report is the exchangeable value-object of

private investigators. While having some qualitative differentiation, the report can be

described as a commodity because the intellectual capital required to produce it has

been diffused.

It takes a rhetorical effort to produce a report, and some investigators are

capable of producing better reports than others. 1 In describing the process of producing

a report, I will draw upon actor-network-theory (Latour, 2005) to account for how private

eyes hermeneutically document and rhetorically translate others' practices into the report

as an entrepreneurial object. I will suggest that reports’ movement into other fields

legitimates private investigators’ practices.

1
This is so for a variety of reasons. Perhaps some investigators have received better
training, they are better writers in general, they are better observers, or they are more
motivated.
 176

The tools and objects that private investigators use can be described based on

their use, showing in what ways they are important entrepreneurially. For example, the

process of documenting an extramarital affair with a video camera, taking the

documented activities and putting them into written descriptions (i.e., legal reports), and

presenting the report as testimony in a courtroom requires rhetorical effort. The process

of documentation, made possible by video reorders, pens and notepads, computers,

Adobe Acrobat, and so on, participate in transforming everyday practices (e.g., holding

hands in public) into a profitable object (i.e., testimony). The actor-network “investigator-

equipment” converts the observed activities into words and images that are used as

(forensic) evidence. These arguments—though they are taken-for-granted as being

rhetorical—are used to prove clients’ cases or suspicions. But the field activities could

also become deliberative or epideictic rhetorical data for lobbying, books, blogs, and

press releases, which some private investigators and state associations are actively

doing (e.g., I-04, I-05, I-21, and I-22). 2

“Investigative data” has commercial value, but only after it is translated into a

report. The report is an artifact that demonstrates that an investigative process has taken

place, and it allows investigators to turn everyday action into reportable and accountable

profit opportunities. Following an object rather than the investigator yields different

insight about private investigating and entrepreneuring. Following objects also

demonstrates why entrepreneurs must protect their commodities. So long as the report

is understood to be important to actors who desire it (i.e., clients), practices required to

produce it can continue to be valuable too. This is an important point. For example, the

2
Case in point: I-09 noted that many bills against the profession are often proposed by
legislators who have been the unhappy target of an investigation. Fortunately, most of
these legislators were trailed by non-licensed or non-affiliated members. Thus, he
indicated that while he was chair of TALI he would often use examples from his
investigations and other members to compare the methods he used to those used by
non-affiliated investigators. He suggested that often the evidence of unethical behavior
was an issue not of investigators, but unlicensed ones.
 177

attorney-report is only meaningful if the attorney values this relationship. If attorneys

begin to suspect that private investigators’ reports are “worthless,” say because the

general public has come to suspect they are typically falsified, then attorneys will no

longer be willing to pay for them. An attorney-investigator-report must be meaningful; if

not, attorneys will find other ways to obtain information and the mediating role of private

investigators will become irrelevant. 3

In this chapter, I begin with an account of an experience I observed while

shadowing S-2. This account highlights the threats imposed by some new technologies.

Some objects, as I will describe, often disrupt practices and lower knowledge transfer.

These same technologies, however, are also creating new opportunities and strategic

possibilities for private investigators. I then turn attention to the report and its production,

which requires that investigators translate others’ everyday activities into rhetorical,

forensic claims. I will provide examples of new reporting methods that are possible with

contemporary technology. In the conclusion, I will briefly discuss why describing

opportunities from a prosaic and rhetorical perspective is important to entrepreneurship

studies.

Private Investigators’ Objects: Threats and Opportunities

In chapter 4, I related a story in which S-2 and I discussed how I would set up if I

were conducting the investigation at a difficult intersection. This field account begins just

as that field exercise was drawing to a close. So that I could obtain his employee’s

impressions of his management style, S-2 phoned one of his field investigators to

arrange an interview. The meeting never occurred. Five minutes after S-2 ended the call,

3
The use of the term mediator is important. Latour (2005) notes that “mediators
transform, translate, distort, or modify meaning or the elements they are supposed to
carry” (p. 39). Banal conversations between clients and private investigators and
sentences in reports (the style, grammar, content, etc.) can become important mediators
for maintaining the PI-client network. Investigators who do not use mediating
communication effectively will not likely retain clients.
 178

the field investigator called back to say that “the target was on the move.” S-2 said that

“he’d be on his way to assist him,” but did not ask directions. “Do you know where we’re

going?” I asked. “Oh, yeah, I have ‘sat on’ this guy several times already,” he replied,

“and I have the location programmed into my Garmin here [GPS 4 navigator].”

As we sped in the direction of the target’s home (Edwardsville, Illinois), traveling

northbound on Interstate 255, I did not stop the digital audio recorder. What follows are

sections of the transcript from the telephone interaction between S-2 and the field

investigator, which highlights the difficulty of giving real-time driving directions and the

risks of relying on GPS technology. The field investigator, by his own admission in a brief

conversation following this incident, said that he almost always relies on GPS while

driving. In this example, the GPS unit creates a communication barrier between S-2 and

his field investigator (FI). The following example highlights the difficulty of

communicating information in a fast-paced situation that is impeded by technology. (For

purposes of giving a sense of the pace of the dialogue, I have included the

corresponding audio time stamps.)

01:15:30:: S-2: Hey, where you at, man?

01:15:32:: FI speaking, inaudible. [S-2’s facial expression indicates that he is
not happy with something—the investigator has lost the target.]
01:15:39:: S-2: Okay, which way did he go on 157?
01:15:43:: FI speaking, inaudible.
01:15:48:: S-2: Okay, yeah there is. Uh, 157, if you go to the south, it takes
us by our office. If you go north, it takes you up by the client’s
office.
01:16:01:: FI speaking, inaudible.
01:16:13:: S-2: Yeah that is, that is 157. I’m coming up on 270 right now; I
am about two miles away from that.
01:16:21:: FI speaking, inaudible.
01:16:27:: S-2: Okay, well, go up to 159, to exit 13, take 159, the off ramp at
159, just cross the bridge come back south, or come back west.
01:16:39:: FI speaking, inaudible.
01:16:41:: Yeah, just take that and I will probably be just at 157, just about
the time you get to there. Take the off ramp and then just turn…
to the right, when you get to the bottom of the hill there is a stop
light, veer to the right. Okay, if you go straight, it is going to take

4
Global Positioning System
 179

you onto the campus of SIU Edwardsville, you don’t want that.
Veer to the right, and continue on 157 into Glen Carbon and
eventually back into Edwardsville. He is doing a round robin. So, if
you find him or catch him in that area anywhere, just let me know
and I will meet with you wherever he is at.

In the midst of his cell phone conversation (meaning he is driving with one

hand)— which was competing with the annoying music of Gavin Rossdale (“Love

Remains the Same”)— it began to rain lightly. It was the type of rain that only needs the

occasional wipe, so S-2 had to trigger the windshield wiper manually. Including driving,

this made four distractions. But S-2 was also simultaneously trying to locate the target’s

address on his GPS unit, eventually abandoning the effort to keep one hand on the

wheel (there were two moments while traveling at 75 miles per hour that he steered

vehicle with his knee). 5 When he ended the phone call at 01:22:03 minutes, S-2 noted

that I should “not be scared about his driving; sometimes I get back into cop mode, and I

am very good at multi-tasking—speaking on the phone, talking over the radio, and

driving at high speeds.” 6

The FI called again. I have deleted the short intervals of the FI speaking. The

brackets represent the duration of FI’s talk:

01:23:40:: S-2: Hey, what’s up man? [11 seconds] Aaghh, you want to go
the other way. Oh! I thought you were coming back to 57 (slight
laugh). [2 seconds] I, no, you just want to turn back around. Did
you go Maryville? [2 seconds] No, you just want to turn back
around and go north. [2 seconds] If you just stay on 159, I, I am
coming back up, I’ll probably be by his address before you will. [4
seconds] So, I’d. I’d like to meet with you somewhere if you’re
going to sit on him for maybe another hour or so… [3 seconds]
Um, you know where we ate that day? At the 54th Street Bar and
Grill? [10 seconds] You’re, you’re on the road right now. If you
turn around and start going north on 159, you will go right past,
the, uh, 54th street. [18 seconds] If you are on 159, just turn
around and go north and come back the way you were. [2

5
Shadowing can be dangerous for a variety of reasons—this is one example.
6
He is not the only one, of course, that gets into this mode, suggesting that it is a
product of our culture, the private investigative profession, or both. On multi-lane roads
in heavy, rush-hour traffic, I held up a laptop so that S-5 could read it and S-3 put on
cosmetics.
 180

seconds] I thought you were getting back on the interstate when

you said, I am getting off of one—[22 seconds] 7 Okay, once
you’ve crossed 270, you are going to get back onto 159, come
north, cross over 270 and keep on coming straight, you’ll get
through like five or six parking, uh, stop lights. [2 seconds] Yeah
there is a big Bank of America right on your left-hand side and
you need to turn, I think, just past that one. [2 seconds] Turn, turn
left and there will be a Buffalo Wild Wings and all that shit right
there, I will be in that parking lot right there.
01:26:25:: CE: Got turned around huh?
01:26:27:: S-2: Yeah, I was giving him directions coming back in on 157 and
he was just coming off of 159, so if you go [i.e., turn] right there,
you go all the way back down south.

As image 5.1 shows, highways 157 and 159 are parallel and run north and south.

It is not clear exactly where the FI is at time 01:15:30, but we can ascertain from S-2’s

statements that he thinks the FI is traveling eastbound on I-270, between 157 and 159:

“…go up to 459, to exit 13, take 159, the off ramp at 159, just cross the bridge come

back south, or come back west” (01:16:27). During one of the inaudible moments, the FI

must have explained to S-2 that the target did a u-turn, which almost assures that the FI

is not on I-270. 8 The FI is not where S-2 assumes, so any instructions that S-2 gives will

further confuse the FI. Assuming that the FI is on I-270, S-2 instructs him to take exit 13

(it is exit 12 that intersects with 159) and do a u-turn in order to track back west on I-270.

He communicates this message with confusing and contradictory information: “…just

cross the bridge [and] come back south, or come back west.” When S-2 corrects himself,

he does it without much pause or emphasis. It sounds, when listening to the digital file,

as an illogical either-or proposition. S-2 communicates that the FI can either come back

south or west. I suspect the FI understood what S-2 actually meant, but if he did not

7
At this point, while the field investigator speaks, he looks at his speedometer and
notices that he has slowed to approximately 50 miles per hour. He accelerates back to
the posted 65 miles-per-hour limit.
8
While not apparent in image 5.1, because of its size, there are only two roads—
Meridian Road or Glen Carbon Road—that cross I-270 between 157 and 159. Both of
these roads are overpasses and have no entry or exit ways onto I-270. This is why I
assume that the field investigator is not on I-270, but likely on either 157 or 159 traveling
southbound.
 181

understand that S-2 was suggesting he do a “u-turn,” he would have headed south,

away from the direction desired. This is one plausible explanation as to how the FI

ended up in Maryville (point B). The FI should have simply been told to travel west when

he got to the intersection of I-270 and highway 159.

General
location of
target’s house.

C 01:15:30
Approx.
C 01:23:40
4.5 miles

D*01:15:30

Jack’s Place, D
01:23:40
B
15.0 miles from point A

Image 5.1 (Google Maps, 2009) 9

S-2, traveling northbound on I-255 at time 01:15:30 completed a u-turn, headed

southbound on I-255 and then eastbound on I-270. He expected, as his dialogue

indicates, that he would arrive at the highway 157 exit at the same time as the FI: “…I

will probably be just at 157, just about the time you get to there” (01:16:41). He planned

9
Notes: A = Edwardsville; B = Maryville; C = S-2; D = Field Investigator; D* = Supposed
location of Field Investigator; Arrows = Direction of travel; Times correspond to in-text
transcript data.
 182

that the FI, once they intersected, would travel northbound toward the target’s home

(located north of Edwardsville). When it was clear that some confusion had occurred (at

time 1:23:40), S-2 was already on highway 157 heading towards Edwardsville (point A),

but the FI was on highway 159 in Maryville. By this time, S-2 had turned the music off, it

was no longer raining, and he was driving below the posted speech limit. In other words,

he could more fully concentrate on the conversation.

This example highlights the problems that can arise with so many technological

distractions in an investigator’s environment. It would have been better for S-2 to instruct

the FI to pull over and figure out where he was by using a map. From my own

experience as a field investigator, I can attest that this is annoying; however, I can now

appreciate this as a good practice. Driving and giving instructions may require too much

information processing. Furthermore, as the situation illustrates, it is important that each

interlocutor be trained in communicating detailed information accurately. S-2 directs the

FI to “turn right,” which could mean any direction. Had S-2 simply said, “go west on I-

270” or “pull over and find out where you are at” (as I frequently heard S-5 tell one of his

investigators), the FI could have assessed his own situation and decided what actions

he had to take to accomplish the communicated task.

This example illustrates the importance of having company field protocol, training

investigators to use such protocol, and learning and practicing how to communicate

accurate information in stressful situations. While technology can present a risk to

investigators, it can also enhance investigations. The optimal use of any piece of

equipment will best be achieved through proper training and practice. Thus, a GPS

system can be a great asset because it is faster than a map and can be used to obtain

data while in the field; however, the investigator should be trained how to use the system

in accordance with company protocol. One of the problems with many small firms is that

these operating procedures are often overlooked.

 183

Learning to send and receive information quickly and accurately is a skill that

agency owners and their field investigators should practice. With the issue of high

employee turn-over described in chapter 4, developing symbiotic working relationships

may be difficult. The professional associations should consider developing defensive

driving courses for field investigators and require them as part of the certification

process. Associations should also offer courses at conferences that help agency owners

develop a standard operating procedure.

Agency owners and field agents should also place reliable communication over

efficiency:

…organizations preoccupied with reliability [contrasted with efficiency]

may [or should] spend more time and effort organizing for controlled
information processing…, mindful attention…, and heedful action….
These intensified efforts enable people to understand more of the
complexity they face, which then enables them to respond with fewer
errors. Reliable systems are smart systems. (Weick & Roberts, 1993,
p. 357)

Agency owners, according to I-13, should train field agents to communicate effectively

and use technologies reliably while under stress. I can attest that when one gets a shot

of adrenaline while holding a camera, it takes concentrated effort to obtain a quality

surveillance video.

Private investigators must also consider that technologies train them. Note how,

for example, S-2 may have received inaccurate details from the FI: “I thought you were

getting back on the interstate when you said, I am getting off of one—[59].” To get off of

highway 159 in Maryville is much different than getting off of 159 at the I-270 junction.

But the FI indicated to me during a brief conversation in the Buffalo Wild Wings parking

lot that he was lost. As he noted, “I have yet to memorize any streets because I am too

reliant on my GPS.” The GPS navigational system has made him a passive driver.

Equipment can reduce an investigator’s ready-at-hand “profitable” knowledge.

With GPS navigational devices, investigators can lose their cognitive maps of the
 184

geographical areas in which they operate. Among other things, this decreases the

chance that they will impress their clients with this stock knowledge. During telephone

conversations, S-5 repeatedly rattled off descriptions of Dallas neighborhoods to

potential clients as he set up consultations with them, “Oh, if you work in that area, then

let’s just meet at the intersection of I-35 and Walnut Hill at the Denny’s there, I believe it

is across the street from the Valero.” While communicating where to meet, S-5 is also

documenting that he knows and understands the Dallas-Fort Worth area—a valuable

skill to highlight when speaking with someone interested in a surveillance-intensive

investigation.

In reflecting upon the incident described in this section, S-2 seemed to

understand the source of the miscommunication. As he noted, “Yeah, I was giving him

directions coming back in on 157 and he was just coming off of 159, so if you go [turn]

right there, you go all the way back down south.” Referring back to Image 5.1, this

statement is also not very clear. However, by the time S-2 explained this to me he was

driving, listening to music, and trying to open a pack of gum.

Among other things, this field account shows that environmental distractions are

problematic, and agency owners should require their new field investigators to

demonstrate competency and knowledge in navigating local topography before they are

allowed to use GPS technology. This requires, of course, the development of formal

control systems, which are absent among small firms in the field of private

investigations. While agency owners may be profitable without them, the absence of

operational manuals means they may spend more time frustrated and yelling at field

investigators—“no, you listen to me when I say pull over, take out a map, find out where

you are and find the fastest route to her [the target’s] house” (S-5). Dealing with

employees is certainly part of entrepreneuring, but formalization increases control and

may reduce frustration and costs. At the very least, formalization may reduce the need
 185

to give so much attention to employee issues, allowing agency owners to focus their

daily attention toward other entrepreneurial needs. All investigators spent at least part of

their day speaking poorly of field investigators or reprimanding them. 10

Other technological risks. There are other risks associated with equipment.

These technologies, based on interviews and observations, can be classified into three

types, “toys,” “liabilities,” and “opportunity destroyers.” Toys are those “gadgets and

gizmos” that one doesn’t necessarily need, but are interesting to have. The private

investigator today needs far more equipment than the investigator of yesteryear, but she

or he does not, in most circumstances, need a beer can camera. In the few instances

where such novel devices are required, interviewees felt that clients should assume the

costs. The typical investigator will need a quality pair of 7 x 50 binoculars (with inert gas

between the lenses), reliable video and still-shot cameras, both with the highest quality

optical zoom (100-300mm) and pixels (at least 7 million), a telephoto lens attachment, a

high quality night vision attachment for video recorder, a quality computer for doing

business activities and editing video, and a DVD burner.

Investigators who specialize in other areas may need more or less equipment.

For example, interview experts need a high quality digital recorder and a simple digital

camera for taking photos of interviewees, process servers may need to invest in a

software tracking program such as ServeNow or Loyal Dog, and investigators who

specialize in accident reconstruction may need special, industry-certified equipment and

accident diagramming software. While it may be a symbol of status to have a Lincoln

10
All shadowees had some sort of communication with their employees and contractors
that could be characterized as “conflictual.” S-3 and S-5 spent approximately 10% of
their day dealing with or complaining about their employees/contractors. Both tended to
speak frequently with field investigators in what I would characterize as an “agitated
tone.” Between the two of them, I observed eight conversations with field investigators
that escalated into yelling. The length of such conversations varied, but one yelled for an
impressive 35 minutes.
 186

Navigator, a GPS navigational device, a Blackberry Gold, or handgun, 11 any equipment

that is not necessary to the process of completing a job, or its potential marketability, is a

toy. While toys may make private investigating interesting, they are not necessary to

produce a report; investigative know-how, notepads, pencils, a computer, and a word

processor program are all a private eye actually needs (assuming no video, photos or

audio recording is requested or needed). 12

Shadowees varied in the amount of toys they have, with S-04 having the fewest.

His office was a simple, one-person room that he rented at a discount from an attorney.

He traded down his SUV to a compact car (to save gas) and he turns down any

surveillance that would require additional equipment purchases. His entrepreneurial

strategy is to increase profits through reduced expenses. Other shadowees seemed to

splurge. One investigator’s vehicle and office was a mess of cables and electronics, with

the latest gizmos (e.g., wireless charging stations). Interviewees similarly said toys can

become a financial burden, but playfully acknowledged they have their share of them:

Yes, I have toys. You’ve talked to my wife already, I see. Just now
she called them toys. But by the time you look at all the equipment
you’ve got to have, you know, and I probably do have more
equipment then some do. And I probably don’t have as much as
some. You’ve got cameras, videos, you’ve got to have equipment to,
uh, transfer the, uh, videos to film so you can send it to you client or
put it on CDs. All this necessary equipment gets expensive, but then
you’re in the PI shop or Radio Shack and you see all these cool
devices, that’s when you get in trouble financially and with your wife.
(I-16)

11
I include handgun because many private investigators do not carry handguns, though
in Texas there seems to be pressure among investigators to carry one: “’You don’t have
a gun?! Where are you from?’ I get that all the time” (I-17). While there is an issue of
safety, since several private eyes said they had “worked in sketchy neighborhoods” and
two had been robbed at gunpoint, a gun is essential only for those who provide
executive or personal protection services. It is important to note that to carrying a gun
requires certification and additional insurance. Thus, having a gun will increase the
variable costs of doing business.
12
In most circumstances, attorneys do not want private eyes to audio record interviews
because such documentation can hurt a case.
 187

While toys are problematic because they can eat into the financial profits of a company,

they can also be, along with other essential equipment, liabilities. 13

“Liabilities” are so for a variety of reasons, but the three most common reasons

cited by investigators are equipment failure and loss, attorney challenges, and legal

issues. The risk of equipment failure, damage, or loss is an everyday concern of all

private investigators, but especially for those who do a lot of field work and surveillance-

intensive investigations. Investigators who do domestic cases, for example, rent various

pieces of equipment to clients. While in use, GPS tracking devices and hidden cameras

can be discovered and destroyed by targets, short circuit, fall off vehicles, and so on.

While GPS tracking devices have decreased in price over the years, they are still

between $400 and $1000. While I was shadowing S-3, she spent nearly 2 hours over a

four day period dealing with tracker issues; this amounted to 3.5% of her work time

(based on a 14-hour work day). 14 She also had her office assistant doing some of this

work, diverting the assistant’s attention from other important business tasks.

