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 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION

PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION

1. INTRODUCTION 2.2 Newland’s Law of Octaves

Periodic table may be defined as the table which classifies In 1865, an English chemist, John Alexander Newlands
all the known elements in accordance with their properties observed that
in such a way that elements with similar properties are
grouped together in the same vertical column and When the lighter elements were arranged in order of their
increasing atomic weights, the properties of every eighth
dissimilar elements are separated from one another.
element were similar to those of the first one like the eighth
note of a musical scale. This generalization was named as
2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF Newlands’s law of octaves.
THE PERIODIC TABLE
Element Li Be B C N O F
All earlier attempts of the classification of the elements were At. wt. 7 9 11 12 14 16 19
based upon their atomic weights.
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
2.1 Dobereiner’s Triads
At. wt. 23 24 27 29 31 32 35.5
In 1829, Dobereiner classified certain elements in the groups Element K Ca
of three called triads. The three elements in a triad had similar
At. wt. 39 40
chemical properties. When the elements in a triad were
arranged in the order of increasing atomic weights, the atomic
weight of the middle element was found to be approximately
2.3 Lothar Meyer’s Curve
equal to the arithmetic mean of the other two elements.
1. Triad Iron Cobalt Nickel Mean of 1st “Physical properties of elements are periodic functions of
and 3rd their atomic masses.”
At. wt. 55.85 58.93 58.71 Atomic weights According to Lothar Meyer, elements having similar
are nearly the same properties occupy the similar positions in atomic volume
viz atomic mass curve
2. Triad Lithium Sodium Potassium

7  39
At. wt. 7 23 39  23
2

3. Triad Chlorine Bromine Iodine

35.5 127
At. wt. 35.5 80 127  81.25
2

4. Triad Calcium Strontium Barium

2.4 Mendeleev’s Periodic Law
40  177
At. wt. 40 87.5 137  88.5
2 Mendeleev arranged elements in horizontal rows and vertical
columns of a table in order of their increasing atomic weights
in such a way that the elements with similar properties
occupied the same vertical column or group.
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PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION

Mendeleev’s Periodic Law was, therefore, accordingly

2.5 Modern Periodic Law
modified. This is known as the Modern Periodic Law and
In 1913, the English physicist, Henry Moseley observed can be stated as :
regularities in the characteristic X-ray spectra of the The physical and chemical properties of the elements are
elements. A plot of v (where v is frequency of X-rays periodic functions of their atomic numbers.
emitted) against atomic number (Z) gave a straight line and
not the plot of v vs atomic mass.
 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION

Nomenclature of elements with Atomic Numbers > 100

4. PROPERTIES OF AN ELEMENT
The naming of the new elements had been traditionally the
privilege of the discoverer and the suggested name was
4.1 Atomic Radius
ratified by the IUPAC.
Table : Notation for IUPAC Nomenclature of Elements We cannot measure the exact size of an isolated atom because
its outermost electron have a remote chance of being found
Digit Name Abbreviation
quite far from the nucleus. So different types of atomic radius
0 nil n can be used based on the environment of atoms i.e; covalent
1 un u radius, van der Waals’ radius, metallic radius.
2 bi b
4.1.1 Covalent Radius
3 tri t
4 quad q The half of the distance between the nuclei of two identical
5 pent p atoms joined by single covalent bond in a molecule is
6 hex h known as covalent radius.
7 sept s
8 oct o
9 enn e

Table : Nomenclature of Elements with

Atomic Number Above 100

Atomic Number Name Symbol

101 Unnilunium Unu

102 Unnibium Unb
So covalent radius for A-A
103 Unniltrium Unt
104 Unnilquadium Unq d A A
rA 
105 Unilpentium Unp 2
106 Unnilhexium Unh
If covalent bond is formed between two different elements then
107 Unnilseptium Uns
108 Unniloctium Uno d A B  rA  rB  0.09 ( A   B )

109 Unnilennium Une where A and B are electronegative of A and B

110 Ununnillium Uun 4.1.2 Vander Waal’s Radius
It is half of the internuclear distance between adjacent
3. PREDICTION OF BLOCK, PERIOD & GROUP atoms of the two neighbouring molecules in the solid state.