While working in the field, equipment failure could mean losing key information

for an investigation. In some instances, there may be no other opportunity to find a

witness or catch the target engaged in an activity that is pivotal to a case—“You simply

can't ask a fraudster or cheater to redo something” (I-30). While a private investigator’s

cameraless observations may be good data for establishing patterns, clients typically

expect video. Given the low perceived credibility of the profession, an investigator

13
For investigators who do not specialize, they obviously can end up with more toys. For
some, they purchase junk equipment in an attempt to offer a service they are not
qualified to do. For example the “CounterTek Covert Pen Bug Detector,” certainly a nifty
gadget, is supposedly a “radio frequency detector” that can find wiretaps and GPS units
on cars. But as I-20 notes, “It’s going to pick up all radio frequencies. Basically, it
amounts to a $50-dollar-piece-of-junk. Only investigators, about six of us in the state
(Texas), with thousand-dollar pieces of equipment and training will be able to do serious
electronic sweeps and counter measures” (I-22).
14
GPS units operate by battery power, which means that once the battery dies (about 5-
10 days) it is not traceable by satellite.
 188

usually must have some form of visual documentation. As I-25 noted, “A far as clients

and jurors are concerned— if it isn't on video, it didn't happen” (I-25). Even with “no

guarantee” clauses in their contracts, investigators admitted they frequently refund

money in order to retain important clients. I-13 said during a TALI session he led, “it

doesn't matter if you produce nine good reports, [clients] will always remember the one

time you didn't get it right. ‘My equipment failed,’ is not an acceptable excuse.” If it fails in

the field, equipment can cost a company thousands of dollars. While no interviewees

provided an example, I can draw upon my own field experience to make this point. I sat

on a house for almost eight hours on New Year’s Eve watching to see with whom a

client’s husband arrived and left. I accidentally left the night vision telephoto lens on

between filming activities. When the target finally left, the batteries could no longer

power the lens. Consequently, I could only record dark shadows. The client was a

paralegal for a law firm (i.e., she was a gatekeeper for a potential client). Our agency

refunded her money for that night’s surveillance, which was just under $800. However,

the attorney she worked for never again used our services.

With the move to digital formats and reliance on service providers (e.g., satellite

companies), equipment has become an even greater liability. A database or satellite

signal may go down at a pivotal moment. When I shadowed S-3, her office’s phone

system was having technical difficulties. She had to pay for technicians to fix the

problem. Her phones were not in operation (half a day), so the company likely missed

calls from potential clients. To deal with these concerns, many agency owners have

created informal contingency plans, such as purchasing two of everything or maintaining

relationships with “spy shops,” which can rent them equipment when needed. But this

still does not alleviate the everyday stress. While I was shadowing S-5 during a hot

summer day, he was having what he called a “Murphy’s law day.” He was trying to install

a hidden camera in a warehouse. In sauna-like temperatures, S-5 could not get his
 189

wireless receiver to pick up the camera feed. After two hours of fiddling with it (time he

did not bill to the client), he finally declared that “this equipment [is] a fucking piece of

junk.”

Finally, equipment poses a liability because, if used inappropriately, private eyes

may violate federal and state laws. For example, most states follow the federal rules

regarding eavesdropping and wiretap (18 USC §2518). Such laws stipulate that you can

record a conversation as long as you are a party to it. The obvious violation of this law

would be someone using a boom microphone or radio to eavesdrop on conversations.

There are a handful of states, however, that require all parties to be notified that they are

being recorded. 15 In Illinois, where the eavesdropping statute is particularly stringent, the

law applies even when there is no expectation of privacy. The law stipulates that “a

person commits eavesdropping when he uses a device to hear or record all or any part

of any conversation unless he does so with the consent of all the parties to such

conversation” (720 ILCS 5/ 14-2), and a recording device is defined as “any device

capable of being used to hear or record oral conversations whether such conversation is

conducted in person, by telephone, or by any other means” (720 ILCS 5/14-1 et seq).

Given that it is okay to video record any public activity, where there is no expectation of

privacy, the all-party consent to audio recording can easily be violated. 16 To avoid

accidentally misusing equipment, private eyes need to understand relevant laws.

Perhaps nobody understands equipment liabilities related to law better than

those who do accident reconstruction or brand themselves as “expert witnesses.” These

investigators must constantly deal with the prospect of attorney challenges. Prosecutors

15
All-party states are California, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Maryland,
Massachusetts, Michigan, Montana, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, and Washington.
16
This law raises interesting concerns rarely discussed in scholarly research. For
researchers who do conversation analysis, for example, they could be putting some of
their research subjects into a situation in which they violate the law. For example, the
consenting research participants continue to record while a neighbor visits.
 190

are, according to I-20, “ruthless” to private investigators (who work for defense), treating

them as the “lowest form of Earth.” This means that expert witnesses must constantly

make sure that they have the “right equipment” and that it is “properly calibrated”:

“You’ve gotta have computers and we keep up-to-date measuring tools. So when we go

out um, … [we] don’t get challenged about a piece of equipment that is cheap or out of

date” (I-16). Investigators who do accident reconstruction or serve as expert witnesses

must also demonstrate that they are properly trained and certified. I-20, who attends

hundreds of hours of training a year, noted that this is expensive:

And then there’s, you know, I do what’s called technical surveillance

counter measures—TSCM. And that’s sweeping for bugs and taps,
telephone taps, eavesdropping and illegal eavesdropping, and ah,
there’s only about 6 private investigators in Texas who are qualified to
do that. And by qualified, I mean that they’ve actually had some
schooling in how to do it, and you have equipment that will actually
detect some unsophisticated bugs that are out there. There’s only 6 of
us because the schooling costs $1000 a week and you’re talking, to
really educate yourself you’re talking somewhere between $8 to
$10,000 worth of schooling. The equipment, the most basic thing you
can buy is a $3000 piece of equipment. 17

The more one invests in equipment, the more his or her risk increases; doing a

job becomes contingent on the equipment as much as investigator expertise.

Finally, technology has become opportunity destroying. The internet, while it has

created many opportunities for agencies, has also hurt many investigators' businesses.

Take, for example, the sad-toned admission that I-07 provided during our interview:

Well, lemme, lemme just sort of in a nutshell tell you where I was. I
had two of these offices. I had the one next door. I had five
employees. Um, the internet did some damage to my business,
because people can go on the internet and look for people

17
Some agency owners advertise, for example, that they can do electronic
countermeasures when in fact they do not have the right equipment of training. As I-23
criticized, “Yeah, they say ‘We do de-bugging.’ And they go down here to the spy shop
and they buy a device for $99.95 that has green light, red light on it. And the instructions
say, ‘Printed in Taiwan. Put two double-A batteries in it. If the light turns red, you’re
bugged. If it’s green, you’re okay.’ Basically it is a transistor radio with no speaker on
it…. It’s picking up a bunch of stuff. It’s just so broad, you don’t know if it’s picking up
television signals, radio signals, ham radio, CB radio, broadcast, you know?” (I-23).
 191

themselves. … You know what? And believe it or not, sometimes you

can find someone very easily that way. But when it comes to the
hardcore skip tracing, that’s what I do. So, that’s what I have left.

Fortunately, I-07 has many committed clients who continue to supply her with work;

although she admitted that the economic crisis has led to a decrease in this business as

well. She indicated that she does not do much marketing and I sensed she was

exploring a potential career change. Her attitude was also likely cause for some of her

business decline. As I probed to see what she was doing to respond daily to the threats

brought on by internet technologies and services, it was clear that she had accepted that

there was not much she could do. Her conclusion that “all she has left is difficult skip

tracing” leads her to avoid practices that could grow her business—marketing, cold calls,

web development, and so on. While I did not shadow her to see precisely what she does

each day, it is clear she is not trying to make a case for her services. Other investigators

indicated that in the age of the internet, they actively try to persuade potential clients

from doing the work themselves: “I tell people that they can do a background check

online, but how do they know they’re really looking at the right John Smith? These

databases give false results all the time, which can lead to all kinds of problems. My

diligence is needed” (I-29). This rhetorical strategy, which could fit within the theme of

“planting suspicions” described in chapter 4, is a demonstration of opportunity

enactment. As I-07 sits in her office from day to day using the internet to skip trace, she

is abandoning potential opportunities. She is not attempting to pursue other niches or

retain existing clients, creating a self-reinforcing decline.

Objects as Opportunities

Technological objects increase private investigators’ data gathering capacities. A

video camera, though it “frames” a particular scene and creates artificial boundaries that

are often more limiting than regular vision, can gather details of an ephemeral scene

with more detail than a human. Cameras can also playback information. A private
 192

investigator with a video camera, therefore, can obtain data and create evidence not

possible 40 years ago. A video camera can also operate without the presence of a

human, which means that investigators can conduct multiple surveillance operations at

once. For example, a private eye can install hidden cameras near a warehouse for a

business client, install a GPS unit on a domestic client’s spouse’s vehicle, 18 and still be

able to physically “sit on a house” at another location. While the investigator surveys the

house, the warehouse cameras and the GPS unit continue to collect vital data. 19 This

highlights how technology makes private investigating a “hybrid activity” (Meunier &

Vasquez, 2008), with profit making practices happening across multiple spaces and

times. Investigators who use common technologies and other objects in creative ways

can increase revenue streams while also improving their investigations.

Investigators incorporate everyday objects people use into their investigative

routines. Many cell phones can now record video. While shadowing S-5, we followed a

target and his supposed mistress into a restaurant. By propping his iPhone against the

condiment caddy, he was able to record to video targets sitting across from us. While it

was positioned awkwardly, the phone was not out of place. It was still just a phone to

those around us. The taken-for-granted assumption that we were just diners with a cell

phone made it possible to gather video surveillance without fancy hidden cameras.

According to S-5, while in some circumstances one may have to use a button cam, cell

phones are much more reliable and user friendly.

The ubiquity and everydayness of the video camera and cell phone is precisely

what enables this opportunity for private investigators. 20 We often see people with video

18
In most states anyway, but only if both spouses’ names are on the title.
19
The investigator must still translate this data. For example the information gathered
from a GPS unit often must be connected to other data, such as where the target said he
or she was going to be and where she or he actually was.
20
Agency owners should be cautious in assuming that new hires know how to use a
video camera in investigative work. The typical rules of making home videos do not
 193

cameras in public. However, in instances where a private investigator may be

questioned about having a camera, he or she needs to have an available explanation. I

was once approached by a passerby as I was recording video of a target working in her

yard. I had been browsing through a screenwriting magazine at the time. I picked it up

and said, “I am a film student and I am waiting for my friend who is supposed to help me

with a school project about suburban life. I was bored so I just started shooting video of

the squirrels playing.” The passerby apologized for bothering me and went on his way.

Agency owners often incorporate various objects into their pretexting

performances. For example, S-5 showed me a unique spy cam that he created out of a

Domino's delivery hot bag. The inside of the bag was stuffed with Styrofoam squares, a

digital recorder, and a small camera. The lens protrudes through a small pinhole.

Wearing a Domino’s uniform, he explained that he will knock on a target’s door. The

occupants will likely assume that he has made a delivery error and open up the door to

assist him. While they work out the confusion, he records the interaction. In some

instances, he needs to obtain data regarding the condition of a home or the occupants of

a house. Perhaps he is looking for a missing child, a dirty home unsuitable for a child, or

a cheating spouse. Drawing on the prosaics of pizza delivery, this example shows how

opportunity-enabling objects become such through an investigator’s rhetorical or

practical adaptation to context-specific situations.

Rhetorical enactment of opportunities. As I highlighted in chapter 3, an

entrepreneur, at least in the Schumpeterian sense, must have the foresight or “prior

knowledge” to create a new manufacturing process, administrative form, product, or

apply because unique situations arise. S-3, for example, was criticized by a client for
providing poor quality video. The video had been shot through a dirty windshield and
was hazy. A not so obvious “trick of the trade” is for investigators to keep a bottle of
glass cleaner and paper towels in their vehicles. I-22 also said that novice investigators
must be taught “common sense” things, such as “flipping the camera to manual focus
during a rain storm.” The video camera’s auto focus will keep adjusting to the raindrops,
making it difficult to focus in on a distant object.
 194

service. As I also noted, such knowledge is gained through a hermeneutical process.

From a prosaic perspective, entrepreneurs must be able to share their vision with others

on a daily basis and work to reproduce the opportunity once it has become legitimated. If

the product or service is new (meaning not easily comparable to another product or

service), bizarre, or complex, the rhetorical burdens are far greater—the gap in

hermeneutical horizons between the entrepreneur and stakeholders are greater. Close

examination of the rhetorical practices of entrepreneurs in established fields in general,

but specifically start-up or new product launches in particular, provides some insight into

why products or services succeed where others fail. An objectified opportunity, whether

it is a product or service, was selected in through a rhetorical process; many are also

selected out through the same process. Agency owners (like all entrepreneurs) are

constantly engaged in a process of interpretative and rhetorical meaning making.

I was fortunate to meet S-1 and I-06 just as they were launching a new product

called Service Exchange Network (Serve-X; www.servex.biz). Serve-X is a unique data

interface solution that works with existing case management software. As advertised on

the company’s website, Serve-X enables the communication between a law firm’s and a

process serving company’s existing software so that they can “seamlessly

transfer…jobs…nationwide”; “continuously provide live status updates to…case files”;

“manage and monitor jobs throughout the service process”; “eliminate duplicate data

entry”; “reduce human error”; “increase productivity”; and “increase profitability.” Without

Serve-X, attorneys and credit collections agencies (may) keep track of cases using

particular pre-packaged software (e.g., Collect) and process service companies do the

same with their own software (e.g., ProServe 2000). That each professional field has not

yet integrated the other’s software technologies means that employees on each end of

the exchange have to repeat data entry. When the process service company serves an

affidavit, for example, its employees have to enter this into their software program and
 195

then relay the information manually (by email, phone, or post) to the attorney firm, who

then must update the information manually vis-à-vis their software. With Serve-X, once

data is entered on either end and into any program, the software program automatically

updates the information on both sides “as if by magic” (I-06).

The Serve-X software is provided for free to both attorneys and process servers.

Attorneys and collections companies stand to gain the most from it because it eliminates

the need for staff to physically track the status of papers. Process service companies are

also likely going to absorb the fees charged by Serve-X (although they will also benefit

from reduced data entry). A testimonial of an attorney currently advertised in the

company’s press releases highlights this point: “We have been using Serve-X for the last

two months, and our office loves it! We have been able to cut in one half my [sic]

employee’s entire job duties. It would take 2-3 days a week to enter all the services for

each file…now [it] only takes 5 minutes. I highly recommend any office that deals with

any type of volume process serving to use this as it costs nothing and only a nominal

increase in your process serving fees!” Service Exchange Network captures a small fee

for every file that transfers through their integrating system. Since process service

companies technically work on behalf of their attorney and collection agency clients, I-06

noted that their strategy is to convince attorneys to use the software. Once attorneys

adopt Serve-X, they will then (theoretically) “put pressure” on process serving

companies to use it.

The idea for Serve-X came about by a fusion between S-1’s understanding of

process serving and I-06’s computer programming knowledge and prior experience

working with law firms. Of course, it is not an inconsequential detail that both live in the

same small Illinois town. This highlights the roles that location, timing, and connections

play in opportunity identification (see Shane, 2008; Steyaert & Katz, 2004). From the

start, the location of both entrepreneurs facilitated a flow of ideas regarding the
 196

development of Serve-X. By projecting what they thought the software ought to do, they

were already shaping the types of rhetorical claims that would be possible. In return,

their potential marketing strategy re-informed what kinds of features they gave the

software—a complete hermeneutical circle.

The creation and marketing of Serve-X is a human endeavor. This example

highlights the active role S-1 and I-06 had in enacting the opportunity and how they are

rhetorically shaping Serve-X and its position in the marketplace. But we ought not to take

for granted the instutionalized practices and objects that made the idea of this type of

software possible. For example, the adoption of computer software to manage

documents within the fields of practices of law and process serving had already shaped

the everyday practices regarding how business is done within these fields. Without these

objects operating independently in each field, there would be no need to integrate them.

The implementation of a system that integrates the software is not a radical revolution, in

the sense that S-1 and I-06 do not have to convince people to change their everyday

practices. The ingenuity of Serve-X is that the practices that will be changed (i.e.,

reducing human interaction in the process of transferring and tracking files) plays into

the corporate logic of eliminating human labor in the process of doing business. Thus, S-

1 and I-06 are building upon the established and taken-for-granted practices, myths, and

objects already influencing the fields of practices where their object—Serve-X—will

hopefully become an important interactant and mediator.

Now that Serve-X exists, S-4 and I-06 must translate it into selling points,

demonstrating in other business objects—e.g., websites and brochures—what the

software can do. As S-1 and I-06 interact with customers, they will receive feedback

regarding what is deemed important for users and adapt it accordingly. In this sense,

Serve-X (the software) will begin to act upon the field and redirect S-1’s and I-06’s future

practices and claims. It is possible, for example, that the software will reduce the amount
 197

of paper and fuel that is used to print and transfer files. Given the recent fashion to “go

green” (i.e., be environmental friendly), it would not be surprising if they begin

highlighting the ecological benefits of their product. This point demonstrates how objects,

like computer software, are translated rhetorically into many things at once: an error

reducer, a “green technology,” and a profit enhancer. Of course, if the software does not

perform the field in the ways S-1 and I-06 anticipate, they will eventually abandon this

opportunity. But one thing was clear during field research: the existence of Serve-X has

changed S-1’s and I-06’s daily cares and concerns. From follow-up interviews and brief

shadowing field observations, most of their everyday practices are now directed at

promoting and attending to Serve-X’s needs; Serve-X (the software) demands their

attention.

Rhetorical translation of objects into opportunities. The above processes

are acts of translation because they require transforming an object’s many uses into

specific (though limited) symbolic claims. But this is not without limitations or risks. As

Law (2002) notes, “to translate is to connect, to displace, to move, to shift from one

place, one modality, one form, to another while retaining something. Only something.

Not everything. While therefore losing something. Betraying whatever is not carried over”

(p. 99). Take, for example, the description on S-5's website where he highlights the

equipment (objects) that his agency uses to catch people. Image 5.2 is taken from his

agency's website. He uses these photographs as proof that he has the appropriate

equipment to get high quality video of targets:

[This] is an example of a target captured on video from a distance of

one city block. The surveillance was conducted for an ankle injury and
impairment rating. Look closely at the time between the subjects [sic]
moving of the couch and the mattress. The apartment was emptied in
less than 45 minutes and it was all captured on our surveillance
equipment.
 198

The full video was likely presented to the client as part of the report. But by creating two

still shots—two new artifacts from one—of the target moving large pieces of furniture at

two points in time, the agency owner translated evidence into examples of his expertise,

which can be placed on his website as marketing devices. In this example, the private

eye provides evidence to support his claim that the apartment was “emptied in less than

45 minutes.” What is not mentioned in this enthymeme, because it is obviously implied,

is that this should not be possible if someone has an ankle injury. As I will show when I

discuss reports, this sort of subtle implication is an important skill for writing an

“objective” report. More interestingly, S-5 does not explicitly highlight his expertise in the

passage, but instead chooses to foreground the quality of his equipment: “it was all

captured on our surveillance equipment.”

Image 5.2 – Target moving furniture.

This example would not have been possible without the type of equipment that

exists today. What this example illustrated is that the objects produced by the equipment

of an investigation can be recycled and used in other ways. With today’s technology, the

investigator can easily translate photographs from an investigation into marketing

possibilities. The telephoto lens, the camera, and the private investigator work together

to translate the activities of the target into “evidence” and “advertisements.” The

everyday act of translating objects will likely not strike readers as very profound, but this

example only further demonstrates how objects and practices are often taken for

granted. These prosaic transformations of entrepreneurial objects into rhetorical claims

 199

about one’s business add up over time and likely make a difference in who succeeds

and who does not. 21

To highlight how the translations of objects differ across investigators, I will

present an example of a database and its report as an object. All investigators use

databases; contemporary investigators could not succeed without access to one. But I-

17 has translated the use of databases into a claim about expediency and highlights this

in a press release: “With more than five years of experience, [company name] has help

[sic] many companies and individuals make the right choice about the people they hire.

'We can access information from across the country around the world and around the

clock, at the touch of a button,' said [agency owner's name]. This information can be

obtained through different databases available only to licensed private investigators like

[agency owner's name].'” I-17 is demonstrating the importance of the database, but he is

also positioning himself as an important mediator in the process of doing background

checks and hiring quality employees. The database, as he notes, is “available only to

licensed private investigators.” The database is transported into the field of private

investigating (thanks to other technologies) and the investigator becomes a mediator

that determines a “good report” from a “bad one.” Again, here is an example of how the

object “database report” can be transformed into an opportunity when rhetorically framed

as such in a press release (yet another entrepreneurial object). With the right mix of

press releases, especially free ones picked up by local media, an investigator may

receive more calls from potential clients. Those who are most visible may be the most

likely to succeed as entrepreneurs. But when I-17’s strategy is compared to I-07 (who

21
S-5’s strategy is not without risk. A possible interpretation—which could be pointed out
by a consultant using rhetorical criticism—is that the equipment is poor. It is hard to
identify the target in these hazy photographs. In the field, the investigator would have
shot additional video, including the license plate and vehicle identification of the target.
This would also not be the only shot of the target. But this is something non-investigators
may not understand. The accompanying text on the website should probably include this
disclaimer.
 200

feels she is losing business to the internet), it is evident that I-17 is translating the

internet into a possibility, whereas I-07 is not. While these differences in business

practices do not fully explain I-17’s growth and I-07’s decline, they are likely constitutive

factors.

Investigators can also translate equipment in practical terms. Although GPS

navigational devices can be problematic for investigators, one of S-1’s process servers

explained that when he has a pile of court summons to deliver, he can program the

addresses into his GPS unit and it will automatically coordinate the most efficient route

to each house. I-22 similarly described how GPS devices can help in collecting important

data during surveillances, describing the device as an actor with human-like qualities:

One of the things you and I were talking about… was the GPS. On the
GPS units that we have, you can say ‘I want you to start when I start.’
You know, push the button, say ‘Now, start,’ when you arrive at
wherever you are, let’s say a surveillance. And it will track everywhere
you go, every turn you’ve made and so forth. Because there are many
times in a surveillance… where you can’t remember when he left. I
know he went up Interstate 35, but what exit did he take? I think I
wrote that one down, but then when he got in that subdivision, he
turned left, then he turned right, then he went straight, then he turned
left again. And then he stopped at this house, pulled up in the
driveway, walked out, went inside the house and came right back out
within 30 seconds or something, got in, cranked the engine, and off he
went. What was the address? In such an example, we were trying to
set up ‘cause we thought maybe he was gonna stay there for a while.
All you’ve got to do is when you pass by the front of that house, push
the button again and it marks that location. And when you get through,
if you can’t remember, it’ll play back turn-by-turn-by-turn for you on
the computer.

This final example not only describes the use of a technology in the prosaics of

surveillance, which can produce better results, and therefore a better reputation and

more clients, but it begins to suggest how data is obtained and translated into an

investigative report—the preeminent commodity of the investigative profession.

 201

Producing the Report

There is perhaps no object more important to the field of private investigations

than the report. This is the product that investigators transact with clients, who use the

information as evidence to support their personal decisions or case strategies. At the

conclusion of an investigation, the investigator hands off the report to the client. So long

as all financial obligations have been met, the report is disentangled from the

investigator—meaning it is transformed into a commodity as the process of its

production is alienated—and transferred as the property of the client. As Brown (2007)

notes,

a private investigator's clients only see the written or photographic

results of our work. They don't see the gallons of sweat on the floor of
your car after a hot afternoon surveillance [this explains why private
investigators’ cars smell like sour milk]. They don't feel the fear of a
near collision on the freeway when your subject exits suddenly and
you jump three lanes of traffic to stay behind him. To them, your
product is your report. That's all they see—that and any evidence you
collect. (p. 40)

Given this description, it is clear that the report is a commodity. When it is transferred

from the private investigator to the client, the means of its production are detached.

Commoditization of the report is important to creating a marketplace transaction: “to

construct a market transaction, that is to say, to transform something into a commodity,

and two agents into a seller and a consumer, it is necessary to cut the ties between the

thing and the other objects or human beings…. It must be decontextualized,

disassociated and detached” (Callon, 1998, p. 19). Although the report will retain certain

distinguishing elements of the subject who produces it, it becomes an objective

document—in the sense that it is an object and that it allegedly provides a non-biased

account—when it is detached from the investigator.

When the report is “handed off” to a client, it moves into other institutional fields

and informs and affects other institutionalized practices. For example, an attorney may
 202

decide to settle a case rather than go to court based on the outcome of an investigation

or a husband and wife may divorce. A report is a commodity and it influences other

institutional fields, so it can be said to have a social life of its own. In this section, I

describe the process of its production and illuminate how it likely influences private

investigators’ practices. Investigators direct their investigative practices toward its

creation, so as a “projection” of a present perfect construction, it can be said to direct

practices in the present (Schutz, 1967). I will also describe how the report, once

produced, continues to influence actors by tracing its ongoing potential impact in other

fields. I will emphasize that understanding the process of its production could improve

training of private investigators and support the creation of a standardized protocol that

would be regulated by a professional association. This is an insight that S-4 provided

when he compared private investigating to other professions: “part of what makes

accountants and lawyers appear to others as highly professional is that they have

standardized procedures and reporting standards.”

The process of report creation can be simplified into three critical moments:

observing, reflecting, and reporting. Of course, these processes often occur

simultaneously. My objective in this section is to describe how the report is produced

during each of these stages and to capture the hermeneutic and rhetorical practices

used in its creation. While pretexting activities are creative rhetorical tactics, they are

possible only because social contemporaries operate within a culturally-situated and

context-specific “natural attitude.” The taken-for-granted practices of the moral order are,

therefore, sources of opportunity for private investigators. While the opportunity for doing

private investigative work—especially covert work—is made possible by others’

mundane practices, the entrepreneur-investigator enacts opportunity by translating

others’ everyday activities into evidence, which is accounted for in a report. This process
 203

can be said to be hermeneutical and rhetorical because as investigators observe, reflect,

and report, they are selecting in and selecting out details specific to a case.

Observing

According to Schutz (1967), “to the natural man all his past experiences are

present as ordered, as knowledge or as awareness of what to expect, just as the whole

external world is present to him as ordered. Ordinarily, and unless he is forced to solve a

special kind of problem, he does not ask questions about how this ordered world was

constituted” (p. 81). The private investigator no doubt benefits from the unreflexive

assumptions that his or her contemporaries have about their everyday affairs. As people

move about the world in a “natural attitude,” private investigators can work unimpeded

with the assurance that most people will not be too suspicious of their presence,

especially in public spaces. Simply put, people enter a mall and see all others as

shoppers, unless provoked to see them differently. Part of a field investigator’s task is to

act natural and assume people are not paying any attention to their surroundings.

An individual resting at a nearby bench is not typically going to be seen as a

cheater, fraudster, or criminal. While some individuals may harbor certain prejudices

about certain people, most do not assume the worst. Thus, the woman or man holding

hands while window shopping at a clothing store will not appear to others as being

engaged in some form of relationship infidelity. Similarly, people do not see others as

private investigators. This is why, despite the risks, many targets openly engage in

relationship practices (e.g., holding hands) while walking between shops. This could also

explain why so many targets end up at malls and other public spaces (a few suburbs

away from home, of course). The private investigator is primed by the client to observe

the targets’ practices within an interpretive frame not held by others. Consequently, there

is an increased risk that an investigator can falsely interpret some behaviors in order to

make them fit the frame.

 204

Private investigators explained that targets of domestic cheating cases usually

spend the majority of their time doing things in public spaces. While this may seem odd,

it makes sense when understood in terms of what constitutes a “good relationship.”

People do not cheat solely for sexual gratification, but for emotional reasons as well. To

obtain more emotional gratification, and to maintain the relationship, couples have to

follow typical interpersonal interactions and do things in public settings. 22 Simply

rendezvousing at a hotel is not likely to have the same payoff as a date. The more public

a relationship, the more legitimate it appears to others. But the more natural the

relationship feels to the targets of an investigation, the more likely they will be exposing

themselves to the gaze of a private investigator. Similarly, the individual faking an injury

for insurance fraud will be inconvenienced by the deceptive performance of injury.

Consequently, such individuals will likely fall back into their “natural” performances,

opening a window to be exposed as frauds. As I shadowed S-5 surveying a target, he

mentioned that just a few days prior to my arrival the target under investigation “had

hobbled into a large home repair center, and despite a claim that he could not lift

anything or bend over, managed to go around the store taking items off the shelves. He

also dropped an item and picked it up.” All of this was captured on the investigator’s

iPhone camera.

In today's technology-infused society, machines and computers have become

highly sophisticated tools for capturing mundane, taken-for-granted practices. Equipment

such as a car’s black box captures the natural interactions between an individual and

parts of the car (e.g., brake pedal) and a cell phone captures communication patterns. It

has now become common for people to drive or operate vehicles while talking on cell

phones or text messaging. If an auto accident or workplace-related death occurs (say

22
This is especially the case if the “cheater” is deceptively presenting himself or herself
as single to the beau or mistress.
 205

when a forklift operator backs over a co-worker), phone records can indicate whether the

operator was using a cell phone at the time of the accident. In many circumstances,

these details would be obtained from witness interviews and police reports; however,

some new automobiles and most long-haul trucks have been fitted with black boxes and

navigational systems. These units capture the most mundane of user activities, such as

steering, speed, brake patterns, and travel patterns. This information is used for a variety

of reasons, including trucking companies’ surveillance of their drivers and target-content

marketing. In auto accidents, these devices are now often used to gather vital

information regarding the culpability of drivers. In conjunction with the satellite data

provided by GPS navigational devices and cell phones, it is now possible for private

investigators to triangulate data as a means of interpreting the cause of an accident.

At a greater frequency, insurance companies often request that this type of

information be part of the investigative report, particularly in negligence cases. Private

eyes noted that they are now interested in learning how to gather and interpret data from

these types of devices. In this sense, many investigations now take place within virtual

spaces. S-2 (I-15) described the importance of these types of investigations:

One case that we had going on involved our client trying to show fault
that the truck driver that killed their daughter crossed the center line.
Interviews of the truck driver and witnesses [suggested] she was that
she was in his lane. But we were able to get the data black box from
her vehicle and the trucking company. And with the witness testimony
that she was in a passing lane and was not speeding, we know she
was trying to [legally] pass and she had a consistent speed of 63
miles per hour 5 seconds prior to impact and she does a hard break.
At 1 second she is at 17 miles per hour. The truck driver, however,
was 63 at 4 seconds, 63 at 3 seconds, 62.5 mph at 1 second and then
a hard brake showed he reduced his speed to 47 mph. While he is not
totally at fault, we could show ‘negligent retention’—he didn't take the
proper action to slow his rig down. We took this information in the
report back to attorney; he was wowed.

I-03 provided a similar example. He described how he used photographs

provided by the police department to conclude that his client’s son was not at
 206

fault for an improper lane change that caused an accident, but instead was the

unfortunate victim of an over-inflated tire. He was able to deduce this from the

“orange v-shape pattern on what appeared to be a blown-out tire.” As he

concluded, the orange was rust from the air compressor and the pattern on the

tire was consistent with over inflation.

The black box records in the first example highlight the interaction between the

driver and the automobile. The photographs in the second example provide details that

account for the conditions that likely contributed to the accident. These data are used to

construct a plausible account about what likely occurred prior and during the accidents.

Interpretation is still required to make sense of what is presented in a report and in legal

proceedings. The reconstruction of information and its plausibility is directly tied to

people’s (namely clients’ and jurors’) understanding of the world within their own natural

attitude. The connection between one event and the next must be explained in a way

that appears reasonable to others. Thus, observing is not a passive activity. An

investigator must know what to look for and how to react to given information in situ,

which is based on a projection of others’ reasonable expectations. The projection of

possible interpretations will determine the direction (and stopping point) of the

investigation. The investigator will need to make many culturally-situated decisions

regarding the type and quantity of evidence.

Reflecting

It is often assumed that technology like black boxes and video provide bias-free

information. But private investigators know that this is not entirely correct. Private

investigators must decide which details are relevant and which ones need to be

supplemented with additional information. They must also decide where to point the

camera; and while video cameras may provide more detailed information and offer a

more accurate representation of a scene than eye-witness observations, cameras still

 207

“frame” activity. This means that many important contextual details of a particular scene

are often excluded. Even details inside the frame may be obscured by a camera due to

several factors including lighting, shadow contrast, user error, and intrusive objects. The

investigator must be constantly reflecting on all these issues while continuing the

investigative work. How the investigator reflects in situ and extemporaneously will affect

the interpretations and reporting of data. For example, S-5 described, that he had

followed a weekend daddy and girlfriend to a child’s birthday party.

The [weekend daddy’s] girlfriend comes out during the reception and
goes and sits in a car with a stranger. To me it just looks their sitting in
the car and talking, which seemed odd, but not a problem. It looked,
at the time, that they were drinking something, but nothing worth
noting. In reviewing the video, though, it is clear they are drinking out
of a square silver flask and chasing it down with coca-cola. If I didn't
have camera, I would have missed that.

While this example highlights how the video camera is able to catch details that

the investigator missed, it also highlights that because of the camera’s small design, he

was unable to see with clarity what was actually going on during the surveillance. Once

the image was displayed on his 32-inch television, he was able to see more clearly. The

camera restricted what he was able to see in the field. Had he reflected in situ on the

equipments limitations, he may have taken a moment to look through binoculars.

S-5 noted that he had missed an opportunity to reposition his vehicle closer to

the target’s girlfriend’s vehicle or to attach his telephoto lens in order to gain a clearer

image of the silver flask. While S-5 indicated that “an investigator could never say for

certain that it was alcohol in the flask, the client, the judge, and whoever else who will

watch the video will assume that it is.” Why would two people sit in a car during a child’s

birthday party? Who drinks non-alcoholic beverages from a flask? What do we typically

chase with soft drinks? The answers to these questions tend to lead to a particular

conclusion. However, S-5 did not get video that would make it obvious it was a silver

flask. As he noted, the image itself would be called into question. “Is it really a silver
 208

flask?” In this case, the weekend daddy was not observed to be drinking. However, the

girlfriend’s actions could indicate that the child is exposed to unsuitable people. As S-5

noted, he “missed an opportunity.”

In other instances, the investigator must also reflect on how data could

incorrectly portray a target. While the data is hopefully going to make a client’s case,

investigators fear providing information to clients that is incorrect or could be wrongfully

used against someone. They were most concerned about domestic cases where

emotions run high and violence is possible, insurance cases where someone’s finances

are at stake, and criminal cases where a person’s freedom could be compromised.

Quality private investigators understand that they may deceive themselves in their

observations or that a camera may select out important details. In a hypothetical case,

but one that is similar to one I’ve experienced, an investigator could be following a

husband for an overly jealous wife. Perhaps the husband has been acting curiously for

some time, but he is not cheating. The investigator may follow the husband after work for

a few days and conclude nothing is going on. But then one day the husband suddenly

goes to the mall, though he said he was going to be at a meeting. The investigator is

immediately clued in that something is amiss.

The target meets a female at a jewelry store. Together they look at various

diamond necklaces. At one point, the woman puts on the necklace and the target leans

in to take a closer look. The investigator, hoping to get a good photograph, looks down

to grab his camera. In those few seconds, the incident is over and the investigator is left

wondering what happened. Did the target kiss the woman or make any other intimate

contact with her? While this situation may seem peculiar, it does not prove infidelity.

Fortunately for this investigator, she constrains her imagination. In fact, the more the

investigator observes the situation, the more she begins to see signs that this seems

more like a business transaction. At the conclusion of the interaction, the target
 209

purchases the necklace and the two depart with a handshake. The astute investigator

will reflect on this situation and conclude more information is needed. The investigator

will most likely choose to follow the woman, get her license plate number, and conduct a

background check.

In this hypothetical situation, the investigation into the female reveals that she is

a fashion consultant and the husband was selecting a high quality diamond necklace for

his wife. Of course, the investigator would need to decide when to divulge information to

the client. A jealous wife may overreact and ruin an investigation. Giving information to

an emotional client could also have adverse consequence for his or her relationship. If

the husband is scorned before presenting the gift, all his work will lose its romantic

appeal. Regardless of the outcome—whether positive or negative—investigators

expressed concern that clients will blame them. Consequently, investigators must

always engage in an intensive process of reflection while in the field, as they interpret

field data, and as they share it.

Just as the video camera frames situations, so does the investigator when taking

notes. An investigator can easily mistake a meeting at a jewelry store as a romantic

rendezvous or a dark glass bottle of root beer for an alcoholic beer. As I will show, these

issues are addressed in the writing style of reports (e.g., Appendix D). While private

eyes try to maintain a reflexive stance, it is impossible to account for every detail in a

scene when taking notes. They frame situations and filter information based on the

assumed “in-order-to motives” of the target, which are supplied by the client. Schutz

(1967) suggest that “interpreting the actor's 'motive' as his expectations, we can say that

the motivational context is by definition the meaning-context within which a particular

action stands in virtue of its status as the project of an act for a given actor. In other

words, the act thus projected in the future perfect tense and in terms of which the action

receives its orientation is the 'in-order-to motive'... for the actor” (p. 88). Schutz describes
 210

this process as one of placing a call. An actor dials a number on a telephone in order to

reach a friend. The actor doing the activity and the observer of the activity are always

understood within the meaning context of the present future tense, as something that will

have been completed. When a target and mistress or beau meet in a mall, others will be

interpreting their behaviors based on the assumption that they are there in-order-to find

good bargains and pass time (for example). The target and his or her accomplice may

actually be “just shopping,” but the expected in-order-to motives of cheating “frames”

what details the investigator will account for in a final report.

An investigator must, therefore, decide just what to include and exclude as

pertinent details and whether his subjectivity is influencing the interpretation of target’s

activities. A private investigator may, for example, observe a couple walking through the

mall holding hands, but will likely not write this down if he or she is conducting an

investigation into insurance fraud. The investigator may simply note “walked through

mall with woman identified as [girlfriend’s name]. At approximately 1645 hours, [target’s

name] bent over to pick up dollar bill in front of Neiman Marcus.” On the other hand, if

the target is being followed in an infidelity case, the investigator may provide more

details regarding the activities of the couple but omit details regarding the money.

Because the moments are fleeting and details will be lost over time, the investigator

must constantly be reflecting on what is important to note and what is not. Too much

attention to unnecessary details and inattention to important ones may lead to faulty

conclusions. Similarly, the incorrect understanding or the over-application of the “in-

order-to-motives” will reduce the private investigator’s objectivity and lead to problematic

conclusions. Private eyes who account and interpret contextual clues effectively will

likely be more successful investigators and, therefore, retain business.

 211

Reporting

Private investigators’ entrepreneurial opportunities, as I have described, emerge

from everyday interactions, institutionalized beliefs, and the everyday objects that they

and others use. While most of their practices are billable, they would not be so if there

was no way to detach themselves from these activities. This is why the report is one of

the most important inventions. The report provides processed information in an

accessible manner and it frees clients from having to be engaged in the process of its

production, notably so they have more time to engage in their own sets of practices

(e.g., “attorneying”).

The report enables private eyes to provide clients with “deliverables,” which

include photographs, testimony, notes, and so on. Participants in this study noted that

providing clients with all the data collected during an investigation would not only be

messy, but overwhelming to clients. Clients want a tidy report, often in the form of a

narrative. As I-22 noted, “We do narrative [reports]. I have never found a pre-printed

report that would have exactly what we need. … I’ve never had a law firm that wanted

bullet points. They’ve always said ‘narrative type report. Tell us. Throw in some photos.’

We try to insert photos into our reports. You know, if something was going on, here’s

what was taking place.” 23

23
S-4 indicated that he thinks clients want narrative reports simply for their
entertainment: “People want me to give them a story, they want to be entertained. I had
an attorney who says, ‘Come on, man, give me more meat.’ And I said, ‘What are you
talking about?’ ‘Well, you know, you gave me meat, but you need more substance.’ And
I’m like, ‘Okay, explain to me.’ ‘Okay let me, like your report. Uh, here you said, on such
date you observed a female and you described the female. But your description of the
female was ‘long hair, so-so, dressed like this.’ I don’t care about that. I want to know
how she looked. On such date, I traveled to such location and during my surveillance I
noticed a female who looked frazzled. And her hair was in a ponytail and she looked
sweaty, and she looked like she had come out of a…. You see what I’m getting at?’ And
I said ‘Yeah, I see what you mean. You want me to write you a book.’ ‘Yeah, exactly,
man… I want somebody to tell me a story that I can say ‘Hey man, I’ve got an
investigator, he’ll tell you the prettiest story there is.’” Since there is no standardized
 212

Investigators are, just as I have described academic shadowers, accountants of

the social. Private investigators are paid for their ability to translate a field investigation

into a coherent and usable document. As much as private investigators are being paid to

investigate, they are also being paid for the reduction in uncertainty that comes with the

process of doing an investigation. For any client in general, but for professional and

business clients in particular, the information presented in a report—a reduction of a lot

of details and practices—is what is useful. Clients do not want to do the work required to

produce a report because it distracts from their own professional practices and it may

not appear to be “objective,” which adds an appearance of legitimacy.

The expectations of the client and future readers (e.g., a judge or juror) are partly

determined by institutional beliefs about what a quality report ought to look like and what

it ought to include. The use of a language of approximation and objectivity, specific

details without sounding overly specific in tone (e.g., using the trope “it appeared

that…”), military times, and wording that demonstrate due diligence (e.g., providing

license plate numbers to highlight identity), are just some of the things that seem to be

what investigators consider legitimacy-building techniques (see appendix D—an outtake

of a report). That the reports are written in such a nuanced way demonstrates that from

the commencement of an investigation to its end, the report is always projected as a

rhetorically constructed document. The projection of what should be included in the

report provides the intention of private eyes and determines the types of practices and

interpretations that the private investigator will make. The report, in this way, is always

already completed before any investigation has begun. It frames the overall

investigation. Producing a standardized procedure and format for reports, that would be

recommended and regulated by state or national associations, could help reduce some

reporting style, all reports look different; however, all the investigators indicated or
showed me reports with the same type of story-like narrative.
 213

of the uncertainties that come with report writing and could further legitimate the

profession.

Reports are currently undergoing a metamorphosis. Some of the older

investigators still rely primarily on providing a written account and supplementing this

with a video on a DVD, but some (newer) investigators are changing the content of the

report itself by supplementing written content with embedded video. I-03 noted, “We’re

doing things much differently now. For example, if you get a report from me typically

they’re emailed and put in a database. I embed my video files and embed my audio files.

I’m way ahead of the curve” (I-03). As I-03 hints, clients are starting to expect more from

the report itself. Clients don’t want to have to watch a television as they read the report,

but to just click a button and watch the video within the report itself. This changes the

types of skills and knowledge required for investigators to produce a report. But whether

or not an investigator embeds the videos and audio directly into the document, or sends

them as supplemental materials on a DVD or CD-ROM, it is expected that the account

will be written in a professional and objective tone.

Writing a professional report that appears objective and still satisfies the client is

a skill and an art. An agency owner who can do this well is likely to be retained in the

future. In private investigations, practiced writing is an important part of the

entrepreneurial process. For an investigator, the report is many things at once—a

marketing device, a piece of forensic evidence, and a justification for time billed. What

the investigator decides to include or exclude is largely based on these concerns. For

the client, the report provides information regarding a course of action to take once the

information is in his or her possession. The information the investigator includes will

open and close pathways for the client.

Attorneys do not typically present the investigator’s report in trial, but use the

information within the report to create their own accounts. I-16 said that he typically
 214

takes photographs of scenes of accidents or video records light sequences at

intersections. Attorneys pass along the report to an accident reconstructionist, “who

feeds the data [the private investigator] collected into a computer and recreates the

accident.” Thus, the report is translated into a video image, which is further transformed

into forensic rhetoric. A proliferation of YouTube video shows how animated recreation

of accidents is becoming popular. One example, that involving a motorcycle and heavy

truck, is a good example of this (see http://tinyurl.com/yeb2vbn). This example illustrates

how an attorney uses information obtained from an investigation. In such a case, the

investigator would gather witness statements from the police report, interview the truck

driver and the motorcyclist (if possible), and obtain pictures and measurements from the

scene of the accident. To provide accurate depictions, the investigator would take video

and photographs from the truck driver’s and motorcyclist’s points of view. As the video

demonstrates, by translating parts of the investigative report into a presentation aid,

evidence can be connected visually to specific violations of law.

In some cases, when it would not serve the interests of the client, the decision to

not create an animation is a wise rhetorical choice. Since all work obtained by a private

investigator is considered “attorney work product,” any information obtained by a private

investigator is not discoverable and therefore need not be presented to the opposing

counsel. If the client is an individual, private investigators typically suggest that the client

hire an attorney so that the report can be sent to an attorney first. A cover letter is

included, which indicates that all documents are “notes to file.” If the report is written and

addressed to the client directly, then any information obtained during the investigation

becomes discoverable and can be used against the client. As I-24 noted, “Clients

sometimes put the cart before the horse. It’s advisable that they always be coached to

retain an attorney either before the investigation begins or immediately after it ends.