1. What electronic configuration

2. Block - last e– enters into which orbital
3. Period - Max value of principal quantum number
Group - s block - no. of valence electron
p block - 10 + no. of valence electron
d block – ns + no. of (n – 1) d e–
f block – III B d A A
rvander waal 
2
 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION

4.1.3 Metallic Radius (Crystal radius) In general, the ionic radii of elements exhibit the same trend
It is one-half of the distance between the nuclei of two as the atomic radii. A cation is smaller than its parent atom
adjacent metal atoms in the metallic crystal lattice. because it has fewer electrons while its nuclear charge
remains the same. The size of an anion will be larger than
that of the parent atom because the addition of one or more
electrons would result in increased repulsion among the
electrons and a decrease in effective nuclear charge. For
example, the ionic radius of fluoride ion (F–) is 136 pm whereas
the atomic radius of fluorine is only 64 pm. On the other
hand ,the atomic radius of sodium is 186 pm compared to
the ionic radius of 95 pm for Na+.
(d) Isoelectronic Species
Isoelectronic species are those which have same number of
electrons. For example, O2–, F–, Na+ and Mg2+ have the same
number of electrons (10). Their radii would be different
because of their different nuclear charges. The cation with
So metallic radius for A-A the greater positive charge will have a smaller radius because
d = rA + rA of the greater attraction of the electrons to the nucleus.
Anion with the greater negative charge will have the larger
d radius. In this case, the net repulsion of the electrons will
rA 
2 outweigh the nuclear charge and the ion will expand in size.
Order of atomic radii is
* rcovalent < rmetallic < rvander waals• Mg2+ < Na+ < F– < O2–
General Trend :
4.2 Variation of Atomic Radii in the Periodic Table

(a) Variation along a period Decreases

In general, the covalent and van der Waals radii decrease Period
At
Increases

with increase in atomic number as we move from left to o

R a mi c
right in a period. dii

4.3 Atomic Radii Group

(a) Variation along a period

It is because with in the period the outer electrons are in the 4.4 Ionization Energy
same valence shell & the effective nuclear charge increases
The minimum amount of energy required to remove the
as the atomic number increases resulting in the increased
electron from the outermost orbit of an isolated atom in
attraction of electrons to the nucleus.
the gaseous state is known as ionization energy.
(b) Variation along a group
IE1 (First Ionization
Atomic radius in a group increase as the atomic number
M   M    M
2

3
Energy IE 2 IE
 e  e e
increases. It is because with in the group, the principal
quantum number (n) increases and the valence electrons
are farther from the nucleus. M 3   M
IE 4 4
e
(c) Ionic Radius
IE1, IE2, IE3 and IE4 are successive ionization energies.
The removal of an electron from an atom results in the formation
of a cation, whereas gain of an electron leads to an anion.
 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION

* Ionization energy increases if atom having half filled

IE 4  IE3  IE 2  IE1 and fully filled orbitals
or i H 4  i H3  i H 2  i H1
* The penetrating power of orbitals is in the order
s>p>d>f
Variation of Ionisation Energy in Periodic Table
(a) Variation along a period Increases
In a period, the value of ionisation enthalpy increases Period
from left to right with breaks where the atoms have some-
what stable configurations. The observed trends can be

Decreases
Io
n
easily explained on the basis of increased nuclear charge e n i za t
erg ion
and decrease in atomic radii. Both the factors increase the y
force of attraction towards nucleus and consequently, more
and more energy is required to remove the electrons and Group
hence, ionisation enthalpies increase.
(b) Variation along a group
Electron Gain Enthalpy
On moving the group, the atomic size increases gradually
When an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom (X) to
due to an addition of one new principal energy shell at
convert it into a negative ion, the enthalpy change
each succeeding element. On account of this, the force of
accompanying the process is defined as the Electron Gain
attraction towards the valence electrons decreases and
E n t (egH). Electron gain enthalpy provides a measure
h a l p y

hence the ionisation enthalpy value decreases.

of the ease with which an atom adds an electron to form
4.5 Units of I.E./I.P. anion as represented by
X(g) + e–  X–(g)
It is measured in units of electron volts (eV) per atom or kilo
calories per mole (kcal mol–1) or kilo Joules per mole (kJ mol–1). Depending on the element, the process of adding an electron
One electron volt is the energy acquired by an electron while to the atom can be either endothermic or exothermic. For
moving under a potential difference of one volt. many elements energy is released when an electron is added
to the atom and the electron gain enthalpy is negative. For
1 electron volt (eV) per atom
example, group 17 elements (the halogens) have very high
= 3.83 × 10–20 cal per atom negative electron gain enthalpies because they can attain
= 1.602 × 10–19 J per atom (1 cal = 4.184 J) stable noble gas electronic configurations by picking up an
electron. On the other hand, noble gases have large positive
= 3.83 × 10–20 × 6.023 × 1023 cal mol–1
electron gain enthalpies because the electron has to enter
= 23.06 kcal mol–1 the next higher principal quantum level leading to a very
= 1.602 × 10–19 × 6.023 × 1023 J mol–1 unstable electronic configuration.

= 96.49 kJ mol–1 Variation of Electron Gain Enthalpy

 1 electron volt (eV) per atom (a) Variation along a period

= 23.06 kcal mol–1 = 96.49 kJ mol–1 Electron gain enthalpy becomes more and more negative
from left to right in a period. This is due to decrease in size
Important Points
and increase in nuclear charge as the atomic number
* Ionization energy increases with decreasing the size increases in a period. Both these factors favour the
of an atom or an ion addition of an extra electron due to higher force of
* Ionization energy increases with decreasing screening attraction by the nucleus for the incoming electron.
effect. (b) Variation along a group
* Ionization energy increases with increasing nuclear The electron gain enthalpies, in general, become less
charge negative in going down from top to bottom in a group.
This is due to increase in size on moving down a group.
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION

This factor is predominant in comparison to other factor,

IP  EA
i.e., increase in nuclear charge. Electronegativity 
2
Increases
(where IP = Ionization potential, EA = Electron affinity)
Period
If IP and EA are taken in electron volt
El
Decreases

e
af ctro
fin n * Percentage ionic character = 16 (A – B) + 3.5 (A – B)2
ity
where A and B are electronegativities of A and B.

Group
* If the difference in the electronegatives of combining
atoms is 1.7, the bond is 50% covalent and 50% ionic.
* If the difference in electronegativities of oxygen and
4.6 Electronegativity element is very high the oxide shows a basic character.

The tendency of an atom to attract the shared pair of Increases

electrons towards itself is known as its electronegativity. Period
El
ec
According to Pauling, the electronegativity of F is 4.0 and tro
ne

Decreases
electronegativity of other elements can be calculated as g ati
vi
ty
(A – B) = 0.208 [EA–B – (EA–A × EB–B)1/2]1/2
According to Mulliken Group