Sometimes what we find does not benefit the client.”

 215

Given that such reenactments can easily transport people to the scene of an

accident and evoke emotions, it should not be surprising that more investigative work is

directed toward the production of reports with information that can be used to create

animations. Five of the investigators I interviewed indicated that they have connections

with people who can do accident reconstruction and animation. I-20 is an investigator

who specializes in accident and crime scene reconstruction. Because of crime scene

investigation television shows, there is a perception among attorneys and investigators

that jurors now expect to be exposed to creative and sometimes graphic recreations of

accidents and crime scenes. In regard to this matter, private investigators are adapting

their reporting and investigative techniques to better serve clients’ interests. Those who

do not adapt their investigative and reporting styles toward digital and visual

reenactment will likely find it increasingly more difficult to get work from attorneys and

insurance companies.

At the TALI Midwinter Conference, Frank Branson, a high powered attorney,

explained to investigators how he uses dramatic video reenactments “to equal the

stakes” for his clients against large companies. In particular, many of his clients are

those who file suit against trucking companies for negligent injury and homicide. During

his presentation, he showed a video reenactment of a trucking accident that was

produced by a professional film crew and Hollywood stunt artists. This “short movie”

showed the drivers being denied access to one of the company’s repair centers and

then, despite problems with one of the truck’s axils, continuing to their delivery point.

With an improperly maintained truck, violation of laws requiring rest, and in rainy

conditions, the truck drivers lost control of the truck and smashed head on into an

approaching vehicle. This accident was recreated by the stunt team, complete with an

explosion. At the conclusion of the video, an ambulance crew attends to the injured

victims. This dramatic reenactment highlights how reporting is still undergoing changes
 216

due to environmental and institutional influences. While Branson could just narrate this

story verbally, it is much more impressive to show them visually. It is a slow and

expensive process to adapt to these technological changes, but those private eyes who

do so will likely have an increased chance of business survival.

What this section has highlighted is that the investigative report, as the primary

commodity of the profession, continues to direct investigative practices as the telos of

any investigation. Once detached from an investigator it moves into other fields of

practices. Because the report is often written in narrative form, but always with

descriptive accounts, it plays a small, but still important role in (re)producing institutional

orders by legitimating or critiquing practices. If the report ever looses this important role

in maintaining social order, whether for legal or commercial purposes, the need for

billable private investigator practices—which include observing, reflecting, and

reporting—will become unnecessary.

Conclusion

As highlighted in chapter 3, until recently most discussion of entrepreneurship

focused on entrepreneurs and their opportunities rather than on objects and their

constitutive role in the production of opportunities. Where entrepreneurship researchers

do focus on opportunities as the object of study, they tend to conceptualize opportunity

as something unique, new, or under exploited rather than something prosaic or

marginally improved (Seymour, 2006). In short, “the entrepreneurship literature often

views entrepreneurial opportunities as resource recombinations that result in new

products or services” (Shane, 2003, p. 33). Shane identifies five forms of opportunity

typical in the literature: “new products and services, new geographical markets, new raw

materials, new methods of production, and new ways of organizing” (pp. 33-34).

From a prosaic point of view, the descriptions in this chapter highlight that

opportunities may emerge not as resource recombinations but from the ongoing
 217

combination of resources. Clients expect a particular style of report and private eyes will

continue to profit from reproducing it in line with expectations. The report itself is a

product of having observed everyday legitimized practices of others. The opportunity

private eyes “discover” is far from “radical or new,” it is an outcome of institutionalized

practices. Without significant rhetorical and hermeneutical effort, private eyes’

opportunities could not exist.

As new technologies have emerged, investigators are changing the style of their

reporting. This incremental change may or may not have a major impact on the overall

field. An entrepreneurship researcher in the future may recognize the advent of

computerized reporting as a major opportunity that was “exploited” by some. But this

only highlights the limitation of historical studies. Change is happening in the field now,

but it is much too incremental to be immediately noticeable. A conclusion that can be

drawn from chapters 4 and 5 is that the a-contextual and a-historical definitions of

“opportunity” may reproduce a story of heroic opportunity discovery that is false.

Opportunities do not necessarily arise “as a response” to the value chain. They

exist because agency owners continually impress upon other actors that each step of

the process in which they are involved is valuable. Given the heroic narrative of

entrepreneurship described in chapter 3, entrepreneurship scholars may be resistant to

accepting that a subtle change in how one uses a GPS unit is part of the process of

enacting opportunities or can be a threat. But as I have shown in chapters 4 and 5, such

everyday interactions between the entrepreneur and other subjects and objects make

valuation of services and products possible. The relationship between an investigator

and his or her GPS unit could result in increased investigative success, or it can lead to

everyday failures that impact future business. If agency owners use GPS units

successfully, this technology will be a constituent in their success stories. If investigators

use equipment in ways that undermine success, it may play a role in their companies’
 218

failure. It is these types of everyday successes and failures that add up over time. A

company that is successful may not have succeeded through innovation, but by simply

paying attention to prosaic details.

 219

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION

This descriptive project, located within the “new movements” approaches to

entrepreneurship (see Hjorth & Steyaert, 2004; Steyaert & Hjorth, 2003, 2006), focused

primarily on the prosaic and social dimensions of entrepreneuring within the field of

practices referred to as private investigating. While challenging the neo-classical image

of homo economicus and opportunity discovery, I attempted to follow Latour’s (2005)

advice by describing what private eyes do and how they do it rather than explaining what

these practices mean in relation to academic theory or other social phenomena. I know,

however, that descriptive projects can often be unsatisfying. When I read realist

ethnographies, I am often left thinking “so what?” So that I do not leave readers

unsatisfied, I hope to address this question in this chapter. I will contend that the field of

private investigators should work toward greater professionalization. I will also offer

some directions for future research. I conclude with one additional account from the field,

which I hope inspires a continued hope in private enterprise.

Given the common popular and academic accounts of heroic entrepreneurship,

which tend to focus on esoteric entrepreneurs, risk taking, and innovations as

opportunity, I suspect some readers could question whether my themes and examples

were descriptions of entrepreneurship at all. What does using a GPS unit have to do with

entrepreneurship? How does an account of how one uses an iPhone matter? Why so

much attention to language? Why describe strategic uses of gender or ethnicity? While

not a fully satisfying answer to these questions, I would highlight that one cannot be an

entrepreneur or “discover” opportunities without engaging with the larger social world he

or she inhabits. In other words, entrepreneurship is as much of a communicative

phenomenon as it is an economic one. The Greeks seemed to understand this: the

marketplace, or agora, was a place to exchange ideas and goods. Even in neo-classical
 220

economics, where research focuses on competitiveness, there must be some

collaboration. One cannot “outwit the competition,” as a common expression goes,

without having tried out various communicative tactics of “outwitting.” To outwit implies a

communicative process.

As I noted throughout this document, to catch entrepreneurship “as it happens”

(Brundin, 2007), researchers must pay attention to the everyday practices of

entrepreneuring subjects as well as take account of stories and objects. Entrepreneurial

opportunities aren’t “discovered” overnight; they are enacted over time in the most

mundane of circumstances. Entrepreneurs do not succeed by focusing on just one

strategy or operating in isolation; they attain the status of entrepreneurial heroes only

after they have become accomplished. But many of their contemporaries, even those

who have “failed,” were important to their success. Without others working to constitute

the field in which some entrepreneurs succeed, there would have been few opportunities

for the successful ones to discover. Vidocq and Pinkerton may have been notable, but

they did not solely make the field of private investigations. This study repositions the

entrepreneuring private eye as a much more social being—entrepreneurial and private

investigative practices are learned socially, opportunities are enacted socially, and their

outputs, both positive and negative, are redistributed socially.

This project has shown that agency owners engage in numerous practices

simultaneously. In particular, they use rhetorical and tactical strategies to, among other

things, 1) continually obtain and retain clients; 2) adapt to exigent circumstances; 3)

coordinate employees/contractors; 4) accomplish the objectives of their fieldwork; 5)

produce marketing materials; 6) participate in their professional associations; 7)

participate in dialogue with other practitioners in an attempt to establish an ethics; 8)

lobby for legislative changes; 9) balance their business life with their personal and family

life; and 10) maintain their financial books. All of these activities require communicative
 221

labor, and are best understood through lengthy field immersion and qualitative writing.

The examples that I have provided demonstrate how contemporary private investigators

of this study continue to be successful—at least in the sense that their everyday

practices are reproducing their professional field of practices and they are still in

business. In time, some of those who I interviewed or shadowed may fail to stay in

business. As I have described, their failure could be the result of failed communication in

various everyday situations as much as an unforeseen environmental threat.

The various themes I have provided account for just some of the practices that,

in aggregate, produce the field of private investigations. This field of practices has

specific equipment, clients, targets, and reports. The subjects and objects that I have

described matter to private investigators and are constitutive of the everyday practices

that produce (profit) opportunities. I obviously could not account for all practices that are

constitutive of the field. The accounts that I did provide will hopefully be informative to

future studies and research. When the field of private investigations has undergone

consolidation, decline, or expansion, some of the accounts in this study will inform future

researchers’ interpretations of why some investigators succeeded where others have

failed.

This study has, at the very least, provided details that will give readers a better

appreciation of private eyes as creative business people, whose craft is always

contingent on others’ institutionalized beliefs and practices. The detailed accounts herein

will hopefully work to counter some of the more seedy narratives. Through this project,

readers should have a more nuanced appreciation of entrepreneuring and private

investigating—two entwined practices that are important to maintaining social order.

Professionalization

While I was shadowing S-4, he interviewed a witness for a mortgage fraud case

in a Denny’s restaurant. S-4 asked his interviewee (hereafter referred to as “target”) to

 222

provide his occupation. The target noted that he was in “private security.” This led to a

conversation regarding whether the target had an agency license or was sponsored by a

company. The target indicated that he had a private security agency license (i.e., a

Texas class B license). The target had only recently obtained his license. He had been

unemployed for over a year, “[he] couldn’t wait for a company to give [him] work, [he]

had to create work.” The target qualified for a license because he had been a computer

security specialist. He became an entrepreneur out of necessity, which is not an

uncommon reason (see Shane, 2008).

During their conversation, S-4 and the target discussed the treatment of the

profession by the state. Both laughed about their identification cards, which are small

pieces of paper with self-applied mug shots. Although private investigators are not

supposed to laminate their identification cards, S-4 did “so [he] could look more

‘professional.’” The interviewee joined in the criticism: “to look more professional I carry

this.” He then pulled from under his shirt a chain with a star-shaped badge engraved

“security.” In Texas, the issuance of more professional-looking identification should not

be too difficult. The Texas Department of Public Safety (TDPS) houses both the Private

Security Bureau (PSB) and the Driver License Division.

S-4 believes the appearance of legitimacy can be partly facilitated by something

as simple as the state regulatory agency providing more professional-appearing

identification cards. Appearing legitimate is important to investigators, who must push

back against the negative popular narratives of the profession. More importantly,

legitimacy gives private investigators credibility and buffers them against everyday

environmental threats. While showing me his identification card, S-4 noted that “one time

a police officer rolled up on me while I was doing surveillance and asked for my

identification. I showed him my private investigations license and he laughed, claiming

that it could not be real. This is why I decided to laminate it. While he was verifying my
 223

identity, the target left.” From my own experience in the field, I can verify this claim.

When people questioned my presence in their neighborhoods they rarely accept my

flimsy identification card. These types of distractions, especially during surveillances,

increase the risk of an investigator’s “cover being blown” or important details being

missed. A client will not care how an investigation failed.

Texas Association of Licensed Investigators (TALI) has taken seriously the

importance of professionalization. It was the goal of professionalization that led several

private investigators to form TALI in 1971. The association has taken several steps to

increase not only its own legitimacy, but that of the overall field. For example, it has

created the Texas Certified Investigator (TCI), which requires that the investigator pass

an examination that is deigned to supposedly identify the best members among their

group. 1 TALI members constantly lobby the state legislature proactively (i.e., pushing for

a bill requiring computer forensic examiners to have an investigator’s license) and

reactively (i.e., trying to kill legislation that restricts access to information). TALI also

keeps its members updated about legislative changes that affect the field and offers

specialized training classes to improve the skill- and knowledge-base of its members.

Perhaps one of the most lucid examples of trying to improve the field’s reputation,

increase legitimacy, and maintain professionalism, was TALI’s push for more self-

imposed regulation. As I-09, a former president of TALI explained,

We [TALI and its lobbyist] got a law enacted by simply working with
our board [at TDPS]. What it did was it raised our rates [paid to the
state on an annual basis]. We got together with the Security Guard
Association and we said, ‘We want them to raise our own rates. But
the raise needs to go strictly to TDPS, not in the general fund.’ And it
was millions of dollars [in additional fees raised]. And with that money,
TDPS was able to get 27investigators to work for the Private Security
Bureau. And the director [of TDPS] at first thought nobody was going
to want this job—moving from a professional highway patrolman or a
criminal investigator—to regulating [security guards and private

1
This is something that has been criticized by some TALI members; they think that it is
cliquish.
 224

investigators]. He said, ‘who would want that job?’ Well let’s see, it’s
plain clothes, you get a car, and it’s eight to five Monday through
Friday. So, about 200 troopers applied for these jobs. Actually, it was
27 investigators and four supervisors. So now, the first guy they made
a case on for violating the law was a security guard from Nicaragua,
illegally in uniform carrying a gun. Guess where the Security
Company put him? In the lobby of the INS building in Houston. Is that
bold or what? That was their first case. So now, it costs us more [for a
license], but look at the benefits. I pay $350 a year for my license, I
pay about $1000 a year for my insurance, I pay sales tax—that’s part
of my overhead. To compete with someone who doesn’t pay for a
license, who doesn’t have insurance, who doesn’t pay sales tax, and
will go out and work for half the hourly rate that I would, so not only
does it help regulate us, it helps to protect my business. It was good
business sense.

This example highlights how sound government regulation can improve the field and

protect those who operate legally. While there is some discontent with state regulatory

bodies and associations, as I described in chapter 4, these criticisms, juxtaposed with

the above positive example, highlight how maintaining associations and regulating a

profession are ongoing tasks that require effort and care. To keep its members satisfied,

association leaders should engage in deliberative rhetoric through public relations

campaigns and legislative lobbying. This not only benefits the organization by increasing

membership, but helps agencies by buffering them from environmental threats.

While some state and national associations have been attempting to improve the

profession, there has yet to be a strong push to engage more specifically in public

relations campaigns to highlight the importance of this profession to citizens,

businesses, and consumers. State associations have not yet integrated into one national

body or lobbied to impose certification or testing standards. Some associations already

give examinations, though they have not become socially or legally legitimized. For

example, the National Association of Legal Investigators (NALI) created the Certified

Legal Investigator (CLI) program in 1978, TALI offers the TCI, and the Association of

Certified Fraud Examiners created its own Certified Fraud Examiner (CFE) procedures.

However, these organizations have not yet been able to give these exams and
 225

certifications the sort of prestige and legitimacy that Certified Public Accountants (CPA)

have. CPAs adhere to strict professional guidelines set by the American Institute of

Certified Public Accountants (AICPA). By having states adopt and legally codify its

standards, the AICPA has not only increased the legitimacy of the profession, but they

have increased the barriers to entry. Another example is the American Bar Association,

which is a voluntary association that sets the standards for law schools and undergoes a

process of accrediting them. The association has formulated the model ethical codes

related to the legal profession, which have become the standards by which 49 states

regulate the profession.

The three current and former state association presidents I interviewed

complained that it is hard for them to professionalize and lobby because there is low

participation rate in state associations. But as I suggest to them, the 20% membership

rate of the American Medical Association certainly does not inhibit it from being an

important regulatory and lobbying powerhouse. I also noted that by not engaging in

strong information campaigns, much like the California Milk Advisory Board that informs

the public about the benefits of California milk and its “real California dairy families” (see

www.realcaliforniamilk.com), it is hard for investigators to see the immediate benefits of

association membership. A common complaint among interviewees was that their state

associations do not keep them informed about its ongoing work. I-07 was unaware that

the Missouri Association of Private Investigators (MAPI) existed, and she has been a

private investigator for 25 years.

While it may be true that the process of investigating cannot be standardized, no

profession can homogenize all of its practices. Accountants and lawyers have to deal

with a variety of contingencies and have different personal methods for addressing them.

What unites these professions are standardization of paperwork and reporting

procedures. I-17 made this point by noting that lawyers have a standard writing protocol
 226

for writing briefs, drafting contracts, and reporting to the court. As noted in chapter 5, the

investigative report is the perfect object to undergo standardization. In many ways, there

is already an informal code that has been passed along through normative pressures

(see DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). If reporting were made legitimate vis-à-vis the state, it

would lead to the public perception that the field has high standards. Without strong

regulatory standards and mechanisms for legitimating the field, it is not surprising that

most new regulations that restrict access to information do not often take into account

the private investigations industry.

Deliberate attempts to professionalize can have unintended consequences. For

example, it can alienate those who have been in the profession but suddenly lack the

necessary credentials to meet regulatory standards, or it may come to exclude particular

social groups based on “normative” ethical protocol, which often favors dominant social

groups. Lois A. Boynton (2002) explains this concern:

[P]rogress may be uneven across areas of ethical performance. Even

more importantly, the sheer existence of a code of ethics and related
documents may be used as ‘cover’ for lackluster performance in the
moral arena. For this reason, compounded by concern for the
negative aspects of bureaucratization, some groups with strong social
commitments actually fear the professionalization of their work. (as
cited in Cheney & Ashcraft, 2007, p. 152)

Most of the private eyes I interviewed harbored this concern.

Professionalization, however, can be a mechanism that creates cohesion within a

field of practices populated by a large number of small firms. It can also buffer sole-

proprietors from environmental threats. Professionalization is an activity in which “an

occupational group deploys its resources… [i.e., it’s assets] in its struggle for collective

social mobility” (Macdonald, 1995, p. 51). Without collective resource sharing,

entrepreneurs in professional fields made up of many sole-proprietors will have to

struggle individually to survive. Amidst immense competition and extemporaneous

pressures, especially those imposed by the state, they will find they have few remedies.
 227

In this sense, private investigator-entrepreneurs are likely better off when they stop

being “lone wolfs” (I-09) and work together to expand the reach of their field and

increase their social legitimacy. This claim is loosely supported by I.P. Popova (2006),

who in her study of the rich and poor classes in Russia, noted that both entrepreneurs

and professionals are in a higher socio-economic position than those who are not. Both

groups shared in common higher educational attainment and a broader array of skills in

general. In his analysis of entrepreneurship data, Shane (2008) found that “going to

school [including a professional or technical one] increases the odds that [someone will]

become an entrepreneur” (p. 47). Education, these authors highlight, is an important

constituent of financial success. Professions help improve and deliver industry-specific

knowledge vis-à-vis research and education. In short, there are economies of learning

that come with professional association. A proposition to draw from Popova and Shane

is that being an entrepreneur in a professionalized and regulated field likely improves the

chances for financial success.

By focusing on their prosaic practices, private investigators can work to improve

the profession. One way is to take seriously the implications of rhetoric. Private eyes

must take it upon themselves to work against the negative discursive themes in popular

culture. They should educate the public by speaking with and advertising to others the

importance of their work. Investigators can also learn from one another by discussing at

their association meetings strategies and tactics they use in everyday conversations to

counteract the negative image of the profession. For example, whenever someone

suggests to I-29 that she is a “hired gun,” she replies, “You are implying that I have a

profit motive to lie, but I also have a profit motive to not lie.” This is true. If she fabricates

reports, it is likely she will eventually be caught. This will not only discredit her reputation

and lead to lost business, but she may be reprimanded by the state and have her license

revoked. This simple rhetorical claim, among many others, can affect how others
 228

perceive the profession. Drawing from a finding of this study, agency owners should find

an alternative tactic to “planting suspicions.” Implying that other agencies are likely

engaged in illicit activities or will perform poorly perpetuates the troubling discourses

described in chapter 3. While this tactic may have short-term benefits, it can lead to an

overall perception that one should not generally trust private investigators.

Investigators should also think about how others perceive their practices and

equipment; or, in other words, how practices and objects function rhetorically. Meeting in

a messy car or office is not likely to give a potential client a positive impression. Several

of the investigators I interviewed had dirty offices and vehicles. I recognize that this is

the unpleasant result of working strange hours, often in a vehicle. Agency owners should

consider maintaining a clean environment part of their everyday practices. I-13, the most

financially successful of all those I interviewed, made a special point of this in a small

manual he wrote on the business of investigating: “the industry has always had to battle

preconceived reputations and having an office outside of the house helps project a more

professional image. …[I]n business, there is certain overhead that you simply cannot get

around. I have seen PI’s hold client meeting in coffee shops, which is definitely a no-no

in my book.” I-13 advocates the use of executive offices by the day if necessary, but

meeting in vehicle or in public spaces is not rhetorically good for the profession. As he

noted during our interview: “although other industries are going more to the home-office

concept, they typically don’t have to battle the negative perception that our industry is

trying to overcome.”

When shadowees dealt with a client regarding a domestic case, they always

asked the client to choose a convenient location for them. This is a good strategy, but

also opens up the possibility of meeting in the investigator’s vehicle. Sunflower seeds

spilled across the floor of a car would certainly make me reconsider hiring him or her, yet

this was exactly the state in which I found one the shadowee’s vehicles (who does meet
 229

potential clients in his/her car). In making the decision regarding where to meet a client,

or whether or not to rent an office, investigators should consider the financial costs and

also the rhetorical benefits of a professional image. The degree to which communication

strategies, especially rhetorical ones, impact an entrepreneur’s financial position is not

clear. To better understand and improve private investigating and entrepreneuring,

communication researchers would need to do more research to complement this

exploratory study.

Communication Studies and Entrepreneurship

In chapters 4 and 5, I described how communication plays a constitutive role in

the creation of entrepreneurial subjectivities and entrepreneurial opportunities.