The periodic trends of elements in the periodic table

 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION

It has been observed that some elements of the second

4.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties
period show similarities with the elements of the third
4.7.1 Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States period placed diagonally to each other, though belonging
The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are to different groups. For example, lithium (of group 1)
called valence electrons and the number of these electrons resembles magnesium (of group 2) and beryllium (of group
determine the valence or the valency of the atom. It is 2) resembles aluminium (of group 13) and so as. This
because of this reason that the outermost shell is also called similarity in properties of elements placed diagonally to
the valence shell of the atom and the orbitals present in each other is called diagonal relationship.
the valence shell are called valence orbitals.
In case of representative elements, the valence of an atom is
generally equal to either the number of valence electrons
(s- and p-block elements) or equal to eight minus the number
of valence electrons. The anomalous behaviour is due to their small size, large
charge/radius ratio and high electronegativity of the
elements. In addition, the first member of group has only
four valence orbitals (2s and 2p) available for bonding,
whereas the second member of the groups have nine valence
orbitals (3s, 3p, 3d). As a consequence of this, the maximum
covalency of the first member of each group is 4 (e.g., boron
In contrast, transition and inner transition elements, exhibit
can only form [BF4])–, whereas the other members of the
variable valence due to involvement of not only the valence
groups can expand their valence shell to accommodate more
electrons but d- or f-electrons as well. However, their most
than four pairs of electrons e.g., aluminium forms [AlF6]3–.
common valence are 2 and 3.
Furthermore, the first member of p-block elements displays
Let us now discuss periodicity of valence along a period
greater ability to form p-p multiple bonds to itself (e.g.,
and within a group.
C=C, CC, N=N, NN) and to other second period elements
(a) Variation along a period
(e.g., C=O, C=N, CN, N=O) compared to subsequent
As we move across a period from left to right, the number of
members of the same groups.
valence electrons increases from 1 to 8. But the valence of
4.7.3 Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity
elements, w.r.t. H or O first increases from 1 to 4 and then
Reactivity of Metals
decreases to zero.
The reactivity of metals is measured in terms of their
In the formation of Na2O molecule, oxygen being more
tendency to lose electrons from their outermost shell.
electronegative accepts two electrons, one from each of the
In a period
two sodium atoms and thus shows an oxidation state of –2.
The tendency of an element to lose electrons decreases in
On the other hand, sodium with valence shell electronic
going from left to right in a period. So, the reactivity of
configuration as 3s1 loses one electron to oxygen and is
metals decreases in a period from left to right. For example,
given an oxidation state of +1. Thus, the oxidation state of
the reactivity of third period elements follows the order.
an element in a given compound may be defined as the
charge acquired by its atom on the basis of Na  Mg  Al
more reactive reactive
electronegativity of the other atoms in the molecule. In a group
(b) Variation within a group The tendency to lose electrons increases as we go down a
When we move down the gorup, the number of valence group. So, the reactivity of metals increases down the group.
electrons remains the same, therefore, all the elements in a Thus, in group 1, the reactivity follows the order.
group exhibit the same valence. For example, all the elements
of group 1 (alkali metals) have valence one while all the Li  Na  K  Rb  Cs
Least reactive Most reactive
elements of group 2 (alkaline earth metals) exhibit a valence
of two. –— Reactivity increases  
Noble gases present in group 18 are zerovalent, i.e., their Reactivity of Non-Metals
valence is zero since these elements are chemically inert. The reactivity of a non-metal is measured in terms of its
4.7.2 Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements tendency to gain electrons to form an anion.
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION

In a period decreases down the group. The reactivity of halogens follows

The reactivity of non-metals increases from left to right in a the order
period. During reaction, non-metals tend to form anions. For F  Cl  Br  I
example, in the second period, the reactivity of non-metals Most reactive Least reactive

increases in the order.

–— Reactivity decreases  
C  N  O  F The normal oxide formed by the element on extreme left is
Less reactive More reactive
the most basic (e.g., Na2O) whereas that formed by the element on
–— Reactivity increases 
 extreme right is the most acidic (e.g., Cl2O7). Oxides of elements in
In a group the centre are amphoteric (e.g., Al2O3, As2O3) or neutral (e.g., CO,
The reactivity of non-metals in a group decreases as we go NO, N2O). Amphoteric oxides behave as acidic with bases and as
down the group. This is because the tendency to accept electrons basic with acids, whereas neutral oxides have no acidic or basic
properties.