Management and organizational studies scholars operating under the “new movement”

banner have already begun to explore the intersections among discourse, narrative, and

(prosaic) entrepreneurship. To date, however, research from within the communication

discipline of the United States has primarily focused on peripheral issues and anti-

Capitalist critique (e.g., entrepreneurship and masculine ideology or corporatization of

the public sphere). There has not yet been much research and theory building regarding

entrepreneurship as a communicative phenomenon.

There are many ways in which communication researchers in the United States

can become important contributors to the scholarly conversations regarding

entrepreneurship, especially for those interested in issues of democracy. Now that new

movement scholars have begun to resuscitate the meaning of entrepreneurship from its

impoverished neo-classical meanings, there is increasing need for studies that explore

entrepreneurship as a public—as contrasted with private—phenomenon. Steyaert and

Katz (2004) provide a nice argument for the necessity of this type of research,

The focus on the everydayness of entrepreneurship and the shift from

a view of an elitist group of entrepreneurs towards a more
encompassing, although anonymous, participation of all kind of
 230

citizens, has an inevitable political consequence, as it ultimately

concerns the democratic process through which people can become
integrated in the construction of society. If life as a daily creative
formation is enacted through entrepreneurship, chances are created
for and by people to make a difference towards their own situation. It
is here that the many new variations of entrepreneurship – social,
cultural, civic, ecological, etc. – can make a difference as the
entrepreneurial endeavours are about reconnecting and repositioning
certain groups of citizens (many times the so-called underprivileged
ones) in a society that becomes simultaneously transformed. It
becomes obvious… that entrepreneurship is far less a private activity
than an everyday tactic on the public scene. (p. 192)

As a socially constituted and regulated phenomenon, the policies that are established

and the rhetorical claims that actors make about entrepreneurship affect its meaning. As

Baumol (1990) notes, “how the entrepreneur acts at a given time and place depends

heavily on the rules of the game—the reward structure in the economy—that happen to

prevail” (p. 894). What the new movement approaches have already identified is that

entrepreneurs—both good and bad—are regulated by acceptable “sets of practices”

defined by community standards.

The role of the entrepreneur, as a participant in the agora—as a symbolic and

material, political and commercial space—does not have to be defined in profit-making

terms. No doubt private investigators enjoy profits, but they are much more concerned

with how others will view their “work products” as a principle of good investigating, how

they contribute to social order and, among other things, how they can provide valuable

services to citizens in need. Their work is both constitutive of and constituted by their

community’s ethos. By shifting to the prosaics of entrepreneurship and studying it as a

communicative phenomenon, scholars can better understand what communicative

strategies in general, but rhetorical ones in particular, might work best at rearticulating

entrepreneurship within an equality rather than enterprising discourse. When

“communities defin[e] entrepreneurship wherever they see efforts to improve processes,

 231

meet needs, and profit in even in small ways [they] will find themselves awash in

[positive] entrepreneurial activity” (Steyaert & Katz, 2004 p. 191).

One of the ways communication scholars can add to entrepreneurship studies is

to study the communication of politicians, entrepreneurs, venture capitalists, investors,

television pundits, and so on and to report on “framing strategies” that seem to work (or

not). Exploring both the potential interpretations, but also correlations between

persuasive claims and changes in political activity, may prove insightful. More

specifically, communication studies can contribute to entrepreneurship studies by

exploring entrepreneurial communication strategies in everyday interaction and studying

entrepreneurship education vis-à-vis communication pedagogy. Below are just a few

examples of the kinds of application of communication theory and research that can be

conducted in these two areas.

Entrepreneurial Communication

In this project, I combined interpretive shadowing and interviewing. As distinctly

intersubjective methodologies, these two approaches are inherently a study of language

and social interaction. The descriptions I provided in the ethnographic accounts were

produced through a communicative process. That I focused specifically on subjects that

could be called entrepreneurs, but also on entrepreneuring in situ, meant that I was

studying entrepreneurial communication. As I contended in chapter 2, interpretive

methods should not just be an instrument for studying a theory, but a method for

engaging in the very phenomenon of study. Through shadowing, I was able to see how

agency owners’ communication accounts but also what counts in the everydayness of

professional investigating as a business enterprise. While I provided descriptive

accounts, other communication scholars may want to go beyond a descriptive approach

and interpret the data more explicitly around a communication theory.

 232

While I tried to avoid theory building, this project was not absent theory. I

primarily used institutional theory to suggest that most of what I observed was taken-for-

granted by private investigators. While most of my accounts may appear as common

sense, especially to some investigators, they do provide points of clarification and have

provided participants with new ideas. For example, when I-22 asked, “Am I in the

minority or do others still use photographs?” (I-22), I could reply, “No, you are not.”

When I shared with others S-03’s language choices, I was met with thankful replies:

“Saying ‘it’s investment,’ now that’s a good strategy!” (I-17). I also applied hermeneutical

and constitutive rhetorical theory to suggest that private investigators create audiences

and publics. Closer examination of private investigators’ rhetorical artifacts and everyday

talk, from various rhetorical perspectives, will clarify how private investigators turn

everyday language and objects into opportunities.

Intercultural communication scholars can also study strategies of communication

between entrepreneurs and clients, venture capitalists, bankers, and other stakeholders

in international settings or where there are cultural differences. In a global economy, in a

world with ever-increasing diasporas, and in societies still overcoming the history of

slavery and colonization, exploring (mis)communication or discrimination among groups

in situated entrepreneurial contexts (e.g., business plan pitches) could provide strategies

for improved communication and policy changes. For example, understanding the

struggles of emigrant groups trying to start businesses may give scholar-advocates the

appropriate communicative data needed to make important policy recommendations.

Discriminatory social practices are likely stifling innovation and small business growth.

Language barriers for non-English speaking refugees in the United States, for example,

may preclude them from fully utilizing their skills and knowledge to add value to their

communities. They may not be able to complete important government documents or

find funding to start a business. If the appropriate social apparatuses were in place,
 233

these individuals could lift themselves and their communities out of poverty vis-à-vis

enterprise. It is silly that language barriers should result in lost tax revenues and

employment in communities that often need them the most. An ethnological study of a

new start-up in an emigrant community could provide insight into how such individuals

negotiate the established system and structure as they obtain their business license, go

through other bureaucratic procedures, maintain financial accounts, advertise, and

establish supply and distribution networks. Those wanting to study this from another

angle could also look at how these very issues create opportunities for individuals who

have the expertise to help lower barriers to entry for other emigrant entrepreneurs. For

example, other emigrants who offer translation or legal services are finding opportunity

within disparity. Researchers should also study government rhetoric to see if it is

encouraging enterprise among underserved groups. 2

Whether in a rural setting, inner city environment, suburb, or emigrant

community, communication scholars interested in deviance could add to our social

understanding of entrepreneurship by exploring the communication practices of those

involved in black market or other illicit trade. While potentially dangerous, depending on

the type of study, this work could provide policy makers with a better understanding of

the type of communication systems or logics used by criminal enterprises. No doubt that

Sudhir Venkatesh’s ethnographic study of crack dealers, reported in his 2008 popular

press book, Gang Leader for a Day, and Sclavi’s (2007) study of the Banana Kelly

Republic in the Bronx, provide important information regarding how the most destitute

2
The latter type of study was completed by Berglund and Johansson (2004). They
studied how a Swedish “Diversity in Entrepreneurship” program used communication
and education strategies to counteract discrimination. They found that the program was
working overall, but that sometimes the individuals overseeing the program reinforced
discrimination and created additional barrier. Berglund and Johansson offered
suggestions and solutions based on a critical pedagogy philosophy.
 234

among us are able to survive amidst great adversity (a creative entrepreneurial feat). 3

The role of communication in maintaining or disrupting the social order as various

entrepreneurs—from drug dealers to community advocates—within a community

compete for resources (particularly its youth) should not be overlooked. When I

compare Venkatesh’s book with Sclavi’s, one of the differences I note is that gangs tend

to reproduce a neo-classical logic whereby each person hopes to one day ascend to

crime boss whereas community advocates choose a discourse of equality that hopes to

produce greater wealth for its group. Clearly, more research should be done to see if

these books (or my interpretation of their content) offer reasonable accounts of these

groups’ practices. Communication scholars could also study entrepreneurial

opportunities that are enacted within cyber spaces where people with various “deviant”

behaviors now congregate “openly.” It would not be surprising to find that in this new

type of agora (which may itself be maintained by an entrepreneur), where people with

various fetishes can trade, barter, and exchange ideas, opportunities are enacted daily.

Family communication scholars could study how entrepreneurial communication

functions within family business. Using concepts developed in this stream of literature,

explanations could be offered as to why some family businesses succeed where others

fail. Historical texts could be examined to better understand the similarities and

differences between founders and their family heirs. In relationships where one partner

is an “entrepreneur” and the other is not, examination of communication within the home

could provide insight into how and why some strategies are pursued while others or

abandoned. It would be fascinating to know to what degree a romantic partner influences

the decisions of the entrepreneur. 4 I suspect many businesses start and fail as a result

3
Here I would offer actor-network-theory and its emphasis on following objects
symbolically. Using ANT, researchers would not have to spend time among drug dealers
but could trace the drugs through documentation and testimony of their distribution.
4
Conversation analysis could especially provide fascinating insights.
 235

of explicit and implicit communication within the home. I placed the word “entrepreneur”

in quotations because family communication scholars following the prosaic

entrepreneurship stream could make a strong case for treating any stay-at-home parent

as an entrepreneur. No doubt that Xenophon, who coined the term Oeconomicus

(economy)—i.e., household management—understood that this was a rhetorical and

creative endeavor. 5 When a stay-at-home parent negotiates with his or her spouse for

financial resources, negotiates discounts on products or services, or plans the

distribution of food based on exigent and changing circumstances, she or he is engaged

in an entrepreneurial process. These efforts are not framed as entrepreneurship

because they are not easily quantifiable and not (ac)counted in Gross Domestic Product.

I have little doubt, however, that a stay-at-home parent is “being productive.”

Communication Pedagogy

Over the past two decades there has been an increase in articles about

entrepreneurship education (see Green & Rice, 2007; Katz, 2003). Calls have recently

been made for the entrepreneurship education community to take “more time to reflect

on some philosophical and contextual fundamentals of the education process itself”

(Hindle, 2007, p. 136). Entrepreneurship education programs should develop more than

just engineering or management skills and should avoid using rags-to-riches success

stories as inspirational fodder. Instead, educators should emphasize that the

entrepreneurial life is common and that being in business for oneself, while personally

and financially rewarding, is not likely to yield more take home pay than an equivalent

job (Shane, 2008). Educators should also assist students in developing skills necessary

for entrepreneurial success, which includes oral and written communication skills,

financial and social accounting skills, and obtaining a general understanding of

organizing strategies. Entrepreneurship education should focus on the development of

5
Cicero was a fan of Xenophon and translated his work into Latin.
 236

entrepreneurship competencies through theory and not simply be an “edutainment”

experience stuffed with case studies, videos, and visits from entrepreneurs (Fiet, 2001).

Entrepreneurship educators should also reflect on their own profession. They

must realize that their pedagogical style must work to improve the creative and artistic

capacities of their students as well as the more mechanical ones (e.g., accounting). The

critical issue is how to achieve these goals while adhering to new movement

philosophies that seek to promote an equality discourse. To adhere to new movement

philosophies, any outcome of the entrepreneurship education process should be the

creation of entrepreneurs willing to serve the greater good by generating profits,

increasing employment, organizing resources, and, while doing so, trying to eliminate

negative externalities (e.g., pollution).

Communicative pedagogy in general, but performative and critical pedagogies in

particular, can be used to teach entrepreneurship as an equality discourse.

Communication pedagogy is interested in how communication produces subjectivities

both within and without the classroom. By drawing on theories of performance and

critical pedagogy (e.g., Pineau, 2002), instructors can use creative exercises that

increase awareness about social issues and improve artistic sensibilities. Students and

teachers using communication pedagogy would begin with the understanding that

through communication we produce different “pictures” of the world, which makes

language in a figurative sense our primary means of social construction. There is always

a variety of versions of an object and each tells a different story. Some versions tend to

become more dominating, fixed and taken for granted; simultaneously, a dominant

version can always be challenged, questioned and contracted with alternate versions. By

improving students’ and entrepreneurs’ understanding of the role of interpretation and

language in the production of social order, they will be better equipped to see potential

opportunities. They will also be able to consider social problems produced by

 237

entrepreneurial praxis (e.g., when a firm fails it means non-renewable resources have

been lost).

There are already calls within the entrepreneurship literature for alternative,

communication-based approaches to teaching entrepreneurship. Czarniawska-Joerges

and de Monthoux (1994) suggest that management and entrepreneurship students read

fictional, non-business novels to keep in touch with our common humanity. Grace Ann

Rosile and David Boje (1996) similarly suggest that teaching postmodernist theory and

deconstruction techniques may generate new possibilities and ways of thinking about

business-related issues—precisely the skills entrepreneurs need if they are to resolve

some of the major issues of our time. Rae and Carswell (2000) propose a life-story

approach as a means of assisting students to see how they “act entrepreneurially.”

Using a dialogic approach, teachers and students can turn their own lived experiences

into reflexive learning. From a communication pedagogy perspective, communication

within these classrooms should be studied to better understand which strategies work at

achieving the goals of increased creativity, reflexivity, and consciousnesses.

Academic Research about Private Investigating

Given the absence of research about private investigators, both communication

and entrepreneurship researchers can play an important role in the profession.

Communication researchers, especially in the areas of pedagogy, interpersonal, conflict,

and intercultural communication can improve the field. Communication pedagogues

could conduct research that tests the efficacy of current continuing education and

training programs. Data from surveys and experimental research could be used to

develop better programs for small- and medium-sized enterprises. Research from within

the communication discipline could be used to test, among other things, the role of

immediacy, communication apprehension, power, and accommodation during witness

interviews, client meetings, and court room testimonies. Geert Hofstede’s and James
 238

McCroskey’s cultural and communicative rubrics are helpful starting points. Strategies

developed from this type of research could be used to improve a private investigator’s

communication with their constituencies. Focus could also be placed on research that

obtains feedback from clients regarding what strategies and reporting styles they like

best; and such information could be used to develop better training programs and

reporting protocols.

As I have contended, more research regarding the interaction between objects

and subjects in the field of private investigating could help professionalize the field.

While communication education researchers would be interested in how to apply various

communication concepts for training purposes, intercultural and interpersonal

communication theories and concepts could be used to train private investigators in

strategies that are helpful when communicating with diverse groups in a variety of

situations. This could lead to improved investigations. Collecting descriptive statistics

about strategies used and testing these strategies through experimental design could

improve investigators’ fieldwork techniques.

Finally, entrepreneurship and communication researchers could assist

investigators by developing a comprehensive database of information regarding the

profession. As I noted in the introduction, there is very little industry-specific data from

which agency owners can draw. This leaves individual investigative agencies operating

primarily on anecdotal evidence. Conducting research that captures the various trends

within the industry could lead to improved operations, new opportunities, and better

organizational decision making.

A Final Account

While I was shadowing her, S-3 spent a great deal of time engaged in a

community service project. She had volunteered to assist a local high school’s DECA

teams prepare for the national competition in Anaheim, California. DECA is a non-profit
 239

corporation dedicated to the development of future leaders in marketing, management,

and entrepreneurship. This was one of the moments in the field where I was happy to be

an active participant. She and I listened to the national qualifiers pitch their business

plans and we evaluated their presentations. Two teams in particular were captivating;

they had already implemented their plans and were making profits. One team was

selling customized shoes for formal events and the other was selling customized hip hop

t-shirts. S-3 had personally invested both time and money into these students. She

helped purchase, for example, most of the materials and supplies they needed for their

presentations and she assisted them with raising funds to pay for travel expenses.

During our final hours together, we sat in the vehicle and conducted what could

be described as an exit interview. This is an important step in the shadowing process.

She had shared with me very intimate details about her family and business operations.

Obviously, she had the right to ask me questions regarding how she would be

represented and what I planned to write about her. But I also needed time to debrief.

She had allowed me to be a part of her life for a week, and while we would likely never

be friends, she had been transformed from a research subject into an important moment

in my academic life.

Just as I was about to exit her GMC Yukon, she received a call from one of the

DECA student’s parents. He had fallen behind in a class and the school was not going to

excuse his absences for the upcoming competition. After a passion filled conversation,

S-3 assured the parent that she would make a case for his attendance. As a DECA

alumnus, S-3 understood what attending these kinds of conferences can mean in terms

of building a young person’s confidence. S-3 knew that her advocacy could influence the

school principal into giving the student an opportunity to make up his work. When I

followed up with her two weeks later, she noted that she had made a successful plea

and that all of the activities over the previous week had prompted her to fly to California
 240

to support the students. It is plausible that S-3 did all of these things as a marketing

gimmick. To me, however, she appeared to genuinely care about her community.

Through her entrepreneurial work, she had made connections with people and had

gained some authority to advocate for the student. Shadowing allowed me to catch

these special moments of her entrepreneurial life.

Almost all of the investigators I interviewed mentioned that they engage in some

form of community service. Without the entrepreneurial endeavors of private eyes,

associations like TALI would not exist. These organizations engage in community

service activities and allocate resources as well. Following Hurricane Ike, for example,

TALI pooled member resources in order to help its members in need. I-09 noted that

without this help, he would have likely lost his business. This coordination of resources

reveals a positive dimension of private enterprise. This example shows that private eyes

are far more than profiteers; it also highlights one of the beautiful moments of an open

marketplace. However, these small moments are often overshadowed by unhealthy,

ideological emphasis on profits in popular and academic accounts.

Private investigators certainly are an interesting group, but the more time one

spends with them, the clearer it becomes that they are just citizens engaged in various

practices as a means of providing a valuable service. My hope is that regardless of what

direction future research about private investigations should take, it will be with the

desire to help this field professionalize, improve its practices, and keep local

investigators in business. The value of private investigations is not measurable solely in

financial terms, but in the kind of assistance private eyes provide to people in need. In

the beginning of this document, I emphasized the importance of focusing on methods

and following the path a subject or object takes. This project followed several of those

paths. This document was itself a pathway for understanding private investigating as a
 241

valuable profession. I hope the praxeological descriptions herein will inspire some

readers to follow the research opportunities that have been planted along the way.
 242

REFERENCES

Abolafia, M. Y. (1998). Markets as cultures: An ethnographic approach. In M. Callon

(Ed.), The laws of markets (pp. 69-85). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Adolfsson, P. (2005). Environment's many faces: On organizing and translating objects

in Stockholm. In B. Latour & P. Weibel (Eds.), Making things public: Atmospheres

of democracy (pp. 396-397). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Allen, C. (1997). Spies like us. Lingua Franca. Retrieved January 12, 2007 from

http://linguafranca.mirror.theinfo.org/9711/9711.allen.html.

Appadurai, A. (1986). Introduction: Commodities and the politics of value. In A.

Appadurai (Ed.), The social life of things: Commodities in cultural perspective

(pp. 1-63). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Atkinson, P., Coffey, A., Delamont, S., Lofland, J., & Lofland, L. H. (Eds.). (2007).

Handbook of ethnography. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Barnes, B. (2008, Dec. 16). Pellicano sentenced to 15 years in prison. New York Times.

Retrieved August 16, 2009, from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/

16/business/media/16pellicano.html

Baumol, W. J. (1990). Entrepreneurship: Productive, unproductive, and destructive.

Journal of Political Economy, 98, 893-921.

Baumol, W. J., Litan, R. E., & Schramm, C. J. (2007). Good capitalism, bad capitalism.

New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social construction of reality: A treatise on the

sociology of knowledge. New York: Anchor Books.

Berglund, H. (2007). Researching entrepreneurship as lived experience. In H. Neergaard

& J. P. Ulhøi (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research methods in

entrepreneurship (pp. 75-96). Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.

 243

Berglund, K., & Johansson, A. W. (2007). Entrepreneurship, discourses and

conscientization in processes of regional development. Entrepreneurship &

Regional Development, 19, 499-525.

Broe, D. (2005). Class, labor, and the home-front detective: Hammett, Chandler,

Woolrich, and the dissident lawman (and woman) in 1940s Hollywood and

beyond. Social Justice, 32, 167-185.

Broes, A. T. (1992). Dick Tracy: The early years. Journal of Popular Culture, 25, 97-122.

Brown, A. D. (2006). A narrative approach to collective identities. Journal of

Management Studies, 43, 731-753.

Brown, S. K. (2007). The complete idiot's guide to private investigating (2nd ed.). New

York: Alpha.

Brummett, B. (1976). Some implications of "process" or "intersubjectivity": Postmodern

rhetoric. Philosophy & Rhetoric, 9(1), 21-51.

Brummett, B. (1990). The forum -- The reported demise of epistemic rhetoric: A eulogy

for epistemic rhetoric. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 76, 69-73.

Brundin, E. (2007). Catching it as it happens. In H. Neergaard & J. P. Ulhøi (Eds.),

Handbook of qualitative research methods in entrepreneurship research (pp.

279-307). Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.

Bruni, A. (2005). Shadowing software and clinical records: On the ethnography of non-

humans and heterogeneous contexts. Organization, 12, 357-378.

Bruni, A., Gherardi, S., & Poggio, B. (2004). Doing gender, doing entrepreneurship: An

ethnographic account of intertwined practices. Gender, Work and Organization,

11, 406-429.

Bruni, A., Gherardi, S., & Poggio, B. (2005). Gender and entrepreneurship: An

ethnographic approach. London: Routledge.

 244

Bruyn, S. T. (2002). Studies of the mundane by participant observation. Journal of

Mundane Behavior, 3(2), 1-9.

Burrell, G., & Morgan, G. (1979/2005). Sociological paradigms and organisational

analysis. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.

Caldwell, B. (2004). Hayek's Challenge: An intellectual biography of F.A. Hayek.

Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Callon, M. (1986). Some elements of a sociology of translation: Domestication of the

scallops and the fisherman of Saint Brieuc Bay. In J. Law (Ed.), Power, action,

and belief (pp. 196-223). London: Routledge.

Callon, M. (Ed.). (1998). The laws of markets. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Capote, T. (1975). A day's work. In Music for chameleons. London: Abascus.

Catano, J. V. (2001). Ragged dicks: Masculinity, steel, and the rhetoric of the self-made

man. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.

Charland, M. (1987). Constitutive rhetoric: The case of the peuple Québécois. Quarterly

Journal of Speech, 73, 133-150.

Cheney, G., & Ashcraft, K. L. (2007). Considering ‘‘the professional’’ in communication

studies: Implications for theory and research within and beyond the boundaries of

organizational communication. Communication Theory, 17, 146-175.

Chiles, T. H., Bluedorn, A. C., & Gupta, V. K. (2007). Beyond creative destruction and

entrepreneurial discovery: A radical Austrian approach to entrepreneurship.

Organizational Studies, 28, 467-793.

Churchill, W. (2004). From the Pinkertons to the PATRIOT Act: The trajectory of political

policing in the United States, 1870 to the present. CR: The New Centennial

Review, 4, 1-72.

Clair, R. P. (Ed.). (2003). Expressions of ethnography: Novel approaches to qualitative

methods. Albany: SUNY Press.

 245

Clifford, J. (1988). The predicament of culture: Twentieth-century ethnography, literature,

and art. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Coase, R. H. (1988). Introduction. In R. H. Coase (Ed.), The firm, the market, and the

law (pp. 1-31). Chicago: Chicago University Press.

Czarniawska, B. (1997). Narrating the organization: Dramas of institutional identity.

Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Czarniawska, B. (2004). Narratives in social science research. Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage.

Czarniawska, B. (2007). Shadowing and other techniques for doing fieldwork in modern

societies. Liber: Copenhagen Business School Press.

Czarniawska, B. (2008a). How to misuse institutions and get away with it: Some

reflections on institutional theory(ies). In R. Greenwood, C. Oliver, K. Sahlin & R.

Suddaby (Eds.), The Sage handbook of organizational institutionalism (pp. 769-

782). Los Angeles: Sage.

Czarniawska, B. (2008b). Organizing: How to study it and how to write about it.

Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management, 3, 4-20.

Czarniawska, B. (2009). Emerging institutions: Pyramids or anthills? Organization

Studies, 30, 423-441.

Czarniawska, B., & Sevón, G. (2005). Translation is a vehicle, imitation its motor, and

fashion sits at the wheel. In B. Czarniawska & G. Sevón (Eds.), Global Ideas:

How ideas, objects and practices travel in a global economy (pp. 7-14). Sweden:

Liber AB.

Czarniawska-Joerges, B. (1994). Narratives of individuals and organizational identities.

In S. Deetz (Ed.), Communication yearbook 17 (pp. 193-221). Thousand Oaks,

CA: Sage.
 246

Czarniawska-Joerges, B., & de Monthoux, P. G. (1994). Good novels, better

management: Reading organizational realities. Chur, Switzerland: Harwood

Academic Publishers.

Davidson, P. (2006, Sept. 13). Pretexting can snag more than phone data, USA Today.

Retrieved, August 19, 2009, from http://www.usatoday.com/money/

perfi/general/2006-09-12-pretexting-data_x.htm

de Certeau, M. (1984). The practice of everyday life (S. Rendall, Trans.). Berkeley, CA:

University of California Press.

DeTienne, D. R., & Chandler, G. N. (2004). Opportunity identification and its role in the

entrepreneurial classroom: A pedagogical approach and empirical test. Academy

of Management Learning & Education, 3, 242-257.

“Dial I for internet.” (2008, May 24). Economist, 387, 86-86.

DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional

isomorphism and collective rationality in organization fields. American

Sociological Review, 48, 147-160.

Donovan, R. E. (2007). The HP scandal: What went wrong and how to learn from those

mistakes. Corporate Governance Advisor, 15(3), 29-31.

Down, S. (2006). Narratives of enterprise: Crafting entrepreneurial self-identity in a small

firm. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

Doyle, A. C. (1892/2009). The adventures of Sherlock Holmes. New York: Penguin.

Eckhardt, J. T., & Shane, S. A. (2003). Opportunities and entrepreneurship. Journal of

Management, 29, 333-349.

Fiet, J. O. (2001). The pedagogical side of entrepreneurship theory. Journal of Business

Venturing, 16, 101-117.

Fisher, W. (1985). The narrative paradigm: In the beginning. Journal of Communication,

35, 74-89.
 247

Fisher, W. (1987). Human communication as narration: Toward a philosophy of reason,

value, and action. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.

Foucault, M. (1977/1991). Discipline and punish: The birth of the modern prison (A.

Sheridan, Trans.). New York: Vintage Books.

Foucault, M. (1978). Governmentality. In P. Rabinow & N. Rose (Eds.), The essential

Foucault (pp. 229-245). New York: The New Press.

Foucault, M. (1984). The ethics of the concern of the self as a practice of freedom. In P.

Rabinow & N. Rose (Eds.), The essential Foucault (pp. 25-42). New York: The

New Press.

Frandsen, A.-C. (2009). From psoriasis to a number and back. Information and

Organization, 19, 103-128.

“Fred Smith on the Birth of FedEx” (2004, Sept. 20). BusinessWeek. Retrieved October

11, 2008, from <http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/

04_38/b3900032_mz072.htm>

Gaines, A. G. (1999). Private investigators and bounty hunters. Philadelphia: Chelsea

House Publishers.

Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Garfinkel, H. (1991). Respecifications: Evidence for locally produced, naturally

accountable phenomena of order*, logic, reasoning, meaning, method, etc. in

and as of the essential haecceity of immortal ordinary society, (I) – an

announcement of studies. In G. Button (Ed.), Ethnomethodology and the human

sciences (pp. 10-19). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Gartner, W. B. (1988). "Who is an entrepreneur?" is the wrong question. American

Journal of Small Business, 12, 11-32.

Gartner, W. B. (2001). Is there an elephant in entrepreneurship? Blind assumptions in

theory development. Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice, 25, 27-39.

 248

Gartner, W. B. (2004). The edge defines the (w)hole: Saying what entrepreneurship is

(not). In D. Hjorth & C. Steyaert (Eds.), Narrative and discursive approaches in

entrepreneurship (pp. 245-254). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

Gartner, W. B., Carter, N. M., & Mills, G. E. (2003). The language of opportunity. In C.

Steyaert & D. Hjorth (Eds.), New movements in entrepreneurship (pp. 103-124).

Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

Geddes, E. F. (1989). The private investigator and the right to privacy. Alberta Law

Review, 27, 256-300.

Geertz, C. (1973). Deep play: Notes on the Balinese cockfight. In The interpretation of

cultures: Selected essays by Clifford Geertz. New York: Basic Books.

Gill, M., & Hart, J. (1997). Exploring investigative policing. British Journal of Criminology,

37, 549-567.

Goodall, H. L. (1994). Casing a promised land: The autobiography of an organizational

detective as cultural ethnographer. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University

Press.

Goodall, H. L. (2000). Writing the new ethnography. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.

Gordon, D. (1999). Ants at work: How an insect society is organized. New York: W. W.

Norton & Company

Greene, P. G., & Rice, M. P. (2007). Entrepreneurship education: Moving from 'whether'

to 'what', 'how' and 'why'. In P. G. Greene & M. P. Rice (Eds.), Entrepreneurship

education (pp. xiii-xxviii). Cheltenham, UK: Elgar.

Hankin, R. (2009). Navigating the legal minefields of private investigating. Flushing, NY:

Looseleaf Law Publications, Inc.

Harper, D. (2002). Talking about pictures: A case for photo elicitation. Visual Studies, 17,

13-26.
 249

Hartelius, E. J., & Browning, L. D. (2008). The application of rhetorical theory in

managerial research: A literature review. Management Communication Quarterly,

22, 13-39.

Hayek, F. A. (1945). The use of knowledge in society. The American Economic Review,

35, 519-530.

Hayek, F. A. (1960). The constitution of liberty. New York: Routledge.

Hayek, F. A. (1975/2007). The pretence of knowledge. Emergence: Complexity &

Organization, 9(1/2), 131-142.

Headley, L., & Hoffman, W. (1993). Vegas P.I.: The life and times of America's greatest

detective. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press.

Hindle, K. (2007). Teaching entrepreneurship at university: From the wrong building to

the right philosophy. In A. Foyolle (Ed.), Handbook of research in

entrepreneurship education (Vol. 1, pp. 104-126). Northampton, MA: Edward

Elgar Publishing.

Hjorth, D., & Steyaert, C. (Eds.). (2004). Narrative and discursive approaches in

entrepreneurship: A second movements in entrepreneurship book. Cheltenham,

UK: Edward Elgar.

Holcombe, R. G. (2003). The origins of entrepreneurial opportunities. The Review of

Austrian Economics, 16, 25-43.

Horan, J. (1967). The Pinkertons: The detective dynasty that made history. New York:

Crown Publishers.

Hyde, M. J., & Smith, C. R. (1979). Hermeneutics and rhetoric: A seen but unobserved

relationship. The Quarterly Journal of Speech, 65, 347-363.

Jackson, L. A. (2003). The unusual case of "Mrs Sherlock": Memoir, identity and the

"real" woman private detective in twentieth-century Britain. Gender & History, 15,

108-134.
 250

Jardin, X. (2008, November 9). Mark Cuban to Obama: "Entrepreneurs will lead us out of

this mess. Talk to Them. BoingBoing. Retrieved January 05, 2008 from

http://www.boingboing.net/2008/11/09/mark-cuban-to-obama.html

Johansson, A. W. (2004). Narrating the entrepreneur. International Small Business

Journal, 22, 273-293.

Johnstone, B. A. (2007). Ethnographic methods in entrepreneurship research. In H.

Neergaard & J. P. Ulhøi (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research methods in

entrepreneurship (pp. 97-121). Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.

Johnstone, H., & Lionais, D. (2004). Depleted communities and community business

entrepreneurship: Revaluing space through place. Entrepreneurship & Regional

Development, 16, 217-233.

Kanth, R. (1999). Against Eurocentred epistemologies: a critique of science, realism and

economics. In S. Fleetwood (Ed.), Critical realism in economics: Development

and debate (pp. 187-208). London: Routledge.

Kaplan, D. A. (2006). Suspicions and spies in Silicon Valley. Newsweek, 148(12), 40-47.

Katz, J. A. (2003). The chronology and intellectual trajectory of American

entrepreneurship education 1876-1999. Journal of Business Venturing, 18, 283-

300.

Kirzner, I. M. (1973). Competition and entrepreneurship. Chicago: University of Chicago

Press.

Kirzner, I. M. (1997). Entrepreneurial discovery and the competitive market process: An

Austrian approach. Journal of Economic Literature, 35, 60-85.

Kirzner, I. M. (2005). Human attitudes and economic growth. CATO Journal, 25, 465-

469.

Knorr-Cetina, K. (1997). Sociality with objects: Social relations in postsocial knowledge

societies. Theory Culture Society, 14(4), 1-30.

 251

Kuhn, T. S. (1970/1996). The structure of scientific revolutions (3rd ed.). Chicago: The

University of Chicago Press.

Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). InterViews: Learning the craft of qualitative research

interviewing (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Lareau, A. (2003). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life. Berkeley: University

of California Press.

Latour, B. (1994). On technical mediation: Philosophy, sociology, genealogy. Common

Knowledge, 3, 29-64.

Latour, B. (1996). On interobjectivity. Mind, Culture & Activity, 3, 228-245.

Latour, B. (1999). Circulating reference: Sampling the soil in the Amazon Forest. In

Pandora's hope: Essays on the reality of science studies (pp. 24-79). Cambridge,

MA: Harvard University Press.

Latour, B. (2005). Reassembling the social: An introduction to Actor-Network-Theory.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Law, J. (1999). After ANT: Complexity, naming and topology. In J. Law & J. Hassard

(Eds.), Actor network theory and after (pp. 1-14). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Law, J. (2002). Objects and spaces. Theory Culture Society, 19(5/6), 91-105.

Lawrence, T. B., & Suddaby, R. (2006). Institutions and institutional work. In S. R. Clegg,

C. Hardy, T. B. Lawrence & W. R. Nord (Eds.), The Sage handbook of

organization studies (pp. 215-254). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Lindlof, T. R., & Taylor, B. C. (2002). Qualitative communication research methods (2nd

ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Lore, M. (2009, July 31). Process server charged with falsifying affidavits causes big

headaches. Minnesota Lawyer. Retrieved, August 30, 2009 from

<http://www.minnlawyer.com/article.cfm/2009/08/03/Process-server-charged-

with-falsifying-affidavits-causes-big-headaches>
 252

MacDonald, K. M. (1995). The sociology of the professions. London: Sage.

MacHovec, F. (2006). Private investigating and security science: A scientific approach

(3rd ed.). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers.

MacIntyre, A. (1981/2007). After virtue: A study in moral theory. London: Gerald

Duckworth & Co Ltd.

McCloskey, D. (1998). The rhetoric of economics (2nd ed.). Madison: The University of

Wisconsin Press.

McDonald, S. (2005). Studying actions in context: A qualitative shadowing method for

organizational research. Qualitative Research, 5, 455-473.

Meunier, D., & Vasquez, C. (2008). On shadowing the hybrid character of actions: A

communicational approach. Communication Methods and Measures, 2, 167-192.

Meyer, J. W., & Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as

myth and ceremony. The American Journal of Sociology, 83, 340-363.

Miller, D. (1998). A theory of shopping. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Mintzberg, H. (1970). Structured observation as a method to study managerial work. The

Journal of Management Studies, 7, 87-107.

Mintzberg, H. (1973). The nature of managerial work. New York: Harper and Row.

Mitchell, R. G. (1993). Secrecy and fieldwork. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Montgomery, R. J., & Majeski, W. J. (Eds.). (2005). Corporate investigations (2nd ed.).

Tucson, AZ: Lawyers & Judges Publishing Company, Inc.

Montoya, M. L. d. (2004). Driven entrepreneurs: A case study of taxi owners in Caracas.

In D. Hjorth & C. Steyaert (Eds.), Narrative and discursive approaches in

entrepreneurship: A second movements in entrepreneurship book (pp. 57-79).

Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

Morton, J. (2004). The first detective: The life and revolutionary times of Vidocq. London:

Ebury Press.
 253

Motia, S. (2008, September 26). 10 things your private eye won't tell you. Smartmoney

Magazine. Retrieved January 05, 2008 from http://www.smartmoney.com/

spending/rip-offs/october2008-private-investigators/?print=1.

Mumby, D., K. (1997). Modernism, postmodernism, and communication studies: A

rereading of an ongoing debate. Communication Theory, 7, 1-28.

Nemeth, C. (2004). Private security and the law (3rd ed.). Oxford, UK: Butterworth-

Heinemann.

Nicholson, L., & Anderson, A. R. (2005). News and nuances of the entrepreneurial myth

and metaphor: Linguistic games in entrepreneurial sense-making and sense-

giving. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 29, 153-172.

Pettersson, K. (2004). Masculine entrepreneurship: The Gnosjo discourse in a feminist

perspective. In D. Hjorth & C. Steyaert (Eds.), Narrative and discursive

approaches in entrepreneurship: A second movements in entrepreneurship book

(pp. 177-193). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

Pineau, E. L. (2002). Critical performance pedagogy: Fleshing out the politics of

liberatory education. In N. Stucky & C. Wimmer (Eds.), Teaching performance

studies (Vol. 41-54). Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.

Plummer, L. A., Haynie, J. M., & Godesiabois, J. (2007). An essay on the origins of

entrepreneurial opportunity. Small Business Economics, 28, 363-379.

Polite, V. C., McClure, R., & Rollie, D. L. (1997). The emerging reflective urban principal:

The role of shadowing encounters. Urban Education, 31, 466-489.

Pollner, M. (1987). Mundane reason: Reality in everyday and sociological discourse.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Pollner, M., & Emerson, R. M. (2001). Ethnomethodology and ethnography. In P.

Atkinson, A. J. Coffey, S. Delamont, J. Loftland & L. Loftland (Eds.), Handbook of

ethnography (pp. 118-135). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

 254

Polkinghorne, D. E. (1988). Narrative knowing and the human sciences. Albany: SUNY

Press.

Popova, I. P. (2006). Is professionalism the way to success? Sociological Research, 45,

41-58.

Porac, J. F., Thomas, H., Wilson, F., Paton, D., & Kanfer, A. (1995). Rivalry and the

industry model of Scottish knitwear producers. Administrative Science Quarterly,

40, 203-227.

Prasad, A., & Prasad, P. (2002). The coming age of interpretive organizational research.

Organizational Research Methods, 5, 4-11.

Rawls, A. W. (2002). Editor's introduction. In A. W. Rawls (Ed.), Ethnomethodology's

program: Working out Durkheim's aphorism (pp. 1-64). New York: Rowan &

Littlefield Publishers.

Rawls, A. W. (2006). Respecifying the study of order. In A. W. Rawls (Ed.), Seeing

sociologically: The routine grounds of social action. (pp. 1-98). Boulder, CO:

Paradigm Publishers.

Rae, D., & Carswell, M. (2000). Using a life-story approach in researching

entrepreneurial learning: The development of a conceptual model and its

implications in the design of leaning experiences. Education & Training, 42, 220-

227.

Ray, D. M. (1993). Understanding the entrepreneur: Entrepreneurial attributes,

experience and skills. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 5, 345-358.

Reder, S. (1993). Watching flowers grow: Polycontextuality and heterochronicity at work.

The Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, 15,

116-125.
 255

Rehn, A., & Taalas, S. (2004a). Crime and assumptions in entrepreneurship. In D. Hjorth

& C. Steyaert (Eds.), Narrative and discursive approaches in entrepreneurship

(pp. 144-159). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

Rehn, A., & Taalas, S. (2004b). 'Znakomstva I Svyazi' (Acquaintances and connections)-

-Blat, the Soviet Union, and mundane entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship &

Regional Development, 16, 235-250.

Ricoeur, P. (1991). From text to action: Essays in hermeneutics, II (K. Blamey & J. B.

Thompson, Trans.). Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.

Rosile, G. A., & Boje, D. M. (1996). Pedagogy for the postmodern management

classroom. In D. M. Boje, J. Gephart, Robert P. & T. J. Thatchenkery (Eds.),

Postmodern management theory (pp. 225-250). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Sarre, R. (2009). Book review - Private investigation and security science: A scientific

approach. Criminal Justice Review, 34(1), 142-143.

“Scarborough Country,” (2005, Dec. 20). MSNBC. Retrieved October 1, 2009, from

<http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10548179>

Schatzki, T. R., Cetina, K. K., & Savigny, E. V. (Eds.). (2001). The practice turn in

contemporary theory. New York: Routledge.

Schrag, C. (2003). Communicative praxis and the space of subjectivity. West Lafayette,

IN: Purdue University Press.

Schumpeter, J. A. (1976). Capitalism, socialism and democracy. New York:

HarperPerennial.

Schutz, A. (1967). The phenomenology of the social world. Evanston, IL: Northwestern

University Press.

Sclavi, M. (1994). Ad unia spanna de terra [Six inches off the ground]. Milan: Anabasi.

Sclavi, M. (2007). An Italian lady goes to the Bronx (H. Martin, Trans.). Milan, Italy: IPOC

di Pictro Condemi.
 256

Scott, R. L. (1967). On viewing rhetoric as epistemic. Central States Speech Journal, 18,

9-17.

Scott, R. L. (1993). Rhetoric is epistemic: What difference does it make? In T. Enos & S.

C. Brown (Eds.), Defining the new rhetorics. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Sennewald, C. A., & Tsukayama, J. K. (2006). The process of investigation: Concepts

and strategies for investigators in the private sector (3rd ed.). Amsterdam:

Elsevier.

Seymour, R. G. (2006). Hermeneutic phenomenology and international entrepreneurship

research. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 4, 137-155.

Shane, S. A. (2000). Prior knowledge and the discovery of entrepreneurial opportunities.

Organization Science, 11, 448-469.

Shane, S. A. (2003). A general theory of entrepreneurship: The individual-opportunity

nexus. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

Shane, S. A. (2008). The illusions of entrepreneurship: The costly myths that

entrepreneurs, investors, and policy makers live by. New Haven, CT: Yale

University Press.

Shane, S. A., & Venkataraman, S. (2000). The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of

research. Academy of Management Review, 25, 217-226.

Shulman, D. (1994). Dirty data and investigative methods: Some lessons from private

detective work. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 23, 214-253.

Shulman, D. (2007). From hire to liar: The role of deception in the workplace. Ithaca, NY:

Cornell University Press.

Smith, W. P., & Tabak, F. (2005). Privacy and electronic monitoring in the workplace: A

model of managerial cognition and relational trust development. Employee

Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 17, 173-189.

 257

Sørensen, B. M. (2008). "Behold, I am making all things new": The entrepreneur as

savior in the age of creativity. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 24, 85-93.

Stark, D. (1998). Recombinant property in East European capitalism. In M. Callon (Ed.),

The laws of markets (pp. 116-146). Oxford: Blackwell.

Stewart, A. (1990). The bigman metaphor for entrepreneurship: A "library tale" with

morals on alternatives for further research. Organization Science, 1, 143-159.

Steyaert, C. (1998). A qualitative methodology for process studies of entrepreneurship.

International Studies of Management & Organization, 27(3), 13-33.

Steyaert, C. (2004). The prosaics of entrepreneurship. In D. Hjorth & C. Steyaert (Eds.),

Narrative and discursive approaches in entrepreneurship (pp. 8-21). Cheltenham,

UK: Edward Elgar.

Steyaert, C., & Hjorth, D. (Eds.). (2003). New movements in entrepreneurship.

Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

Steyaert, C., & Hjorth, D. (Eds.). (2006). Entrepreneurship as social change: A third

movements in entrepreneurship book. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

Steyaert, C., & Katz, J. (2004). Reclaiming the space of entrepreneurship in society:

geographical, discursive and social dimensions. Entrepreneurship & Regional

Development, 16(3), 179-196.

Strannegård, L., & Friberg, M. (2002). Already elsewhere: Play, identity and speed in the

business world (D. Wilson, Trans.). Stockholm: Raster Förlag.