First increases then decreases

GENERAL TREND OF DIFFERENT PROPERTIES IN THE PERIOD AND GROUPS

Decreases

Decreases
Decreases

Decreases

Decreases

Decreases
Decreases

Decreases

Decreases
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Increases
Increases

Increases

Increases
Increases
Increases

Increases

Decrease
Therma stability of hydroxide
Thermal stability of carbonates
Thermal stability of nitrates

Electro Positivity
Thermal stability of sulphate

Density
Basic character of Oxides

Increases
Strength of oxy acids
Basic character of hydrides
Basic character of hydroxides

Increases
Increases
Increases
Effective nuclear charge (Z.)

Increases
Valency w.r.t. Oxygen

Increases
Decreases
Increases
Covalent character of halides

Screening effect

(Non metal) Decreases (Metals) Increases

(Metals) Increases
Reducing nature
Oxidising nature

Constant
Metallic character

Constant
Increases
Electron affinity

Increases
Electronegativity

Decreases
Ionisation potential

Increases
Decreases
Decreases
Atomic radius

Decreases
Decreases
Increases

O
R

U
P
S
 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION

4.7.4 Inert Pair Effect s-block elements occupy IA(1) and IIA(2) groups, i.e.,
In groups 13-16, as we move down the group, the tendency extreme left portion of the periodic table.
of s-electrons of the valence shell to participate in bond p-block elements occupy IIIA(13), IVA(14), VA(15), VIA(16),
formation decreases. This means that lower oxidation state VIIA(17) and VIIIA(18) groups, i.e., right portion of the
becomes more stable. periodic table.
Reason: As we go down these groups, the increased nuclear d-block elements occupy IIIB(3), IVB(4), VB(5), VIB(6),
charge outweighs the effect of the corresponding increase VIIB(7), VIIB(8, 9 and 10), IB(11) and IIB(12) groups, i.e.,
in atomic size. The s-electrons thus become more tightly central portion of the periodic table. There are four d-block
held (more penetrating) and hence more reluctant to series, i.e., 3d series, 4d series, 5d series and 6d series, each
participate in bond formation. Hence, the lower oxidation consisting of ten elements, i.e., in all forty d-block elements
state becomes more stable. are present in periodic table.
f-block elements are accommodated in two horizontal rows
5. SUMMARY AND IMPORTANT POINTS below the main periodic table, each row consists of 14
elements, i.e., 28 f-block elements are present in periodic
TO REMEMBER
table. The elements in first row are termed 4f-elements or
1. Mendeleev’s periodic table was based on atomic masses of rare earth or lanthanides while the elements of second row
the elements. When Mendeleev presented the periodic table, are termed 5f-elements or actinides.
only 63 elements were known. He left 29 places in the table 5. The elements are broadly divided into three types :
for unknown elements. (i) Metals comprise more than 78% of the known elements.
2. Modern Mendeleev periodic table is based on atomic s-block, d-block and f-block elements are metals. The higher
numbers of the elements. The modern periodic law is : “The members of p-block are also metals.
physical and chemical properties of the elements are (ii) Non-metals are less than twenty. (C, N, P, O, S, Se, H, F, Cl,
periodic function of their atomic numbers”. Br, I, He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn are non-metals).
The horizontal row in the periodic table is called a period (iii) Elements which lie in the border line between metals and
and vertical column is called group. There are seven periods non-metals are called semimetals or metalloids. B, Si, Ge,
and nine groups in the modern Mendeleev periodic table. As, Sb, Te, Po and At are regarded metalloids.
6. IUPAC given a new scheme for assigning a temporary name
3. The long or extended form of periodic table consists of seven
to the newly discovered elements. The name is derived
periods and eighteen vertical columns (groups or families).
directly from the atomic number of the elements. However,
The elements in a period have same number of energy shells,
IUPAC has accepted the following names of the elements
i.e., principal quantum number (n). These are numbered 1 to 7.
from atomci numbers 104 to 110.
1st period 1s 2 elements Rutherfordium (Rf), Dubnium (Db), Seaborgium (Sg)
2nd period 2s 2p 8 elements 104 105 106
3rd period 3s 3p 8 elements Bohrium (Bh), Hassium (Hs), Meitnerium (Mt),
4th period 4s 3d 4p 18 elements 107 108 109
5th period 5s 4d 5p 18 elements Darmstadtium (Ds)
110
6th period 6s 4f 5d 6p 32 elements
The temporary names of the elements discovered recently are :
7th period 7s 7f 6d 7p 32 elements Unununium (Uuu), Ununbium (Uub)
Total *118 elements 111 112
At present 114 elements are known. Ununquadium (Uuq) and Ununhexium (Uuh)
In a vertical column (group), the elements have similar 114 116
valence shell electronic configuration and therefore exhibit 7. The recurrence of similar properties of the elements after
similar chemical properties. certain definite intervals when the elements are arranged in
4. There are four blocks of elements: s-, p-, d- and f-block order of increasing atomic numbers in the periodic table is
depending on the orbital which gets the last electron. The termed periodicity. The cause of periodicity is the repetition
general electronic configuration of these blocks are : of similar electronic configuration of the atom in the valence
shell after certain definite intervals. These definite intervals
s-block : [Noble gas] ns1 or 2. However, hydrogen has 1s1 are 2, 8, 8, 18, 18 and 32. These are known as magic number.
configuration.
Periodicity is observed in a number of properties which
p-block : [Noble gas] ns2np1–6 are directly or indirectly linked with electronic
d-block : [Noble gas] (n – 1)d1–10ns1 or 2 configuration.
f-block : [Noble gas] (n – 2)f1–14(n – 1)d0 or 1ns2 (i) Effective nuclear charge increases across each period.
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION

(ii) Atomic radii generally decrease across the periods. gain enthalpy. The first electron gain enthalpy of most of the
(iii) Atomic radii generally increase on moving from top to bottom elements is negative as energy is released in the process but
in the groups. the values are positive or near zero in case of the atoms having
stable configuration such as Be, Mg, N, noble gases, etc.
(iv) Atomic radius is of three types :
(xvii) Electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative from left to right
(a) Covalent radius : It is half of the distance between the centres in a period and less negative from top to bottom in a group.
of the nuclei of two similar atoms joined by a single covalent
bond. This is generally used for non-metals. (xviii)Successive electron gain enthalpies are always positive.
(b) Crystal or metallic radius : It is half of the internuclear (xix) The elements with higher ionisation enthalpy have higher
distance between two nearest atoms in the metallic lattice. It negative electron gain enthalpy.
is generally used for metals. (xx) Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract the
(c) van der Waals’ radius : It is half of the internuclear distance shared pair of electrons towards itself in a bond.
between the nearest atoms belonging to two adjacent (xxi) Electronegativity increases across the periods and decreases
molecules in solid state. down the groups.
(xxii) Metals have low electronegativities and non-metals have
high electronegativities.
(xxiii) Metallic character decreases across the periods and
(v) Cations are generally smaller than anions. increases down the group.
(vi) Cations are smaller and anions are larger than neutral atoms (xxiv) Valence of an element belonging to s- and p- block (except
of the elements. noble gases) is either equal to the number of valence
electrons or eight minus number of valence electrons.
(xxv) The reducing nature of the elements decreases across the
period while oxidising nature increases.
(vii) Elements of 2nd and 3rd transition series belonging to same
vertical columns are similar in size and properties due to (xxvi) The basic character of the oxides decreases while the acidic
lanthanide contraction. character increases in moving from left to right in a period.