Tergesen, A. (2005, Nov. 21). Hedge fund sleuths. BusinessWeek. Retrieved March 10,

2009, from http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/

05_47/b3960129.htm.

Thomas, J. (1993). Doing critical ethnography. Newbury Park, CA Sage.

 258

Thomas, J. (2003). Musings on critical ethnography, meanings, and symbolic violence.

In R. P. Clair (Ed.), Expressions of ethnography: Novel approaches to qualitative

methods (pp. 45-54). Albany: SUNY Press.

Travers, J. A. (2005). Introduction to private investigation (2nd ed.). Springfield, IL:

Charles C Thomas Publisher, Ltd.

U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (2009). Occupational outlook

handbook, 2008-2009. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Retrieved, July 22, 2009, from http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos157.htm

Venkatesh, S. (2008). Gang leader for a day. New York: Penguin Press.

van Maanen, J. (1988). Tales of the field: On writing ethnography. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press.

van Maanen, J. (1995). Style as theory. Organization Science, 6, 133-143.

van Maanen, J. (2006). Ethnography then and now. Qualitative Research in

Organizations and Management, 1, 13-21.

Vidocq, E. F. (1935/2003). Memoirs of Vidocq: Master of crime (E. G. Rich, Trans.).

Oakland, CA: AK Press / Nabat.

von Mises, L. (1949/2007). Human action: A treatise on economics (Vol. 1). Indianapolis:

Liberty Fund.

Walz, R. (2003). Vidocq, rogue cop. In E. G. Rich (Ed.), Memoirs of Vidocq: Master of

crime (pp. ix-xvii). Oakland, CA: AK Press / Nabat.

Walker, C. R., Guest, R. H., & Turner, A. N. (1956). The foreman on the assembly line.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Warner, B. (2009, June 15). “Sex Decoy Love Stings private investigators Fox reality

show, trailer trash with a badge.” Retrieved September 18, 2009, from

http://www.billwarnerpi.com/2009/06/sex-decoy-love-stings-private.html.

Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

 259

Weick, K. E., & Roberts, K. H. (1993). Collective mind in organizations: Heedful

interrelating on flight decks. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38, 357-381.

Weiss, R. P. (1979). An interpretation of the origin, development and transformation of

private detective agency policing in the United States, 1850-1940. Southern

Illinois University, Carbondale, IL.

Weiss, R. P. (1981). The private detective agency in the development of policing forms

in the rural and frontier United States. Critical Sociology, 11, 75-84.

Weiss, R. P. (1986). Private detective agencies and labour discipline in the United

States, 1855-1946. The Historical Journal, 29, 87-107.

Welsch, H. P., & Liao, J. (2003). Strategies for entrepreneurship development: Striking a

balance between explorative and exploitative research. In C. Steyaert & D. Hjorth

(Eds.), New movements in entrepreneurship (pp. 20-34). Cheltenham, UK:

Edward Elgar.

West, C., & Fenstermaker, S. (1995). Doing difference. Gender Society, 9, 8-37.

“What traits do all wealthy business owners have in common?,” (2009, June 5).

Articlesbase. Retrieved October 10, 2009, from

<http://www.articlesbase.com/entrepreneurship-articles/what-traits-do-all-

wealthy-internet-entrepreneurs-have-in-common-1014718.html>

Witt, U. (1992). Turning Austrian economics into an evolutionary theory. In B. Caldwell &

S. Boehm (Eds.), Austrian economics: Tensions and new directions (pp. 215–

236). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.

Wolcott, H. F. (1973). The man in the principal's office: An ethnography. New York: Holt,

Rinehart and Winston.

Wong, G. (2006, October, 5) Now, HP is a criminal case. CNN. Retrieved August 05,

2009, from http://money.cnn.com/2006/10/04/news/companies/

hp_california/index.htm?cnn=yes
APPENDICES
 260

Appendix A: Shadowing Research

The following is a comprehensive list of empirical articles using a methodological

approach similar to or labeled shadowing. For cataloging purposes, I am building on

McDonald’s (2005) earlier charting of the research (see p. 468). I have italicized the

articles she included in the original. For theoretical and methodological articles, I suggest

(Czarniawska, 2007, 2008; Kephart & Schultz, 2001; Latour, 2005; McDonald, 2005).

Table A.1

Research approach
Data Collection Methods Positivist Interpretive

Quantitative Orton et al. (2000)

Walker et al. (1956)

Mixed Levine, et al. (2007) Bonazzi (1998)

Polite et al. (1997) Brixley, et al. (2008)
Fenton et al. (1997)
Forgasz (2006)
Lereau (2003)*
Mintzberg (1970, 1973)
Noel (1989)
Perlow (1998, 1999)
Perry & Murphy (2008)
Snyder and Glueck (1980)
Wolcott (1973)

Qualitative Adolfsson (2005)

Bruni (2005)*
Burgoyne and Hodgson (1984)
Capote (1975)
Cooren (2006)
Cussins (1996)
Hirsh (1999)
Jacques (1992)
Latour (1999)
Meunier & Vasquez (2008)*
Miller (1998)*
Reder (1993)
Sclavi (2007)*
Strannegård and Friberg (2002)
Vasquez (2008)*
Vukic and Keddy (2002)

Notes. An asterisk (*) indicates articles that specifically use the term shadowing.
 261

Citations of Articles in Chart

Adolfsson, P. (2005). Environment's many faces: On organizing and translating objects

in Stockholm. In B. Latour & P. Weibel (Eds.), Making things public: Atmospheres
of democracy (pp. 396-397). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Bonazzi, G. (1998). Between shock absorption and continuous improvement:
Supervisors and technicians in Fiat `integrated factory'. Work Employment
Society, 12, 219-243.
Brixey, J. J., Tang, Z., Robinson, D. J., Johnson, C. W., Johnson, T. R., Turley, J. P., et
al. (2008). Interruptions in a level one trauma center: A case study. International
Journal of Medical Informatics, 77(4), 235-241.
Bruni, A. (2005). Shadowing software and clinical records: On the ethnography of non-
humans and heterogeneous contexts. Organization, 12, 357-378.
Burgoyne, J. G., & Hidgson, V. E. (1984). An experimental approach to understanding
managerial action. In J. G. Hunt, D.-M. Hosking, C. A. Schriesheim & R. Stewart
(Eds.), Leaders and managers: International perspectives on managerial
behaviour and leadership (pp. 163-178). New York: Pergamon.
Capote, T. (1975). A day's work. In Music for chameleons. London: Abascus.
Cooren, F. (2006). The organizational world as a plenum of agencies. In Communication
as organizing: Empirical and theoretical explorations in the dynamics of text and
conversation (pp. 81-100). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Cussins, C. (1996). Ontological choreography: Agency through objectification in infertility
clinics. Social Studies of Science, 26, 575-610.
Fenton, N., Deacon, D., Bryman, A., & Birmingham, P. (1997). Sod off and find us a
boffin: Journalists and the Social Science Conference. The Sociological Review,
45, 1-23.
Forgasz, H. J., & Leder, G. C. (2006). Academic life: Monitoring work patterns and daily
activities. The Australian Educational Researcher, 33, 1-22.
Hirsh, S. G. (1999). Children's relevance critieria and information seeking on electronic
resources. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50, 1265-
1283.
Jacques, R. (1992). Re-presenting the knowledge worker: A post-structuralist analysis of
the new employed professional. University of Massachusetts.
Lareau, A. (2003). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life. Berkeley: University
of California Press.
Levine, K. J., Allard, S., & Tenopir, C. (2007). Communicating in the 21st century
workplace: A theory of communication nexus. Paper presented at the National
Communication Association, Chicago, IL.
Meunier, D., & Vasquez, C. (2008). On shadowing the hybrid character of actions: A
communicational approach. Communication Methods and Measures, 2, 167-192.
Miller, D. (1998). A theory of shopping. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Mintzberg, H. (1970). Structured observation as a method to study managerial work. The
Journal of Management Studies, 87-107.
Mintzberg, H. (1973). The nature of managerial work. New York: Harper and Row.
Noel, A. (1989). Strategic cores and magnificent obsessions: Discovering strategy
formation through daily activities of CEOs'. Strategic Management Journal, 10,
33-49.
Orton, R., Marcella, R., & Baxter, G. (2000). An observational study of the information
seeking behavior of members of parliament in the United Kingdom. ASLIB
Proceedings, 52, 207-217.
Perlow, L. A. (1998). Boundary Control: The Social Ordering of Work and Family Time in
a High-tech Corporation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 43, 328-357.
 262

Perlow, L. A. (1999). The Time Famine: Toward a Sociology of Work Time.

Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 57-81.
Perry, R., & Murphy, S. J. (2008). A critical appraisal of what child welfare workers do:
Findings from a task analysis study in Florida. American Humane, 23, 44-73.
Polite, V. C., McClure, R., & Rollie, D. L. (1997). The emerging reflective urban principal:
The role of shadowing encounters. Urban Education, 31, 466-489.
Reder, S. (1993). Watching flowers grow: Polycontextuality and heterochronicity at work.
The Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, 15,
116-125.
Sclavi, M. (2007). An Italian lady goes to the Bronx (H. Martin, Trans.). Milan, Italy: IPOC
di Pictro Condemi.
Snyder, N., & Glueck, W. F. (1980). How managers plan - the analysis of mangers'
activities. Long Rance Planning, 13, 70-76.
Strannegård, L., & Friberg, M. (2002). Already elsewhere: Play, identity and speed in the
business world (D. Wilson, Trans.). Stockholm: Raster Förlag.
Vasquez, C. (2008). Project-ing action: Caught in a dance of agency. Paper presented at
the International Communication Association, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Vukic, A., & Keddy, B. (2002). Northern nursing practices in a primary healt care setting.
Journal of Advanced Nursing, 40, 542-548.
Walker, C. R., Guest, R. H., & Turner, A. N. (1956). The foreman on the assembly line.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
 263

Appendix B: Research Subjects and Costs

Table B.1.

Descriptions of Interviewees

Inter- Business Date of Sex Race/ Ageb YinOc Ann. Gross

viewee Location Interview Ethnicitya Profitd

I-01 St. Louis, 12/01/2008 M Pakistani 30 – 35 3 yrs. $35,000*

MO

Notes
I-01, an immigrant from Pakistan, started his company just prior to the
legislative changes in Missouri that now require 3-years experience working
with as a field investigator or police officer. So despite not having any formal
training as a private investigator, he was able to obtain a license and begin
business. He moved to the Unites States over 15 years ago and has worked
primarily in the service sector. He specializes in cheating spouse cases. His
interest in the field began while working as a part-time security officer at a mall
during the holiday season.

I-02 West 2/11/2009 M Euro- 50 – 59 26 yrs. $45,000*

Frankfurt, American
IL
Notes
I-02 started his company in Chicago while still working as police officer (he is
now retired). His first company, which he started with a partner, specialized
primarily in security. I-02 moved to Southern Illinois to be closer to his wife’s
mother, who needs specialized care. He sold his stake in the security
company, but retained his license. In Southern Illinois he has worked as a
consultant to the profession, as a process server, and as a part-time
investigator. He has authored two books. He noted that the most important
work he currently does is volunteer as a Court Appointed Child Advocate. He
was a little reluctant to share proprietary information, sticking primarily to field
stories. He is a self-described “old PI…, who's got more BS stories than a
drunken’ sailor.”

I-03 Pinckney- 2/12/2009 M Euro- 50 – 59 3 yrs. $150,000+

ville, IL American

Notes
I-03, a retired police chief, was one of the most aggressive agency owners that
I have met. He specifically discussed his marketing strategy, his work with
defense attorneys, and his “branding” techniques. He wants his company to be
recognized as the “block ops guys, the go to people.” In addition to defense
work, he also does “premium/hard serves” and some surveillance. I-03 and his
(table continues)
 264

partner, who specializes in investigative-public relations, works for legislators

and lobbyists. Both own another company that does corporate training for
doctors and corporate managers. I-03 only hires other retirees and he is trying
to establish a position for the company in the computer forensics market.

I-04 Glen 2/18/2009 M Euro- 50 – 59 9 yrs. $1 million+

S-1 Carbon, IL American

Notes
I-04 (also S-1), though very successful, did not use aggressive language to
describe his company. He indicated that he does not engage in tactics to try to
weed out the competition, as he feels others do to him (e.g., pretexting
agencies to see if investigators would agree to do something illegal). As he
continually stated: “I do not want to do things that will bring me ‘bad karma.’”
He was one of the most helpful and assisting interviewees, providing me with
several leads and discussing in detail what he felt were the many challenges
the industry faces. He primarily offers process serving services, but he also
had a very large investigative unit and recently started a biometrics finger
printing service by buying it from a competitor. He also has a real estate
business that is valued at over a million dollars. He also just launched another
company, Serve-X (a process server software), with his partner (I-06). I-04 has
a small office staff, which seemed to be satisfied with their jobs. In a lunch
conversation he said he thinks he is a socialist because he believes in public
healthcare.

I-05 Lawrence- 3/12/2009 F Euro- 40 – 49 15 yrs. $185,000+

S-3 ville, GA American

Notes
I was referred to I-05 (also S-3) by I-04. She is an agency owner that
specializes in criminal defense and domestic cases. Our first interview took
place over the phone and it was obvious that she was working on something
else while we talked. She was one of the easiest interviewees because she
would speak without interruption for 5-7 minutes without pause. I-04 described
I-05 as a “ruthless self-promoter,” and even paid $20,000 to shadow her. He
spent a week with her learning how she operates her business. Of all
interviewees, I-05 used the most competitive language to describe her
business practices. She was also the most interested in how this research
could benefit her company. For example, she as asked if I would write
something specifically about her. She described that she is most interested in
marketing and being her own boss. She does various things to distinguish her
company in the marketplace: “I used to spend fifteen thousand dollars a year
on DVD’s…, so now I’m getting a new one made with new cases ‘cause I
found a missing person, a missing daughter. And I’ve been on TV a couple
more times…. And then the biggest wave of the future is websites and
optimization. So I’ve invested so much money, and I spend about $3,500 a
month and it has already paid for itself….”

(table continues)
 265

I-06 Glen 3/24/2009 M European 40 – 49 24 yrs. $250,000+

Carbon, IL
Office
Notes
I-04 also introduced me to I-06, a business partner and specialist in litigation
software. I-06 is not, by definition, a private investigator; however, he develops
software for lawyers and process servers that are reshaping the way people do
their work in the industry. Part of the software he and I-04 are developing
seeks to eliminate data entry and save both law firms and investigation
companies money. I decided to include data from our interview, which took
place with I-04 present, because he had a very strong understanding of the
profession and was an entrepreneur operating within the field. He is actively
reshaping everyday work practices.

I-07 St. Louis, 3/11/2009 F Euro- 35 – 40 25 yrs. $150,000*

MO American

Notes
I interviewed I-07 in her messy office. She and her office assistant had recently
moved out of their other office, consolidating into a single room in order to
reduce expenses. I-07 works specifically in the area of skip tracing and
criminal profiling. Her primary interest is to do investigative work that can be
completed in her office, though she will go out of the office when necessary.
She has been on national television, highlighting one of the cases in which she
tracked a career criminal and serial rapist via the internet. She created a “fake
profile” (one that she knew he would like) and convinced him to come to St.
Louis, where he was arrested. She is currently writing a book about her life,
she has started a foundation that aids families of survivors of crime, and she
speaks publicly about sociopaths and crime. She has been working on her
journalism degree for more than fifteen years, and hopes to one day finish it.
She has not been able to do so because “business is too good.”

I-08 Houston, 3/04/2009 F African 40 – 50 15 yrs. $500,000+

TX American

Notes
I-08, a Certified Texas Investigator (TCI) and board member of TALI, was a
very prominent figure at the first TALI conference that I attended. She
introduced herself to me, thinking that I was a new investigator and TALI
member. Most people spoke very highly of her, indicating that she is one of the
few investigators who coaches new agency owners and supplies them with
any information and documents that they may need to be successful in
business. I-08 and I had made arrangements to have dinner and interview at
the conference, but our schedules were not well coordinated. I completed the
interview via phone at 11 pm at night while she “multi-tasked” and prepared to
go out looking for a witness. The interview started while she was at her home
office and ended while she was in her vehicle traveling to downtown Houston.
(table continues)
 266

I-08 works primarily in the area of defense and advertises that her company is
“minority owned and multi-lingual.” She hires investigators with language skills,
and currently offers services “in Spanish, French, and two African languages.”
Her company claims to be “minority specialists” and “mitigation specialists.”

I-09 Beaumont, 2/27/2009 M Euro- 60 + 40 yrs. $35,000*

TX American

Notes
I-09, a former President of TALI, is a soft spoken man with many years of
experience. He was in operation before TALI existed and before there were
licensing requirements. He has “done various things over the years” and his
business has been “both large and small.” He’s oscillated between “six-figure”
years and $20,000 years. Most recently, his home was destroyed in Hurricane
Ike, but TALI members collected donations and supplies to help him “weather
the storm.” He, like I-09, is a TCI. Like many of the investigators, he received
his insurance benefits through his wife. Currently, he is a sole-proprietor but is
thinking of forming the company as a limited liability company because he has
recently hired a secretary. He has recently “re-niched” after his friend retired
and gave him a client, noting: “I’ve stumbled into a niche now. I do widow
checks. In Texas and Louisiana, if someone is killed on the job, their survivor
can take a lump sum payment from workers comp, or they can get the
maximum workers comp benefit every week for the rest of their life, or until
they remarry. And then, extra money for each minor child, or, up to 23, if
they’re still in school. Well, every year someone has to go visit the widow and
find out, number one, make sure she’s still alive and Junior’s not cashing the
checks, and number two, have her sign a form saying she’s not remarried and
not living in a common law relationship.”

I-10 Browns- 2/27/2009 M Hispanic 60 + 13 yrs. $100,000+

ville, TX
Notes
I-10 is a lawyer-turned-private eye. He decided to turn to investigative work
because of the unfair treatment of suspects during trial processes. He
indicated that he wanted to offer defense investigative services that might
mitigate sentences of offenders. He prides himself on coaching and mentoring
other Latino and Hispanic investigators. While he also did process serving for a
period of time, he now only does it in border towns and Mexico for a premium.

I-11 Tyler, TX 2/27/2009 M Mexican 40 – 50 3 yrs. $25,000*

Notes
I interviewed I-11 with I-10. I-11, a correctional officer for a Texas penitentiary,
works as a private investigator part time. He plans to eventually do it full time.
I-11 is mentoring I-10 about business-related issues. I-11 primarily does
domestic-related cases and private security.
(table continues)
 267

I-12 Atlanta, 4/23/2009 M Euro- 60 + 30 yrs. $60,000+

GA American

Notes
I met I-12 while shadowing S-3. I-12 is a certified polygraph examiner and
does background checks, primarily for insurance and financial institutions. He
owns the company with his wife, who deals with client relations and maintains
the books. He considers himself “now retired” and is slowly disbanding the
company by taking on fewer clients. S-3 was very interested in noting during
our interview that she would like to take on some of his clients, though S-3
seemed a little reluctant. We actually went to I-12’s business because a client
of S-3 wanted to have a “lie-detector test” to prove that he was not mistreating
home owners at the exclusive gated-community where he worked. After the
client left, we met with I-12, who graciously allowed me to interview him for 45
minutes.

I-13 San 2/27/2009 M Euro- 50 – 60 30 yrs. $6 million+

Antonio, American
TX
Notes
I-13, described by others as “an entrepreneur who was going to make money
in any industry he went into” (I-20), has the largest company out of all those I
interviewed. Our interview took place at the TALI Midwinter Conference and
was very brief. We were constantly interrupted because people needed to
speak with him and he seemed a bit rushed (his leg kept moving up and down
at a rapid pace and he would look around to see if he was missing anything).
He has written several manuals on the business of investigating (unpublished)
and taught a course at the conference called “The Business of Private
Investigating.” His company employs 39 investigators and he has offices in
several states. He works primarily in the civil arena, both for claimants and
defendants. He also does a “fair amount of domestic cases.”

I-14 Pinckney- 3/28/2009 F Euro- 50 - 60 3 yrs. $30,000*

ville, IL American

Notes
I-14 works a great deal with I-03, who referred me to her as a potential
interviewee. While she has her own license, she collaboratively works with I-03
so she does not have to assume the risks of operating her own firm. She is
also a police deputy, so she does private work part-time. She does plan to do it
full-time after she retires, which she hopes will be relatively soon. She
describes her work as general investigations and primarily insurance- and
domestic-related surveillance.

(table continues)
 268

I-15 O’Fallon, 3/28/2009 M Euro- 40-50 1 yrs. $80,000+

S-2 IL American *49 y.o.

Notes
A recently retired police officer, I-15 (also S-2) was in the first year of
operation. He recently retired from the police department and has had his
private license for only two years. He works primarily with I-26 and has an
agreement to take over I-26’s surveillance unit, though this was abandoned
within the six months that I continued to have conversation with these two
participants. He wants to specialize primarily in insurance investigations and
domestic cases. He plans to continue to work with I-26, but will likely not
continue to do work exclusively for him. The benefit of working with I-26 is that
“he has an established reputation and strong advertising presence in yellow
pages, internet, and… [so on].”

I-16 Maryville, 05/01/2009 M Euro- 50 – 60 15 yrs. $100,000+

IL American

Notes
I-16 is a top board member and executive member of the Associated
Detectives & Security Agencies of Illinois (ADSAI). While it is one of the oldest
associations (founded in 1933), it is not the largest or most influential. I-16
supposedly has a new business venture within private investigations, but was
unwilling to discuss it with me “‘Cause…uh…frankly, no one around here has
ever done it.” He was to have the operation going in September 2009, but
relentless Google searches and checks to his website have thus far not
indicated that the venture is in operation. His background is in railroad
investigations and insurance, and so he has a unique niche as he continues to
work with railroad companies. While he takes domestic cases, he typically
gives these to his contract-employees and focuses his attention on his
accident and civil cases.