(viii) The first element is each group of the representative elements 6. SOME IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT ELEMENTS
shows abnormal properties, i.e., differs from other elements
of the group because of much smaller size of the atom. (i) Bromine is a non-metal which is liquid at room temperature.
(ix) The ions having same number of electrons but different (ii) Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature.
nuclear charge are called isoelectronic ions.
(iii) Gallium (m.pt. 29.8ºC), caesium (m.pt. 28.5ºC) and francium
Examples, (m.pt. 27ºC) are metals having low melting points.
(a) N3–, O2–, F–, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+ (iv) Tungsten (W) has the highest melting point (3380ºC) among
(b) P3–, S2–, Cl–, K+, Ca2+, Sc3+ metals.
In isoelectronic ions, the size decreases if Z/e increases i.e., (v) Carbon has the highest melting point (4100ºC) among non-
greater the nuclear charge, smaller is the size of the ion. metals.
(x) The energy required to remove the most loosely held electron (vi) Oxygen is the most abundant element on the earth.
from the gaseous isolated atom is termed ionisation enthalpy. (vii) Aluminium is the most abundant metal.
(xi) Ionisation enthalpy values generally increase across the periods. (viii) Iron is the most abundant transition metal.
(xii) Ionisation enthalpy values generally decrease down the group. (ix) Highest density is shown by osmium (22.57 g cm–3) or iridium
(xiii) Removal of electron from filled and half filled shells requires (22.61 g cm–3).
of higher energy. For example, the ionisation enthalpy of (x) Lithium is the lightest metal. Its density is 0.54 g cm–3.
nitrogen is higher than oxygen. Be, Mg and noble gases
have high values. (xi) Silver is the best conductor of electricity.
(xiv) Metals have low ionisation enthalpy values while non-metals (xii) Diamond (carbon) is the hardest natural substance.
have high ionisation enthalpy values. (xiii) Francium has the highest atomic volume.
(xv) Successive ionisation enthalpies of an atom have higher values. (xiv) Boron has the lowest atomic volume.
IEI < IEII < IEIII ... (xv) The most abundant gas in atmosphere is nitrogen.
(xvi) The enthalpy change taking place when an electron is added (xvi) Fluorine is the most electronegative element.
to an isolated gaseous atom of the element is called electron (xvii) Chlorine has the maximum negative electron gain enthalpy.
 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION

(xviii)Helium has the maximum ionisation enthalpy. elements are synthetic, i.e., man-made elements. These are
(xix) Cesium or francium has the lowest ionisation enthalpy. radioactive elements and not found in nature.
(xx) Helium and francium are smallest and largest atoms respectively. (xxxiv) The elements ruthenium (Ru), germanium (Ge), polonium
(xxi) H– and I– ions are the smallest and largest anions respectively. (Po) and americium (Am) were named in honour of the
countries named Ruthenia (Russia), Germany, Poland and
(xxii) H+ and Cs+ ions are the smallest and largest cations respectively. America, respectively.
(xxiii) Cesium is the most electropositive element. (xxxv) The members of the actinide series are radioactive and
(xxiv) Element kept in water is phosphorus, P4 (white or yellow). majority of them are not found in nature.
(xxv) Element kept in kerosene are Na, K, Rb, Cs, etc. (xxxvi) The element rutherfordium (Rf, 104) is also called
(xxvi) Iodine is the element which sublimes. Kurchatovium (Ku) and element dubnium (Db, 105), is also
(xxvii) Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. called hahnium.
(xxviii) Only ozone is the coloured gas with garlic smell. (xxxvii) Promethium (Pm, 61) a member of lanthanide series is not
(xxix) Metalloids have electronegativity values closer to 2.0. found in nature. It is a synthetic element.
(xxx) First synthetic (i.e., man-made) element is technetium (xxxviii) Special names are given to the members of these groups
in periodic table.
(At. No. 43).
Group 1 or IA Alkali metals
(xxxi) Most poisonous metal-Plutonium.
Group 2 or IIA Alkaline earth metals
(xxxii)Rarest element in earth’s crust-Astatine.
Group 15 or VA Pnicogens
(xxxiii) The elements coming after uranium are called transuranic
elements. The elements with Z = 104 – 112, 114 and 116 are Group 16 or VIA Chalcogens
called trans-actinides or super heavy elements. All these Group 17 or VIIA Halogens
Group 18 or VIIIA Inert or noble gases
(zero)
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