I-17 Houston, 08/20/2009 M Puerto 30 – 40 2 yrs. $35,000*

S-4 TX Rican

Notes
I-17 is the highest educated investigator that I interviewed. He has a Master’s
degree in exercise physiology. He got involved in investigations through a
friend who is an attorney. His experience in doing research as a graduate
student helped him get a job as an in-house law firm investigator. From this
experience he realized that he could do investigative work for attorneys,
particularly in the area of witness interviews and other investigative services
requiring documentation (e.g., interviewing witnesses in fraud cases and
accidents). Although he is a relatively new firm, he already has a strong
network and a professional image, complete with a downtown office.

(table continues)
 269

I-18 Granbury, 09/04/2009 M British 30 – 40 2 yrs. $60,000+

TX
I-19 Granbury, 09/04/2009 F Euro-
TX American
Notes
The only husband and wife team I interviewed, they both have undergraduate
degrees (in business) and formed their company after both worked for
attorneys. They currently specialize in the area of legal investigations, both civil
and defense. As part of their services, they interview witnesses, serve process,
and, though it does not require an investigator license, offer mobile notary
services. The two say that their education, professionalism, and his
“Britishness” are all very helpful. At the time of the interview, they were
catering to the cable and satellite companies, doing signal piracy checks. They
were going to sports bars and making sure that they were not pirating or
illegally showing pay-per-view events. They projected that their business was
growing and felt that having a husband and wife team was unique. They were
critical of TALI and were much happier with the work of other associations.

I-20 Austin, TX 09/01/2009 M Euro- 50 – 60 30 yrs. $100,000+

American

Notes
I-20 was one of the most unique characters I interviewed, and also one of the
most popular among other interviewees (i.e., they frequently mentioned his
name), although not for necessarily good reasons. People had suggested that
they had at one time or another been in a fight over the TALI listserv with him.
He was aware of his reputation. As he noted, without being prompted in regard
to listserv issues or others opinions of him, “We’ve had some open fights over
the internet, most of the other investigators don’t like that I suggest many of the
things they’re doing is illicit.” He has worked as a private investigator in San
Francisco, El Paso, and Austin. He specializes primarily in crime scene
analysis and investigation for defense, blood pattern analysis, and firearm
examination and reconstruction. He often serves as an expert witness. He has
recently solved a murder investigation and was given special recognition by
the family at the TALI Midwinter Conference (the jealousy among many of the
conference attendees was palpable). He says he spends upwards to $10,000
a year on specialized training (not private investigating), attending forensics
conferences, typically only frequented by public investigators. He also
specializes in electronic countermeasures, which he said only about six people
in the state of Texas are qualified to do (though many others advertise and do
it). He was one of the more liberal investigators I interviewed, stating that he is
very concerned about the encroachment of the state (police) on individual
freedom. He prefers to work as a defense expert.

(table continues)
 270

I-21 Austin, TX 09/01/2009 F Euro- 40 – 50 10 yrs. $250,000*

American

Notes
I-21 (like I-05) began a career in the profession of private investigations for
somewhat personal exigencies. She was a single mother in need of a more or
less flexible-time job. I-21 has two bachelor’s degrees (communication and
sociology). She also noted she is a semi-professional photographer. She
initially began as a field investigator for an agency, but quickly established her
own company. Her small company now employees 6 part-time contractors and
she plans to hire more soon, “because her business is doing well.” Specializing
primarily in the area of civil, domestic, and business investigations, she has a
strong web presence with a well-read blog. Like the other Austin investigators,
she has her own office space near downtown, “for legitimacy purposes.”

I-22 Austin, TX 09/01/2009 M Euro- 50 – 60 15 yrs. $500,000*

American

Notes
I-22 is a former Lieutenant at the Texas Department of Public Safety (TDPS).
He was forced to take early retirement. While working for TDPS he was trained
in the area of electronic countermeasures, a skill set that gives him a unique
niche in the private sector. He also specializes in executive protection for
international business people who visit Austin. Simultaneously, he works as an
on-staff corporate security specialist for a large firm in the Austin area. Of
course, he also does not pass up domestic cases. At the time of the interview
he employed four investigators but had plans to hire three younger
investigators. While employed in the profession, I worked a big insurance case
with I-22 in Mobile, Alabama. I continue to do contract for him as his social
network manager and website developer.

I-23 Browns- 08/22/2009 M Latino 30 – 40 3 yrs. $45,000*

ville, TX

Notes
I met I-23 at the TALI summer conference in Austin, Texas. I started a
conversation with him at random and then continued the interview by
telephone a few weeks later. I-23 is a bilingual investigator working primarily
for a small law firm that specializes in defense work; however, he now has his
own agency license, and while serving the needs of his primary client, is also
taking on additional work. He worries about operating his young company
while his oldest child begins college in fall 2010. I-23 has a bachelor’s degree
in mass communications and public relations.

(table continues)
 271

I-24 Lewisville, 11/30/2009 M Euro- 50 – 60 8 yrs. $250,000+

S-5 TX American

Notes
I-24 had a law enforcement and computer career prior to becoming a private
investigator in 2001, partly for economic reasons. Focusing primarily on
domestic cases, he has built a fairly substantial client base in the insurance
industry as well as the domestic arena. Besides employee costs, he spends
about $10,000 a year on advertising, which includes yellow pages, Google,
and Yahoo! ads. This is important, according to him, for maintaining a large
number of domestic cases, which are not commonly a referral business. His
insurance clients, who took several years to retain them, do offer many
referrals. Though he has investigated accidental deaths, robberies, and
computer crimes, he prefers surveillance. He operates solely out of his home
and prefers to meet with clients where it is convenient for them.

I-25 Houston, 09/02/2009 M Hispanic 20 – 30 1 yrs. $20,000*

TX

Notes
One of the youngest agency owners that I met, I-25 works primarily for an
attorney and does some of his own work on the side. He was able to obtain his
license by working part time for a local investigator. He plans to eventually
bring on additional clients and only work on retainer for the attorney that now
currently employs him. His area of expertise is in civil and criminal defense.

I-26 O’Fallon, 08/07/2009 M Euro- 40 – 50 10 yrs. $350,000+

IL American

Notes
I-26 works primarily as an outside corporate investigator, doing fraud
examination for small businesses. He is an accountant by training and is a
certified public accountant and certified fraud examiner. He started in
investigations after the savings and loan scandals, hoping to help farms and
small businesses avoid risky investments; this led to doing some investigative
work, which he says he found more interesting and better return on
investment. He does some domestic cases and for a short period of time, he
was planning to spin this division off, slowly selling it to S-2.

I-27 St. Louis, 10/15/2009 M African 40-50 6 yrs. $100,000+

MO American

Notes
A former police officer in Memphis Tennessee, I-27 relocated to Missouri for
family reasons. He was burnt out on public policing and thought it would be
interesting to work in the private sector. While attending a few night classes, he
met a young attorney who was looking for someone as a witness interviewer.
(table continues)
 272

He started working for the attorney and “was immediately hooked.” Now he
works exclusively for attorneys doing mitigation research for civil and criminal
defense.

I-28 Denton, 08/06/2009 F Hispanic 40-50 5 yrs. $80,000*

TX

Notes
I-28 has owned several businesses, but now works primarily with attorneys on
immigration and drug-related defenses. He also offers some domestic
services, particular for missing or exploited children. He has a pre-law degree
and an undergraduate degree in public administration. He worked for the
Texas Department of Public Safety for several years while managing his other
small enterprises.

I-29 Dallas, TX 02/28/2009 F White 40-50 8 yrs. 125,000+

Notes
I-29 bills herself as a general investigator “doing everything that she can get
her hands on,” though most of her work tends to be skip tracing and domestic
cases. She complained extensively about the “good ol' boys” network in TALI
and felt that she did not get much support or mentoring from them. She also
though that they were far too radical and had politicized the listserv. Several
interviewees actually left one of the conferences after one of the speaker’s
gave a racist diatribe. She also has an interesting niche of checking on nursing
homes and child care facilities for families. She was currently in the process of
setting up a secret shopper program.

I-30 Dallas, TX 02/28/009 M White 50-60 7 yrs. 250,000*

I-30 is an investigator with perhaps one of the most unique niches. He is a fire
and arson investigator, working primarily for defense attorneys. He also offers
underwater salvage and water accident investigations. This includes doing
boating accident reconstruction and investigations for clients who have been
harmed by water pollutants. While he doesn't make a lot of money from
investigations, his primary “bread and butter,” as he a called it, is serving as an
expert witness throughout the world, but primarily in the United States, the
United Kingdom, and Australia.

Notes. a Interviewees were asked to describe their identity. Some categorized themselves
by race, others by ethnicity.
b
I asked interviewees to “just give me a range that you fall into age-wise.” These were
their responses.
c
YinO = Years in Operation
d
Many investigators were reluctant to give me financial data, so I asked them to just give
me a range or estimate of their annual gross income and an estimate of their profit
 273

margins. If they gave me an “about statement,” this is represented with * (e.g., $35,000* =
about $35,000. If they said something like “more than…,” this is represented with the
figure and a + (e.g., $150,000+ = “more than $150,000).
 274

Appendix B: Research Subjects and Costs

Table B.2.

Personal time and money invested in interviews

Inter- Location of Interview Assig. CPAMc TTCd EPTIe

viewee Interview Lengtha Trans.b

I-01 Dallas, TX 1 h 59 m 01 $0.00 $0.00 7 hours

Starbucks (119 m)

I-02 Carbondale, IL 1 h 17 m 02 $0.70 $30.26 4.5 hours

Barnes and Noble (43.23 m)

I-03 Carbondale, IL 3 h 25 m 03 $0.60 $18.79 10 hours

Denny’s (31.32 m)

I-04; Edwardsville, IL 6 h 58 m* 01; 04 $0.85 $23.97 17 hours

S-01 Various locations (28.2 m)

I-05; Carbondale, IL 1 h 48 m 02 $0.70 $53.20 7 hours

S-03 Phone (76 m)

I-06 Glen Carbon, IL 37 m 03 $0.75 $23.25 2.5 hours

Office (31 m)

I-07 St. Louis, IL 53 m 02 $0.60 $25.87 7 hours

Office (43.11 m)

I-08 Carbondale, IL 1 h 12 m 03 $0.70 $28.38 3.5 hours

Phone (40.54 m)

I-09 Dallas, TX 55 m 04 $0.75 $36.86 3 hours

Conference (49.15 m)

I-10 46 m 04 $0.90 $34.20 2.5 hours

Dallas, TX (38 m)
Denny’s
I-11 (Interview together)
I-12 Atlanta, GA 48 m 01 $0.00 $0.00 3.5 hours
Office (48 m)

I-13 Dallas, TX 21 m 03 $0.70 $12.87 1.5 hours

Conference (18.39 m)

I-14 Pinckneyville, IL 43 m 01 $0.00 $0.00 3.5 hours

McDonald’s (43 m)

(table continues)
 275

Table B.2 (continued)

Inter- Location of Interview Assig. CPAMc TTCd EPTIe

viewee Interview Lengtha Trans.b

I-15*; Glen Carbon, IL 4 h 30 m 01 $0.00 $0.00 13.5 hours

S-01 (Various) (80 m)

I-16 Maryville, IL 1 h 09 m 03 $0.70 $30.10 8.5 hours

Office (43 m)

I-17; Carbondale, IL / 3 h 55 m 04 $0.50 $37.50 14.5 hours

S-04 Houston, TX (75 m)
Phone / Office
I-18 55 m 04 $1.00 $39.48 8.5 hours
Granbury, TX (39.48)
I-19 Subway

I-20 Austin, TX 1 hr 53 m 05 $0.80 $56.82 7.5 hours

Office (71.3 m)

I-21 Austin, TX 1 h 15 m 05 $0.75 $18.57 3.5 hours

Office (24.76 m)

I-22 Austin, TX 2 h 12 m 04 $0.85 $35.96 5 hours

Taco Express (42.3 m)

I-23 Carbondale, IL 44 m 01 $0.00 $0.00 3 hours

Phone (44 m)

I-24; Dallas, TX 8 h 55 m 01 $0.00 $0.00 18 hours

S-05 Various (170 m)

I-25 Houston, TX 35 m 01 $0.00 $0.00 1.5 hours

Office (20 m)

I-26 O’Fallon, IL 2 hr 28 m 01 $0.00 $0.00 6 hours

Office (44 m)

I-27 Carbondale, IL 38 m 01 $0.00 $0.00 2 hours

Phone (37 m)

I-28 Austin, TX 12 m 01 $0.00 $0.00 45 minutes

Conference 12 m

I-29 Dallas, TX 40 m 02 $0.65 $28.20 2.5 hours

Conference (31.55 m)

(table continues)
 276

Table B.2 (continued)

Inter- Location of Interview Assig. CPAMc TTCd EPTIe

viewee Interview Lengtha Trans.b

I-30 Dallas, TX 43 m 02 $0.70 $30.26 3 hours

Conference (40.31 m)
Totals $565.-- 167.5
hours

Notes. a Interview length is actual time of recorded audio. The time in parentheses is the
audio time that was transcribed.
b
This is the number of the transcriptions, which corresponds to data regarding the
amount of money spent on transcriptions.
c
CPAM = Cost per audio minute. This is the fee charged by the transcriptionist.
d
TTC = Total Transcription Cost; the amount I paid for the transcription service.
e
Estimated Personal Time Invested. The estimated personal invested include time solely
given to interview preparation, the interview, listening to tapes, preparing transcriptions
or transcribing tasks I completed without the aid of a transcriptionist. Clearly, hiring a
transcriptionist saved me time.
* Indicates that there were multiple interviews.
All times are based on actual commute time. For example, if I was already at a
conference, I did not include this in the time dedicated to the interview. Also, if I also
shadowed the individual, I have not calculated our time together, just stand-alone
interviews.
 277

Appendix B: Research Subjects and Costs

Table B.3.

Fieldwork expenses incurred

Description Costs Totals

Equipment
Atlas.ti: Qualitative Data Analysis Software $160.00
Dell Minicomputer $403.00
Digital Recorder $149.00
Sony USB Foot pedal and Software $58.50
Wavepad Sound Editor (free: www.nch.com.au/) $0.00
$770.50

Supplies
Specialty Envelopes/Labels $58.28
Labels $5.25
Printer Ink (280 at $0.018 cents per page) $5.04
Stamps $54.00
Thank you cards $6.50
Batteries for digital recorder $12.00
$141.07

Travel
Vehicle Travel (Includes long-distance travel only) $3,040.95
- St. Louis area field research: 1,280 miles
- Georgia Trip: 986 miles
- Texas Trip 1: 290 miles (to St. Louis airport)
- Texas Trip 2: 613 miles (to St. Louis airport,
Dallas to Austin)
- Texas Trip 3: 2,360 miles
- Total: 5,529
Airfare/Train $365.00
- Texas Trip 1: $123.00
- Texas Trip 2: $242.00 (returned via Chicago)
Lodging $1,030.00
Meals $103.00
$4,538.95
(table continues)
 278

Table B.3 (continued)

Description Costs Totals

Transcription services
Transcriptionist 02 $167.79
Transcriptionist 03 $113.39
Transcriptionist 04 $227.97
Transcriptionist 05 $75.39
$584.54

Miscellaneous expenses
PI Class at John A. Logan Community College $55.00
Conference Registration (TALI) $110.00
$165.00
TOTAL $6,200.06
 279

Appendix C: A Timely Account about Health Insurance

Health care is certainly a risk to agency owners, which is captured in the

following not-so-uplifting exchange I had with I-18 and I-19, a married business team:

CE: Right. So you guys have young children, right? And you both own the
business?
I-18: Mm-hmm.
CE: So that leads me to my next question: How you deal with health
insurance?
I-18: Yeah, how do we? … Ironically, not that long ago [I had] to go into the
hospital.
CE: Really? I hope you’re doing okay.
I-18: Yeah. Yes, yeah. But in terms of covering costs, we don’t. We don’t have
health insurance. We need it. But we can’t afford it.
CE: Well, your insight would be interesting then. How do you think this
changes the dynamic of business ownership in the United States given
that there isn’t a social[ized] system?
I-18: I don’t know. It’s difficult. I mean, at the end of the day our aspiration is
obviously to generate enough income to provide for these things. I don’t
know that I would quit what we’re doing to, for example, take a job just for
medical, but at the same time, how do you cover the costs should the
unexpected arrive? My opinion is that there is a place for socialized
medical care in this country, I don’t know that they’ve quite figured out the
way to do that properly, really, because there’s a lot of people that say
they’re against it, they’re for it… I don’t know what the answer is.
CE: It’s a very costly investment….
I-18: It really is. We looked into the cost, and unfortunately [I-19] suffers from
migraines as well. And so to get coverage to take care of that as well…I
think it was $800 or maybe $1,000 just for her.
…
I-19: We just started looking into it because after [I-18’s] visit to the ER, I said
that we just can’t afford it. It was just shy of a $10,000 bill.

Notes: While many private investigators start their business after they retire (and

thus have company- or state-sponsored health coverage) or have a spouse who works

for an organization that provides the insurance for both (e.g., Interviewee 09’s [I-09] wife

works for a school district), 10 out of the 30 interviewees (33.3%) do not. Almost all of

them, despite their varying opinions about a public option, stressed that they fear a

medical expense will force them out of business. Other common issues dealt with the

potential loss of retirement savings that were used to pay for start-up expenses and

increased sales tax and credit card processing fees.

 280

Appendix D: An Example Field Report Written by S-5 (Redacted)

This investigator, a licensed Texas private investigator (License # 123456), at the

request of DEBORAH PUBLIC, herein after referred to as D. PUBLIC, set up
surveillance at an office building located at 911 Industrial Lane, Plano, Texas, 75074 at
approximately 1045 hours. This investigator established a visual position near a gray
BMW with Texas license plates (# LIC ENZ). This vehicle is registered to D. PUBLIC and
JOHN PUBLIC, herein after referred to as J. PUBLIC.
At approximately 1115 hours, a white male, approximately 40 years old with gray
hair, and of average height and weight, exited 911 Industrial Drive wearing a dark blue
polo-style shirt, light brown khaki-style jeans and brown shoes. This individual has been
identified as J. Public. J. Public entered the gray BMW with Texas license (# LIC ENZ).
J. Public traveled eastbound on Industrial Lane. At the intersection of Firelane and
Industrial Lane, J. Public turned left and headed southbound toward the President
George Bush Toll Road (Texas 190). J. Public entered Texas 190 and proceeded
westbound toward Atown. [We give driving directives, but for brevity I will omit any
further driving information in this example report.] … At approximately 1150 hours the
gray BMW with Texas license plate (#LIC ENZ) entered the parking lot of A Mall and
parked near the Macy’s. This investigator established a position so as to maintain visual
contact on the BMW and the entrance to Macy’s. It appeared that J. Public was talking
on a cellular phone. The conversation appeared to end at 1201 hours.
At approximately 1201 hours J. Public exited the BMW with Texas license (# LIC
ENZ) and walked into the Macy’s. This investigator followed J. Public into Macy’s and to
the women’s professional clothing section. This investigator was unable to have video
surveillance at this time. J. Public met with a white female, approximately 30 years old
with brunette hair, and of average height and weight. She was wearing a black top and
black business skirt. This woman appeared to be an employee of Macy’s. This woman
has been identified as Sally Snicker, herein after referred to as S. Snicker. This
investigator witnessed a brief conversation between S. Snicker and J. Public. S. Snicker
appeared to continue working with a store patron. J. Public waited on a bench near the
cash register. At approximately 1214 hours, S. Snicker and J. Public exited Macy’s
together into the main mall area and walked together to the food court area. We were on
the ground floor. S. Snicker and J. Public were walking toward the escalators to the
second floor. I established a position so as to take be able to take video with my digital
camera. As J. Public and S. Snicker ascended up the escalator, S. Snicker leaned back
into J. Public who put his arms around S. Snicker.
At approximately 1225 hours S. Snicker and J. Public ordered food from
Mongolian Wok and sat at a table (on the same side of the table) in the food court area.
This investigator ordered food and sat approximately two tables from S. Snicker and J.
Public. This investigator used a digital camera to covertly capture the activities of S.
Snicker and J. Public. During the course of the lunch J. Public gave S. Snicker a small
package, and they continued to have physical contact, including approximately five (5)
mouth-to-mouth kisses.
At approximately 1310 hours, this investigator observed J. Public and S. Snicker
leave the food court. J. Public and S. Snicker walked back to Macy’s. At approximately
1313 hours, upon arrival at Macy’s, J. Public and S. Snicker kissed. This investigator
followed J. Public as he exited Macy’s and returned to a gray BMW with Texas license
plates (# LIC ENZ). At approximately 1319 hours this investigator observed the gray
BMW with Texas license plates (# LIC ENZ), driven by J. Public, exit the parking lot and
drove southbound on Atown Mainstreet. […] At approximately 1330 hours this
investigator ceased the investigation at the request of D. Public. (End Report.)
 281

VITA

Graduate School
Southern Illinois University

Craig L. Engstrom Date of Birth: April 15, 1979

903 S. Skyline Dr., Carbondale, Illinois 62901

[email protected]

Mesa State College, Grand Junction, CO

Bachelor of Business Administration, Human Resources, 2000

Southern Illinois University Carbondale, IL

Master of Arts in Speech Comm., Culture and Communication, May 2006

Special Honors and Awards:

SIUC Dissertation Research Award, 2009-2010

Dissertation Title:
Shadowing Practices: Ethnographic Accounts of Private Eyes as Entrepreneurs

Major Professor: Nathan P. Stucky

Publications:

Engstrom, C. (forthcoming). An Autoethnographic account of prosaic

entrepreneurship, Journal of Critical Organizational Inquiry

Engstrom, C. (2009). Performance pedagogy through visual ethnography:

Examples from college life, Transformations, 20, 19-30.

Engstrom, C. (2009). Promoting peace, yet sustaining conflict: A fantasy-theme

analysis of Seeds of Peace publications, Journal of Peace Education, 6, 19-36.

Engstrom, C. (2008). Autoethnography as an approach to intercultural training,

Rocky Mountain Communication Review, 5, 17-31.

Engstrom, C. (2008, January). The interdisciplinary lessons in Sanjay Seth’s

Subject Lessons, Education Review, (http://edrev.asu.edu/reviews/rev623.htm)